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Helioseismology - Wikipedia
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class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>Edit</span> </a> </li> </ul> </nav> <!-- version 1.0.2 (change every time you update a partial) --> <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <p><b>Helioseismology</b> is the study of the structure and dynamics of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> through its oscillations. These are principally caused by sound waves that are continuously driven and damped by convection near the Sun's surface. It is similar to <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">geoseismology</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Asteroseismology" title="Asteroseismology">asteroseismology</a>, which are respectively the studies of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> or <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> through their oscillations. While the Sun's oscillations were first detected in the early 1960s, it was only in the mid-1970s that it was realized that the oscillations propagated throughout the Sun and could allow scientists to study the Sun's deep interior. The term was coined by <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Gough" title="Douglas Gough">Douglas Gough</a> in the 90s. The modern field is separated into <b>global helioseismology</b>, which studies the Sun's resonant modes directly,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <b>local helioseismology</b>, which studies the propagation of the component waves near the Sun's surface.<sup id="cite_ref-gb2005_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gb2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Helioseismology has contributed to a number of scientific breakthroughs. The most notable was to show that the anomaly in the predicted neutrino flux from the Sun could not be caused by flaws in stellar models and must instead be a problem of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>. The so-called <a href="/wiki/Solar_neutrino_problem" title="Solar neutrino problem">solar neutrino problem</a> was ultimately resolved by <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillations" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrino oscillations">neutrino oscillations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The experimental discovery of neutrino oscillations was recognized by the 2015 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Physics">Nobel Prize for Physics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Helioseismology also allowed accurate measurements of the quadrupole (and higher-order) moments of the Sun's gravitational potential,<sup id="cite_ref-natureomega_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natureomega-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which are consistent with <a href="/wiki/General_Relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="General Relativity">General Relativity</a>. The first helioseismic calculations of the Sun's internal rotation profile showed a rough separation into a rigidly-rotating core and differentially-rotating envelope. The boundary layer is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Tachocline" title="Tachocline">tachocline</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is thought to be a key component for the <a href="/wiki/Solar_dynamo" title="Solar dynamo">solar dynamo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it roughly coincides with the base of the solar convection zone — also inferred through helioseismology — it is conceptually distinct, being a boundary layer in which there is a meridional flow connected with the convection zone and driven by the interplay between baroclinicity and Maxwell stresses.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Helioseismology benefits most from continuous monitoring of the Sun, which began first with uninterrupted observations from near the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a> over the austral summer.<sup id="cite_ref-Grecsouthpole_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grecsouthpole-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-duvall_southpole1983_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duvall_southpole1983-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, observations over multiple solar cycles have allowed helioseismologists to study changes in the Sun's structure over decades. These studies are made possible by global telescope networks like the <a href="/wiki/Global_Oscillations_Network_Group" title="Global Oscillations Network Group">Global Oscillations Network Group</a> (GONG) and the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Solar_Oscillations_Network" title="Birmingham Solar Oscillations Network">Birmingham Solar Oscillations Network</a> (BiSON), which have been operating for over several decades. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Types_of_solar_oscillation"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Types of solar oscillation</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Pressure_modes_(p_modes)"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Pressure modes (p modes)</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Gravity_modes_(g_modes)"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Gravity modes (g modes)</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Surface_gravity_modes_(f_modes)"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Surface gravity modes (f modes)</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#What_seismology_can_reveal"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">What seismology can reveal</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Data_analysis"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Data analysis</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Global_helioseismology"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Global helioseismology</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Local_helioseismology"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Local helioseismology</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Inversion"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Inversion</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Introduction"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Introduction</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Structure"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Structure</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Rotation"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Rotation</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Relationship_to_other_fields"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Relationship to other fields</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Geoseismology"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Geoseismology</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Asteroseismology"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Asteroseismology</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Satellite_instruments"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">Satellite instruments</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Ground-based_instruments"><span class="tocnumber">9.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ground-based instruments</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Types_of_solar_oscillation">Types of solar oscillation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types of solar oscillation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ModelS_pmode_n14_l20_m16.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/ModelS_pmode_n14_l20_m16.png/220px-ModelS_pmode_n14_l20_m16.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="550"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 202px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/ModelS_pmode_n14_l20_m16.png/220px-ModelS_pmode_n14_l20_m16.png" data-width="220" data-height="202" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/ModelS_pmode_n14_l20_m16.png/330px-ModelS_pmode_n14_l20_m16.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/ModelS_pmode_n14_l20_m16.png/440px-ModelS_pmode_n14_l20_m16.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Illustration of a solar pressure mode (p mode) with radial order n=14, angular degree l=20 and azimuthal order m=16. The surface shows the corresponding spherical harmonic. The interior shows the radial displacement computed using a standard solar model.