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3000px, 100vw' /></picture></a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="wrapper" id="wrapper"> <div class="container"> <main class="content primary" id="content" role="main"> <article class="relative-content"> <div class="menu-glossaire-wrapper sticky-top" id="menu-definition"><ul class="nav menu-glossaire menu-nb-3"><li class='mav-item menu-glossaire-item menu-glossaire-item-auteur'><a class="btn btn-link" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#auteur" data-target="#auteur"><span class="picto-round picto-auteur"><img src='squelettes/img/picto-glossaire-auteur.svg?1619777159' alt='' width='20' height='19' /></span><span class="menu-glossaire-item-label">Author Definition</span></a></li> <li class='mav-item menu-glossaire-item menu-glossaire-item-institution'><a class="btn btn-link" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#institution" data-target="#institution"><span class="picto-round picto-institution"><img src='squelettes/img/picto-glossaire-institution.svg?1619777159' alt='' width='18' height='16' /></span><span class="menu-glossaire-item-label">Institution Definition</span></a></li> <li class='mav-item menu-glossaire-item menu-glossaire-item-index'><button class="btn btn-link collapsed" role="button" data-target="#index" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="index"><span class="picto-round picto-index"><img src='squelettes/img/picto-glossaire-index.svg?1619777159' alt='' width='20' height='18' /></span><span class="menu-glossaire-item-label">Table of contents</span></button></li></ul></div> <header class="section section_primary section_cols section_cartouche"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="cartouche cartouche_glossaire"> <h1 class="cartouche__heading" id="start"> <span class="start-mire"></span> <span class="crayon article-titre-12364 ">Know-how </span> </h1> </div> </div> </header> <section class="section section_primary section_cols section_author scrollable-anchor"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="section__main"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="auteur"> <span>Author Definition</span> </h2> <div class="section__content"> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-apercu" class="definition-section-title">Definition</h3> <div class="crayon article-chapo-112191 apercu surlignable"><p>Know-how refers to designs, plans, lists, techniques, processes, methods, skills and other information that is useful for some purpose. Know-how may be conveyed through the exchange of documents and physical artifacts, as well as through demonstration, instruction and training (sometimes referred to as “show-how”). Though some definitions of know-how require an element of secrecy, many definitions, particularly in private <a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/agreement-to-lessen-or-restrict-competition">agreements</a>, do not require that know-how satisfy the legal definition of trade secrecy. Likewise, know-how may involve the use or manufacture of patented articles or the performance of patented processes, but may itself be unpatented.</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-texte" class="definition-section-title">Commentary</h3> <div class="crayon article-texte-112191 texte surlignable"><p>Because know-how is not a formally recognized type of <a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/Intellectual-property-right-IPR">IP right</a>, it owes its legal existence largely to private <a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/licensing">licensing</a> agreements among parties. Licenses of know-how have been granted across industries since at least the early twentieth century, either in stand-alone transactions or, more commonly, as components of patent licenses. Studies of the prevalence of know-how licenses in various contexts are summarized in Chien (2016, 1689-90).</p> <p><i>Knowledge Transfer</i>. There are two principal functions that know-how plays in IP licenses. First, if the licensor provides training, support, consultation, expertise or some other technical assistance to the licensee, then the information and skills conveyed through those services may be “licensed” as know-how.</p> <p>In many cases, however, no such knowledge transfer is contemplated, yet the agreement (usually a <a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/patents">patent</a> license agreement) still contains a license of know-how. In these cases, the know-how license may be included as a means by which the licensor may continue to collect royalties after the relevant patents expire, given that it is considered patent “misuse” under U.S. law for a patent licensor to collect royalties after the licensed patent has expired (<i>Kimble</i> (2015)). To get around this limitation, patent holders can license patents and know-how together, so that even after the patents expire, there is still a valuable asset to support the payment of royalties (often at a reduced level). The same logic applies to patents that are invalidated after being licensed, and to sales of products in countries where patent protection does not exist. In all of these cases, royalties can be collected with respect to know-how, even though no enforceable patents are licensed (Gilbert & Shapiro (1997, 322-23); Contreras (2022, 139)).