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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origins subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Roots</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-16th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#16th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>16th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-16th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li 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href="#Switzerland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Switzerland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Switzerland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Zwingli" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zwingli"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Zwingli</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zwingli-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Calvin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Calvin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>John Calvin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Calvin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scandinavia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scandinavia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Scandinavia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scandinavia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>England</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Puritans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Puritans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.1</span> <span>Puritans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Puritans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hungary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hungary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Hungary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hungary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nineteenth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nineteenth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Nineteenth century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nineteenth_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Nineteenth century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Nineteenth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Awakenings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Awakenings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Great Awakenings</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Great_Awakenings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Great Awakenings subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Great_Awakenings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_Great_Awakening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Great_Awakening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>First Great Awakening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Great_Awakening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Great_Awakening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Great_Awakening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Second Great Awakening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Great_Awakening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_Great_Awakening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_Great_Awakening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Third Great Awakening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_Great_Awakening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 20th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pentecostal_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pentecostal_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Pentecostal movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pentecostal_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernism,_fundamentalism,_and_neo-orthodoxy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernism,_fundamentalism,_and_neo-orthodoxy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Modernism, fundamentalism, and neo-orthodoxy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernism,_fundamentalism,_and_neo-orthodoxy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evangelicalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evangelicalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Evangelicalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evangelicalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_of_secularism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_of_secularism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Spread of secularism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread_of_secularism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="color: black;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Protestantism" title="Category:Protestantism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;;padding:0.2em; background:#efefef;"><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Golden_Christian_Cross.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Latin version of the Christian cross which is used by virtually all Protestant denominations"><img alt="Latin version of the Christian cross which is used by virtually all Protestant denominations" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Golden_Christian_Cross.svg/120px-Golden_Christian_Cross.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Golden_Christian_Cross.svg/250px-Golden_Christian_Cross.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="center"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Protestantism" title="Outline of Protestantism">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Anti-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Bible" title="Protestant Bible">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_culture" title="Protestant culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_by_country" title="Protestantism by country">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_ecclesiology" title="Protestant ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic%E2%80%93Protestant_relations" title="Catholic–Protestant relations">Relations with Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_theologies" title="Protestant theologies">Theologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Solas" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Solas">Five Solas</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magisterial_Reformation" title="Magisterial Reformation">Magisterial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Confession" title="Augsburg Confession">Augsburg Confession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-Protestantism" title="Crypto-Protestantism">Crypto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">Nonconformists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Dissenters" title="English Dissenters">Dissenters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley" title="John Wesley">John Wesley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Awakening" title="Great Awakening">Great Awakenings in America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revival_meeting" title="Revival meeting">Revival meetings</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations#Protestant" title="List of Christian denominations">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Protestants">Proto-Protestants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutherans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed tradition">Reformed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental Reformed church">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterians" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterians">Presbyterians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational">Congregational</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglicans">Anglicans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuing_Anglican_movement" title="Continuing Anglican movement">Continuing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptists">Anabaptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodists" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodists">Methodists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Pietism" title="Radical Pietism">Radical Pietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakers" title="Shakers">Shakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone-Campbell" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone-Campbell">Stone-Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventist" class="mw-redirect" title="Adventist">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_Life_movement" title="Higher Life movement">Keswickians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Protestant_Christianity" title="Eastern Protestant Christianity">Eastern Protestant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostals" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentecostals">Pentecostals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_and_uniting_churches" title="United and uniting churches">United and uniting churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Catholic" title="Evangelical Catholic">Augsburg Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessionalism_(religion)" title="Confessionalism (religion)">Confessionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessing_Movement" title="Confessing Movement">Confessing Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergence_Movement" title="Convergence Movement">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Growth" title="Church Growth">Church Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Protestantism" title="Template:Protestantism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Protestantism" title="Template talk:Protestantism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Protestantism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Protestantism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> originated from the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> of the 16th century. The term <i>Protestant</i> comes from the <a href="/wiki/Protestation_at_Speyer" title="Protestation at Speyer">Protestation at Speyer</a> in 1529, where the nobility protested against enforcement of the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Worms" class="mw-redirect" title="Edict of Worms">Edict of Worms</a> which subjected advocates of <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a> to forfeit all of their property.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the theological underpinnings go back much further, as Protestant theologians of the time cited both <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a> to justify their choices and formulations. The earliest origin of Protestantism is controversial; with some Protestants today claiming origin back to people in the early church deemed heretical such as <a href="/wiki/Jovinian" title="Jovinian">Jovinian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vigilantius" title="Vigilantius">Vigilantius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 16th century, major factors affecting Protestantism have been the Catholic <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> which opposed it successfully especially in France, Spain and Italy. Then came an era of confessionalization followed by Rationalism, Pietism, and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Awakening" title="Great Awakening">Great Awakenings</a>. Major movements today include <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">evangelicalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestantism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainline Protestantism">mainline denominations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the early <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformers</a> was <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a>, an English theologian and early proponent of reform in the 14th century. His followers, known as <a href="/wiki/Lollards" class="mw-redirect" title="Lollards">Lollards</a>, spread throughout <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> but soon were persecuted by both leaders in the Roman Catholic Church and government officials. Wycliffe influenced <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Czech_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Czech people">Czech</a> priest from <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>. After Hus was burned at the stake for <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>, his followers dominated the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a>, later spreading to <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moravia" title="Moravia">Moravia</a>. Some of his followers waged the <a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Utraquism" title="Utraquism">Utraquist</a> faction eventually defeating the papal backed forces.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Both Wycliffe and Hus preached against <a href="/wiki/Indulgence" title="Indulgence">indulgences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-christianity.com_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-christianity.com-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-christianitytoday.com_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-christianitytoday.com-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hus wrote his <i>Six Errors</i>, fixed to the door of his church, in which he criticized corruption of the clergy<sup id="cite_ref-encyclopedia.com_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encyclopedia.com-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and touched on other topics which under the later Luther became the key to the Reformation. After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">Battle of White Mountain</a>, persecuted Hussites established minor churches such as the <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_the_Brethren_Baptists" title="Unity of the Brethren Baptists">Unity of the Brethren</a> (and its international branch <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravian Church</a>). </p><p>Those early reformers influenced <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a> friar <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, who spread the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>. Originally, Luther intended to reform the Roman Catholic Church rather than break it up. Reformation in Germany diversified quickly as did the earlier Hussites in <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Crown" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohemian Crown">Bohemian Crown</a>, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Gutenberg</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> provided the means for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in local languages. Similar to his predecessors, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> wrote the <i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i> on the sale of <a href="/wiki/Indulgences" class="mw-redirect" title="Indulgences">indulgences</a> in 1517. Soon, the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed tradition">Reformed tradition</a> began in Switzerland under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a> in 1519. The Reformation evolved into a large debate involving theologians throughout most of Europe. The political separation of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> from Rome under <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a> brought England alongside this movement.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work and writings of <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> helped establish a loose consensus among various groups in <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed tradition">Reformed tradition</a> separated into specific subgroups like the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental Reformed">Continental Reformed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a> and a variety of <a href="/wiki/English_Dissenters" title="English Dissenters">English Dissenters</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a>. Other important movements that emerged during the Reformation include <a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Baptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist">Baptist</a> movement and <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After excommunicating Luther in 1521 with the papal bull <i><a href="/wiki/Decet_Romanum_Pontificem" title="Decet Romanum Pontificem">Decet Romanum Pontificem</a></i>, Church leaders together with the Holy Roman Empire condemned his followers in the 1521 <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Worms" class="mw-redirect" title="Edict of Worms">Edict of Worms</a>. This was the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>. When the Lutherans gave the 1530 <i><a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Confession" title="Augsburg Confession">Augsburg Confession</a></i>, the Catholics responded with the <i><a href="/wiki/Confutatio_Augustana" title="Confutatio Augustana">Confutatio Augustana</a></i>. The Lutherans gained provisional tolerance for their faith with the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Religious_Peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Religious Peace">Nuremberg Religious Peace</a>, during which the reformer <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Melancthon" class="mw-redirect" title="Phillip Melancthon">Phillip Melancthon</a> in turn responded with the 1537 <i><a href="/wiki/Apology_of_the_Augsburg_Confession" title="Apology of the Augsburg Confession">Apology of the Augsburg Confession</a></i>. Although it was rejected by <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a>, there was no document written in response on the Catholic side, and Luther submitted his 1537 <i><a href="/wiki/Smalcald_Articles" title="Smalcald Articles">Smalcald Articles</a></i> for consideration to the German nobility, which he wrote also in the hopes that the impending council would not misrepresent his positions, even if it were just going to condemn them. From 1545 to 1563, Roman Catholic officials met at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a>, as well as some Protestants, although they were not allowed to vote. The Lutheran response<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to this council in turn came from <a href="/wiki/Martin_Chemnitz" title="Martin Chemnitz">Martin Chemnitz</a>, who published the <i><a href="/wiki/Examination_of_the_Council_of_Trent" title="Examination of the Council of Trent">Examination of the Council of Trent</a></i> from 1565 to 1573.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to refute him, <a href="/wiki/Diogo_de_Payva_de_Andrada" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogo de Payva de Andrada">Diogo de Payva de Andrada</a> wrote the <i><a href="/wiki/Defensio_Tridentin%C3%A6_fidei" title="Defensio Tridentinæ fidei">Defensio Tridentinæ fidei</a></i> which was considerably shorter and published posthumously in 1578.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lutherans never responded to this work. The <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit order">Jesuit order</a> was founded at the time of the Council of Trent in order to stop the Reformation, and powerful monarchs like the <a href="/wiki/Habsburgs" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburgs">Habsburgs</a> were also committed to the Counter-Reformation. Many Protestants became <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-Protestant">crypto-Protestants</a> in areas under Habsburg control.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the course of this religious upheaval, the <a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">German Peasants' War</a> of 1524–1525 swept through <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thuringia" title="Thuringia">Thuringia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swabia" title="Swabia">Swabia</a>. The Nuremberg Religious Peace was breached at the start of the <a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War" title="Schmalkaldic War">Schmalkaldic War</a> in 1546. Their loss resulted in the imposition of Counter-Reformational measures during the <a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Interim" title="Augsburg Interim">Augsburg Interim</a>, which were intended to bring them closer to Roman Catholicism, but the terms of the 1555 <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a> ended this by allowing rulers to choose the religion of their domains (Latin: <a href="/wiki/Cuius_regio,_eius_religio" title="Cuius regio, eius religio">Cuius regio, eius religio</a>) as either Catholic or Lutheran. The confessional division of the <a href="/wiki/States_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="States of the Holy Roman Empire">states of the Holy Roman Empire</a> eventually erupted in the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> of 1618–1648, leaving the agglomeration severely weakened.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> France suffered its <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">own religious wars</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_people" title="Dutch people">Dutch people</a> rebelled in the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a>. The <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Three Kingdoms">War of the Three Kingdoms</a> affected the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>While the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continent</a> continued until the 19th century,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the growth of a <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarized the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan Age">Elizabethan Age</a>, although it was not until the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a> of the 1640s that England underwent religious strife comparable to that which its neighbours had suffered some generations before. Nonconforming Protestants along with the Protestant refugees from continental Europe were the primary founders of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States of America</a>. In the middle 17th century, <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> became an important influence in <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Awakenings" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Awakenings">Great Awakenings</a> were periods of rapid and dramatic <a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">religious revival</a> in American religious history, from the 1730s to the mid-19th century. As a result, a multitude of diverse Protestant denominations emerged. In the <a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Wesley" title="John Wesley">John Wesley</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a> which in turn sparked <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">evangelicalism</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a> brought <a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a> alongside other denominations. The <a href="/wiki/Salvation_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvation Army">Salvation Army</a> was founded during the <a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a>. Some scholars propose the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth Great Awakening</a> took place in the late 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Modernist and liberal streams</a> shaped <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestantism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainline Protestantism">mainline denominations</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the 20th century, Protestantism was becoming increasingly fragmented with <a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">Neo-charismatic movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational churches</a>, <a href="/wiki/House_churches" class="mw-redirect" title="House churches">house churches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-orthodoxy" title="Neo-orthodoxy">Neo-orthodoxy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleo-orthodoxy" title="Paleo-orthodoxy">Paleo-orthodoxy</a>, numerous <a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian fundamentalist">Christian fundamentalist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Evangelical Protestant">evangelical</a>, independent, and other groups emerging mainly in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a>. In particular, <a href="/wiki/American_Protestantism" class="mw-redirect" title="American Protestantism">American Protestantism</a> was <a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_movements_that_began_in_the_United_States" title="List of religious movements that began in the United States">affected</a> by this phenomenon with both <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">mainline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">conservative</a> sides being affected. Beginning in the 1980s, the rapid fragmenting became accompanied by a general secularization of Western society. While all these movements spilled over to Europe to a limited degree, the development of Protestantism in Europe was more dominated by secularization, leading to an increasingly <a href="/wiki/Post-Christian_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Christian Europe">post-Christian Europe</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the 21st century, Protestantism continues to divide, while simultaneously expanding on a worldwide scale largely due to rising <a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Evangelical Protestant">Evangelical Protestant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pentecostal" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentecostal">Pentecostal</a> movements.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_maps">Historical maps</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical maps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Distribution of Protestantism and Roman Catholicism in Central Europe on the eve of the Thirty Years' War (1618) Crypto-Protestants are not shown."><img alt="Distribution of Protestantism and Roman Catholicism in Central Europe on the eve of the Thirty Years' War (1618) Crypto-Protestants are not shown." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png/120px-HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png/180px-HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png/240px-HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png 2x" data-file-width="4005" data-file-height="3964" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Distribution of Protestantism and Roman Catholicism in Central Europe on the eve of the Thirty Years' War (1618) <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-Protestant">Crypto-Protestants</a> are not shown.