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Note that the increase in the speed of sound as waves approach the center of the Sun causes a corresponding increase in the acoustic wavelength.</figcaption></figure> <p>Solar oscillation modes are interpreted as resonant vibrations of a roughly spherically symmetric self-gravitating fluid in hydrostatic equilibrium. Each mode can then be represented approximately as the product of a function of radius <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.049ex;height: 1.676ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538" data-alt="{\displaystyle r}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> and a spherical harmonic <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y_{l}^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msubsup> <mi>Y</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>l</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y_{l}^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ea58b8719f9025fa0d8eaf6f8be7adc95762f280" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.894ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y_{l}^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 8.894ex;height: 3.009ex;vertical-align: -1.005ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ea58b8719f9025fa0d8eaf6f8be7adc95762f280" data-alt="{\displaystyle Y_{l}^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>, and consequently can be characterized by the three quantum numbers which label: </p> <ul><li>the number of nodal shells in radius, known as the <i>radial order</i> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.395ex;height: 1.676ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b" data-alt="{\displaystyle n}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>;</li> <li>the total number of nodal circles on each spherical shell, known as the <i>angular degree</i> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ell }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ℓ<!-- ℓ --></mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ell }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f066e981e530bacc07efc6a10fa82deee985929e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.97ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ell }"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 0.97ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f066e981e530bacc07efc6a10fa82deee985929e" data-alt="{\displaystyle \ell }" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>; and</li> <li>the number of those nodal circles that are longitudinal, known as the <i>azimuthal order</i> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>m</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0a07d98bb302f3856cbabc47b2b9016692e3f7bc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.04ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.04ex;height: 1.676ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0a07d98bb302f3856cbabc47b2b9016692e3f7bc" data-alt="{\displaystyle m}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>.</li></ul> <p>It can be shown that the oscillations are separated into two categories: interior oscillations and a special category of surface oscillations. More specifically, there are: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pressure_modes_(p_modes)"><span id="Pressure_modes_.28p_modes.29"></span>Pressure modes (p modes)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pressure modes (p modes)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Pressure modes are in essence standing sound waves. The dominant restoring force is the pressure (rather than buoyancy), hence the name. All the solar oscillations that are used for inferences about the interior are p modes, with frequencies between about 1 and 5 millihertz and angular degrees ranging from zero (purely radial motion) to order <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 10^{3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 10^{3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9dbd60b35ef8ca5859f59d14662a63139ffe0a50" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.379ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 10^{3}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 3.379ex;height: 2.676ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9dbd60b35ef8ca5859f59d14662a63139ffe0a50" data-alt="{\displaystyle 10^{3}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>. Broadly speaking, their energy densities vary with radius inversely proportional to the sound speed, so their resonant frequencies are determined predominantly by the outer regions of the Sun. Consequently it is difficult to infer from them the structure of the solar core. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Propagation_diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Propagation_diagram.png/220px-Propagation_diagram.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1771" data-file-height="1771"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Propagation_diagram.png/220px-Propagation_diagram.png" data-width="220" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Propagation_diagram.png/330px-Propagation_diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Propagation_diagram.png/440px-Propagation_diagram.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>A propagation diagram for a standard solar model<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> showing where oscillations have a g-mode character (blue) or where dipole modes have a p-mode character (orange). The dashed line shows the acoustic cut-off frequency, computed from more precise modelling, and above which modes are not trapped in the star, and roughly-speaking do not resonate.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gravity_modes_(g_modes)"><span id="Gravity_modes_.28g_modes.29"></span>Gravity modes (g modes)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Gravity modes (g modes)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Gravity modes are confined to convectively stable regions, either the radiative interior or the atmosphere. The restoring force is predominantly buoyancy, and thus indirectly gravity, from which they take their name. They are <a href="/wiki/Evanescent_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Evanescent wave">evanescent</a> in the convection zone, and therefore interior modes have tiny amplitudes at the surface and are extremely difficult to detect and identify.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has long been recognized that measurement of even just a few g modes could substantially increase our knowledge of the deep interior of the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-snowmass_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-snowmass-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, no individual g mode has yet been unambiguously measured, although indirect detections have been both claimed<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and challenged.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, there can be similar gravity modes confined to the convectively stable atmosphere. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For more, see <a href="/wiki/Phoebus_group" title="Phoebus group">Phoebus group</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surface_gravity_modes_(f_modes)"><span id="Surface_gravity_modes_.28f_modes.29"></span>Surface gravity modes (f modes)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Surface gravity modes (f modes)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Surface gravity waves are analogous to waves in deep water, having the property that the Lagrangian pressure perturbation is essentially zero. They are of high degree <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ell }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ℓ<!-- ℓ --></mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ell }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f066e981e530bacc07efc6a10fa82deee985929e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.97ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ell }"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 0.97ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f066e981e530bacc07efc6a10fa82deee985929e" data-alt="{\displaystyle \ell }" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>, penetrating a characteristic distance <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R/\ell }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>ℓ<!