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Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_(%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8)" title="شكلية (أدب) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شكلية (أدب)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="প্রকরণসর্বস্বতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রকরণসর্বস্বতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0)" title="Формализъм (литература) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Формализъм (литература)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formalisme_(literatura)" title="Formalisme (literatura) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Formalisme (literatura)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formalisme" title="Formalisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Formalisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formalismo_(literatura)" title="Formalismo (literatura) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Formalismo (literatura)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85_(%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA)" title="فرمالیسم (ادبیات) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرمالیسم (ادبیات)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6_(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF)" title="रूपवाद (साहित्य) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रूपवाद (साहित्य)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D_(%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA)" title="פורמליזם (ספרות) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פורמליזם (ספרות)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82" title="രൂപഭദ്രതാവാദം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="രൂപഭദ്രതാവാദം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formalisme_(literatuurwetenschap)" title="Formalisme (literatuurwetenschap) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Formalisme (literatuurwetenschap)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6_(%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A4)" title="ਰੂਪਵਾਦ (ਸਾਹਿਤ) – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰੂਪਵਾਦ (ਸਾਹਿਤ)" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%BE%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%AA_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="ھيئت پرستي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ھيئت پرستي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formalizmus_(literat%C3%BAra)" title="Formalizmus (literatúra) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Formalizmus (literatúra)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="வடிவவியத் திறனாய்வு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வடிவவியத் திறனாய்வு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3655961#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Formalism_(literature)" title="Special:EditPage/Formalism (literature)">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Formalism%22+literature">"Formalism" literature</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Formalism%22+literature+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Formalism%22+literature&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Formalism%22+literature+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Formalism%22+literature">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Formalism%22+literature&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Formalism_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Formalism (disambiguation)">Formalism</a>.</div> <p><b>Formalism</b> is a school of <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">literary criticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">literary theory</a> having mainly to do with structural purposes of a particular text. It is the study of a text without taking into account any outside influence. Formalism rejects or sometimes simply "brackets" (<i>i.e.</i>, ignores for the purpose of analysis) notions of culture or societal influence, authorship, and content, and instead focuses on modes, genres, discourse, and forms. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_literary_theory">In literary theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formalism_(literature)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: In literary theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">literary theory</a>, formalism refers to critical approaches that analyze, interpret, or evaluate the inherent features of a text. These features include not only <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> but also literary devices such as meter and <a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">tropes</a>. The formalistic approach reduces the importance of a text's historical, biographical, and cultural context. </p><p>Formalism rose to prominence in the early twentieth century as a reaction against <a href="/wiki/Romanticist" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanticist">Romanticist</a> theories of literature, which centered on the artist and individual creative genius, once again placing the text itself in the spotlight to show how the text was indebted to forms and other works that had preceded it. Two schools of formalist literary criticism developed, <a href="/wiki/Russian_formalism" title="Russian formalism">Russian formalism</a>, and soon after Anglo-American <a href="/wiki/New_Criticism" title="New Criticism">New Criticism</a>. Formalism was the dominant mode of academic literary study in the US at least from the end of the Second World War through the 1970s, especially as embodied in <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Wellek" title="René Wellek">René Wellek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austin_Warren_(scholar)" title="Austin Warren (scholar)">Austin Warren</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Literature" title="Theory of Literature">Theory of Literature</a></i> (1948, 1955, 1962). </p><p>Beginning in the late 1970s, formalism was substantially displaced by various approaches (often with political aims or assumptions) that were suspicious of the idea that a literary work could be separated from its origins or uses.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The term has often had a pejorative cast and has been used by opponents to indicate either aridity or ideological deviance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Some recent trends in academic literary criticism suggest that formalism may be making a comeback.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formalism_(literature)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pedagogy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>William H Thelin criticizes Maxine Hairston's approach to teaching composition from a current-traditional standpoint, which she then mixes with the political. He claims that “No matter how sound the politics … the student would have no choice but to regurgitate that dogma in the clearest terms possible and to shift concentration onto matters of structure and correctness”.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mary Ann Cain writes that “formalism asserts that the text stands on its own as a complete entity, apart from the writer who produced it”.<sup id="cite_ref-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, Cain says that “one can regard textual products as teachable and still maintain that being a writer is a "natural" act, one not subject to instruction.