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Reformation.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Approximate spread of Protestantism after the Reformation, and following the Counter-Reformation. Crypto-Protestants are not shown."><img alt="Approximate spread of Protestantism after the Reformation, and following the Counter-Reformation. Crypto-Protestants are not shown." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Reformation.gif/120px-Reformation.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Reformation.gif/250px-Reformation.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="422" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Approximate spread of Protestantism after the Reformation, and following the Counter-Reformation. <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-Protestant">Crypto-Protestants</a> are not shown.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Catholicism,_Protestantism,_Orthodoxy_and_Islam_in_Europe.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Approximate spread of Protestantism at the Reformation's peak. Islam is marked in red. Crypto-Protestants, Crypto-papists, and Crypto-Muslims are not shown."><img alt="Approximate spread of Protestantism at the Reformation's peak. Islam is marked in red. Crypto-Protestants, Crypto-papists, and Crypto-Muslims are not shown." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Map_of_Catholicism%2C_Protestantism%2C_Orthodoxy_and_Islam_in_Europe.jpg/120px-Map_of_Catholicism%2C_Protestantism%2C_Orthodoxy_and_Islam_in_Europe.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Map_of_Catholicism%2C_Protestantism%2C_Orthodoxy_and_Islam_in_Europe.jpg/180px-Map_of_Catholicism%2C_Protestantism%2C_Orthodoxy_and_Islam_in_Europe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Map_of_Catholicism%2C_Protestantism%2C_Orthodoxy_and_Islam_in_Europe.jpg/240px-Map_of_Catholicism%2C_Protestantism%2C_Orthodoxy_and_Islam_in_Europe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="326" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Approximate spread of Protestantism at the Reformation's peak. Islam is marked in red. <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-Protestant">Crypto-Protestants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crypto-papist" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-papist">Crypto-papists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Islam" title="Crypto-Islam">Crypto-Muslims</a> are not shown.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Protestant_Reformation.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Protestant Reformation at its peak"><img alt="The Protestant Reformation at its peak" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/The_Protestant_Reformation.svg/120px-The_Protestant_Reformation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/The_Protestant_Reformation.svg/180px-The_Protestant_Reformation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/The_Protestant_Reformation.svg/240px-The_Protestant_Reformation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2045" data-file-height="1720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Protestant Reformation at its peak</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Counterreformation.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="After the Counter-Reformation. Crypto-Protestants are not shown."><img alt="After the Counter-Reformation. Crypto-Protestants are not shown." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_Counterreformation.svg/120px-The_Counterreformation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_Counterreformation.svg/180px-The_Counterreformation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_Counterreformation.svg/240px-The_Counterreformation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2045" data-file-height="1720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">After the Counter-Reformation. <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-Protestant">Crypto-Protestants</a> are not shown.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Edict_of_Fontainebleau.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="After the Edict of Fontainebleau. Crypto-Protestants are not shown."><img alt="After the Edict of Fontainebleau. Crypto-Protestants are not shown." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Edict_of_Fontainebleau.svg/120px-Edict_of_Fontainebleau.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Edict_of_Fontainebleau.svg/250px-Edict_of_Fontainebleau.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="2045" data-file-height="1720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">After the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Fontainebleau" title="Edict of Fontainebleau">Edict of Fontainebleau</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-Protestant">Crypto-Protestants</a> are not shown.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:European_Protestantism_by_1950.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Modern spread after the Irish independence, Expulsion of Finns from Karelia and the Expulsions of Germans"><img alt="Modern spread after the Irish independence, Expulsion of Finns from Karelia and the Expulsions of Germans" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/European_Protestantism_by_1950.svg/120px-European_Protestantism_by_1950.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/European_Protestantism_by_1950.svg/180px-European_Protestantism_by_1950.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/European_Protestantism_by_1950.svg/240px-European_Protestantism_by_1950.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2045" data-file-height="1720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Modern spread after the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Irish_Treaty" title="Anglo-Irish Treaty">Irish independence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evacuation_of_Finnish_Karelia" title="Evacuation of Finnish Karelia">Expulsion of Finns from Karelia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Expulsions_of_Germans" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsions of Germans">Expulsions of Germans</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World">World</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: World"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1545.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Countries by percentage of Protestants in 1545."><img alt="Countries by percentage of Protestants in 1545." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1545.png/120px-Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1545.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1545.png/250px-Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1545.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1356" data-file-height="627" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Countries by percentage of Protestants in 1545.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1710.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Countries by percentage of Protestants in 1710."><img alt="Countries by percentage of Protestants in 1710." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1710.png/120px-Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1710.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1710.png/250px-Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1710.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="628" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Countries by percentage of Protestants in 1710.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1938.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Countries by percentage of Protestants in 1938."><img alt="Countries by percentage of Protestants in 1938." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1938.svg/120px-Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1938.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1938.svg/250px-Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1938.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="477" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Countries by percentage of Protestants in 1938.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_(2010).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Countries by percentage of Protestants in 2010."><img alt="Countries by percentage of Protestants in 2010." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_%282010%29.svg/120px-Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_%282010%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_%282010%29.svg/180px-Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_%282010%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_%282010%29.svg/240px-Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_%282010%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="263" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Countries by percentage of Protestants in 2010.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Protestant_majority_countries_1938.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Protestant majority countries in 1938."><img alt="Protestant majority countries in 1938." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Protestant_majority_countries_1938.svg/120px-Protestant_majority_countries_1938.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Protestant_majority_countries_1938.svg/250px-Protestant_majority_countries_1938.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="477" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Protestant majority countries in 1938.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Protestant_majority_countries_(2010).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Protestant majority countries in 2010."><img alt="Protestant majority countries in 2010." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Protestant_majority_countries_%282010%29.svg/120px-Protestant_majority_countries_%282010%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Protestant_majority_countries_%282010%29.svg/180px-Protestant_majority_countries_%282010%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Protestant_majority_countries_%282010%29.svg/240px-Protestant_majority_countries_%282010%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Protestant majority countries in 2010.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Protestants generally trace to the 16th century their separation from the Catholic Church. Mainstream Protestantism began with the <i><a href="/wiki/Magisterial_Reformation" title="Magisterial Reformation">Magisterial Reformation</a></i>, so called because it received support from the magistrates (that is, the civil authorities). The <i><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></i>, had no state sponsorship. Older Protestant churches, such as the <a href="/wiki/Unitas_Fratrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Unitas Fratrum">Unitas Fratrum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unity_of_the_Brethren_Baptists" title="Unity of the Brethren Baptists">Unity of the Brethren</a>), <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravian Brethren</a> or the Bohemian Brethren trace their origin to the time of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> in the early 15th century. As the <a href="/wiki/Hussite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussite">Hussite</a> movement was led by a majority of Bohemian nobles and recognized for a time by the <a href="/wiki/Basel_Compacts" class="mw-redirect" title="Basel Compacts">Basel Compacts</a>, this is considered by some to be the first Magisterial Reformation in Europe. In Germany, a hundred years later, protests against Roman Catholic authorities erupted in many places at once during a time of threatened <a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">invasion</a> <a href="#Footnotes">¹</a> which distracted the German princes in particular. To some degree, these protests can be explained by the events of the previous two centuries in Europe and particularly in Bohemia. Earlier in the south of France, where the old influence of the <a href="/wiki/Cathars" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathars">Cathars</a> led to the growing protests against the pope and his authorities, <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Farel" class="mw-redirect" title="Guillaume Farel">Guillaume Farel</a> (b. 1489) preached reformation as early as 1522 in <a href="/wiki/Dauphin%C3%A9" title="Dauphiné">Dauphiné</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a> later originated in 1562, also known as <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenot</a> wars. These also spread later to other parts of Europe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roots">Roots</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Roots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg/220px-Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg/330px-Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg/440px-Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2880" /></a><figcaption>Execution of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> at the Council of Constance in 1415. His death led to a radicalization of the <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a> and to the <a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown">Crown of Bohemia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></div> <p>In the 9th century <a href="/wiki/Claudius_of_Turin" title="Claudius of Turin">Claudius of Turin</a> foreshadowed many Protestant views, and had a fanatical zeal for <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">iconoclasm</a>. Claudius of Turin denied the power of the papacy, and the role of good works in salvation, thus believing in <a href="/wiki/Sola_fide" title="Sola fide">faith alone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gottschalk_of_Orbais" title="Gottschalk of Orbais">Gottschalk of Orbais</a> was another 9th century theologian, who taught double predestination and grace oriented views of salvation, mirroring the doctrine of faith alone.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gottschalk was defended by <a href="/wiki/Ratramnus" title="Ratramnus">Ratramnus</a>, who denied transubstantiation and whose writings influenced some reformers.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unrest due to the <a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Papal Schism</a> in the Roman Catholic Church (1378–1416) sparked wars between princes, uprisings among peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church. A new <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> also challenged the relatively internationalist medieval world. The first of a series of disruptive and new perspectives came from <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> at <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a>, then from <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Charles_University_in_Prague" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles University in Prague">University of Prague</a> (Hus had been influenced by Wycliffe). The Catholic Church officially concluded debate over Hus's teachings at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a> (1414–1417). The conclave condemned Jan Hus, who was executed by burning in spite of a promise of safe-conduct. At the command of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Martin_V" title="Pope Martin V">Pope Martin V</a>, Wycliffe's body was exhumed and burned as a <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretic</a> twelve years after his burial. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:184px;max-width:184px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jwycliffejmk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Jwycliffejmk.jpg/250px-Jwycliffejmk.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Jwycliffejmk.jpg/270px-Jwycliffejmk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Jwycliffejmk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="414" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a>.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Worms_Lutherdenkmal_Petrus_Waldus_2012-02-21-18-24-52.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Worms_Lutherdenkmal_Petrus_Waldus_2012-02-21-18-24-52.jpg/250px-Worms_Lutherdenkmal_Petrus_Waldus_2012-02-21-18-24-52.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Worms_Lutherdenkmal_Petrus_Waldus_2012-02-21-18-24-52.jpg/330px-Worms_Lutherdenkmal_Petrus_Waldus_2012-02-21-18-24-52.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Worms_Lutherdenkmal_Petrus_Waldus_2012-02-21-18-24-52.jpg/500px-Worms_Lutherdenkmal_Petrus_Waldus_2012-02-21-18-24-52.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="4928" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Waldo" title="Peter Waldo">Peter Waldo</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a> confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of Churches and Empires. It did not address the national or theological tensions which had been stirred up during the previous century. The council could not prevent <a href="/wiki/Schism_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Schism (religion)">schism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the breakdown of monastic institutions and <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a> in late medieval Europe, accentuated by the "Babylonian Captivity" of the Papacy, the Papal Schism, and the failure of the <a href="/wiki/Conciliar_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Conciliar movement">Conciliar movement</a>, the sixteenth century saw a great cultural debate about religious reforms and later fundamental religious values (See <a href="/wiki/German_mysticism" class="mw-redirect" title="German mysticism">German mysticism</a>). Historians would generally assume that the failure to reform (too many vested interests; lack of coordination in the reforming coalition) would eventually lead to a greater upheaval or even revolution, since the system must eventually be adjusted or disintegrate, and the failure of the Conciliar movement helped lead to the Protestant Reformation in Europe. These frustrated reformist movements ranged from <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Devotio_Moderna" title="Devotio Moderna">devotio moderna (modern devotion)</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a> occurring in conjunction with economic, political and demographic forces that contributed to a growing disaffection with the wealth and power of the <a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">elite</a> <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a>, sensitizing the population to the financial and moral corruption of the secular <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> church. </p><p>The outcome of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> encouraged a radical reorganization of the economy, and eventually of European society. In the emerging urban centers, however, the calamities of the fourteenth and early fifteenth century, and the resultant labor shortages, provided a strong impetus for economic diversification and technological innovations. Following the Black Death, the initial loss of life due to famine, plague, and pestilence contributed to an intensification of <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a> in the urban areas, and thus a stimulus to trade, industry, and burgeoning urban growth in fields as diverse as banking (the <a href="/wiki/Fugger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugger">Fugger</a> banking family in <a href="/wiki/Augsburg" title="Augsburg">Augsburg</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Medici" class="mw-redirect" title="Medici">Medici</a> family of <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> being the most prominent); textiles, <a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">armaments</a>, especially stimulated by the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>, and mining of iron ore due, in large part, to the booming armaments industry. Accumulation of surplus, competitive <a href="/wiki/Overproduction" title="Overproduction">overproduction</a>, and heightened competition to maximize economic advantage, contributed to civil war, aggressive <a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">militarism</a>, and thus to centralization. As a direct result of the move toward centralization, leaders like <a href="/wiki/Louis_XI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XI of France">Louis XI of France</a> (1461–1483), the "spider king", sought to remove all constitutional restrictions on the exercise of their authority. In <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> the move toward centralization begun in the thirteenth century was carried to a successful conclusion. </p><p>But as recovery and prosperity progressed, enabling the population to reach its former levels in the late 15th and 16th centuries, the combination of a newly-abundant labor supply and improved productivity, was a mixed blessing for many segments of Western European society. Despite tradition, landlords started to exclude <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> from "<a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">common lands</a>". With trade stimulated, landowners increasingly moved away from the <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manorial</a> economy. Woollen manufacturing greatly expanded in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and new <a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">textile</a> industries began to develop. </p><p>The invention of <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> led to Protestant zeal for translating the Bible and getting it into the hands of the laity. </p><p>The "humanism" of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> period stimulated unprecedented academic ferment, and a concern for <a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">academic freedom</a>. Ongoing, earnest theoretical debates occurred in the universities about the nature of the church, and the source and extent of the authority of the papacy, of councils, and of princes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="16th_century">16th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 16th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:95Thesen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/95Thesen.jpg/330px-95Thesen.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/95Thesen.jpg/495px-95Thesen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/95Thesen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="654" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses placed in doubt and repudiated several of the Roman Catholic practices.</figcaption></figure> <p>Protests against Rome began in earnest when <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinian</a> friar and professor at the university of <a href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a>, called in 1517 for a reopening of the debate on the sale of <a href="/wiki/Indulgence" title="Indulgence">indulgences</a>. The quick spread of discontent occurred to a large degree because of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> and the resulting swift movement of both ideas and documents, including the <i><a href="/wiki/95_Theses" class="mw-redirect" title="95 Theses">95 Theses</a></i>. Information was also widely disseminated in manuscript form, as well as by cheap prints and woodcuts amongst the poorer sections of society. </p><p>Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Zwingli" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulrich Zwingli">Ulrich Zwingli</a>. These two movements quickly agreed on most issues, as the recently introduced <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> spread ideas rapidly from place to place, but some unresolved differences kept them separate. Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative, and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day <a href="/wiki/Anabaptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptist">Anabaptists</a>. Other Protestant movements grew up along lines of mysticism or humanism (<a href="/wiki/Cf." title="Cf.">cf.</a> <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a>), sometimes breaking from Rome or from the Protestants, or forming outside of the churches. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg/180px-Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg/270px-Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg/360px-Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a> launched the Reformation in Switzerland.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Destruction_of_icons_in_Zurich_1524.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Destruction_of_icons_in_Zurich_1524.jpg/250px-Destruction_of_icons_in_Zurich_1524.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Destruction_of_icons_in_Zurich_1524.jpg/330px-Destruction_of_icons_in_Zurich_1524.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Destruction_of_icons_in_Zurich_1524.jpg/500px-Destruction_of_icons_in_Zurich_1524.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2572" data-file-height="1638" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a> was caused by the Protestant rejection of the Roman Catholic saints. <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a>, 1524.</figcaption></figure> <p>After this first stage of the Reformation, following the <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunication</a> of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland, <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. </p><p>The Reformation foundations engaged with <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinianism</a>. Both Luther and Calvin thought along lines linked with the theological teachings of <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>. The Augustinianism of the Reformers struggled against <a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a>, a heresy that they perceived in the Catholic Church of their day. In the course of this religious upheaval, the <a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">German Peasants' War</a> of 1524–1525 swept through the <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thuringia" title="Thuringia">Thuringian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swabia" title="Swabia">Swabian</a> principalities, leaving scores of Catholics dead at the hands of Protestant bands, including the <a href="/wiki/Black_Company" title="Black Company">Black Company</a> of <a href="/wiki/Florian_Geier" class="mw-redirect" title="Florian Geier">Florian Geier</a>, a knight from <a href="/wiki/Giebelstadt" title="Giebelstadt">Giebelstadt</a> who joined the peasants in the outrage against the Catholic hierarchy. </p><p>The political separation of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> from Rome under <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>, beginning in 1529 and completed in 1536, brought England alongside this broad Reformed movement. However, religious changes in the English national church proceeded more conservatively than elsewhere in Europe. Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for centuries, between sympathies for Catholic traditions and Protestantism, forging a stable compromise between adherence to ancient tradition and Protestantism, which is now sometimes called the <a href="/wiki/Via_media" title="Via media">via media</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Life_of_Martin_Luther.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Life_of_Martin_Luther.jpg/330px-Life_of_Martin_Luther.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Life_of_Martin_Luther.jpg/500px-Life_of_Martin_Luther.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Life_of_Martin_Luther.jpg/960px-Life_of_Martin_Luther.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="3930" /></a><figcaption>Life of <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> and the heroes of the Reformation.</figcaption></figure> <p>Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli are considered Magisterial Reformers because their reform movements were supported by ruling authorities or "magistrates". Frederick the Wise not only supported Luther, who was a professor at the university he founded, but also protected him by hiding Luther in Wartburg Castle in Eisenach. Zwingli and Calvin were supported by the city councils in <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>. Since the term "magister" also means "teacher", the Magisterial Reformation is also characterized by an emphasis on the authority of a teacher. This is made evident in the prominence of Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli as leaders of the reform movements in their respective areas of ministry. </p><p>Because of their authority, they were often criticized by <a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformers</a> as being too much like the Roman Popes. For example, Radical Reformer Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt referred to the Wittenberg theologians as the "new papists".<sup id="cite_ref-Gstohl_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gstohl-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_of_humanism">Impact of humanism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Impact of humanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The frustrated reformism of the humanists, ushered in by the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, contributed to a growing impatience among reformers. <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> and later figures like Martin Luther and Zwingli would emerge from this debate and eventually contribute to another major schism of Christendom. The crisis of theology beginning with <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a> in the fourteenth century was occurring in conjunction with the new <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">burgher</a> discontent. Since the breakdown of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> foundations of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>, the new <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominalism</a> did not bode well for an institutional church legitimized as an intermediary between man and God. New thinking favored the notion that no religious <a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">doctrine</a> can be supported by philosophical arguments, eroding the old alliance between <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a> of the medieval period laid out by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg/250px-Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg/330px-Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg/500px-Hans_Holbein_d._J._-_Erasmus_-_Louvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2679" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> was a Catholic priest who inspired some of the Protestant reformers.</figcaption></figure> <p>The major individualistic reform movements that revolted against medieval scholasticism and the institutions that underpinned it were <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a>, devotionalism, (see for example, the <a href="/wiki/Brothers_of_the_Common_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="Brothers of the Common Life">Brothers of the Common Life</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jan_Standonck" title="Jan Standonck">Jan Standonck</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Observantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Observantine">observantine</a> tradition. In <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, "the modern way" or devotionalism caught on in the universities, requiring a redefinition of God, who was no longer a rational governing principle but an arbitrary, unknowable will that cannot be limited. God was now a ruler, and religion would be more fervent and emotional. Thus, the ensuing revival of Augustinian theology, stating that man cannot be saved by his own efforts but only by the grace of God, would erode the legitimacy of the rigid institutions of the church meant to provide a channel for man to do good works and get into <a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">heaven</a>. Humanism, however, was more of an educational reform movement with origins in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>'s revival of <a href="/wiki/Classical_education_movement" title="Classical education movement">classical learning</a> and thought. A revolt against <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> logic, it placed great emphasis on reforming individuals through eloquence as opposed to reason. The European Renaissance laid the foundation for the Northern humanists in its reinforcement of the traditional use of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> as the great unifying language of European culture. </p><p>The polarization of the scholarly community in Germany over the <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Reuchlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes Reuchlin">Reuchlin</a> (1455–1522) affair, attacked by the elite clergy for his study of <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and Jewish texts, brought Luther fully in line with the humanist educational reforms who favored <a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">academic freedom</a>. At the same time, the impact of the Renaissance would soon backfire against traditional Catholicism, ushering in an age of reform and a repudiation of much of medieval Latin tradition. Led by Erasmus, the humanists condemned various forms of corruption within the Church, forms of corruption that might not have been any more prevalent than during the medieval zenith of the church. <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> held that true religion was a matter of inward devotion rather than outward symbols of ceremony and ritual. Going back to ancient texts, scriptures, from this viewpoint the greatest culmination of the ancient tradition, are the guides to life. Favoring <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> reforms and de-emphasizing <a href="/wiki/Didactic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Didactic literature">didactic</a> ritual, Erasmus laid the groundwork for Luther. Reuchlin assisted Luther, especially with Hebrew and also by sending his nephew <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Melancthon" class="mw-redirect" title="Phillip Melancthon">Phillip Melancthon</a> to teach at the University in Wittenberg. </p><p>Humanism's intellectual <a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">anti-clericalism</a> would profoundly influence Luther. The increasingly well-educated <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle</a> sectors of Northern Germany, namely the educated community and city dwellers would turn to Luther's rethinking of religion to conceptualize their discontent according to the cultural medium of the era. The great rise of the burghers, the desire to run their new businesses free of institutional barriers or outmoded cultural practices, contributed to the appeal of humanist <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>. To many, <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">papal</a> institutions were rigid, especially regarding their views on just price and <a href="/wiki/Usury" title="Usury">usury</a>. In the North, burghers and monarchs were united in their frustration for not paying any <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">taxes</a> to the nation, but collecting taxes from <a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">subjects</a> and sending the revenues disproportionately to the Pope in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>. </p><p>These trends heightened demands for significant reform and revitalization along with anticlericalism. New thinkers began noticing the divide between the priests and the flock. The clergy, for instance, were not always well-educated. Parish priests often did not know <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and rural parishes often did not have great opportunities for theological education for many at the time. Due to its large landholdings and institutional rigidity, a rigidity to which the excessively large ranks of the clergy contributed, many <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a> studied <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, not theology, being relegated to the role of property managers trained in administration. While priests emphasized works of religiosity, the respectability of the church began diminishing, especially among well educated urbanites, and especially considering the recent strings of political humiliation, such as the apprehension of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_VIII" title="Pope Boniface VIII">Pope Boniface VIII</a> by <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" title="Philip IV of France">Philip IV of France</a>, the "Babylonian Captivity", the Great Schism, and the failure of Conciliar reformism. In a sense, the campaign by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a> to raise funds to rebuild <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter%27s_Basilica" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Peter's Basilica">St. Peter's Basilica</a> was too much of an excess by the secular <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> church, prompting high-pressure indulgences that rendered the clergy establishments even more disliked in the cities. </p><p>Luther borrowed from the humanists the sense of individualism, that each man can be his own priest (an attitude likely to find popular support considering the rapid rise of an educated urban middle class in the North), and that the only true authority is the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, echoing the reformist zeal of the <a href="/wiki/Conciliar_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Conciliar movement">Conciliar movement</a> and opening up the debate once again on limiting the authority of the Pope. While his ideas called for the sharp redefinition of the dividing lines between the <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">laity</a> and the clergy, his ideas were still, by this point, reformist in nature. Luther's contention that the human will was <a href="/wiki/On_the_Bondage_of_the_Will" title="On the Bondage of the Will">incapable of choosing good</a> on its own, however, resulted in his rift with Erasmus finally distinguishing Lutheran reformism from <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a>. On this issue, Luther sided with <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomistic</a> scholarship (sometimes termed the "schola antiqua" or "old school") and Erasmus with the "schola moderna" or "new school," which especially relied on <a href="/wiki/Second_scholasticism#Scotism_and_Thomism" title="Second scholasticism">Scotist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> epistemology. Luther did not consistently identify with one camp or another for nearly his whole career. Instead, when debating he tactically took positions allying himself with one camp or the other on issues as it suited his overall purpose during debates. It was especially his intention to guard against the threat he feared the <a href="/wiki/Voluntarism_(philosophy)#Medieval_theological_voluntarism" title="Voluntarism (philosophy)">voluntarism</a> of the increasingly popular schola moderna posed to the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Justification_(theology)#Lutheranism" title="Justification (theology)">justification</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lutherans_and_the_Holy_Roman_Empire">Lutherans and the Holy Roman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Lutherans and the Holy Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barend_van_Orley_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Barend_van_Orley_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/180px-Barend_van_Orley_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Barend_van_Orley_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/270px-Barend_van_Orley_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Barend_van_Orley_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/360px-Barend_van_Orley_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2984" data-file-height="4161" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a> opposed the Lutherans.</figcaption></figure> <p>Luther affirmed a theology of the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a> called <a href="/wiki/Sacramental_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacramental Union">Sacramental Union</a>, In the sacramental union the consecrated bread is united with the body of Christ and the consecrated wine is united with the blood of Christ by virtue of Christ's original institution with the result that anyone eating and drinking these "elements"—the consecrated bread and wine—really eats and drinks the physical body and blood of Christ as well. Luther wrote about this on multiple occasions, such as in his 1526 <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sacrament_of_the_Body_and_Blood_of_Christ%E2%80%94Against_the_Fanatics" title="The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ—Against the Fanatics">The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ—Against the Fanatics</a></i> and his 1528 <i><a href="/wiki/Confession_Concerning_Christ%27s_Supper" title="Confession Concerning Christ's Supper">Confession Concerning Christ's Supper</a></i>. In the 1530 Augsburg Confession, the Lutheran position as stated in <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Augsburg_Confession#Article_X:_Of_the_Lord’s_Supper." class="extiw" title="s:Augsburg Confession">Article X: Of the Lord’s Supper</a></i> earned the Catholic response in the <i><a href="/wiki/Confutatio_Augustana" title="Confutatio Augustana">Confutatio Augustana</a></i> that "The tenth article gives no offense in its words."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although later on the Council of Trent would codify transubstantiation as it is taught today and reject the sacramental union. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philipp-Melanchthon-1537.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Philipp-Melanchthon-1537.jpg/250px-Philipp-Melanchthon-1537.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Philipp-Melanchthon-1537.jpg/330px-Philipp-Melanchthon-1537.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Philipp-Melanchthon-1537.jpg/500px-Philipp-Melanchthon-1537.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4280" data-file-height="6624" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Melanchthon" class="mw-redirect" title="Philipp Melanchthon">Philipp Melanchthon</a> by <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder" title="Lucas Cranach the Elder">Lucas Cranach the Elder</a>. After Luther's death, Melanchthon circulated <i><a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Confession_Variata" title="Augsburg Confession Variata">Augsburg Confession Variata</a></i> to <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-Calvinist">Crypto-Calvinists</a> who would otherwise have been outlawed as open Calvinism was not allowed. These <i>Variata</i> differed with respect to Article X of the Augsburg Confession in order to accommodate the Reformed churches.</figcaption></figure> <p>At the <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther#Sacramentarian_controversy_and_the_Marburg_Colloquy" title="Martin Luther">Marburg Colloquy</a> with the Zwinglians in 1529, Melanchthon joined with Luther in opposing a union with <a href="/wiki/Zwingli" class="mw-redirect" title="Zwingli">Zwingli</a>. Agreement was achieved on fourteen points out of fifteen, the exception being the nature of the Eucharist.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, Zwingli would further repudiate ritualism rather than affiliate with the more conservative Luther. </p><p>Another setback for the Reformation came in Brandenburg. The Elector of Brandenburg, <a href="/wiki/Joachim_I_Nestor,_Elector_of_Brandenburg" title="Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg">Joachim I</a>, blamed Lutheranism for the revolt and so did others. In Brandenburg, it was only under his successor <a href="/wiki/Joachim_II_Hector,_Elector_of_Brandenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Joachim II Hector, Elector of Brandenburg">Joachim II</a> that Lutheranism was established, and the old religion was not formally extinct in Brandenburg until the death of the last Catholic bishop there, <a href="/wiki/Von_Blumenthal#Georg_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Von Blumenthal">Georg von Blumenthal</a>, who was <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Lebus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Lebus">Bishop of Lebus</a> and sovereign <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishop_of_Ratzeburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince-Bishop of Ratzeburg">Prince-Bishop of Ratzeburg</a>. </p><p>Though <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> fought the Reformation, it is no coincidence that the reign of his nationalistic predecessor <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor">Maximilian I</a> saw the beginning of the movement. While the centralized states of western Europe had reached accords with the Vatican permitting them to draw on the rich property of the church for government expenditures, enabling them to form state churches that were greatly autonomous of Rome, similar moves on behalf of the Empire were unsuccessful so long as princes and prince bishops fought reforms to drop the pretension of the secular universal empire. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protestant_Reformation">Protestant Reformation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Protestant Reformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></div> <p>The authority of the Catholic Church has been constantly challenged during centuries, both in theory with Hus and Wycliffe and in practice during the <a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a> of the 11th and 12th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Arnulf_(bishop_of_Orl%C3%A9ans)" title="Arnulf (bishop of Orléans)">Arnulf (bishop of Orléans)</a><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the 10th century became the first person on record to call a pope the <a href="/wiki/Antichrist" title="Antichrist">Antichrist</a>, a charge that was repeated by the <a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a> and also Luther when he burned the very papal bull, <i><a href="/wiki/Exsurge_Domine" title="Exsurge Domine">Exsurge Domine</a></i> which commanded him to burn his own books. Necessary groundwork had thus been laid long before Luther<sup id="cite_ref-christianity.com_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-christianity.com-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with significant earlier attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church – such as those of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Waldo" title="Peter Waldo">Peter Waldo</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a>. First change of religion in an entire country came with <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a>, executed in 1415, whose successors became the chief force<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a> for several centuries. Both Wycliffe and Hus preached against <a href="/wiki/Indulgence" title="Indulgence">indulgences</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-christianity.com_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-christianity.com-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-christianitytoday.com_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-christianitytoday.com-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> criticized corruption of the clergy<sup id="cite_ref-encyclopedia.com_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encyclopedia.com-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and opened other topics which under the later Luther became the key to Reformation. The movements based on these early reform movements, such are also considered Protestant today, although their origins date back to more than 100 years before Luther. In particular, the Waldensians who survived the Counter-Reformation affiliated with the Reformed Church (which is more commonly known to be Protestant), and still do today. </p><p>In the early 16th century, the church was confronted with the challenge posed by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> to the traditional teaching on the church's doctrinal authority and to many of its practices as well. The seeming inability of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a> (1513–1521) and those popes who succeeded him to comprehend the significance of the threat that Luther posed – or, indeed, the alienation of many Christians by the corruption that had spread throughout the church – was a major factor in the rapid growth of the Protestant Reformation. By the time the need for a vigorous, reforming papal leadership was recognized, much of northern Europe had already converted to Protestantism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bohemia">Bohemia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bohemia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hussite_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussite Revolution">Hussite Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czech_Brethren_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Czech Brethren (disambiguation)">Czech Brethren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravian Church</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Comenius" class="mw-redirect" title="Comenius">Comenius</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Man_of_Sorrows_from_Prague_c1470.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Man_of_Sorrows_from_Prague_c1470.jpg/250px-Man_of_Sorrows_from_Prague_c1470.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Man_of_Sorrows_from_Prague_c1470.jpg/330px-Man_of_Sorrows_from_Prague_c1470.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Man_of_Sorrows_from_Prague_c1470.jpg/500px-Man_of_Sorrows_from_Prague_c1470.jpg 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><i>Man of Sorrows</i> from the main Utraquist <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Our_Lady_before_T%C3%BDn" title="Church of Our Lady before Týn">Church of Our Lady before Týn</a> in Prague. It is a crucial artistic work of the Bohemian Reformation of the late 15th century. Christ touches the wound in his right flank, from which he takes a host (his body) while his blood flows into a chalice. The chalice – symbol of the Hussites – demonstrates the practice of receiving the communion under both kinds.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a> were a Christian movement in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a> following the teachings of Czech reformer <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a>. </p><p>Czech reformer and university professor <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> (c. 1369–1415) became the best-known representative of the Bohemian Reformation and one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. Jan Hus was declared heretic and executed – burned at stake – at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a> in 1415 where he arrived voluntarily to defend his teachings. </p><p>Hussites, a predominantly religious movement, were propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. In 1417, two years after the execution of Jan Hus, the Czech reformation quickly became the chief force in the country. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a> made up the vast majority of the population, forcing the Council of Basel to recognize in 1437 a system of two "religions" for the first time signing the <a href="/wiki/Compacts_of_Basel" title="Compacts of Basel">Compacts of Basel</a> for the kingdom (Catholic and Czech <a href="/wiki/Utraquism" title="Utraquism">Utraquism</a>, a Hussite movement). Bohemia later also elected one Protestant king (<a href="/wiki/George_of_Pod%C4%9Bbrady" title="George of Poděbrady">George of Poděbrady</a>). </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Habsburgs" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburgs">Habsburgs</a> took control of the region, the Hussite churches were prohibited and the kingdom partially recatholicized. Even later <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a> gained a substantial following, after being permitted by the Habsburgs with the continued persecution of the Czech native Hussite churches. Many Hussites thus declared themselves Lutherans. </p><p>Two churches with Hussite roots are now second and third biggest churches in the predominantly agnostic country: <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_the_Brethren_Baptists" title="Unity of the Brethren Baptists">Czech Brethren</a> (which gave origin to the international church known as the <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravian Church</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Hussite_Church" title="Czechoslovak Hussite Church">Czechoslovak Hussite Church</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">History of Lutheranism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther,_1528_(Veste_Coburg).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther%2C_1528_%28Veste_Coburg%29.jpg/180px-Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther%2C_1528_%28Veste_Coburg%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther%2C_1528_%28Veste_Coburg%29.jpg/270px-Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther%2C_1528_%28Veste_Coburg%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther%2C_1528_%28Veste_Coburg%29.jpg/360px-Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther%2C_1528_%28Veste_Coburg%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2148" data-file-height="3400" /></a><figcaption>Martin Luther, painting by <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder" title="Lucas Cranach the Elder">Lucas Cranach the Elder</a>, 1528.