-- ℓ --></mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R/\ell }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/650b054cf88f48555b5fcf1eb0d766ad92619cde" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.896ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R/\ell }"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 3.896ex;height: 2.843ex;vertical-align: -0.838ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/650b054cf88f48555b5fcf1eb0d766ad92619cde" data-alt="{\displaystyle R/\ell }" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>, where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>R</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.764ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33" data-alt="{\displaystyle R}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> is the solar radius. To good approximation, they obey the so-called deep-water-wave dispersion law: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \omega ^{2}=gk_{\rm {h}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mi>g</mi> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">h</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \omega ^{2}=gk_{\rm {h}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/051aaaf14f31d8f17acfddef44c526b330225b88" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.072ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \omega ^{2}=gk_{\rm {h}}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 9.072ex;height: 3.009ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/051aaaf14f31d8f17acfddef44c526b330225b88" data-alt="{\displaystyle \omega ^{2}=gk_{\rm {h}}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>, irrespective of the stratification of the Sun, where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \omega }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \omega }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/48eff443f9de7a985bb94ca3bde20813ea737be8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.446ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \omega }"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.446ex;height: 1.676ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/48eff443f9de7a985bb94ca3bde20813ea737be8" data-alt="{\displaystyle \omega }" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> is the angular frequency, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>g</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d3556280e66fe2c0d0140df20935a6f057381d77" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.116ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.116ex;height: 2.009ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d3556280e66fe2c0d0140df20935a6f057381d77" data-alt="{\displaystyle g}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> is the surface gravity and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k_{\rm {h}}=\ell /R}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">h</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ℓ<!-- ℓ --></mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>R</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k_{\rm {h}}=\ell /R}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/001a932274862bc071bd57be21e479d5017bc830" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.352ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k_{\rm {h}}=\ell /R}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 9.352ex;height: 2.843ex;vertical-align: -0.838ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/001a932274862bc071bd57be21e479d5017bc830" data-alt="{\displaystyle k_{\rm {h}}=\ell /R}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> is the horizontal wavenumber,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and tend asymptotically to that relation as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k_{\rm {h}}\rightarrow \infty }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">h</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k_{\rm {h}}\rightarrow \infty }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ba1721c11da788bb52c85a3b093123eeb28c1702" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.295ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k_{\rm {h}}\rightarrow \infty }"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 8.295ex;height: 2.509ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ba1721c11da788bb52c85a3b093123eeb28c1702" data-alt="{\displaystyle k_{\rm {h}}\rightarrow \infty }" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="What_seismology_can_reveal">What seismology can reveal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: What seismology can reveal" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <p>The oscillations that have been successfully utilized for seismology are essentially adiabatic. Their dynamics is therefore the action of pressure forces <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.259ex;height: 2.009ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" data-alt="{\displaystyle p}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> (plus putative Maxwell stresses) against matter with inertia density <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ<!-- ρ --></mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.202ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho }"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.202ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.838ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" data-alt="{\displaystyle \rho }" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>, which itself depends upon the relation between them under adiabatic change, usually quantified via the (first) adiabatic exponent <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \gamma _{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>γ<!-- γ --></mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \gamma _{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6c2d6da217f4d6e937887bad1c90b371314830f7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.259ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \gamma _{1}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.259ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.838ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6c2d6da217f4d6e937887bad1c90b371314830f7" data-alt="{\displaystyle \gamma _{1}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>. The equilibrium values of the variables <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.259ex;height: 2.009ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" data-alt="{\displaystyle p}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ<!-- ρ --></mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.202ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho }"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.202ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.838ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" data-alt="{\displaystyle \rho }" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> (together with the dynamically small angular velocity <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Omega }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω<!-- Ω --></mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Omega }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/24b0d5ca6f381068d756f6337c08e0af9d1eeb6f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Omega }"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.678ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/24b0d5ca6f381068d756f6337c08e0af9d1eeb6f" data-alt="{\displaystyle \Omega }" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> and magnetic field <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\rm {B}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\rm {B}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/881845848d4307e1e31581818b3ea87ff05c5cbd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.646ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\rm {B}}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.646ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/881845848d4307e1e31581818b3ea87ff05c5cbd" data-alt="{\displaystyle {\rm {B}}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>) are related by the constraint of hydrostatic support, which depends upon the total mass <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.442ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd" data-alt="{\displaystyle M}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> and radius <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>R</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.764ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4b0bfb3769bf24d80e15374dc37b0441e2616e33" data-alt="{\displaystyle R}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> of the Sun. Evidently, the oscillation frequencies <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \omega }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \omega }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/48eff443f9de7a985bb94ca3bde20813ea737be8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.446ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \omega }"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.446ex;height: 1.676ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/48eff443f9de7a985bb94ca3bde20813ea737be8" data-alt="{\displaystyle \omega }" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> depend only on the seismic variables <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho (p,\Omega ,{\rm {B)}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ<!