<sup id="cite_ref-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Composition, like creative writing, has flourished under the assumption that students are already writers, or have the capacity to learn-and that everyone should be writers. Yet the questions composition tends to pose within this assumption are not so much about which aspects of writing can or cannot be taught, but how writing can be taught and under what conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In regards to formalist composition, one must ask, “to what extent is this ‘need’ for ‘academic discourse’ real – any more than the need for more ‘imaginative writing’ is real-except to perform some function, to get something done?”.<sup id="cite_ref-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formalism_(literature)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Formalism research involves studying the ways in which students present their writing.<sup id="cite_ref-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some ways formalism research is conducted involves allowing the text to speak to the readers versus cutting out unintended meaning in a written piece. Respectively, these two methods deal with language as the “master” writer versus a teacher as the “master” writer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_formalism">Russian formalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formalism_(literature)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Russian formalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_formalism" title="Russian formalism">Russian formalism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Formalism_(literature)" title="Special:EditPage/Formalism (literature)">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Russian Formalism refers to the work of the Society for the Study of Poetic Language (OPOYAZ) founded in 1916 in St. Petersburg (then Petrograd) by <a href="/wiki/Boris_Eichenbaum" class="mw-redirect" title="Boris Eichenbaum">Boris Eichenbaum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Shklovsky" title="Viktor Shklovsky">Viktor Shklovsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yury_Tynyanov" title="Yury Tynyanov">Yury Tynyanov</a>, and secondarily to the Moscow Linguistic Circle founded in 1914 by <a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Roman Jakobson</a>. (The folklorist <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Propp" title="Vladimir Propp">Vladimir Propp</a> is also often associated with the movement.) Eichenbaum's 1926 essay "The Theory of the 'Formal Method'" (translated in Lemon and Reis) provides an economical overview of the approach the Formalists advocated, which included the following basic ideas: </p> <ul><li>The aim is to produce "a science of literature that would be both independent and factual," which is sometimes designated by the term <i><a href="/wiki/Poetics" title="Poetics">poetics</a>.</i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Since literature is made of language, linguistics will be a foundational element of the science of literature.</li> <li>Literature is autonomous from external conditions in the sense that literary language is distinct from ordinary uses of language, not least because it is not (entirely) communicative.</li> <li>Literature has its own history, a history of innovation in formal structures, and is not determined (as some crude versions of Marxism have it) by external, material history.</li> <li>What a work of literature says cannot be separated from <i>how</i> the literary work says it, and therefore the form of a work, far from being merely the decorative wrapping of an isolable content, is in fact part of the content of the work.</li></ul> <p>According to Eichenbaum, Shklovsky was the lead critic of the group, and Shklovsky contributed two of their most well-known concepts: defamiliarization (<i>ostraneniye,</i> more literally, 'estrangement') and the plot/story distinction (<i><a href="/wiki/Syuzhet" class="mw-redirect" title="Syuzhet">syuzhet</a>/fabula</i>). "Defamiliarization" is one of the crucial ways in which literary language distinguishes itself from ordinary, communicative language, and is a feature of how art in general works, namely by presenting the world in a strange and new way that allows us to see things differently. Innovation in literary history is, according to Shklovsky, partly a matter of finding new techniques of defamiliarization. The plot/story distinction separates out the sequence of events the work relates (the story) from the sequence in which those events are presented in the work (the plot). Both of these concepts are attempts to describe the significance of the form of a literary work in order to define its "literariness." For the Russian Formalists as a whole, form is what makes something art to begin with, so in order to understand a work of art as a work of art (rather than as an ornamented communicative act) one must focus on its form. </p><p>This emphasis on form, seemingly at the expense of thematic content, was not well-received after the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution of 1917</a>. One of the most sophisticated critiques of the Formalist project was <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Literature_and_Revolution" title="Literature and Revolution">Literature and Revolution</a></i> (1924).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Trotsky does not wholly dismiss the Formalist approach, but insists that "the methods of formal analysis are necessary, but insufficient" because they neglect the social world with which the human beings who write and read literature are bound up: "The form of art is, to a certain and very large degree, independent, but the artist who creates this form, and the spectator who is enjoying it, are not empty machines, one for creating form and the other for appreciating it. They are living people, with a crystallized psychology representing a certain unity, even if not entirely harmonious. This psychology is the result of social conditions" (180, 171). The Formalists were thus accused of being politically reactionary because of such unpatriotic remarks as Shklovsky's (quoted by Trotsky) that "Art was always free of life, and its color never reflected the color of the flag which waved over the fortress of the City"(source?)(164). The leaders of the movement suffered political persecution beginning in the 1920s, when <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> came to power, which largely put an end to their inquiries. But their ideas continued to influence subsequent thinkers, partly due to <a href="/wiki/Tzvetan_Todorov" title="Tzvetan Todorov">Tzvetan Todorov</a>'s translations of their works in the 1960s and 1970s, including Todorov himself, <a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a>, <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Genette" title="Gérard Genette">Genette</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Robert_Jauss" title="Hans Robert Jauss">Jauss</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Prague_Circle_and_structuralism">The Prague Circle and structuralism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formalism_(literature)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Prague Circle and structuralism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague linguistic circle</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Formalism_(literature)" title="Special:EditPage/Formalism (literature)">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Moscow Linguistic Circle founded by Jakobson was more directly concerned with recent developments in linguistics than Eichenbaum's group. Jakobson left Moscow for Prague in 1920 and in 1926 co-founded the Prague Linguistic Circle, which embodied similar interests, especially in the work of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formalism_(literature)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">I. A. Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Criticism" title="New Criticism">New Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stylistics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stylistics (linguistics)">Stylistics (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Formalism" title="New Formalism">New Formalism</a>/Neoformalism</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formalism_(literature)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">“Formalism and its Malcontents: Benjamin and de Man on the Function of Allegory”, Jim Hansen, New Literary History, 2004, Vol. 35, No. 4, 663.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thelin, William H. "Advocating Language: An Ethical Approach to Politics in the Classroom". <i>The Ethics of Writing Instruction</i>. Michael Pemberton, ed. Stamford: Ablex Publishing, 2000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cain,_Mary_Ann_1999_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cain, Mary Ann. "Problematizing Formalism: A Double-Cross of Genre Boundaries." <i>College Composition and Communication</i>. 51:1 Sept 1999. 89-95.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formalism_(literature)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Lemon, Lee T., and Marion J. Reis. <i>Russian Formalist Criticism: Four Essays.</i> Lincoln: U of Nebraska P, 1965.</li> <li>Shklovsky, Viktor. <i>Theory of Prose.</i> Trans. Benjamin Sher. Elmwood Park: Dalkey Archive, 1990.</li> <li>Trotsky, Leon. <i>Literature and Revolution.</i> New York: Russell and Russell, 1957.</li> <li>Wellek, René, and Austin Warren. <i>Theory of Literature.</i> 3rd. rev. ed. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977.</li> <li>Erlich, Victor. <i>Russian Formalism: History—Doctrine.</i> 3rd ed. New Haven: Yale UP, 1981.</li> <li>Dowling,William C. <i>Ricoeur on Time and Narrative</i>. Notre Dame UP, 2011.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">Literary theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archetypal_literary_criticism" title="Archetypal literary criticism">Archetypal criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biographical_criticism" title="Biographical criticism">Biographical criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(literary_criticism)" title="Chicago school (literary criticism)">Chicago school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(cultural_studies)" title="Cultural materialism (cultural studies)">Cultural materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Darwinian criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_poetics" title="Descriptive poetics">Descriptive poetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocriticism" title="Ecocriticism">Ecocriticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism" title="Feminist literary criticism">Feminist criticism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geocriticism" title="Geocriticism">Geocriticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_literary_criticism" title="Marxist literary criticism">Marxist criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Criticism" title="New Criticism">New Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonial criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_literary_criticism" title="Psychoanalytic literary criticism">Psychoanalytic criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reader-response_criticism" title="Reader-response criticism">Reader-response criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_formalism" title="Russian formalism">Russian formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_literary_criticism" title="Semiotic literary criticism">Semiotic criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_criticism" title="Sociological criticism">Sociological criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_criticism" title="Source criticism">Source criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thing_theory" title="Thing theory">Thing theory</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antique-books-woodward.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Antique-books-woodward.jpg/70px-Antique-books-woodward.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Antique-books-woodward.jpg/105px-Antique-books-woodward.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Antique-books-woodward.jpg/140px-Antique-books-woodward.jpg 2x" data-file-width="981" data-file-height="1017" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theorists and critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longinus_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Longinus (literature)">Longinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Augustine">St. Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boccaccio" class="mw-redirect" title="Boccaccio">Boccaccio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">de Pizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valmiki" title="Valmiki">Valmiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Ji_(Shiheng)" title="Lu Ji (Shiheng)">Lu Ji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Sidney" title="Philip Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torquato_Tasso" title="Torquato Tasso">Tasso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Corneille" title="Pierre Corneille">Corneille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">Dryden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Boileau-Despr%C3%A9aux" title="Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux">Boileau-Despréaux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke (Edmund)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Young" title="Edward Young">Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Schlegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel">Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Louise_Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" class="mw-redirect" title="Anne Louise Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">Keats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Love_Peacock" title="Thomas Love Peacock">Peacock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">von Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Leopardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_De_Sanctis" class="mw-redirect" title="Francesco De Sanctis">De Sanctis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Augustin_Sainte-Beuve" title="Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve">Sainte-Beuve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Poe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Pater" title="Walter Pater">Pater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Zola" title="Émile Zola">Zola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatole_France" title="Anatole France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Wilde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mallarm%C3%A9" title="Stéphane Mallarmé">Mallarmé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Tolstoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._E._Hulme" title="T. 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