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cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--star"></span> <span>Watch</span> </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck_Institute_for_Solar_System_Research&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>Edit</span> </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><p>The <b>Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research</b> (abbreviation: <b>MPS</b>; <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung</i>) is a <a href="/wiki/Research_institute" title="Research institute">research institute</a> in <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a> located in <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Göttingen">Göttingen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, where it relocated in February 2014 from the nearby village of <a href="/wiki/Lindau_(Katlenburg-Lindau)" title="Lindau (Katlenburg-Lindau)">Lindau</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exploration of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> is the central theme for research done at this institute. </p><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Logo-mps.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Logo-mps.png/220px-Logo-mps.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Logo-mps.png/330px-Logo-mps.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Logo-mps.png/440px-Logo-mps.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="205"></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Abbreviation</th><td class="infobox-data nickname">MPS</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Formation</th><td class="infobox-data note">1934 (founded as the Luftwaffe test grounds in Rechlin/Mecklenburg) / July 1, 2004 (renamed to the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Type</th><td class="infobox-data">Research Institute</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Göttingen">Göttingen</a>, Germany</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Managing Director</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Prof. Dr. Laurent Gizon</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Parent organization</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Society" title="Max Planck Society">Max Planck Society</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Affiliations</th><td class="infobox-data">Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research / Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Staff</th><td class="infobox-data">320</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mps.mpg.de">www<wbr></wbr>.mps<wbr></wbr>.mpg<wbr></wbr>.de</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MPI_Sonnensystemforschung_Goettingen.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/MPI_Sonnensystemforschung_Goettingen.jpeg/250px-MPI_Sonnensystemforschung_Goettingen.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/MPI_Sonnensystemforschung_Goettingen.jpeg/375px-MPI_Sonnensystemforschung_Goettingen.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/MPI_Sonnensystemforschung_Goettingen.jpeg/500px-MPI_Sonnensystemforschung_Goettingen.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1522"></a><figcaption>New Institute building in Göttingen, built in 2013 and occupied in 2014</figcaption></figure> <p>MPS is a part of the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Society" title="Max Planck Society">Max Planck Society</a>, which operates 80 research facilities in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Research"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Research</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#The_Sun_and_heliosphere"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">The Sun and heliosphere</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Planets_and_comets"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Planets and comets</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Helio-_and_Asteroseismology"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Helio- and Asteroseismology</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Scientific_projects"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific projects</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Degree_programme"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Degree programme</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Directors_of_the_institute"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Directors of the institute</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Names_of_the_institute"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Names of the institute</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span 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print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Solar_System_Research" title="Special:EditPage/Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>MPS is organised in three departments: Sun and Heliosphere,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Planets and Comets,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Solar and Stellar Interiors.