-- ρ --></mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>p</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω<!-- Ω --></mi> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho (p,\Omega ,{\rm {B)}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d431c4d4c6a129d88fe2983ec455eaf6ce2f15f0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.572ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho (p,\Omega ,{\rm {B)}}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 9.572ex;height: 2.843ex;vertical-align: -0.838ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d431c4d4c6a129d88fe2983ec455eaf6ce2f15f0" data-alt="{\displaystyle \rho (p,\Omega ,{\rm {B)}}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \gamma _{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>γ<!-- γ --></mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \gamma _{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6c2d6da217f4d6e937887bad1c90b371314830f7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.259ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \gamma _{1}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.259ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.838ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6c2d6da217f4d6e937887bad1c90b371314830f7" data-alt="{\displaystyle \gamma _{1}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Omega }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω<!-- Ω --></mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Omega }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/24b0d5ca6f381068d756f6337c08e0af9d1eeb6f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.678ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Omega }"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.678ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/24b0d5ca6f381068d756f6337c08e0af9d1eeb6f" data-alt="{\displaystyle \Omega }" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\rm {B}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\rm {B}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/881845848d4307e1e31581818b3ea87ff05c5cbd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.646ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\rm {B}}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.646ex;height: 2.176ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/881845848d4307e1e31581818b3ea87ff05c5cbd" data-alt="{\displaystyle {\rm {B}}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>, or any independent set of functions of them. Consequently it is only about these variables that information can be derived directly. The square of the adiabatic sound speed, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c^{2}=\gamma _{1}p/\rho }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>γ<!-- γ --></mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>ρ<!-- ρ --></mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c^{2}=\gamma _{1}p/\rho }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3535dd97cb13d10f1725bd79762faa4000e83aba" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.952ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c^{2}=\gamma _{1}p/\rho }"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 10.952ex;height: 3.176ex;vertical-align: -0.838ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3535dd97cb13d10f1725bd79762faa4000e83aba" data-alt="{\displaystyle c^{2}=\gamma _{1}p/\rho }" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>, is such commonly adopted function, because that is the quantity upon which acoustic propagation principally depends.<sup id="cite_ref-learned_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-learned-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Properties of other, non-seismic, quantities, such as helium abundance,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.773ex;height: 2.009ex;vertical-align: -0.171ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" data-alt="{\displaystyle Y}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>, or main-sequence age<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t_{\odot }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>⊙<!-- ⊙ --></mo> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t_{\odot }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6ee9337a64506f57f410223a554605da9a7d0b66" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.35ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t_{\odot }}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.35ex;height: 2.343ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6ee9337a64506f57f410223a554605da9a7d0b66" data-alt="{\displaystyle t_{\odot }}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>, can be inferred only by supplementation with additional assumptions, which renders the outcome more uncertain. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Data_analysis">Data analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Data analysis" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_helioseismology">Global helioseismology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Global helioseismology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sun_combined_power_spectrum_loglog.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Sun_combined_power_spectrum_loglog.png/220px-Sun_combined_power_spectrum_loglog.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Sun_combined_power_spectrum_loglog.png/220px-Sun_combined_power_spectrum_loglog.png" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Sun_combined_power_spectrum_loglog.png/330px-Sun_combined_power_spectrum_loglog.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Sun_combined_power_spectrum_loglog.png/440px-Sun_combined_power_spectrum_loglog.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Power spectrum of the Sun using data from instruments aboard the <a href="/wiki/Solar_and_Heliospheric_Observatory" title="Solar and Heliospheric Observatory">Solar and Heliospheric Observatory</a> on double-logarithmic axes. The three passbands of the VIRGO/SPM instrument show nearly the same power spectrum. The line-of-sight velocity observations from GOLF are less sensitive to the red noise produced by <a href="/wiki/Granulation_(solar_physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Granulation (solar physics)">granulation</a>. All the datasets clearly show the oscillation modes around 3mHz.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sun_combined_power_spectrum_modes_around_max_power.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Sun_combined_power_spectrum_modes_around_max_power.png/220px-Sun_combined_power_spectrum_modes_around_max_power.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Sun_combined_power_spectrum_modes_around_max_power.png/220px-Sun_combined_power_spectrum_modes_around_max_power.png" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Sun_combined_power_spectrum_modes_around_max_power.png/330px-Sun_combined_power_spectrum_modes_around_max_power.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Sun_combined_power_spectrum_modes_around_max_power.png/440px-Sun_combined_power_spectrum_modes_around_max_power.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Power spectrum of the Sun around where the modes have maximum power, using data from the GOLF and VIRGO/SPM instruments aboard the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory. The low-degree modes (l<4) show a clear comb-like pattern with a regular spacing.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MDI_medium_angular_degree_power_spectrum.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/MDI_medium_angular_degree_power_spectrum.png/220px-MDI_medium_angular_degree_power_spectrum.