</figcaption></figure> <p>Martin Luther was a <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a> <a href="/wiki/Friar" title="Friar">friar</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Plass_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plass-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theologian</a>, university professor, priest, father of <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformers" title="Protestant Reformers">church reformer</a> whose ideas started the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hillerbrand_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hillerbrand-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Luther taught that <a href="/wiki/Justification_(theology)#Lutheranism" title="Justification (theology)">salvation</a> is a free gift of God and received only through true <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> as redeemer from sin. His <a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">theology</a> challenged the <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">papacy</a> by adducing the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> as the only infallible source of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">doctrine</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and countering "<a href="/wiki/Sacerdotalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacerdotalism">sacerdotalism</a>" in the doctrine that all <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptized</a> Christians are a <a href="/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believers" title="Priesthood of all believers">universal priesthood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cranach_-_Albert_of_Hohenzollern.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cranach_-_Albert_of_Hohenzollern.JPG/180px-Cranach_-_Albert_of_Hohenzollern.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cranach_-_Albert_of_Hohenzollern.JPG/270px-Cranach_-_Albert_of_Hohenzollern.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cranach_-_Albert_of_Hohenzollern.JPG/360px-Cranach_-_Albert_of_Hohenzollern.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1171" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Mainz" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert of Mainz">Albert of Mainz and Magdeburg</a> procured the services of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Tetzel" title="Johann Tetzel">Johann Tetzel</a> to sell the indulgences in his diocese.</figcaption></figure> <p>Luther's refusal to retract his writings in confrontation with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a> in 1521 resulted in his <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunication</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a> (on 3 January 1521, before the Diet convened) and declaration as an <a href="/wiki/Outlaw" title="Outlaw">outlaw</a>. His <a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">translation of the Bible</a> into the language of the people made the Scriptures more accessible, causing a tremendous impact on the church and on German culture. It fostered the development of a standard version of the <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German language</a>, added several principles to the art of translation,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and influenced the translation of the <a href="/wiki/King_James_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="King James Bible">King James Bible</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tyndale_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyndale-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a> inspired the development of congregational singing within Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-Bainton269_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bainton269-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His marriage to <a href="/wiki/Katharina_von_Bora" title="Katharina von Bora">Katharina von Bora</a> set a model for the practice of <a href="/wiki/Clerical_marriage" title="Clerical marriage">clerical marriage</a> within Protestantism.<sup id="cite_ref-Bainton223_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bainton223-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1516–1517, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Tetzel" title="Johann Tetzel">Johann Tetzel</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Dominican_friar" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominican friar">Dominican friar</a> and papal commissioner for <a href="/wiki/Indulgences" class="mw-redirect" title="Indulgences">indulgences</a>, was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise money to rebuild <a href="/wiki/St_Peter%27s_Basilica" class="mw-redirect" title="St Peter's Basilica">St Peter's Basilica</a> in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman Catholic theology stated that faith alone, whether fiduciary or dogmatic, cannot justify man;<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that only such faith as is active in charity and good works (fides caritate formata) can justify man.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These good works could be obtained by donating money to the church. </p><p>On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote to <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_of_Mainz" class="mw-redirect" title="Albrecht of Mainz">Albrecht, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg</a>, protesting the sale of indulgences. He enclosed in his letter a copy of his "Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences," which came to be known as <i><a href="/wiki/The_95_Theses" class="mw-redirect" title="The 95 Theses">The 95 Theses</a></i>. </p><p>Luther objected to a saying attributed to Johann Tetzel that "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs,"<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> insisting that, since forgiveness was God's alone to grant, those who claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg/330px-Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg/500px-Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg/960px-Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3555" data-file-height="3555" /></a><figcaption>Door of the <i>Schlosskirche</i> (castle church) in Wittenberg to which Luther is said to have nailed his <a href="/wiki/95_Theses" class="mw-redirect" title="95 Theses">95 Theses</a>, sparking the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>According to Walter Krämer, Götz Trenkler, Gerhard Ritter and Gerhard Prause,<sup id="cite_ref-Krämer_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krämer-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ritter_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Prause_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prause-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the story of the posting on the door has settled as one of the pillars of history, but its foundations in truth are minimal. In the preface of the second pressing of Luther's compiled work, released posthumously, humanist and reformist <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Melanchthon" class="mw-redirect" title="Philipp Melanchthon">Philipp Melanchthon</a> writes 'reportedly, Luther, burning with passion and just devoutness, posted the Ninety-Five Theses at the <a href="/wiki/Castle_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Castle Church">Castle Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a>, Germany at All Saints Eve, 31 October (Old calendar)". At the time of the writing of the preface Melanchton lived in <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCbingen" title="Tübingen">Tübingen</a>, far from Wittenberg. In the preface, Melanchton presents more facts that are not true: He writes that indulgence sales man <a href="/wiki/Johann_Tetzel" title="Johann Tetzel">Johann Tetzel</a> publicly burned Luther's Ninety-Five Theses, that Luther held colleges on nature and physics, and that Luther had visited Rome in 1511. For a professor of the Wittenberg University to post thesis on doors is unparalleled in history. Even further, Luther is known as strongly law abiding, and to publish his thoughts and direction in such a way would be against his character. Luther has never mentioned anything in this direction in his writings, and the only contemporary account of the publishing of the thesis is the account of Luther's servant <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Agricola" title="Johannes Agricola">Agricola</a>, written in Latin. In this account, Agricola states that Luther presents 'certain thesis in the year of 1517 according to the customs of University of Wittenberg as part of a scientific discussion. The presentation of the thesis was done in a modest and respectful way, preventing to mock or insult anybody". There is no mention of nailing the thesis to a door, nor does any other source report this. In reality, Luther presented a hand-written copy, accompanied with honourable comments to the archbishop Albrecht of <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magdeburg" title="Magdeburg">Magdeburg</a>, responsible for the practice of the indulgence sales, and to the bishop of <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg" title="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a>, the superior of Luther. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jeorg_Breu_Elder_A_Question_to_a_Mintmaker_c1500.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Jeorg_Breu_Elder_A_Question_to_a_Mintmaker_c1500.png/330px-Jeorg_Breu_Elder_A_Question_to_a_Mintmaker_c1500.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Jeorg_Breu_Elder_A_Question_to_a_Mintmaker_c1500.png/500px-Jeorg_Breu_Elder_A_Question_to_a_Mintmaker_c1500.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Jeorg_Breu_Elder_A_Question_to_a_Mintmaker_c1500.png/580px-Jeorg_Breu_Elder_A_Question_to_a_Mintmaker_c1500.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="527" /></a><figcaption>The sale of indulgences shown in <i>A Question to a Mintmaker</i>, woodcut by <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Breu_the_Elder" title="Jörg Breu the Elder">Jörg Breu the Elder</a> of Augsburg, circa 1530.</figcaption></figure> <p>It wasn't until January 1518 that friends of Luther translated the <i>95 Theses</i> from Latin into German, printed, and widely copied, making the controversy one of the first in history to be aided by the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brecht204_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brecht204-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within two weeks, copies of the theses had spread throughout Germany; within two months throughout Europe. In contrast to the speed with which the theses were distributed, the response of the papacy was slow. After three years of debate and negotiations involving Luther, government, and church officials, on 15 June 1520, the Pope warned Luther with the <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> (edict) <i><a href="/wiki/Exsurge_Domine" title="Exsurge Domine">Exsurge Domine</a></i> that he risked <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunication</a> unless he recanted 41 sentences drawn from his writings, including the <a href="/wiki/95_Theses" class="mw-redirect" title="95 Theses">95 Theses</a>, within 60 days. </p><p>That autumn, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Eck" title="Johann Eck">Johann Eck</a> proclaimed the bull in Meissen and other towns. <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Miltitz" title="Karl von Miltitz">Karl von Miltitz</a>, a papal <a href="/wiki/Nuncio" title="Nuncio">nuncio</a>, attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sent the Pope a copy of his conciliatory <i>On the Freedom of a Christian</i> (which the Pope refused to read) in October, publicly set fire to the bull and <a href="/wiki/Decretal" title="Decretal">decretals</a> at Wittenberg on 10 December 1520,<sup id="cite_ref-Hillerbrand463_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hillerbrand463-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an act he defended in <i>Why the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned</i> and <i>Assertions Concerning All Articles</i>. </p><p>As a consequence, Luther was excommunicated by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a> on 3 January 1521, in the bull <i><a href="/wiki/Decet_Romanum_Pontificem" title="Decet Romanum Pontificem">Decet Romanum Pontificem</a></i>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michael_the_Deacon_and_Martin_Luther_Convene_in_Wittenberg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Michael_the_Deacon_and_Martin_Luther_Convene_in_Wittenberg.jpg/260px-Michael_the_Deacon_and_Martin_Luther_Convene_in_Wittenberg.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Michael_the_Deacon_and_Martin_Luther_Convene_in_Wittenberg.jpg/390px-Michael_the_Deacon_and_Martin_Luther_Convene_in_Wittenberg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Michael_the_Deacon_and_Martin_Luther_Convene_in_Wittenberg.jpg/520px-Michael_the_Deacon_and_Martin_Luther_Convene_in_Wittenberg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6479" data-file-height="4744" /></a><figcaption><i>Michael the Deacon and Martin Luther convene in Wittenberg</i>, painted by Inès Lee and commissioned by Sir John Das (2018).</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1534, <a href="/wiki/Michael_the_Deacon" title="Michael the Deacon">Michael the Deacon</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Church">Ethiopian Orthodox Church</a> travelled to <a href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a> to meet with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, both of whom agreed that the <a href="/wiki/Divine_Service_(Lutheran)" title="Divine Service (Lutheran)">Lutheran Mass</a> and that used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church were in agreement with one another.<sup id="cite_ref-UC2017_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UC2017-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In their discussion, Michael the Deacon also affirmed Luther's Articles of the Christian Faith as a "good creed".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Martin Luther saw that the Ethiopian Orthodox Church practiced elements of faith including "communion in both kind, vernacular Scriptures, and married clergy" and these practices became customary in the <a href="/wiki/Lutheran_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran Church">Lutheran Churches</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Lutherans, "the Ethiopian Church conferred legitimacy on Luther’s emerging Protestant vision of a church outside the authority of the Roman Catholic papacy" as it was "an ancient church with direct ties to the apostles".<sup id="cite_ref-Daniels2017_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniels2017-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Switzerland">Switzerland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Switzerland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Switzerland" title="Reformation in Switzerland">Reformation in Switzerland</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Zwingli">Zwingli</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Zwingli"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a> (died 1531). These two movements quickly agreed on most issues, as the recently introduced <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> spread ideas rapidly from place to place, but some unresolved differences kept them separate. Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative, and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day <a href="/wiki/Anabaptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptist">Anabaptists</a>. Other Protestant movements grew up along lines of mysticism or humanism (<a href="/wiki/Cf." title="Cf.">cf.</a> <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a>), sometimes breaking from Rome or from the Protestants, or forming outside of the churches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="John_Calvin">John Calvin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: John Calvin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg/200px-John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg/300px-John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg/400px-John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg 2x" data-file-width="955" data-file-height="1174" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> was one of the leading figures of the Protestant Reformation. His legacy remains in a variety of churches.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunication</a> of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland, <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. </p><p>Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, led by the Frenchman, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Calvin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Calvin">Jean Calvin</a>, until his death in 1564 (when Calvin's ally, <a href="/wiki/William_Farel" title="William Farel">William Farel</a>, assumed the spiritual leadership of the group). </p><p>The Reformation foundations engaged with <a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustinian theology">Augustinianism</a>. Both Luther and Calvin thought along lines linked with the theological teachings of Augustine of Hippo. The Augustinianism of the Reformers struggled against <a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a>, a heresy that they perceived in the Catholic Church of their day. Ironically, even though both Luther and Calvin both had similar theological teachings, the relationship between Lutherans and Calvinists evolved into one of conflict. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Scandinavia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformation in Denmark">Reformation in Denmark</a></div> <p>All of <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> ultimately adopted Lutheranism over the course of the sixteenth century, as the monarchs of <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> (who also ruled <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> (who also ruled <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>) converted to that faith. </p><p>In Sweden the <a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Sweden" title="Reformation in Sweden">Reformation</a> was spearheaded by <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Vasa" title="Gustav Vasa">Gustav Vasa</a>, elected king in 1523. Friction with the pope over the latter's interference in Swedish ecclesiastical affairs led to the discontinuance of any official connection between Sweden and the papacy from 1523.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilbert-12_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert-12-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Four years later, at the Diet of Västerås, the king succeeded in forcing the diet to accept his dominion over the national church. The king was given possession of all church property, church appointments required royal approval, the clergy were subject to the civil law, and the "pure Word of God" was to be preached in the churches and taught in the schools—effectively granting official sanction to Lutheran ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilbert-12_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert-12-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, in 1527 Sweden became the first <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation-state</a> to officially adopt Protestantism.<sup id="cite_ref-Kristianstad_University_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristianstad_University-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_I_of_Denmark" title="Frederick I of Denmark">Frederick I</a> (1523–33), Denmark remained officially Catholic. But though Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he soon adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers, of whom the most famous was <a href="/wiki/Hans_Tausen" title="Hans Tausen">Hans Tausen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilbert-12_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert-12-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads among the Danish population. Frederick's son, Christian, was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death. However, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became <a href="/wiki/Christian_III_of_Denmark" title="Christian III of Denmark">Christian III</a> and began a reformation of the official state church. In Sweden (and, politically by extension, also Finland), a major <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_Struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical Struggle">Liturgical Struggle</a> lasted twenty years. It was intended to bring the church back half-way to Catholicism similar to the measures of the <a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Interim" title="Augsburg Interim">Augsburg Interim</a> in Germany. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="England">England</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darnley_stage_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darnley_stage_3.jpg/180px-Darnley_stage_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darnley_stage_3.jpg/270px-Darnley_stage_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darnley_stage_3.jpg/360px-Darnley_stage_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1581" data-file-height="2313" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I</a>, Queen of England and Ireland.</figcaption></figure> <p>The separation of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> from Rome under <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>, beginning in 1529 and completed in 1536, brought England alongside this broad Reformed movement. However, religious changes in the English national church proceeded more conservatively than elsewhere in Europe; King Henry himself sought only to break the bond to Rome, but the bishops, in particular <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a>, Archbishop of Canterbury, drove the newly freed church into Protestant reformation. Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for centuries, between sympathies for ancient traditions and more radical Protestantism, forging a compromise between conservative practices and the ideas of the puritans. In the Victorian period this was reinterpreted by <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">John Newman</a> as a <i><a href="/wiki/Via_media" title="Via media">via media</a></i> (middle way), which idea remains a current theme of Anglican discourse. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hans_Holbein,_the_Younger,_Around_1497-1543_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_of_England_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Hans_Holbein%2C_the_Younger%2C_Around_1497-1543_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_of_England_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/180px-Hans_Holbein%2C_the_Younger%2C_Around_1497-1543_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_of_England_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Hans_Holbein%2C_the_Younger%2C_Around_1497-1543_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_of_England_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/270px-Hans_Holbein%2C_the_Younger%2C_Around_1497-1543_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_of_England_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Hans_Holbein%2C_the_Younger%2C_Around_1497-1543_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_of_England_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/360px-Hans_Holbein%2C_the_Younger%2C_Around_1497-1543_-_Portrait_of_Henry_VIII_of_England_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2994" data-file-height="4203" /></a><figcaption>Henry VIII of England.</figcaption></figure> <p>In England, the Reformation followed a different course from elsewhere in Europe. There had long been a strong strain of anti-clericalism, and England had already given rise to the <a href="/wiki/Lollard" class="mw-redirect" title="Lollard">Lollard</a> movement of <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a>, which played an important part in inspiring the <a href="/wiki/Hussite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussite">Hussites</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>. Lollardy was suppressed and became an underground movement so the extent of its influence in the 1520s is difficult to assess. </p><p>The different character of the English Reformation was driven initially by the political necessities of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>. Henry had once been a sincere Roman Catholic and had even authored a book strongly criticizing Luther, but he later found it expedient and profitable to break with the Papacy. His wife, <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Aragon" title="Catherine of Aragon">Catherine of Aragon</a>, bore him only a single child, <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England" title="Mary I of England">Mary</a>. As England had recently gone through a lengthy dynastic conflict (<i>see <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></i>), Henry feared that his lack of a male heir might jeopardize his descendants' claim to the throne. However, Pope Clement VII, concentrating more on Charles V's "sack of Rome", denied his request for an annulment. Had Clement granted the annulment and therefore admitted that his predecessor, Julius II, had erred, Clement would have given support to the Lutheran assertion that Popes replaced their own judgement for the will of God. King Henry decided to remove the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Supremacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Supremacy">Act of Supremacy</a> made Henry the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Head" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Head">Supreme Head</a> of the Church of England. Between 1535 and 1540, under <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cromwell,_1st_Earl_of_Essex" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex">Thomas Cromwell</a>, the policy known as the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Monasteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution of the Monasteries">Dissolution of the Monasteries</a> was put into effect. The veneration of some <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saints</a>, certain pilgrimages and some pilgrim shrines were also attacked. Huge amounts of church land and property passed into the hands of the crown and ultimately into those of the nobility and gentry. The vested interest thus created made for a powerful force in support of the dissolutions. </p><p>There were some notable opponents to the <a href="/wiki/Henrician_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Henrician Reformation">Henrician Reformation</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a> and Bishop <a href="/wiki/John_Fisher" title="John Fisher">John Fisher</a>, who were executed for their opposition. There was also a growing party of reformers who were imbued with the Zwinglian and Calvinistic doctrines now current on the Continent. When Henry died he was succeeded by his Protestant son <a href="/wiki/Edward_VI" title="Edward VI">Edward VI</a>, who, through his empowered councillors (with the King being only nine years old at his succession and not yet sixteen at his death) the Duke of Somerset and the Duke of Northumberland, ordered the destruction of images in churches, and the closing of the <a href="/wiki/Chantry" title="Chantry">chantries</a>. Under Edward VI, and with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a> as Archbishop, the reform of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> was established unequivocally in doctrinal terms. Yet, at a popular level, religion in England was still in a state of flux. Following a brief Roman Catholic restoration during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England" title="Mary I of England">Mary</a> 1553–1558, a loose consensus developed during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I</a>, though this point is one of considerable debate among historians. Yet it is the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan Religious Settlement</a>" to which the origins of <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a> are traditionally ascribed. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> on the one hand and Catholicism on the other, but compared to the bloody and chaotic state of affairs in contemporary France, it was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution or <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> in the seventeenth century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Puritans">Puritans</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Puritans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg/250px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg/330px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg/500px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2916" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a> was a devout Puritan and military leader, who came to power in the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.</figcaption></figure> <p>The success of the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> on the Continent and the growth of a <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarized the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan Age">Elizabethan Age</a>, although it was not until the 1640s that England underwent religious strife comparable to that which its neighbours had suffered some generations before. </p><p>The early <i>Puritan movement</i> (late 16th century–17th century) was <a href="/wiki/Reformed_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed tradition">Reformed</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinist</a>, and was a movement for reform in the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>. Its origins lay in the discontent with the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan Religious Settlement</a>. The desire was for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>. The Puritans objected to ornaments and ritual in the churches as <a href="/wiki/Idolatry" title="Idolatry">idolatrous</a> (vestments, surplices, organs, genuflection), which they castigated as "<a href="/wiki/Popish" class="mw-redirect" title="Popish">popish</a> pomp and rags". (See <a href="/wiki/Vestments_controversy" title="Vestments controversy">Vestments controversy</a>.) They also objected to ecclesiastical courts. They refused to endorse completely all of the ritual directions and formulas of the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></i>; the imposition of its liturgical order by legal force and inspection sharpened Puritanism into an opposition movement. </p><p>The later Puritan movements were often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Dissenters" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissenters">Dissenters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">Nonconformists</a> and eventually led to the formation of various Reformed <a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">denominations</a>. </p><p>The most famous and well-known emigration to <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">America</a> was the migration of the Puritan separatists from the Anglican Church of England, who fled first to <a href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</a>, and then later to America, to establish the English colonies of <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>, which later became a part of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. </p><p>These Puritan separatists were also known as "<a href="/wiki/Pilgrim_(Plymouth_Colony)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim (Plymouth Colony)">the pilgrims</a>". After establishing a colony at Plymouth (in what would become later Massachusetts) in 1620, the Puritan pilgrims received a charter from the <a href="/wiki/King_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King of England">King of England</a> which legitimized their colony, allowing them to do trade and commerce with merchants in England, in accordance with the principles of <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a>. This successful, though initially quite difficult, colony marked the beginning of the Protestant presence in America (the earlier French, Spanish and Portuguese settlements had been Catholic), and became a kind of oasis of spiritual and <a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">economic freedom</a>, to which persecuted Protestants and other minorities from the British Isles and Europe (and later, from all over the world) fled to for peace, freedom and opportunity. </p><p>The original intent of the colonists was to establish spiritual Puritanism, which had been denied them in England and the rest of Europe to engage in peaceful commerce with England and the Native American Indians and to Christianize the peoples of the Americas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scotland">Scotland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scottish Reformation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Knox_preaching.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/John_Knox_preaching.JPG/220px-John_Knox_preaching.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/John_Knox_preaching.JPG/330px-John_Knox_preaching.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/John_Knox_preaching.JPG/440px-John_Knox_preaching.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1896" data-file-height="1837" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a> was a leading figure in the Scottish Reformation.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Reformation in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the re-establishment of the church along <a href="/wiki/Reformed_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed theology">Reformed</a> lines, and politically in the triumph of <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">English</a> influence over that of <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a> is regarded as the leader of the Scottish Reformation. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation_Parliament" title="Scottish Reformation Parliament">Reformation Parliament</a> of 1560, which repudiated the pope's authority, forbade the celebration of the <a href="/wiki/Mass_(liturgy)" title="Mass (liturgy)">mass</a> and approved a <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> <a href="/wiki/Confession_of_Faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Confession of Faith">Confession of Faith</a>, was made possible by a revolution against <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> hegemony under the regime of the <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Guise" title="Mary of Guise">Mary of Guise</a>, who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent daughter <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots" title="Mary, Queen of Scots">Mary, Queen of Scots</a>, (then also <a href="/wiki/Queen_consort" title="Queen consort">Queen</a> of France). </p><p>The Scottish Reformation decisively shaped the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later, through it, all other <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterian</a> churches worldwide. </p><p>A spiritual revival also broke out among Catholics soon after Martin Luther's actions, and led to the <a href="/wiki/Covenanter" class="mw-redirect" title="Covenanter">Scottish Covenanters' movement</a>, the precursor to <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a>. This movement spread, and greatly influenced the formation of <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritanism</a> among the <a href="/wiki/Anglican_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican Church">Anglican Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. The Scottish Covenanters were persecuted by the Roman Catholic Church. This persecution by the Catholics drove some of the Protestant Covenanter leadership out of Scotland, and into <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and later, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reformed_Church_of_France" title="Reformed Church of France">Reformed Church of France</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></div> <p>Protestantism also spread into France, where the Protestants came to be known as "<a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a>." </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_masacre_de_San_Bartolom%C3%A9,_por_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dubois.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/La_masacre_de_San_Bartolom%C3%A9%2C_por_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dubois.jpg/330px-La_masacre_de_San_Bartolom%C3%A9%2C_por_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dubois.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/La_masacre_de_San_Bartolom%C3%A9%2C_por_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dubois.jpg/495px-La_masacre_de_San_Bartolom%C3%A9%2C_por_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dubois.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/La_masacre_de_San_Bartolom%C3%A9%2C_por_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dubois.jpg/660px-La_masacre_de_San_Bartolom%C3%A9%2C_por_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dubois.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1398" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre" title="St. Bartholomew's Day massacre">St. Bartholomew's Day massacre</a> 1572, Painting by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Dubois" title="François Dubois">François Dubois</a> (1529–1584)</figcaption></figure> <p>Though not personally interested in religious reform, <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francis I</a> (reigned 1515–1547) initially maintained an attitude of tolerance, in accordance with his interest in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Humanism">humanist</a> movement. This changed in 1534 with the <a href="/wiki/Affair_of_the_Placards" title="Affair of the Placards">Affair of the Placards</a>. In this act, Protestants denounced the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Mass">Catholic Mass</a> in placards that appeared across France, even reaching the royal apartments. During this time as the issue of religious faith entered into the arena of politics, Francis came to view the movement as a threat to the kingdom's stability. </p><p>Following the Affair of the Placards, culprits were rounded up, at least a dozen heretics were put to death, and the persecution of Protestants increased.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of those who fled France at that time was <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>, who emigrated to Basel in 1535 before eventually settling in Geneva in 1536. Beyond the reach of the French kings in Geneva, Calvin continued to take an interest in the religious affairs of his native land including the training of ministers for congregations in France. </p><p>As the number of Protestants in France increased, the number of heretics in prisons awaiting trial also grew. As an experimental approach to reduce the caseload in Normandy, a special court just for the trial of heretics was established in 1545 in the <a href="/wiki/Parlement_of_Rouen" title="Parlement of Rouen">Parlement de Rouen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_France" title="Henry II of France">Henry II</a> took the throne in 1547, the persecution of Protestants grew and special courts for the trial of heretics were also established in the Parlement de Paris. These courts came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Chambre_Ardente" title="Chambre Ardente">"<i>La Chambre Ardente</i>"</a> ("the fiery chamber") because of their reputation of meting out death penalties on burning gallows.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite heavy persecution by <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_France" title="Henry II of France">Henry II</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_Church_of_France" title="Reformed Church of France">Reformed Church of France</a>, largely <a href="/wiki/Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist">Calvinist</a> in direction, made steady progress across large sections of the nation, in the urban <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. </p><p>French Protestantism, though its appeal increased under persecution, came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the noble conversions of the 1550s. This had the effect of creating the preconditions for a series of destructive and intermittent conflicts, known as the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">Wars of Religion</a>. The civil wars were helped along by the sudden death of <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_France" title="Henry II of France">Henry II</a> in 1559, which saw the beginning of a prolonged period of weakness for the French crown. <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/atrocity" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:atrocity">Atrocity</a> and outrage became the defining characteristic of the time, illustrated at its most intense in the <a href="/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre" title="St. Bartholomew's Day massacre">St. Bartholomew's Day massacre</a> of August 1572, when the Catholic Church annihilated between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wars only concluded when <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV</a>, himself a former Huguenot, issued the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a>, promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Catholicism remained the official state religion, and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in Louis XIV's <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Fontainebleau" title="Edict of Fontainebleau">Edict of Fontainebleau</a>—which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Catholicism the sole legal religion of France. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William,_Elector_of_Brandenburg" title="Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg">Frederick William</a> of <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg" title="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a> declared the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Potsdam" title="Edict of Potsdam">Edict of Potsdam</a>, giving free passage to French Huguenot refugees, and tax-free status to them for 10 years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Netherlands">Netherlands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of religion in the Netherlands">History of religion in the Netherlands</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dirck_van_Delen_-_Beeldenstorm_in_een_kerk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Dirck_van_Delen_-_Beeldenstorm_in_een_kerk.jpg/260px-Dirck_van_Delen_-_Beeldenstorm_in_een_kerk.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Dirck_van_Delen_-_Beeldenstorm_in_een_kerk.jpg/390px-Dirck_van_Delen_-_Beeldenstorm_in_een_kerk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Dirck_van_Delen_-_Beeldenstorm_in_een_kerk.jpg/520px-Dirck_van_Delen_-_Beeldenstorm_in_een_kerk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1869" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a>: The organised destruction of Catholic images, or <i>Beeldenstorm</i>, swept through Dutch churches in 1566.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Reformation in the Netherlands, unlike in many other countries, was not initiated by the rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a>, but instead by multiple popular movements, which in turn were bolstered by the arrival of Protestant refugees from other parts of the continent. While the <a href="/wiki/Anabaptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptist">Anabaptist</a> movement enjoyed popularity in the region in the early decades of the Reformation, Calvinism, in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church" title="Dutch Reformed Church">Dutch Reformed Church</a>, became the dominant Protestant faith in the country from the 1560s onward. </p><p>Harsh persecution of Protestants by the Spanish government of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II</a> contributed to a desire for independence in the provinces, which led to the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> and eventually, the separation of the largely Protestant <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> from the Catholic-dominated <a href="/wiki/Southern_Netherlands" title="Southern Netherlands">Southern Netherlands</a>, the present-day <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hungary">Hungary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Hungary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Hungary#Reformation" title="History of Christianity in Hungary">History of Christianity in Hungary § Reformation</a></div> <p>Much of the population of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</a> adopted Protestantism during the sixteenth century. After the 1526 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs" title="Battle of Mohács">Battle of Mohács</a> the Hungarian people were disillusioned by the inability of the government to protect them. </p><p>The spread of Protestantism in the country was aided by its large ethnic German minority, which could understand and translate the <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_(resources)" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Luther (resources)">writings of Martin Luther</a>. While Lutheranism gained a foothold among the German-speaking population, <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> became widely accepted among ethnic Hungarians.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:4k_ref_portre_bocskai.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/4k_ref_portre_bocskai.jpg/250px-4k_ref_portre_bocskai.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/4k_ref_portre_bocskai.jpg/330px-4k_ref_portre_bocskai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/4k_ref_portre_bocskai.jpg/500px-4k_ref_portre_bocskai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1242" data-file-height="1533" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Bocskay" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Bocskay">Stephen Bocskay</a> prevented the Holy Roman Emperor from imposing Roman Catholicism on Hungarians with the help of the Ottomans.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the more independent northwest the rulers and priests, protected now by the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a> which had taken up the fight against the Turks, defended the old Catholic faith. They sent Protestants to prison and to the stake wherever they could. Such strong measures fanned the flames of protest.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Leaders of the Protestants included Matthias Biro Devai, Michael Sztarai, and Stephen Kis Szegedi. </p><p>Protestants likely formed a majority of Hungary's population at the close of the sixteenth century, but <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> efforts in the seventeenth century reconverted a majority of the kingdom to Catholicism.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A significant Protestant minority remained, most of it adhering to the Calvinist faith. </p><p>In 1558 the <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvanian</a> <a href="/wiki/Diet_(assembly)" title="Diet (assembly)">Diet</a> of <a href="/wiki/Turda" title="Turda">Turda</a> declared free practice of both the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a> religions, but prohibited <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a>. Ten years later, in 1568, the Diet extended this freedom, declaring that "It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expelling for his religion". Four religions were declared as accepted (recepta) religions, while <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox Christianity</a> was "tolerated" (though the building of stone Orthodox churches was forbidden). Hungary entered the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>; with Royal (Habsburg) Hungary joining the catholic side, and Transylvania joining the Protestant side. </p><p>There were a series of other successful and unsuccessful anti-Habsburg, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Anti-Austrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Austrian sentiment">anti-Austrian</a>, (requiring equal rights and freedom for all Christian religions) uprisings between 1604 and 1711; the uprisings were usually organized from Transylvania. The constrained Habsburg Counter-Reformation efforts in the seventeenth century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Catholicism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nineteenth_century">Nineteenth century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Nineteenth century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kierkegaard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg/250px-Kierkegaard.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg/255px-Kierkegaard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>The Danish philosopher and Lutheran theologian <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Scott_Latourette" title="Kenneth Scott Latourette">Kenneth Scott Latourette</a> argues that the outlook for Protestantism at the start of the 19th century was discouraging. It was a regional religion based in northwestern Europe, with an outpost in the sparsely settled United States. It was closely allied with government, as in Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Prussia, and especially Great Britain. The alliance came at the expense of independence, as the government made the basic policy decisions, down to such details as the salaries of ministers and location of new churches. </p><p>The dominant intellectual currents of the Enlightenment promoted rationalism, and most Protestant leaders preached a sort of deism. Intellectually, the new methods of historical and anthropological study undermine automatic acceptance of biblical stories, as did the sciences of geology and biology. Industrialization was a strongly negative factor, as workers who moved to the city seldom joined churches. The gap between the church and the unchurched grew rapidly, and secular forces, based both in socialism and liberalism undermined the prestige of religion. </p><p>Despite the negative forces, Protestantism demonstrated a striking vitality by 1900. Shrugging off Enlightenment rationalism, Protestants embraced <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">romanticism</a>, with the stress on the personal and the invisible. Fresh ideas as expressed by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a>, <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adolf_von_Harnack" title="Adolf von Harnack">Adolf von Harnack</a> restored the intellectual power of theology. There was more attention to historic creeds such as the Augsburg, the Heidelberg, and the Westminster confessions. The stirrings of <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">pietism</a> on the Continent, and <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">evangelicalism</a> in Britain expanded enormously, leading the devout away from an emphasis on formality and ritual and toward an inner sensibility toward personal relationship to Christ. From the religious point of view of the typical Protestant, major changes were underway in terms of a much more personalized religiosity that focused on the individual more than the church or the ceremony. The rationalism of the late 19th century faded away, and there was a new emphasis on the psychology and feeling of the individual, especially in terms of contemplating sinfulness, redemption, and the mysteries and the revelations of Christianity. <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietistic revivals</a> were common among Protestants. Social activities, in education and in opposition to social vices such as slavery, alcoholism and poverty provided new opportunities for social service. Above all, worldwide missionary activity became a highly prized goal, proving successful in close cooperation with the imperialism of the British, German, and Dutch empires.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain">Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In England, Anglicans emphasized the historically Catholic components of their heritage, as the High Church element reintroduced vestments and incense into their rituals, against the opposition of Low Church evangelicals.