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, since 2002 there is also an <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Society#International_Max_Planck_Research_Schools" title="Max Planck Society">International Max Planck Research School</a>. Subjects of research at the institute are the various objects within the Solar System. A major area of study concerns the Sun, its atmosphere, the interplanetary medium as influenced by the solar wind, as well as the impact of solar particles and radiation on the planets. The second area of research involves the interiors, surfaces, atmospheres, ionospheres, and magnetospheres of the planets and their moons, as well as of comets and asteroids. A further essential part of the activities at the institute is the development and construction of instruments for space missions. The analysis and interpretation of the acquired datasets are accompanied by intensive theoretical work. Physical models are proposed and then tested and further developed with the aid of computer simulations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Sun_and_heliosphere">The Sun and heliosphere</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck_Institute_for_Solar_System_Research&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The Sun and heliosphere" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The researchers at the MPS are studying the complete range of dynamic and often spectacular processes occurring on the Sun – from the interior to the outer heliosphere. At the heart of this research is the <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetic field</a>, which plays a decisive role in these processes. It is generated by gas currents in the interior of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> and causes, among other things, dark spots on the surface. Answers to the following questions are being sought: Why does the magnetic field change with an eleven-year cycle? How does the magnetic field produce the various structures on the Sun? How is the corona heated to many millions of degrees? Instruments developed by MPS aboard the space- craft <a href="/wiki/Solar_and_Heliospheric_Observatory" title="Solar and Heliospheric Observatory">SOHO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_(spacecraft)" title="Ulysses (spacecraft)">Ulysses</a> have provided fundamentally new insights: Measurements of the ultraviolet spectrometer SUMER on board SOHO played a decisive role in recognizing the significance of the magnetic field for dynamic processes and Ulysses measured the three-dimensional structure of the solar wind for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another important research topic at "The Sun and Heliosphere" department is the influence on the Earth due to the Sun's variable activity. Scientists are working intensively on the project <a href="/wiki/STEREO" title="STEREO">STEREO</a>, in which two identical spacecraft trace disturbances from the Sun to the Earth from different observational points, permitting predictions of potentially dangerous events. The physical processes involved in the origin and development of magnetic fields on the Sun take place on very small scales and therefore require measurements with very high spatial resolution. The balloon-borne telescope <a href="/wiki/Sunrise_(telescope)" title="Sunrise (telescope)">Sunrise</a>, built under Institute leadership and flown in June 2009, was able to make out structures on the Sun's surface as small as 100 kilometers. Future projects will stress research into the physical causes of the Sun's variations. The ambitious <a href="/wiki/Solar_Orbiter" title="Solar Orbiter">Solar Orbiter</a> Mission, based on a suggestion from the institute, will see a probe approach our star to within a fifth of the Earth-Sun distance in order to investigate the magnetic field and its effects in the various layers of the solar atmosphere. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planets_and_comets">Planets and comets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck_Institute_for_Solar_System_Research&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Planets and comets" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The institute develops scientific instruments that fly with spacecraft to other planets. Highly specialized cameras have investigated the <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a> moon <a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a>, analyse the surface of <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, and probe the clouds and winds of <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>. Microwave instruments determine the composition of atmospheres while infrared spectrometers examine surface rocks. A novel laser altimeter on board <a href="/wiki/BepiColombo" title="BepiColombo">BepiColombo</a> will survey the topography of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Mercury</a> to within a meter. Further MPS instruments identify the atoms, electrons, and dust that move around the planets and impact their moons. Here the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> on the atmospheric gases is of particular interest. Theoretical studies and intensive computer simulations help to understand the processes both inside and surrounding the planets and to interpret the measured data. Models developed at MPS can describe, for example, interactions with the solar wind, the atmospheric dynamics, or the generation of the terrestrial magnetic field by means of currents deep in the iron core of our planet. In addition, the institute has along tradition in cometary research. A major highlight was the camera developed at the institute for the <a href="/wiki/ESA" class="mw-redirect" title="ESA">ESA</a> spacecraft <a href="/wiki/Giotto" title="Giotto">Giotto</a> which delivered the first photographs ever of a comet's nucleus in 1986. A particular challenge was the development of numerous scientific instruments for the ESA Mission <a href="/wiki/Rosetta_(spacecraft)" title="Rosetta (spacecraft)">Rosetta</a>, such as cameras, chemical analyzers, and essential components for the landing module Philae. Rosetta was launched in 2004, and matched orbits with the comet <a href="/wiki/Churyumov-Gerasimenko" class="mw-redirect" title="Churyumov-Gerasimenko">Churyumov-Gerasimenko</a> in 2014; a few months later, Philae landed on the comet's surface. The institute has also provided the cameras for the <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> <a href="/wiki/Dawn_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Dawn Mission">Dawn Mission</a>, launched in 2007, to study two of the largest asteroids, Ceres and Vesta.