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 198px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/MDI_medium_angular_degree_power_spectrum.png/220px-MDI_medium_angular_degree_power_spectrum.png" data-width="220" data-height="198" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/MDI_medium_angular_degree_power_spectrum.png/330px-MDI_medium_angular_degree_power_spectrum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/MDI_medium_angular_degree_power_spectrum.png/440px-MDI_medium_angular_degree_power_spectrum.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Power spectrum of medium angular degree (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 0\leq \ell <300}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>0</mn> <mo>≤<!-- ≤ --></mo> <mi>ℓ<!-- ℓ --></mi> <mo><</mo> <mn>300</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 0\leq \ell <300}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d472de7163ae76beee15f201af53d72075ee5ecb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:11.816ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 0\leq \ell <300}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 11.816ex;height: 2.343ex;vertical-align: -0.505ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d472de7163ae76beee15f201af53d72075ee5ecb" data-alt="{\displaystyle 0\leq \ell <300}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>) solar oscillations, computed for 144 days of data from the MDI instrument aboard <a href="/wiki/Solar_and_Heliospheric_Observatory" title="Solar and Heliospheric Observatory">SOHO</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The colour scale is logarithmic and saturated at one hundredth the maximum power in the signal, to make the modes more visible. The low-frequency region is dominated by the signal of granulation. As the angular degree increases, the individual mode frequencies converge onto clear ridges, each corresponding to a sequence of low-order modes.</figcaption></figure> <p>The chief tool for analysing the raw seismic data is the <a href="/wiki/Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier transform</a>. To good approximation, each mode is a damped harmonic oscillator, for which the power as a function of frequency is a <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentz function">Lorentz function</a>. Spatially resolved data are usually projected onto desired spherical harmonics to obtain time series which are then Fourier transformed. Helioseismologists typically combine the resulting one-dimensional power spectra into a two-dimensional spectrum. </p><p>The lower frequency range of the oscillations is dominated by the variations caused by <a href="/wiki/Granulation_(solar_physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Granulation (solar physics)">granulation</a>. This must first be filtered out before (or at the same time that) the modes are analysed. Granular flows at the solar surface are mostly horizontal, from the centres of the rising granules to the narrow downdrafts between them. Relative to the oscillations, granulation produces a stronger signal in intensity than line-of-sight velocity, so the latter is preferred for helioseismic observatories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_helioseismology">Local helioseismology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Local helioseismology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Local helioseismology—a term coined by Charles Lindsey, Doug Braun and Stuart Jefferies in 1993<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—employs several different analysis methods to make inferences from the observational data.<sup id="cite_ref-gb2005_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gb2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <b>Fourier–Hankel spectral method</b> was originally used to search for wave absorption by sunspots.<sup id="cite_ref-Braun1987_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Braun1987-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Ring-diagram analysis</b>, first introduced by Frank Hill,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is used to infer the speed and direction of horizontal flows below the solar surface by observing the Doppler shifts of ambient acoustic waves from power spectra of solar oscillations computed over patches of the solar surface (typically 15° × 15°). Thus, ring-diagram analysis is a generalization of global helioseismology applied to local areas on the Sun (as opposed to half of the Sun). For example, the sound speed and <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_index" class="mw-redirect" title="Adiabatic index">adiabatic index</a> can be compared within magnetically active and inactive (quiet Sun) regions.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Time-distance helioseismology</b><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> aims to measure and interpret the travel times of solar waves between any two locations on the solar surface. Inhomogeneities near the ray path connecting the two locations perturb the travel time between those two points. An inverse problem must then be solved to infer the local structure and dynamics of the solar interior.<sup id="cite_ref-Jensen2003_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jensen2003-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Helioseismic holography</b>, introduced in detail by Charles Lindsey and Doug Braun for the purpose of far-side (magnetic) imaging,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a special case of phase-sensitive holography. The idea is to use the wavefield on the visible disk to learn about <a href="/wiki/Active_region" title="Active region">active regions</a> on the far side of the Sun. The basic idea in helioseismic holography is that the wavefield, e.g., the line-of-sight Doppler velocity observed at the solar surface, can be used to make an estimate of the wavefield at any location in the solar interior at any instant in time. In this sense, holography is much like <a href="/wiki/Seismic_migration" title="Seismic migration">seismic migration</a>, a technique in geophysics that has been in use since the 1940s. As another example, this technique has been used to give a seismic image of a solar flare.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <b>direct modelling</b>, the idea is to estimate subsurface flows from direct inversion of the frequency-wavenumber correlations seen in the wavefield in the Fourier domain. Woodard<sup id="cite_ref-Woodard2002_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodard2002-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> demonstrated the ability of the technique to recover near-surface flows the f modes.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Inversion">Inversion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Inversion" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Introduction">Introduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Introduction" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The Sun's oscillation modes represent a discrete set of observations that are sensitive to its continuous structure. This allows scientists to formulate <a href="/wiki/Inverse_problem" title="Inverse problem">inverse problems</a> for the Sun's interior structure and dynamics. Given a reference model of the Sun, the differences between its mode frequencies and those of the Sun, if small, are weighted averages of the differences between the Sun's structure and that of the reference model. The frequency differences can then be used to infer those structural differences. The weighting functions of these averages are known as <i>kernels</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure">Structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Structure" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>The first inversions of the Sun's structure were made using Duvall's law<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later using Duvall's law linearized about a reference solar model.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These results were subsequently supplemented by analyses that linearize the full set of equations describing the stellar oscillations about a theoretical reference model <sup id="cite_ref-snowmass_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-snowmass-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are now a standard way to invert frequency data.