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a> began to advocate restoring traditional Catholic faith and practice to the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Catholicism" title="Anglo-Catholicism">Anglo-Catholicism</a>), there was felt to be a need for a restoration of the <a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">monastic life</a>. Anglican priest <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">John Henry Newman</a> established a community of men at <a href="/wiki/Littlemore" title="Littlemore">Littlemore</a> near <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> in the 1840s. From then forward, there have been many <a href="/wiki/Anglican_religious_order" title="Anglican religious order">communities</a> of <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friar" title="Friar">friars</a>, sisters, and <a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">nuns</a> established within the <a href="/wiki/Anglican_Communion" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a>. In 1848, Mother <a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Lydia_Sellon" class="mw-redirect" title="Priscilla Lydia Sellon">Priscilla Lydia Sellon</a> founded the Anglican Sisters of Charity and became the first woman to take religious vows within the Anglican Communion since the <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a>. From the 1840s and throughout the following hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated in Britain, America and elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany_2">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Union_of_churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian Union of churches">Prussian Union of churches</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_Wilhelm_III.,_K%C3%B6nig_von_Preu%C3%9Fen_(unbekannter_Maler).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Friedrich_Wilhelm_III.%2C_K%C3%B6nig_von_Preu%C3%9Fen_%28unbekannter_Maler%29.jpg/220px-Friedrich_Wilhelm_III.%2C_K%C3%B6nig_von_Preu%C3%9Fen_%28unbekannter_Maler%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Friedrich_Wilhelm_III.%2C_K%C3%B6nig_von_Preu%C3%9Fen_%28unbekannter_Maler%29.jpg/330px-Friedrich_Wilhelm_III.%2C_K%C3%B6nig_von_Preu%C3%9Fen_%28unbekannter_Maler%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Friedrich_Wilhelm_III.%2C_K%C3%B6nig_von_Preu%C3%9Fen_%28unbekannter_Maler%29.jpg/440px-Friedrich_Wilhelm_III.%2C_K%C3%B6nig_von_Preu%C3%9Fen_%28unbekannter_Maler%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1160" data-file-height="1566" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William III">Frederick William III</a> ruled <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> from 1797 to 1840.</figcaption></figure> <p>Two main developments reshaped religion in Germany. Across the land, there was a movement to unite the larger Lutheran and the smaller Reformed Protestant churches. The churches themselves brought this about in Baden, Nassau, and Bavaria. However, in Prussia King <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William III">Frederick William III</a> was determined to handle unification entirely on his own terms, without consultation. His goal was to unify the Protestant churches, and to impose a single standardized liturgy, organization and even architecture. The long-term goal was to have fully centralized royal control of all the Protestant churches. In a series of proclamations over several decades the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Union_of_churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian Union of churches"><i>Church of the Prussian Union</i></a> was formed, bringing together the more numerous Lutherans, and the less numerous Reformed Protestants. The government of Prussia now had full control over church affairs, with the king himself recognized as the leading bishop. Opposition to unification came from the "Old Lutherans" in Silesia who clung tightly to the theological and liturgical forms they had followed since the days of Luther. The government attempted to crack down on them, so they went underground. Tens of thousands migrated, <a href="/wiki/German_Australian" class="mw-redirect" title="German Australian">to South Australia</a>, and especially to the United States, where they formed the <a href="/wiki/Lutheran_Church%E2%80%93Missouri_Synod" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod">Missouri Synod</a>, which is still in operation as a conservative denomination. Finally in 1845 a new king <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William IV">Frederick William IV</a> offered a general amnesty and allowed the Old Lutherans to form a separate church association with only nominal government control.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Great_Awakenings">Great Awakenings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Great Awakenings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size:130%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Awakening" title="Great Awakening">Great Awakenings</a> in America</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First</a></b> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1730–1755</span>)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second</a></b> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1790–1840</span>)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third</a></b> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1855–1930</span>)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth</a></b> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1960–1980</span>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Great_awakenings" title="Template:Great awakenings"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Great_awakenings" title="Template talk:Great awakenings"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Great_awakenings" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Great awakenings"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Great_Awakening" title="Great Awakening">Great Awakening</a></div> <p>The "Great Awakenings" were periods of rapid and dramatic <a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">religious revival</a> in American religious history, beginning in the 1730s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Great_Awakening">First Great Awakening</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: First Great Awakening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></div> <p>The "First Great Awakening" (or sometimes "The Great Awakening") was a wave of religious enthusiasm among Protestants that swept the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact on American religion. It emphasized the traditional Reformed virtues of Godly preaching, rudimentary liturgy, and a deep sense of personal guilt and redemption by Christ Jesus. It resulted from powerful preaching that deeply affected listeners (already church members). Historian Sydney E. Ahlstrom saw it as part of a "great international Protestant upheaval" that also created <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical Revival</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a> in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It had a major impact in reshaping the <a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregational</a>, <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church" title="Dutch Reformed Church">Dutch Reformed</a>, and German Reformed denominations, and strengthened the small <a href="/wiki/Baptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist">Baptist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> denominations. It brought Christianity to the slaves and was an apocalyptic event in <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> that challenged established authority. It incited rancor and division between the traditionalists who insisted on ritual and doctrine and the new revivalists. It had little impact on <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Society of Friends">Quakers</a>. </p><p>Unlike the <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a> that began about 1800 and which reached out to the unchurched, the First Great Awakening focused on people who were already church members. It changed their rituals, their piety, and their self-awareness. The new style of sermons and the way people practiced their faith breathed new life into <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">religion in America</a>. People became passionately and emotionally involved in their religion, rather than passively listening to intellectual discourse in a detached manner. Ministers who used this new style of preaching were generally called "new lights", while the preachers of old were called "old lights". People began to study the Bible at home, which effectively decentralized the means of informing the public on religious manners and was akin to the individualistic trends present in Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Great_Awakening">Second Great Awakening</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Second Great Awakening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christian_primitivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian primitivism">Christian primitivism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1839-meth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/1839-meth.jpg/310px-1839-meth.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/1839-meth.jpg/465px-1839-meth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/1839-meth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="551" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>1839 <a href="/wiki/Methodist" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist">Methodist</a> camp meeting during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a> in the United States.</figcaption></figure> <p>The "Second Great Awakening" (1790–1840s) was the second great religious revival in <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> history and, unlike the <a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th century</a>, focused on the unchurched and sought to instill in them a deep sense of personal salvation as experienced in <a href="/wiki/Revival_meeting" title="Revival meeting">revival meetings</a>. It also sparked the beginnings of groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Mormons" title="Mormons">Mormons</a><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a>. Leaders included <a href="/wiki/Charles_Grandison_Finney" title="Charles Grandison Finney">Charles Grandison Finney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyman_Beecher" title="Lyman Beecher">Lyman Beecher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barton_W._Stone" title="Barton W. Stone">Barton W. Stone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Cartwright_(exhorter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Cartwright (exhorter)">Peter Cartwright</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Finley_(minister)" title="James Finley (minister)">James Finley</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>, the renewed interest in religion inspired a wave of social activism. In western <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>, the spirit of revival encouraged the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restoration Movement</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a>. In the west especially—at <a href="/wiki/Cane_Ridge,_Kentucky" title="Cane Ridge, Kentucky">Cane Ridge, Kentucky</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>—the revival strengthened the <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodists</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> and introduced into America a new form of religious expression—the Scottish <a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">camp meeting</a>. </p><p>The Second Great Awakening made its way across the frontier territories, fed by intense longing for a prominent place for God in the life of the new nation, a new liberal attitude toward fresh interpretations of the Bible, and a seemingly contagious experience of zeal for authentic spirituality. As these revivals spread, they gathered converts to Protestant sects of the time. However, the revivals eventually moved freely across denominational lines, with practically identical results, and went farther than ever toward breaking down the allegiances which kept adherents to these denominations loyal to their own. Consequently, the revivals were accompanied by a growing dissatisfaction with Evangelical churches and especially with the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a>, which was nominally accepted or at least tolerated in most Evangelical churches at the time. </p><p>Various unaffiliated movements arose that were often <a href="/wiki/Christian_primitivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian primitivism">restorationist</a> in outlook, considering contemporary Christianity of the time to be a deviation from the true, original Christianity. These groups attempted to transcend <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> denominationalism and orthodox <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">creeds</a> to restore Christianity to its original form. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_Great_Awakening">Third Great Awakening</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Third Great Awakening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_and_Catherine_Booth,_1862.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/William_and_Catherine_Booth%2C_1862.jpg/220px-William_and_Catherine_Booth%2C_1862.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/William_and_Catherine_Booth%2C_1862.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Booth" title="William Booth">William Booth</a> and his wife founded <a href="/wiki/The_Salvation_Army" title="The Salvation Army">The Salvation Army</a> during the Third Great Awakening.</figcaption></figure> <p>The "Third Great Awakening" was a period of religious activism in American history from the late 1850s to the 1900s. It affected pietistic Protestant denominations and had a strong sense of social activism. It gathered strength from the <a href="/wiki/Postmillennial" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmillennial">postmillennial</a> theology that the <a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a> of Christ would come after mankind had reformed the entire earth. The <a href="/wiki/Social_Gospel" title="Social Gospel">Social Gospel</a> Movement gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. New groupings emerged, such as the <a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Nazarene" title="Church of the Nazarene">Nazarene</a> movement, and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Science" title="Christian Science">Christian Science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fogel_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fogel-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Significant names include <a href="/wiki/Dwight_L._Moody" title="Dwight L. Moody">Dwight L. Moody</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ira_D._Sankey" title="Ira D. Sankey">Ira D. Sankey</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Booth" title="William Booth">William Booth</a> and Catherine Booth (founders of the <a href="/wiki/Salvation_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvation Army">Salvation Army</a>), <a href="/wiki/Charles_Spurgeon" title="Charles Spurgeon">Charles Spurgeon</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Caughey" title="James Caughey">James Caughey</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hudson_Taylor" title="Hudson Taylor">Hudson Taylor</a> began the <a href="/wiki/China_Inland_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="China Inland Mission">China Inland Mission</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_John_Barnardo" title="Thomas John Barnardo">Thomas John Barnardo</a> founded orphanages. The <a href="/wiki/Keswick_Convention" title="Keswick Convention">Keswick Convention</a> movement began out of the <a href="/wiki/Higher_Life_movement" title="Higher Life movement">British Holiness movement</a>, encouraging a lifestyle of <a href="/wiki/Sacred" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred">holiness</a>, unity and prayer. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mary_Baker_Eddy" title="Mary Baker Eddy">Mary Baker Eddy</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Christian_Science" title="Christian Science">Christian Science</a>, which gained a national following. In 1880, the <a href="/wiki/Salvation_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvation Army">Salvation Army</a> denomination arrived in America. Although its theology was based on ideals expressed during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a>, its focus on poverty was of the Third. The <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Ethical_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Society for Ethical Culture">Society for Ethical Culture</a> was established in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> in 1876 by <a href="/wiki/Felix_Adler_(professor)" title="Felix Adler (professor)">Felix Adler</a> which attracted a Reform Jewish clientele. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taze_Russell" title="Charles Taze Russell">Charles Taze Russell</a> founded a <a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Student movement</a> now known as The <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a> </p><p>With <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Hull_House" title="Hull House">Hull House</a> in Chicago as its center, the settlement house movement and the vocation of social work were deeply influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Tolstoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolstoy">Tolstoyan</a> reworking of Christian idealism.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final group to emerge from this awakening in North America was <a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a>, which had its roots in the Methodist, Wesleyan, and <a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movements</a>, and began in 1906 on <a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>. Pentecostalism would later lead to the <a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic movement</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Protestant Christianity in the 20th century was characterized by accelerating fragmentation. The century saw the rise of both liberal and conservative splinter groups, as well as a general secularization of Western society. The Roman Catholic Church instituted many reforms in order to modernize. Missionaries also made inroads in the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a>, establishing further followings in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>. At the same time, state-promoted atheism in Communist Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union brought many Eastern Orthodox Christians to Western Europe and the United States, leading to greatly increased contact between Western and Eastern Christianity. Nevertheless, church attendance declined more in Western Europe than it did in the East. <a href="/wiki/Christian_ecumenism" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian ecumenism">Christian ecumenism</a> grew in importance, beginning at the <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_Missionary_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Edinburgh Missionary Conference">Edinburgh Missionary Conference</a> in 1910, and accelerated after the <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a> (1962–1965) of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_Movement" title="Liturgical Movement">Liturgical Movement</a> became significant in both Catholic and Protestant Christianity, especially in <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a>. </p><p>Another movement which grew up over the 20th century was <a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Christian anarchism</a> which rejects the church, state or any power other than God. They usually believe in absolute <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolence</a>. <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>'s book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_is_Within_You" class="mw-redirect" title="The Kingdom of God is Within You">The Kingdom of God is Within You</a></i> published in 1894, is believed to be the catalyst for this movement. Because of its extremist political views, however, its appeal has been largely limited to the highly educated, especially those with erstwhile <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanist</a> sentiments; the thoroughgoing aversion to institutionalism on Christian anarchists' part has also hindered acceptance of this philosophy on a large scale. </p><p>The 1950s saw a boom in the Evangelical church in America. The post–<a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> prosperity experienced in the U.S. also had its effects on the church. Although simplistically referred to as "morphological fundamentalism", the phrase nonetheless accurately describes the physical developments experienced. Church buildings were erected in large numbers, and the Evangelical church's activities grew along with this expansive physical growth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pentecostal_movement">Pentecostal movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Pentecostal movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AFM_on_azusa_street.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/AFM_on_azusa_street.jpg/330px-AFM_on_azusa_street.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/AFM_on_azusa_street.jpg/500px-AFM_on_azusa_street.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/AFM_on_azusa_street.jpg/960px-AFM_on_azusa_street.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="726" /></a><figcaption>The Apostolic Faith Mission on Azusa Street, Los Angeles, California, now considered to be the birthplace of Pentecostalism</figcaption></figure> <p>Another development in 20th-century Christianity was the rise of the modern <a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a> movement. Although its roots predate the year 1900, its actual birth is commonly attributed to the 20th century. Sprung from Methodist and Wesleyan roots, it arose out of meetings at an urban mission on <a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street" class="mw-redirect" title="Azusa Street">Azusa Street</a> in Los Angeles, California. From there it spread around the world, carried by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there. These Pentecost-like manifestations have steadily been in evidence throughout the history of Christianity—such as seen in the two Great Awakenings that started in the United States. However, Azusa Street is widely accepted as the fount of the modern Pentecostal movement. Pentecostalism, which in turn birthed the <a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic movement</a> within already established denominations, continues to be an important force in western Christianity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modernism,_fundamentalism,_and_neo-orthodoxy"><span id="Modernism.2C_fundamentalism.2C_and_neo-orthodoxy"></span>Modernism, fundamentalism, and neo-orthodoxy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Modernism, fundamentalism, and neo-orthodoxy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Liberal Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Christian fundamentalism</a></div> <p>As the more radical implications of the scientific and cultural influences of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> began to be felt in Protestant churches, especially in the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Liberal Christianity</a>, exemplified especially by numerous theologians in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> in the 19th century, sought to bring the churches alongside of the broad revolution that Modernism represented. In doing so, new critical approaches to the Bible were developed, new attitudes became evident about the role of religion in society, and a new openness to questioning the nearly universally accepted definitions of Christian orthodoxy began to become obvious. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-1283-23A,_Wuppertal,_Evangelische_Gesellschaft,_Jahrestagung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-1283-23A%2C_Wuppertal%2C_Evangelische_Gesellschaft%2C_Jahrestagung.jpg/250px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-1283-23A%2C_Wuppertal%2C_Evangelische_Gesellschaft%2C_Jahrestagung.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-1283-23A%2C_Wuppertal%2C_Evangelische_Gesellschaft%2C_Jahrestagung.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-1283-23A%2C_Wuppertal%2C_Evangelische_Gesellschaft%2C_Jahrestagung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-1283-23A%2C_Wuppertal%2C_Evangelische_Gesellschaft%2C_Jahrestagung.jpg/500px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-1283-23A%2C_Wuppertal%2C_Evangelische_Gesellschaft%2C_Jahrestagung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="788" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a> is often regarded as the greatest Protestant theologian of the twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-McGrath2011_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGrath2011-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BrownCollinson2012_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrownCollinson2012-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In reaction to these developments, Christian fundamentalism was a movement to reject the radical influences of philosophical humanism, as this was affecting the Christian religion. Especially targeting critical approaches to the interpretation of the Bible, and trying to blockade the inroads made into their churches by atheistic scientific assumptions, the fundamentalists began to appear in various denominations as numerous independent movements of resistance to the drift away from historic Christianity. Over time, the Fundamentalist Evangelical movement has divided into two main wings, with the label <i>Fundamentalist</i> following one branch, while <i>Evangelical</i> has become the preferred banner of the more moderate movement. Although both movements primarily originated in the English speaking world, the majority of Evangelicals now live elsewhere in the world. </p><p>A third, but less popular, option than either liberalism or fundamentalism was the <a href="/wiki/Neo-orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-orthodox">neo-orthodox</a> movement, which generally affirmed a higher view of Scripture than liberalism but did not tie the main doctrines of the Christian faith to precise theories of Biblical inspiration. If anything, thinkers in this camp denounced such quibbling between liberals and conservatives as a dangerous distraction from the duties of Christian discipleship. This branch of thought arose in the early 20th century in the context of the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Reich" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Reich">Third Reich</a> in Germany and the accompanying political and ecclesiastical destabilization of Europe in the years before and during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Neo-orthodoxy's highly contextual, dialectical modes of argument and reasoning often rendered its main premises incomprehensible to American thinkers and clergy, and it was frequently either dismissed out of hand as unrealistic or cast into the reigning left- or right-wing molds of theologizing. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Swiss</a> <a href="/wiki/Reformed_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed tradition">Reformed</a> pastor and professor, brought this movement into being by drawing upon earlier criticisms of established (largely modernist) Protestant thought made by the likes of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franz_Overbeck" title="Franz Overbeck">Franz Overbeck</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Dietrich Bonhoeffer</a>, murdered by the <a href="/wiki/Nazis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazis">Nazis</a> for allegedly taking part in an attempt to overthrow the <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a> regime, adhered to this school of thought; his classic <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cost_of_Discipleship" title="The Cost of Discipleship">The Cost of Discipleship</a></i> is likely the best-known and accessible statement of the neo-orthodox position. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Evangelicalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-0798-29,_D%C3%BCsseldorf,_Veranstaltung_mit_Billy_Graham.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-0798-29%2C_D%C3%BCsseldorf%2C_Veranstaltung_mit_Billy_Graham.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-0798-29%2C_D%C3%BCsseldorf%2C_Veranstaltung_mit_Billy_Graham.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-0798-29%2C_D%C3%BCsseldorf%2C_Veranstaltung_mit_Billy_Graham.jpg/500px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-0798-29%2C_D%C3%BCsseldorf%2C_Veranstaltung_mit_Billy_Graham.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-0798-29%2C_D%C3%BCsseldorf%2C_Veranstaltung_mit_Billy_Graham.jpg/560px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_194-0798-29%2C_D%C3%BCsseldorf%2C_Veranstaltung_mit_Billy_Graham.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>One of the prominent evangelical revivalists, <a href="/wiki/Billy_Graham" title="Billy Graham">Billy Graham</a> preaching in <a href="/wiki/Duisburg" title="Duisburg">Duisburg</a>, Germany, in 1954.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Billy_Sunday_at_the_White_House.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Billy_Sunday_at_the_White_House.jpg/250px-Billy_Sunday_at_the_White_House.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Billy_Sunday_at_the_White_House.jpg/330px-Billy_Sunday_at_the_White_House.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Billy_Sunday_at_the_White_House.jpg/500px-Billy_Sunday_at_the_White_House.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2975" data-file-height="3723" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Billy_Sunday" title="Billy Sunday">Billy Sunday</a> at the White House, Washington, D.C., 1922</figcaption></figure> <p>In the U.S. and elsewhere in the world, there has been a marked rise in the <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">evangelical</a> wing of <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> denominations, especially those that are more exclusively evangelical, and a corresponding decline in the mainstream liberal churches. In the post–<a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> era, <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Liberalism</a> was the faster-growing sector of the American church. Liberal wings of denominations were on the rise, and a considerable number of seminaries held and taught from a liberal perspective as well. In the post–World War II era, the trend began to swing back towards the conservative camp in America's seminaries and church structures. Those entering seminaries and other postgraduate theologically related programs showed more conservative leanings than their average predecessors. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Neo-evangelicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-evangelicalism">neo-Evangelical</a> push of the 1940s and 1950s produced a movement that continues to have wide influence. In the southern U.S., the more moderate neo-Evangelicals, represented by leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Billy_Graham" title="Billy Graham">Billy Graham</a>, experienced a notable surge displacing the caricature of the pulpit pounding country preachers of fundamentalism. The stereotypes gradually shifted. Some, such as <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Falwell" title="Jerry Falwell">Jerry Falwell</a>, managed to maintain credibility in the eyes of many fundamentalists, as well as to gain stature as a more moderate Evangelical. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iglesia_evang%C3%A9lica_china.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Iglesia_evang%C3%A9lica_china.jpg/250px-Iglesia_evang%C3%A9lica_china.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Iglesia_evang%C3%A9lica_china.jpg/330px-Iglesia_evang%C3%A9lica_china.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Iglesia_evang%C3%A9lica_china.jpg/440px-Iglesia_evang%C3%A9lica_china.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Chinese evangelical church in <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>, Spain. Evangelicalism is a driving force behind the current rise of Protestantism, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Evangelicalism is not a single, monolithic entity. The Evangelical churches and their adherents cannot be easily stereotyped. Most are not fundamentalist, in the narrow sense that this term has come to represent; though many still refer to themselves as such. There have always been diverse views on issues, such as openness to cooperation with non-Evangelicals, the applicability of the Bible to political choices and social or scientific issues, and even the limited inerrancy of the Bible. </p><p>However, the movement has managed in an informal way, to reserve the name <i>Evangelical</i> for those who adhere to an historic Christian faith, a <i>paleo-orthodoxy</i>, as some have put it. Those who call themselves "moderate evangelicals" (although considered conservative in relation to society as a whole) still hold to the fundamentals of the historic Christian faith. Even "Liberal" Evangelicals label themselves as such not so much in terms of their theology, but rather to advertise that they are progressive in their civic, social, or scientific perspective. </p><p>There is some debate as to whether <a href="/wiki/Pentecostal" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentecostal">Pentecostals</a> are considered to be Evangelical. Their roots in <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a> are undisputedly Evangelical, but their doctrinal distinctives differ from the more traditional Evangelicals, who are less likely to have an expectation of private revelations from God, and differ from the Pentecostal perspective on <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">miracles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angels" class="mw-redirect" title="Angels">angels</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Demons" class="mw-redirect" title="Demons">demons</a>. Typically, those who include the Pentecostals in the Evangelical camp are labeled <i>neo-evangelical</i> by those who do not. The <a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Evangelicals" title="National Association of Evangelicals">National Association of Evangelicals</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Alliance" title="Evangelical Alliance">Evangelical Alliance</a> have numerous Trinitarian Pentecostal denominations among their membership.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another relatively late entrant to wide acceptance within the Evangelical fold is the <a href="/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist Church</a>. </p><p>Evangelicals are as diverse as the names that appear—<a href="/wiki/Billy_Graham" title="Billy Graham">Billy Graham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Colson" class="mw-redirect" title="Chuck Colson">Chuck Colson</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._Vernon_McGee" title="J. Vernon McGee">J. Vernon McGee</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_MacArthur_(American_pastor)" title="John MacArthur (American pastor)">John MacArthur</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._I._Packer" title="J. I. Packer">J. I. Packer</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Stott" title="John Stott">John R. W. Stott</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pat_Robertson" title="Pat Robertson">Pat Robertson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a>, etc.—or even Evangelical institutions such as <a href="/wiki/Dallas_Theological_Seminary" title="Dallas Theological Seminary">Dallas Theological Seminary</a> (Dallas), <a href="/wiki/Gordon%E2%80%93Conwell_Theological_Seminary" title="Gordon–Conwell Theological Seminary">Gordon–Conwell Theological Seminary</a> (Boston), <a href="/wiki/Trinity_Evangelical_Divinity_School" title="Trinity Evangelical Divinity School">Trinity Evangelical Divinity School</a> (Chicago), <a href="/wiki/The_Master%27s_Seminary" title="The Master's Seminary">The Master's Seminary</a> (California), <a href="/wiki/Wheaton_College_(Illinois)" title="Wheaton College (Illinois)">Wheaton College</a> (Illinois), the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Coalition_of_America" title="Christian Coalition of America">Christian Coalition</a>, The Christian Embassy (Jerusalem), etc. Although there exists a diversity in the Evangelical community worldwide, the ties that bind all Evangelicals are still apparent. These include but are not limited to a high view of Scripture, belief in the Deity of Christ, the Trinity, salvation by grace alone through faith alone, and the bodily resurrection of Christ. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread_of_secularism">Spread of secularism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Spread of secularism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St_Mary_Wythall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/St_Mary_Wythall.jpg/240px-St_Mary_Wythall.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="401" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/St_Mary_Wythall.jpg/360px-St_Mary_Wythall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/St_Mary_Wythall.jpg/480px-St_Mary_Wythall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="2636" /></a><figcaption>St Mary's, <a href="/wiki/Wythall" title="Wythall">Wythall</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Redundant_church" title="Redundant church">redundant church</a>, now houses an electrical company. Secularism is rising in <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">the West</a>, causing churches to find new uses.</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>Europe</dt></dl> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a>. The "secularization of society", attributed to the time of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> and its following years, is largely responsible for the spread of secularism. For example, the Gallup International Millennium Survey <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030812184751/http://www.gallup-international.com/survey15.htm">[1]</a> showed that only about one sixth of Europeans attend regular religious services, less than half gave God "high importance", and only about 40% believe in a "personal God". Nevertheless, the large majority considered that they "belong" to a <a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">religious denomination</a>. </p> <dl><dt>The Americas and Australia</dt></dl> <p>In <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, the other three continents where Christianity is the dominant professed religion, religious observance is higher than in Europe. In general, the United States leans toward the conservative in comparison to other western nations in its general culture, in part due to the Christian element found primarily in its Midwestern and southern states. </p><p>South America, historically Catholic, has experienced a large Evangelical and Pentecostal infusion in the 20th century due to the influx of Christian missionaries from abroad.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Christian revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">Christianity in the 16th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">Christianity in the 17th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">Christianity in the 18th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">Christianity in the 19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">Christianity in the 20th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">Christianity in the 21st century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity#Reformation_and_Modern_Era_(1520–present)" title="Heresy in Christianity">Heresy in Christianity § Reformation and Modern Era (1520–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History of the Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline of Christianity</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Zillertal#Protestantism" title="Zillertal">Zillertal</a> for the tail end of the Counter-Reformation</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRoland_Bainton2007" class="citation book cs1">Roland Bainton (2007). <i>Here I Stand – A Life of Martin Luther</i>. Read Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-6712-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-6712-4"><bdi>978-1-4067-6712-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Here+I+Stand+%E2%80%93+A+Life+of+Martin+Luther&rft.pub=Read+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4067-6712-4&rft.au=Roland+Bainton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc3/hcc3.iii.vii.xix.html">"Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume III: Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 311–600 – Christian Classics Ethereal Library"</a>. <i>ccel.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ccel.org&rft.atitle=Philip+Schaff%3A+History+of+the+Christian+Church%2C+Volume+III%3A+Nicene+and+Post-Nicene+Christianity.+A.D.+311%E2%80%93600+%E2%80%93+Christian+Classics+Ethereal+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fhcc3%2Fhcc3.iii.vii.xix.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-christianity.com-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-christianity.com_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-christianity.com_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-christianity.com_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.christianity.com/wiki/people/john-wycliffe-on-his-death-bed-11629868.html">"John Wycliffe's Life and Work"</a>. <i>Christianity.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Christianity.com&rft.atitle=John+Wycliffe%27s+Life+and+Work&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.christianity.com%2Fwiki%2Fpeople%2Fjohn-wycliffe-on-his-death-bed-11629868.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-christianitytoday.com-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-christianitytoday.com_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-christianitytoday.com_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/people/martyrs/john-huss.html">"John Huss"</a>. <i>Christian History | Learn the History of Christianity & the Church</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Christian+History+%7C+Learn+the+History+of+Christianity+%26+the+Church&rft.atitle=John+Huss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.christianitytoday.com%2Fhistory%2Fpeople%2Fmartyrs%2Fjohn-huss.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-encyclopedia.com-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-encyclopedia.com_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-encyclopedia.com_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/literature-and-arts/german-literature-biographies/jan-hus">"Jan Hus | Encyclopedia.com"</a>. <i>www.encyclopedia.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Jan+Hus+%7C+Encyclopedia.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fpeople%2Fliterature-and-arts%2Fgerman-literature-biographies%2Fjan-hus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlunt1869" class="citation book cs1">Blunt, John Henry (1869). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/reformationchur01blungoog"><i>The reformation of the Church of England; its history, principles, and results</i></a>. Oxford University. London, Rivingtons. p. 400.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+reformation+of+the+Church+of+England%3B+its+history%2C+principles%2C+and+results&rft.pages=400&rft.pub=London%2C+Rivingtons&rft.date=1869&rft.aulast=Blunt&rft.aufirst=John+Henry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freformationchur01blungoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNijenhuis1994" class="citation book cs1">Nijenhuis, Willem (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IgYZR5FVFxIC&dq=calvin+consensus&pg=PA67"><i>Ecclesia Reformata: Studies on the Reformation</i></a>. BRILL. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09465-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09465-9"><bdi>978-90-04-09465-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ecclesia+Reformata%3A+Studies+on+the+Reformation&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09465-9&rft.aulast=Nijenhuis&rft.aufirst=Willem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIgYZR5FVFxIC%26dq%3Dcalvin%2Bconsensus%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"This monumental work is to this day the classic Protestant answer to Trent." from page three of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wlsessays.net/bitstream/handle/123456789/4095/PreusChemnitz.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Martin Chemnitz on the Doctrine of Justification</a> by Jacob A. O. Preus</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M9RTAAAAcAAJ&q=editions:WavRe78tBJ8C">Examen</a></i>, Volumes I–II: Volume I begins on page 46 of the pdf and Volume II begins on page 311. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UtRTAAAAcAAJ&q=editions:WavRe78tBJ8C">Examen</a></i> Volumes III-IV: Volume III begins on page 13 of the pdf and Volume IV begins on page 298. All volumes free on Google Books</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndrada1578" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Andrada, Diogo Paiva ¬de (1578). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lGM8AAAAcAAJ"><i>Defensio Tridentinae fidei cath: quinque libris comprehensa adv. Mart. Chemnitium</i></a> (in Latin).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defensio+Tridentinae+fidei+cath%3A+quinque+libris+comprehensa+adv.+Mart.+Chemnitium&rft.date=1578&rft.aulast=Andrada&rft.aufirst=Diogo+Paiva+%C2%ACde&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlGM8AAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Žalta, Anja. 2004. Protestantizem in bukovništvo med koroškimi Slovenci. <i>Anthropos</i> 36(1/4): 1–23, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilson2009" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Peter H. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XgtpAl8HzjcC&q=thirty+years+war"><i>The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03634-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03634-5"><bdi>978-0-674-03634-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirty+Years+War%3A+Europe%27s+Tragedy&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03634-5&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Peter+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXgtpAl8HzjcC%26q%3Dthirty%2Byears%2Bwar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ODCC-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ODCC_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFF._L._CrossE._A._Livingstone1997" class="citation book cs1">F. L. Cross; E. A. Livingstone, eds. (13 March 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00late/page/359"><i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd edition</i></a>. USA: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00late/page/359">359</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-211655-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-211655-X"><bdi>0-19-211655-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Christian+Church%2C+3rd+edition&rft.place=USA&rft.pages=359&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997-03-13&rft.isbn=0-19-211655-X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxforddictionary00late%2Fpage%2F359&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMilner" class="citation book cs1">Milner, Joseph. <i>The History of the Church of Christ Volume 3</i>. <q>A comment on the epistle to the Galatians, is his only work which was committed to the press. In it he every where asserts the equality of all the apostles with St. Peter. And, indeed, he always owns Jesus Christ to be the only proper head of the church. He is severe against the doctrine of human merits, and of the exaltation of traditions to a height of credibility equal to that of the divine word. He maintains that we are to be saved by faith alone; holds the fallibility of the church, exposes the futility of praying for the dead, and the sinfulness of the idolatrous practices then supported by the Roman see. Such are the sentiments found in his commentary on the epistle to the Galatians.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Church+of+Christ+Volume+3&rft.aulast=Milner&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc4.i.x.xiv.html">"Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume IV: Mediaeval Christianity. A.D. 590–1073 – Christian Classics Ethereal Library"</a>. <i>www.ccel.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ccel.org&rft.atitle=Philip+Schaff%3A+History+of+the+Christian+Church%2C+Volume+IV%3A+Mediaeval+Christianity.+A.D.+590%E2%80%931073+%E2%80%93+Christian+Classics+Ethereal+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fhcc4.i.x.xiv.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gottschalk-of-Orbais">"Gottschalk Of Orbais | Roman Catholic theologian"</a>. <i>Britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Düsseldorf, 1986.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brecht204-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brecht204_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brecht, Martin. <i>Martin Luther</i>. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–1993, 1:204–205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hillerbrand463-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hillerbrand463_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brecht, Martin. (tr. Wolfgang Katenz) "Luther, Martin," in Hillerbrand, Hans J. (ed.) <i>Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, 2:463.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UC2017-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UC2017_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDaniels2017" class="citation web cs1">Daniels, David D. (2 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://divinity.uchicago.edu/sightings/martin-luther-and-ethiopian-christianity-historical-traces">"Martin Luther and Ethiopian Christianity: Historical Traces"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2018</span>. <q>In that year Luther welcomed a new voice into his ecumenical dialogue: Michael the Deacon, an Ethiopian cleric. Recalling his dialogue with Michael, Luther stated: "We have also learned from him, that the rite which we observe in the use of administration of the Lord's Supper and the Mass, agrees with the Eastern Church". Luther expressed his approval of the Church of Ethiopia along with his embrace of Deacon Michael in a letter dated 4 July 1534: "For this reason we ask that good people would demonstrate Christian love also to this [Ethiopian] visitor". According to Luther, Michael responded positively to his articles of the Christian faith, proclaiming: "This is a good creed, that is, faith" (see Martin Luther, Table-Talk, 17 November 1538 [WA, TR 4:152–153, no. 4126]).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Martin+Luther+and+Ethiopian+Christianity%3A+Historical+Traces&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2017-11-02&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=David+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdivinity.uchicago.edu%2Fsightings%2Fmartin-luther-and-ethiopian-christianity-historical-traces&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dXUlAQAAIAAJ"><i>Luther Digest: An Annual Abridgment of Luther Studies, Volumes 2–4</i></a>. Luther Academy. 1994. p. 146. <q>During the summer of 1534, an Ethiopian monk Deacon Michael visited Wittenberg. With great satisfaction Luther recorded that among the Christians in Ethiopia neither the private Mass nor the Mass canon was known, and their order of service generally corresponded to that of evangelical congregations of Germany (WA Tr 5:450, #6045).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Luther+Digest%3A+An+Annual+Abridgment+of+Luther+Studies%2C+Volumes+2%E2%80%934&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Luther+Academy&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdXUlAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDaniels2017" class="citation web cs1">Daniels, David D. (31 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.christiancentury.org/blog-post/guest-post/martin-luthers-fascination-ethiopian-christianity">"Martin Luther's fascination with Ethiopian Christianity"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Century" title="The Christian Century">The Christian Century</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2018</span>. <q>For his part, after having Luther's Articles of the Christian Faith interpreted to him, Deacon Michael proclaimed: "This is a good creed, that is, faith".