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Helio-_and_Asteroseismology">Helio- and Asteroseismology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck_Institute_for_Solar_System_Research&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Helio- and Asteroseismology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The MPS is hosting the German Data Centre for the NASA's <a href="/wiki/Solar_Dynamics_Observatory" title="Solar Dynamics Observatory">Solar Dynamics Observatory</a> (SDO), which has provided improved data on small scales of space and time to study the connections between the solar interior and magnetic activity in the solar atmosphere. A particularly exciting research activity at the MPS is the study of seismic waves in the vicinity of sunspots. The goal is to probe the subsurface structure of sunspots in three dimensions. <a href="/wiki/Sunspot" title="Sunspot">Sunspot</a> <a href="/wiki/Helioseismology" title="Helioseismology">helioseismology</a> is a challenging science as it requires modelling of the propagation of waves through magnetic structures; this can only be achieved by numerical simulations. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Scientific_projects">Scientific projects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck_Institute_for_Solar_System_Research&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Scientific projects" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <p>The institute has led, or been involved with, several international scientific projects such as:<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Solar_Orbiter" title="Solar Orbiter">Solar Orbiter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_Dynamics_Observatory" title="Solar Dynamics Observatory">SDO</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sunrise_(telescope)" title="Sunrise (telescope)">Sunrise</a>, <a href="/wiki/STEREO" title="STEREO">STEREO</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_and_Heliospheric_Observatory" title="Solar and Heliospheric Observatory">SOHO</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_(spacecraft)" title="Ulysses (spacecraft)">Ulysses</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/BepiColombo" title="BepiColombo">BepiColombo</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Exomars" class="mw-redirect" title="Exomars">Exomars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chandrayaan-2" title="Chandrayaan-2">Chandrayaan</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)" title="Phoenix (spacecraft)">Phoenix</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Herschel_Space_Observatory" title="Herschel Space Observatory">Herschel</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Dawn_(spacecraft)" title="Dawn (spacecraft)">Dawn</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Venus_Express" title="Venus Express">Venus Express</a>, <a href="/wiki/SMART-1" title="SMART-1">SMART-1</a>, <a href="/wiki/SOFIA" class="mw-redirect" title="SOFIA">SOFIA</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Rosetta_(spacecraft)" title="Rosetta (spacecraft)">Rosetta</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Mars_Express" title="Mars Express">Mars Express</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mars_DFG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mars DFG (page does not exist)">Mars DFG</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens" title="Cassini–Huygens">Cassini</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Cluster_(spacecraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cluster (spacecraft)">Cluster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helios_(spacecraft)" title="Helios (spacecraft)">Helios</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)" title="Galileo (spacecraft)">Galileo</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Giotto_(spacecraft)" title="Giotto (spacecraft)">Giotto</a>. </p><p>These contributions consist developing of the instruments and/or scientific research activities. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Degree_programme">Degree programme</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck_Institute_for_Solar_System_Research&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Degree programme" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <p>The MPI for Solar System Research offers the <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> programme "International Max Planck Research School (IMPRS) for Solar System Science" together with the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a>. The Solar System School offers a three-year course of study emphasizing actual research. The curriculum covers the entire area of the Solar System from small bodies to the planets and the Sun. The goal is a broad, interdisciplinary, and solid scientific education, extended with courses in numerical physics, space technology, project management, scientific writing, and presentation techniques. There are usually about 50 graduate students studying at the Solar System School. Two thirds are from abroad from over 30 different countries. About 30 percent are women. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck_Institute_for_Solar_System_Research&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research.JPG/250px-Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2240" data-file-height="1680"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 188px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research.JPG/250px-Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research.JPG" data-width="250" data-height="188" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research.JPG/375px-Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research.JPG/500px-Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research – April 2006</figcaption></figure> <p>The institute was founded by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Dieminger" title="Walter Dieminger">Walter Dieminger</a>, who was head of the <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> test center at <a href="/wiki/Rechlin-L%C3%A4rz_Airfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Rechlin-Lärz Airfield">Rechlin</a> at the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCritz" title="Müritz">Müritz</a> from 1934 onwards. <a href="/wiki/Erich_Regener" title="Erich Regener">Erich Regener</a> was cofounder. After being renamed to the "Centre for Radio Transmission" in 1943 and moving to <a href="/wiki/Leobersdorf" title="Leobersdorf">Leobersdorf</a> in 1944, the institute was united with the <a href="/wiki/Fraunhofer_Society" title="Fraunhofer Society">Fraunhofer institute</a> from <a href="/wiki/Freiburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Freiburg">Freiburg</a> at Ried in the Innkreis. After the war an Allied commission decided to move the institute to <a href="/wiki/Lindau_(Katlenburg-Lindau)" title="Lindau (Katlenburg-Lindau)">Lindau am Harz</a>, where buildings of the <a href="/wiki/Leibniz_University_Hannover" title="Leibniz University Hannover">Technical University of Hannover</a> already existed. The convoy arrived on the 2nd and 3 March 1946. During 1948 the radio institute of the <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaiser Wilhelm Institute">Kaiser Wilhelm Society</a> was transferred from the <a href="/wiki/Fraunhofer_Society" title="Fraunhofer Society">Fraunhofer Society</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Society" title="Max Planck Society">Max Planck Society</a> and renamed "Institute for Ionosphere Research" in 1949. In 1950 the US Air Force paid for the construction of an ionospheric echolot system. The full transfer from Fraunhofer to Max Planck Society and the appointment of W. Dieminger as director followed by the transfer of the Max Planck Institute of Stratosphere Research from Weisenau near Ravensburg to Lindau and another renaming to "Max Planck Institute for Aeronomy" completed the built up. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research-2013-Winter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research-2013-Winter.jpg/300px-Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research-2013-Winter.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="105" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5450" data-file-height="1902"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 105px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research-2013-Winter.jpg/300px-Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research-2013-Winter.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="105" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research-2013-Winter.jpg/450px-Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research-2013-Winter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research-2013-Winter.jpg/600px-Max-Planck-Institute-Solarsystem-Research-2013-Winter.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research in Lindau, about a year before relocating – March 2013</figcaption></figure> <p>Erhard Keppler became the science lead in the first German satellite <a href="/wiki/Azur_(satellite)" title="Azur (satellite)">Azur</a> (in cooperation with NASA) and with him a small group of scientists dedicated to work with satellites was established in Lindau. The institute was selected to build part of the instrumentation of the satellite which was launched in November 1969.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The institute also built instruments for the <a href="/wiki/Helios_probes" class="mw-redirect" title="Helios probes">Helios probes</a> as part of another Germany/NASA cooperation.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the retirement of W. Dieminger in 1974 the focus changed from atmospheric research to space research. The institute participated in a long series of space missions like <i><a href="/wiki/Galileo_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo spacecraft">Galileo</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulysses probe">Ulysses</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Cluster_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Cluster mission">Cluster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_and_Heliospheric_Observatory" title="Solar and Heliospheric Observatory">SOHO</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Cassini-Huygens" class="mw-redirect" title="Cassini-Huygens">Cassini-Huygens</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Rosetta_space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosetta space probe">Rosetta</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Mars_Express" title="Mars Express">Mars Express</a> <a href="/wiki/Venus_Express" title="Venus Express">Venus Express</a> and was responsible for most of the camera system of the <a href="/wiki/Giotto_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Giotto mission">Giotto mission</a> to <a href="/wiki/Comet_Halley" class="mw-redirect" title="Comet Halley">Comet Halley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The framing camera on board of the <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> mission <a href="/wiki/Dawn_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Dawn Mission">Dawn</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" title="Asteroid belt">asteroid belt</a> was built at the institute. </p><p>The institute was leading organization in the development, construction and scientific analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Sunrise_(telescope)" title="Sunrise (telescope)">sunrise (telescope)</a>. The telescope is <a href="/wiki/Solar_telescope" title="Solar telescope">solar telescope</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>, that hangs from a <a href="/wiki/High-altitude_balloon" title="High-altitude balloon">high-altitude balloon</a>. The five-day maiden flight was