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inversions demonstrated differences in solar models that were greatly reduced by implementing <i>gravitational settling</i>: the gradual separation of heavier elements towards the solar centre (and lighter elements to the surface to replace them).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rotation">Rotation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Rotation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMI_2D_solar_rotation_profile.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/HMI_2D_solar_rotation_profile.png/220px-HMI_2D_solar_rotation_profile.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/HMI_2D_solar_rotation_profile.png/220px-HMI_2D_solar_rotation_profile.png" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/HMI_2D_solar_rotation_profile.png/330px-HMI_2D_solar_rotation_profile.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/HMI_2D_solar_rotation_profile.png/440px-HMI_2D_solar_rotation_profile.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>The internal rotation profile of the Sun inferred using data from the <a href="/wiki/Helioseismic_and_Magnetic_Imager" class="mw-redirect" title="Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager">Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager</a> aboard the <a href="/wiki/Solar_Dynamics_Observatory" title="Solar Dynamics Observatory">Solar Dynamics Observatory</a>. The inner radius has been truncated where the measurements are less certain than 1%, which happens around 3/4 of the way to the core. The dashed line indicates the base of the solar convection zone, which happens to coincide with the boundary at which the rotation profile changes, known as the tachocline.</figcaption></figure> <p>If the Sun were perfectly spherical, the modes with different azimuthal orders <i>m</i> would have the same frequencies. Rotation, however, breaks this degeneracy, and the modes frequencies differ by <i>rotational splittings</i> that are weighted-averages of the angular velocity through the Sun. Different modes are sensitive to different parts of the Sun and, given enough data, these differences can be used to infer the rotation rate throughout the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if the Sun were rotating uniformly throughout, all the p modes would be split by approximately the same amount. Actually, the angular velocity is not uniform, as can be seen at the surface, where the equator rotates faster than the poles.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sun rotates slowly enough that a spherical, non-rotating model is close enough to reality for deriving the rotational kernels. </p><p>Helioseismology has shown that the Sun has a rotation profile with several features:<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>a rigidly-rotating radiative (i.e. non-convective) zone, though the rotation rate of the inner core is not well known;</li> <li>a thin shear layer, known as the <i>tachocline</i>, which separates the rigidly-rotating interior and the differentially-rotating convective envelope;</li> <li>a convective envelope in which the rotation rate varies both with depth and latitude; and</li> <li>a final shear layer just beneath the surface, in which the rotation rate slows down towards the surface.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Relationship_to_other_fields">Relationship to other fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Relationship to other fields" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geoseismology">Geoseismology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Geoseismology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></div> <p>Helioseismology was born from analogy with <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">geoseismology</a> but several important differences remain. First, the Sun lacks a solid surface and therefore cannot support <a href="/wiki/Shear_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Shear wave">shear waves</a>. From the data analysis perspective, global helioseismology differs from geoseismology by studying only normal modes. Local helioseismology is thus somewhat closer in spirit to geoseismology in the sense that it studies the complete wavefield. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asteroseismology">Asteroseismology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Asteroseismology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Asteroseismology" title="Asteroseismology">Asteroseismology</a></div> <p>Because the Sun is a star, helioseismology is closely related to the study of oscillations in other stars, known as <a href="/wiki/Asteroseismology" title="Asteroseismology">asteroseismology</a>. Helioseismology is most closely related to the study of stars whose oscillations are also driven and damped by their outer convection zones, known as <a href="/wiki/Solar-like_oscillations" title="Solar-like oscillations">solar-like oscillators</a>, but the underlying theory is broadly the same for other classes of variable star. </p><p>The principal difference is that oscillations in distant stars cannot be resolved. Because the brighter and darker sectors of the spherical harmonic cancel out, this restricts asteroseismology almost entirely to the study of low degree modes (angular degree <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \ell \leq 3}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ℓ<!-- ℓ --></mi> <mo>≤<!-- ≤ --></mo> <mn>3</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \ell \leq 3}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4004ae167c25246c3c6bccacb5c2f9f0cc4613cd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.231ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \ell \leq 3}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 5.231ex;height: 2.343ex;vertical-align: -0.505ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4004ae167c25246c3c6bccacb5c2f9f0cc4613cd" data-alt="{\displaystyle \ell \leq 3}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>). This makes inversion much more difficult but upper limits can still be achieved by making more restrictive assumptions. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <p>Solar oscillations were first observed in the early 1960s<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a quasi-periodic intensity and line-of-sight velocity variation with a period of about 5 minutes. Scientists gradually realized that the oscillations might be global modes of the Sun and predicted that the modes would form clear ridges in two-dimensional power spectra.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ridges were subsequently confirmed in observations of high-degree modes in the mid 1970s,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ejrrkugws_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ejrrkugws-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and mode multiplets of different radial orders were distinguished in whole-disc observations.<sup id="cite_ref-Grecsouthpole_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grecsouthpole-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At a similar time, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B8rgen_Christensen-Dalsgaard" title="Jørgen Christensen-Dalsgaard">Jørgen Christensen-Dalsgaard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Gough" title="Douglas Gough">Douglas Gough</a> suggested the potential of using individual mode frequencies to infer the interior structure of the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They calibrated solar models against the low-degree data<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> finding two similarly good fits, one with low <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.773ex;height: 2.009ex;vertical-align: -0.171ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" data-alt="{\displaystyle Y}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> and a corresponding low neutrino production rate <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L_{\nu }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>ν<!-- ν --></mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L_{\nu }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2a4a2a77dfd7ebfe40ee2680cd814078317a954f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.686ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L_{\nu }}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.686ex;height: 2.509ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2a4a2a77dfd7ebfe40ee2680cd814078317a954f" data-alt="{\displaystyle L_{\nu }}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>, the other with higher <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.773ex;height: 2.009ex;vertical-align: -0.171ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" data-alt="{\displaystyle Y}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L_{\nu }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>ν<!