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Martin+Luther%27s+fascination+with+Ethiopian+Christianity&rft.pub=The+Christian+Century&rft.date=2017-10-31&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=David+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.christiancentury.org%2Fblog-post%2Fguest-post%2Fmartin-luthers-fascination-ethiopian-christianity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDaniels2017" class="citation web cs1">Daniels, David D. (28 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://religionnews.com/2017/10/28/martin-luthers-dream-church-it-wasnt-in-europe/">"Martin Luther's 'dream' church? It wasn't in Europe"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Religion_News_Service" title="Religion News Service">Religion News Service</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Martin+Luther%27s+%27dream%27+church%3F+It+wasn%27t+in+Europe&rft.date=2017-10-28&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=David+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freligionnews.com%2F2017%2F10%2F28%2Fmartin-luthers-dream-church-it-wasnt-in-europe%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daniels2017-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Daniels2017_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDaniels2017" class="citation web cs1">Daniels, David D. (21 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.commercialappeal.com/story/opinion/contributors/2017/10/21/honor-reformations-african-roots/783252001/">"Honor the Reformation's African roots"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Commercial_Appeal" title="The Commercial Appeal">The Commercial Appeal</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Honor+the+Reformation%27s+African+roots&rft.pub=The+Commercial+Appeal&rft.date=2017-10-21&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=David+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.commercialappeal.com%2Fstory%2Fopinion%2Fcontributors%2F2017%2F10%2F21%2Fhonor-reformations-african-roots%2F783252001%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gilbert-12-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gilbert-12_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gilbert-12_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gilbert-12_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150219195346/http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/gilbert/12.html">"THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY AND SCANDINAVIA"</a>. <i>vlib.iue.it</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/gilbert/12.html">the original</a> on 19 February 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=vlib.iue.it&rft.atitle=THE+REFORMATION+IN+GERMANY+AND+SCANDINAVIA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvlib.iue.it%2Fcarrie%2Ftexts%2Fcarrie_books%2Fgilbert%2F12.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kristianstad_University-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kristianstad_University_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFabian_RimforsMarie-Louise_Rodén2017" class="citation news cs1">Fabian Rimfors; Marie-Louise Rodén (2 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hkr.se/nyheter/2017/500-arsjubileum-for-den-protestantiska-reformationen">"500-årsjubileum för den protestantiska reformationen"</a> [500th anniversary of the Protestant Reformation]. <i>Kristianstad University</i>. <a href="/wiki/Kristianstad" title="Kristianstad">Kristianstad</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230602161645/https://www.hkr.se/nyheter/2017/500-arsjubileum-for-den-protestantiska-reformationen/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2024</span>. <q>Sverige var den första nationalstaten att införa protestantismen, redan 1527 vid den så kallade Reformationsriksdagen i Västerås.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kristianstad+University&rft.atitle=500-%C3%A5rsjubileum+f%C3%B6r+den+protestantiska+reformationen&rft.date=2017-06-02&rft.au=Fabian+Rimfors&rft.au=Marie-Louise+Rod%C3%A9n&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hkr.se%2Fnyheter%2F2017%2F500-arsjubileum-for-den-protestantiska-reformationen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Article 1, of the <a href="/wiki/Articles_Declaratory_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Church_of_Scotland" title="Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland">Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland</a> 1921 states 'The Church of Scotland adheres to the Scottish Reformation'.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHolt1995" class="citation book cs1">Holt, Mack P. (1995). <i>The French Wars of Religion, 1562–1629</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">21–</span>22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Wars+of+Religion%2C+1562%E2%80%931629&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E21-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=Mack+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrance._Parlement_(Paris),_N._(Nathanaël)_Weiss,_and_Société_de_l'histoire_du_protestantisme_français_(France)1889" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">France. Parlement (Paris), N. (Nathanaël) Weiss, and Société de l'histoire du protestantisme français (France) (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008879259;view=2up;seq=1"><i>La Chambre Ardente</i></a> (in French). Paris: Fischbacher. p. XXXIV<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Chambre+Ardente&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=XXXIV&rft.pub=Fischbacher&rft.date=1889&rft.au=France.+Parlement+%28Paris%29%2C+N.+%28Nathana%C3%ABl%29+Weiss%2C+and+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+de+l%27histoire+du+protestantisme+fran%C3%A7ais+%28France%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dmdp.39015008879259%3Bview%3D2up%3Bseq%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBaird1891" class="citation book cs1">Baird, Henry M. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=home.eckerd.edu&rft.atitle=St.+Bartholomew%27s+Day+Massacre%2C+Paris+in+Conflict+and+contemporary+coin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.eckerd.edu%2F~oberhot%2Fparis-siege-stbarth.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Revesz, Imre, History of the Hungarian Reformed Church, Knight, George A.F. ed., <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Reformed_Federation_of_America" title="Hungarian Reformed Federation of America">Hungarian Reformed Federation of America</a> (Washington, D.C.: 1956).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eldrbarry.net/heidel/eeurorsc.htm">"The Forgotten Reformations in Eastern Europe – Resources"</a>. <i>www.eldrbarry.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.eldrbarry.net&rft.atitle=The+Forgotten+Reformations+in+Eastern+Europe+%E2%80%93+Resources&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eldrbarry.net%2Fheidel%2Feeurorsc.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAssiter2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alison_Assiter" title="Alison Assiter">Assiter, Alison</a>, ed. (2012). <i>Kierkegaard and the Political</i>. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Pub. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781443843850" title="Special:BookSources/9781443843850"><bdi>9781443843850</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kierkegaard+and+the+Political&rft.place=Newcastle+upon+Tyne&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Pub.&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781443843850&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth Scott Latourette, <i>Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, II: The Nineteenth Century in Europe: The Protestant and Eastern Churches</i> (1959) pp. 428–431</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Owen Chadwick, <i>Victorian Church</i> (2 vol. 1979)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Jay Williams, <i>Priscilla Lydia Sellon: the restorer after three centuries of the religious life in the English church</i> (SPCK, 1965).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Clark, <i>Iron Kingdom </i> (2006) pp. 412–419</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFClark1996" class="citation journal cs1">Clark, Christopher (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2639865">"Confessional Policy and the Limits of State Action: Frederick William III and the Prussian Church Union 1817-40"</a>. <i>The Historical Journal</i>. <b>39</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">985–</span>1004. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00024730">10.1017/S0018246X00024730</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-246X">0018-246X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2639865">2639865</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159976974">159976974</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=Confessional+Policy+and+the+Limits+of+State+Action%3A+Frederick+William+III+and+the+Prussian+Church+Union+1817-40&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E985-%3C%2Fspan%3E1004&rft.date=1996&rft.issn=0018-246X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159976974%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2639865%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X00024730&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2639865&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hajo Holborn, <i>A History of Modern Germany 1648–1840</i> (1964) pp. 485–491</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sydney E. Ahlstrom, <i>A Religious History of the American People</i>. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1972) p. 263</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatzko2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_A._Matzko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John A. Matzko (page does not exist)">Matzko, John</a> (2007). "The Encounter of the Young Joseph Smith with Presbyterianism". <i>Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought</i>. <b>40</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">68–</span>84.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogue%3A+A+Journal+of+Mormon+Thought&rft.atitle=The+Encounter+of+the+Young+Joseph+Smith+with+Presbyterianism&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E68-%3C%2Fspan%3E84&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Matzko&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span> Presbyterian historian Matzko notes that "Oliver Cowdery claimed that Smith had been 'awakened' during a sermon by the Methodist minister George Lane."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fogel-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fogel_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert William Fogel, <i>The Fourth Great Awakening & the Future of Egalitarianism</i> University of Chicago Press, 20000 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-25662-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-25662-6">0-226-25662-6</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/256626.html">excerpt</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jane Addams, <i>Twenty Years at Hull House; Edmund Wilson, The American Earthquake.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McGrath2011-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McGrath2011_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcGrath2011" class="citation cs2">McGrath, Alister E (14 January 2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bus5TyjTfxYC&pg=PA76"><i>Christian Theology: An Introduction</i></a>, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 76–, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-9770-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-9770-3"><bdi>978-1-4443-9770-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Theology%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=76-&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011-01-14&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-9770-3&rft.aulast=McGrath&rft.aufirst=Alister+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbus5TyjTfxYC%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BrownCollinson2012-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BrownCollinson2012_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrownCollinsonWilkinson2012" class="citation cs2">Brown, Stuart; Collinson, Diane; Wilkinson, Robert (10 September 2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hz8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52"><i>Biographical Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Philosophers</i></a>, Taylor & Francis, pp. 52–, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06043-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06043-1"><bdi>978-0-415-06043-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biographical+Dictionary+of+Twentieth-Century+Philosophers&rft.pages=52-&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2012-09-10&rft.isbn=978-0-415-06043-1&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft.au=Collinson%2C+Diane&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHz8OAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eauk.org/membership/our-members/find-a-church">"Find a church"</a>. <i>Evangelical Alliance</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Evangelical+Alliance&rft.atitle=Find+a+church&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eauk.org%2Fmembership%2Four-members%2Ffind-a-church&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ahlstrom, Sydney E. <i>A Religious History of the American People</i> (1972, 2nd ed. 2004); widely cited standard scholarly history <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Religious-History-American-People/dp/0300100124/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Chadwick, Owen. <i>A History of Christianity</i> (1995)</li> <li>Gilley, Sheridan, and Brian Stanley, eds. <i>The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities c.1815 – c.1914</i> (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-History-Christianity-Christianities-c-1815-c-1914/dp/0521814561/">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGonzález1985" class="citation book cs1">González, Justo L. (1985). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storyofchristian01gonz"><i>The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day</i></a></span>. San Francisco: Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-063316-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-063316-6"><bdi>0-06-063316-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Christianity%2C+Vol.+2%3A+The+Reformation+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-06-063316-6&rft.aulast=Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.aufirst=Justo+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoryofchristian01gonz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHastings1999" class="citation book cs1">Hastings, Adrian (1999). <i>A World History of Christianity</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-4875-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-4875-3"><bdi>0-8028-4875-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+History+of+Christianity&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-8028-4875-3&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hillerbrand, Hans J. ed. <i>Encyclopedia of Protestantism</i> (4 vol 2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Protestantism-4-Hans-Hillerbrand-ebook/dp/B000P0JNAI/">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLatourette1975" class="citation book cs1">Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1975). <i>A History of Christianity, Volume 2: 1500 to 1975</i>. San Francisco: Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-064953-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-064953-4"><bdi>0-06-064953-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Christianity%2C+Volume+2%3A+1500+to+1975&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-06-064953-4&rft.aulast=Latourette&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Latourette, Kenneth Scott. <i>Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, I: The Nineteenth Century in Europe: Background and the Roman Catholic Phase</i>; <i>Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, II: The Nineteenth Century in Europe: The Protestant and Eastern Churches</i>; <i>Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, III: The Nineteenth Century Outside Europe: The Americas, the Pacific, Asia and Africa</i> (1959–1969), detailed survey by leading scholar</li> <li>Lippy, Charles H., ed. <i>Encyclopedia of the American Religious Experience</i> (3 vol. 1988)</li> <li>MacCulloch, Diarmaid. <i>Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years</i> (2011)</li> <li>MacCulloch, Diarmaid. <i>The Reformation</i> (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Reformation-History-Diarmaid-MacCulloch/dp/014303538X/">excerpt</a></li> <li>McLeod, Hugh and Werner Ustorf, eds. <i>The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750–2000</i> (Cambridge UP, 2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/107349678/the-decline-of-christendom-in-western-europe-1750-2000">online</a></li> <li>Marshall, Peter. <i>The Reformation: A Very Short Introduction</i> (2009)</li> <li>Noll, Mark A. <i>A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada</i> (1992)</li> <li>Rosman, Doreen. <i>The Evolution of the English Churches, 1500–2000</i> (2003) 400pp</li> <li>Ryrie, Alec. <i>Protestants: The Faith That Made the Modern World</i> (2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Protestants-Faith-That-Modern-World/dp/0735222827/">excerpt</a>, covers last five centuries</li> <li>Winship, Michael P. <i>Hot Protestants: A History of Puritanism in England and America</i> (Yale UP, 2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Hot-Protestants-History-Puritanism-England/dp/030012628X/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Wylie, James Aitken. <i>The History of Protestantism</i> (3 vol. 1899) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=Wylie%2C%20James%20Aitken.%20%27%27The%20History%20Of%20Protestantism%27%27">online free</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Protestantism&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_Protestantism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of Protestantism">History of Protestantism</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <p>The following links give an overview of the history of Christianity: </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060909175126/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-49"><i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i>:</a> Christianity in History</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061024081839/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-50"><i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i>:</a> Church as an Institution</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Church History"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Church_History">"Church History" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). pp. <span class="nowrap">330–</span>345.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Church+History&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E330-%3C%2Fspan%3E345&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Walter+Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Protestantism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p>The following link provides quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time: </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thearda.com/">American Religion Data Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070202101418/http://baptistpillar.com/bd0547.htm">Historical Christianity</a>, A time line with references to the descendants of the early church.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Christianity" title="Template talk:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Christianity692" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History of theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Bible" title="Historicity of the Bible">Historicity of the Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">List of martyrs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Centuries9" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">2nd and 3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">7th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">8th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">9th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">14th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">17th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">21st</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins and<br />Apostolic Age</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Jesus" title="Chronology of Jesus">Chronology of Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">Historicity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christianity" title="Jewish Christianity">Jewish Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Split_of_Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Split of Christianity and Judaism">Split</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene<br />period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Early African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Roman state religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">Constantinople I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Ephesus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Non-Chalcedonian Christianity">Non-Chalcedonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Development of primacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy" title="Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy">Eastern Orthodox opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_Truce_of_God" title="Peace and Truce of God">Peace and Truce of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Lateran IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_patronage_of_Julius_II" title="Art patronage of Julius II">Art patronage of Julius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Xavier</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Monastery dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_rock" title="Mass rock">Mass rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest_hole" title="Priest hole">priest holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Neo-Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">Vatican I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesial_community" title="Ecclesial community">Ecclesial community</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Christianity" title="History of Eastern Christianity">Eastern<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon#History" title="Icon">Icons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">Iconodulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia" title="Christianization of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iberia" title="Christianization of Iberia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Russian Orthodox Church">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_North_America" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Iceland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Slavs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bohemia" title="Christianization of Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Pomerania" title="Christianization of Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Church" title="Bosnian Church">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Brethren" title="Apostolic Brethren">Apostolic Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulcinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulcinian">Dulcinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Early_Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Early Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Five Ways</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">Wycliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Papal Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Hus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">Conciliarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synods</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a><br />and<br /><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Protestantism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate" title="History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate">Calvinist–Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_theory_in_the_Early_Modern_period#Christian_resistance_theories_of_the_early_modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance theory in the Early Modern period">Resistance theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Reformation" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_and_material_principles_of_theology" title="Formal and material principles of theology">Formal and material principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Melanchthon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reformed_Christianity" title="History of Reformed Christianity">Calvinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_points_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Five points of Calvinism">TULIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology" title="Reformed baptismal theology">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Dort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Forms_of_Unity" title="Three Forms of Unity">Three Forms of Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Assembly" title="Westminster Assembly">Westminster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_orthodoxy" title="Reformed orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Anglicanism</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_English_Reformation" title="Timeline of the English Reformation">Timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">39 Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music" title="Anglican church music">Church music</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_theology" title="Anabaptist theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Grebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Brethren" title="Swiss Brethren">Swiss Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Synod" title="Martyrs' Synod">Martyrs' Synod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smyth_(English_theologian)" title="John Smyth (English theologian)">Smyth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_Mirror" title="Martyrs Mirror">Martyrs Mirror</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1640–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Revivalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Missionaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_toleration#Early_modern_period" title="Edict of toleration">Edicts of toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millerism" title="Millerism">Millerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Fostering of early experimental science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Lutherans" title="Old Lutherans">Old Lutherans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1789–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">Camp meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="History of the Latter Day Saint movement">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakening_(Finnish_religious_movement)" title="Awakening (Finnish religious movement)">Finnish Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist%E2%80%93Modernist_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy">Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five <i>solae</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic Movement">Charismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">Mainline</a> Protestants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/40px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" 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