conducted in June 2009. </p><p>The biggest changes to the institute resulted from German unification with the retraction of two of the four directors of the institute in 1998 and 2004 after the retirement of Hagfors and Rosenbauer. The institute was renamed "Max Planck Institute of Solar System Research" in 2004 after the last director concerned with <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">Ionosphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">Stratosphere</a> research retired. The two remaining groups, of director <a href="/wiki/Sami_Solanki" title="Sami Solanki">S. Solanki</a> dedicated to the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">heliosphere</a> and of U. Christensen dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a> form the present-day Institute. </p><p>Since 2004, the institute has published the open access review journal <i><a href="/wiki/Living_Reviews_in_Solar_Physics" title="Living Reviews in Solar Physics">Living Reviews in Solar Physics</a></i>. </p><p>The Max Planck Society decided to move the institute closer to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a>. In 2010, it was planned to relocate it to a new building next to the university's Faculty of Physics by April 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The move was completed in February 2014 and the opening ceremony held on 21 May of the same year.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Directors_of_the_institute">Directors of the institute</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck_Institute_for_Solar_System_Research&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Directors of the institute" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Directors_at_MPS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Directors_at_MPS.jpg/300px-Directors_at_MPS.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="680"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 199px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Directors_at_MPS.jpg/300px-Directors_at_MPS.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="199" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Directors_at_MPS.jpg/450px-Directors_at_MPS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Directors_at_MPS.jpg/600px-Directors_at_MPS.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Prof. Ulrich Christensen (left), Prof. Dr. Laurent Gizon (centre) and Prof. Dr. Sami K. Solanki (right)</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1955–1964 <a href="/wiki/Julius_Bartels" title="Julius Bartels">Julius Bartels</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1951–1975 <a href="/wiki/Walter_Dieminger" title="Walter Dieminger">Walter Dieminger</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1965–1971 Alfred Ehmert<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1965–1977 <a href="/wiki/Georg_Pfotzer" title="Georg Pfotzer">Georg Pfotzer</a><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1974–1990 <a href="/wiki/Ian_Axford" title="Ian Axford">Sir (William) Ian Axford</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1992–1998 <a href="/wiki/Tor_Hagfors" title="Tor Hagfors">Tor Hagfors</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1977–2004 Helmut Rosenbauer <sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1977–2007 <a href="/wiki/Vytenis_Vasyliunas" title="Vytenis Vasyliunas">Vytenis Vasyliunas</a></li> <li>1999– <a href="/wiki/Sami_Solanki" title="Sami Solanki">Sami K. Solanki</a> (Sun and Heliosphere Department)</li> <li>2002–2020 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulrich_R._Christensen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ulrich R. Christensen (page does not exist)">Ulrich R. Christensen</a> (Planets and Comets Department)</li> <li>2011– <a href="/w/index.php?title=Laurent_Gizon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laurent Gizon (page does not exist)">Laurent Gizon</a> (Solar and Stellar Interiors Department)</li> <li>2021– Thorsten Kleine <sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Names_of_the_institute">Names of the institute</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck_Institute_for_Solar_System_Research&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Names of the institute" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <ul><li>1934 Ionosphären-Beobachtungsstation bei der Erprobungsstelle der Luftwaffe (<i>Ionosphere Observation Station at the Test Site of the German Airforce</i>)</li> <li>1942 Zentralstelle für Funkberatung (<i>Centre for Radiocommunication Advice</i>)</li> <li>1946 Fraunhoferinstitut für Hochfrequenzforschung (<i>Fraunhofer Institute for High Frequency Research</i>)</li> <li>1949 Max-Planck-Institut für Ionosphärenforschung (<i>Max Planck Institute for Ionospheric Research</i>)</li> <li>1956 Max-Planck-Institut für Physik der Stratosphäre und der Ionosphäre (<i>Max Planck Institute for Stratosphere and Ionosphere Physics</i>)</li> <li>1957 Max-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie (<i>Max Planck Institute for Aeronomy</i>)</li> <li>2004 Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung (<i>Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Planck_Institute_for_Solar_System_Research&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mps.mpg.de/66046/neubau">'Neubau'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150821094557/http://www.mps.mpg.de/66046/neubau">Archived</a> 2015-08-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (in German) on institute website, viewed 2014-07-09</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output 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.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110105083748/http://www.mps.mpg.de/dokumente/publikationen/broschuere_2009.pdf">Booklet about the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research</a> <span 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