-- ν --></mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L_{\nu }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2a4a2a77dfd7ebfe40ee2680cd814078317a954f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.686ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L_{\nu }}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.686ex;height: 2.509ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2a4a2a77dfd7ebfe40ee2680cd814078317a954f" data-alt="{\displaystyle L_{\nu }}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>; earlier envelope calibrations against high-degree frequencies<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ejrrku_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ejrrku-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> preferred the latter, but the results were not wholly convincing. It was not until Tom Duvall and Jack Harvey<sup id="cite_ref-duvall_southpole1983_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duvall_southpole1983-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> connected the two extreme data sets by measuring modes of intermediate degree to establish the quantum numbers associated with the earlier observations that the higher-<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.773ex;height: 2.009ex;vertical-align: -0.171ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f" data-alt="{\displaystyle Y}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> model was established, thereby suggesting at that early stage that the resolution of the neutrino problem must lie in nuclear or particle physics. </p><p>New methods of inversion developed in the 1980s, allowing researchers to infer the profiles sound speed and, less accurately, density throughout most of the Sun, corroborating the conclusion that residual errors in the inference of the solar structure is not the cause of the neutrino problem. Towards the end of the decade, observations also began to show that the oscillation mode frequencies vary with the <a href="/wiki/Solar_cycle" title="Solar cycle">Sun's magnetic activity cycle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To overcome the problem of not being able to observe the Sun at night, several groups had begun to assemble networks of telescopes (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Solar_Oscillations_Network" title="Birmingham Solar Oscillations Network">Birmingham Solar Oscillations Network</a>, or BiSON,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Global_Oscillation_Network_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Oscillation Network Group">Global Oscillation Network Group</a><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) from which the Sun would always be visible to at least one node. Long, uninterrupted observations brought the field to maturity, and the state of the field was summarized in a 1996 special issue of <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science magazine</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This coincided with the start of normal operations of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_and_Heliospheric_Observatory" title="Solar and Heliospheric Observatory">Solar and Heliospheric Observatory</a> (SoHO), which began producing high-quality data for helioseismology. </p><p>The subsequent years saw the resolution of the solar neutrino problem, and the long seismic observations began to allow analysis of multiple solar activity cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The agreement between standard solar models and helioseismic inversions<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was disrupted by new measurements of the heavy element content of the solar photosphere based on detailed three-dimensional models.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the results later shifted back towards the traditional values used in the 1990s,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the new abundances significantly worsened the agreement between the models and helioseismic inversions.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cause of the discrepancy remains unsolved<sup id="cite_ref-learned_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-learned-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is known as the <i>solar abundance problem</i>. </p><p>Space-based observations by SoHO have continued and SoHO was joined in 2010 by the <a href="/wiki/Solar_Dynamics_Observatory" title="Solar Dynamics Observatory">Solar Dynamics Observatory</a> (SDO), which has also been monitoring the Sun continuously since its operations began. In addition, ground-based networks (notably BiSON and GONG) continue to operate, providing nearly continuous data from the ground too. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/160-minute_solar_cycle" title="160-minute solar cycle">160-minute solar cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_seismology" title="Coronal seismology">Coronal seismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_rotation" title="Differential rotation">Differential rotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diskoseismology" class="mw-redirect" title="Diskoseismology">Diskoseismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_separation" title="Frequency separation">Frequency separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetogravity_wave" title="Magnetogravity wave">Magnetogravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moreton_wave" title="Moreton wave">Moreton wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_neutrino_problem" title="Solar neutrino problem">Solar neutrino problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_tower_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar tower (astronomy)">Solar tower (astronomy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_rotation" title="Stellar rotation">Stellar rotation</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon 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font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Helioseismology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Helioseismology">Helioseismology</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719120639/http://ast.phys.au.dk/helio_outreach/english/">Non-technical description of helio- and asteroseismology</a> retrieved November 2009</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGough2003" class="citation journal cs1">Gough, D.O. 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Phys</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 6. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005LRSP....2....6G">2005LRSP....2....6G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12942%2Flrsp-2005-6">10.12942/lrsp-2005-6</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Living+Rev.+Sol.+Phys.&rft.atitle=Local+Helioseismology&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=6&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12942%2Flrsp-2005-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005LRSP....2....6G&rft.aulast=Gizon&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rft.au=Birch%2C+Aaron+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.12942%252Flrsp-2005-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHelioseismology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=105844&org=olpa&from=news">Scientists Issue Unprecedented Forecast of Next Sunspot Cycle</a> National Science Foundation press release, March 6, 2006</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiesch2005" class="citation journal cs1">Miesch, Mark S. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12942%2Flrsp-2005-1">"Large-Scale Dynamics of the Convection Zone and Tachocline"</a>. <i>Living Rev. Sol. Phys</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 1. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005LRSP....2....1M">2005LRSP....2....1M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12942%2Flrsp-2005-1">10.12942/lrsp-2005-1</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Living+Rev.+Sol.+Phys.&rft.atitle=Large-Scale+Dynamics+of+the+Convection+Zone+and+Tachocline&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12942%2Flrsp-2005-1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005LRSP....2....1M&rft.aulast=Miesch&rft.aufirst=Mark+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.12942%252Flrsp-2005-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHelioseismology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080919115719/http://www.helas-eu.org/">European Helio- and Asteroseismology Network (HELAS)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://soi.stanford.edu/data/full_farside/">Farside and Earthside images of the Sun</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://solarphysics.livingreviews.org/">Living Reviews in Solar Physics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100929001133/http://solarphysics.livingreviews.org/">Archived</a> 2010-09-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mps.mpg.de/helioseismology-asteroseismology/research">Helioseismology and Asteroseismology</a> at <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Solar_System_Research" title="Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research">MPS</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Satellite_instruments">Satellite instruments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Satellite instruments" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ias.u-psud.fr/virgo">VIRGO</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://soi.stanford.edu">SOI/MDI</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hmi.stanford.edu/">SDO/HMI</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120726082944/http://sunland.gsfc.nasa.gov/smex/trace/">TRACE</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ground-based_instruments">Ground-based instruments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Ground-based instruments" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bison.ph.bham.ac.uk/">BiSON</a></li> <li>Mark-1</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gong.nso.edu/">GONG</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.usc.edu/solar">HiDHN</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristensen-Dalsgaard" class="citation web cs1">Christensen-Dalsgaard, Jørgen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180701022710/http://astro.phys.au.dk/~jcd/oscilnotes/">"Lecture notes on stellar oscillations"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://astro.phys.au.dk/~jcd/oscilnotes/">the original</a> on 1 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lecture+notes+on+stellar+oscillations&rft.aulast=Christensen-Dalsgaard&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B8rgen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fastro.phys.au.dk%2F~jcd%2Foscilnotes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHelioseismology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPijpers2006" class="citation book cs1">Pijpers, Frank P. (2006). <i>Methods in Helio- and Asteroseismology</i>. London: Imperial College Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8609-4755-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8609-4755-1"><bdi>978-1-8609-4755-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Methods+in+Helio-+and+Asteroseismology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Imperial+College+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-8609-4755-1&rft.aulast=Pijpers&rft.aufirst=Frank+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHelioseismology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" 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Rendering was triggered because: page-view --> </section></div> <!-- MobileFormatter took 0.034 seconds --><!--esi <esi:include src="/esitest-fa8a495983347898/content" /> --><noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&oldid=1257972694">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&oldid=1257972694</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Helioseismology&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-medium minerva-icon--modified-history"></span> <span class="last-modified-bar__text modified-enhancement" data-user-name="Pbsouthwood" data-user-gender="unknown" data-timestamp="1731849598"> <span>Last edited on 17 November 2024, at 13:19</span> </span> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-small minerva-icon--expand"></span> </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%8A" title="علم الزلازل الشمسي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الزلازل الشمسي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosismologia" title="Heliosismologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Heliosismologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helioseismologie" title="Helioseismologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Helioseismologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ηλιοσεισμολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηλιοσεισμολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosismolog%C3%ADa" title="Heliosismología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Heliosismología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="لرزهشناسی خورشیدی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لرزهشناسی خورشیدی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9liosismologie" title="Héliosismologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Héliosismologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%BC%EC%A7%84%ED%95%99" title="일진학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="일진학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3lskj%C3%A1lftafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Sólskjálftafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sólskjálftafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliosismologia" title="Eliosismologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Eliosismologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гелиосейсмология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гелиосейсмология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helioseismologie" title="Helioseismologie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Helioseismologie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napszeizmol%C3%B3gia" title="Napszeizmológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Napszeizmológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helioseismologie" title="Helioseismologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Helioseismologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E9%9C%87%E5%AD%A6" title="日震学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="日震学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helioseismologi" title="Helioseismologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Helioseismologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helioseismologi" title="Helioseismologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Helioseismologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelioseysmologiya" title="Gelioseysmologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gelioseysmologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosejsmologia" title="Heliosejsmologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Heliosejsmologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliosismologia" title="Heliosismologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Heliosismologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helioseismologie" title="Helioseismologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Helioseismologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гелиосейсмология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гелиосейсмология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хелиосеизмологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хелиосеизмологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helioseizmologija" title="Helioseizmologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Helioseizmologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%8C" title="วิทยาคลื่นไหวสะเทือนดวงอาทิตย์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิทยาคลื่นไหวสะเทือนดวงอาทิตย์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helyosismoloji" title="Helyosismoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Helyosismoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Геліосейсмологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Геліосейсмологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E9%9C%87%E5%AD%B8" title="日震學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="日震學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 17 November 2024, at 13:19<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li 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