</p> <p>Beginning in 2020, know-how attracted significant global attention in the debate over manufacturing technology for COVID-19 vaccines. Commentators observed that, even without patent barriers, the manufacture of advanced biological products is not feasible without significant transfers of know-how by current producers (Price II et al. (2020)). These observations have led to calls for governmental intervention and potential compulsory disclosures of manufacturing know-how (ibid.).</p> <p><i>Antitrust and Competition Law</i>. In the 1950s and 1960s, there was significant concern among scholars and policy makers that the licensing of vaguely defined know-how might run afoul of the antitrust laws. Several of these concerns arose from the malleable nature of the know-how concept: unlike patents or <a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/copyright">copyrights</a>, know-how never expires, leading to the potential for perpetual arrangements; unlike trade secrets, which are destroyed upon public disclosure, know-how need not remain secret in order to support a royalty payment, thereby creating a virtually indestructible, perpetual source for ongoing royalties and associated restraints on conduct. As a result, early observers viewed know-how licenses as potential pretexts for market and territorial allocation schemes and other illegal restraints.</p> <p>In 1970, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) Antitrust Division laid out “Nine No-Nos” of patent and know-how licensing – practices that were virtually guaranteed to violate the antitrust laws through “attempts by patent holders to extend their patent <a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/Monopoly">monopolies</a> to unpatented supplies, to gain control over improvements of their innovations, to determine <a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/price">prices</a> for resale of their patented products, or to engage in market allocations” (Gilbert & Shapiro (1997, 285). Know-how licensing was seen to facilitate several of these illegal practices. But the DOJ’s suspicion of IP arrangements began to wane by the 1980s, and in 1995 the DOJ and Federal Trade Commission jointly released <i>Antitrust Guidelines for the Licensing of Intellectual Property</i> (updated in 2017). The <i>Guidelines</i> recognized the generally pro-competitive nature of IP licensing arrangements and endorsed their analysis under the “<a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/rule-of-reason">rule of reason</a>”, which continues to be applied today.</p> <p>In the EU, know-how licenses are addressed by the European Commission’s Technology Transfer <a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/block-exemption-regulation">Block Exemption Regulation</a> (TTBER) (Reg. 316/2014), which exempts such licenses from liability under Article 101 of the TFEU if they fall within permitted market share limits and are free of any enumerated <a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/hard-core-restrictions">“hardcore” restrictions</a>.</p> <p><i>Know-How and Trade Secrecy</i>. The potential for anticompetitive abuse through know-how licensing led some early commentators to argue that in order to be licensed, know-how must meet the requirements of trade secrecy, a conclusion supported by a U.S. district court in <i>Mycalex</i> (1946). This reasoning, however, leads to incongruous results. Take, for example, the case of a new, unpatented device that is disclosed and licensed to a manufacturer, who then sells it to the public. Were the licensed know-how supporting the agreement required to be a trade secret, then the licensed asset would evaporate upon the first sale of a product to the public. The U.S. Supreme Court confirmed in <i>Aronson</i> (1979) that the disclosure of an unpatented and non-secret invention could support a royalty agreement indefinitely.</p> <p>While know-how licenses around the world often define know-how as encompassing both secret and non-secret information, the TTBER exemption only covers know-how while it remains secret (TTBER, Arts. 1(1)(i)), 2(2)), irrespective of how it may be defined in the underlying agreement. This seeming discrepancy appears to exist because the term ‘know-how’ functions in the TTBER as a stand-in for the term ‘trade secret’ (Sousa e Silva (2014, 924)), a form of IP that was not generally recognized under this name in the EU until the adoption in 2016 of the European Trade Secrecy Directive, No. 2016/943. As a result, licenses of non-secret know-how under Article 101 do not appear to benefit from the TTBER exemption and would be analysed directly under Article 101.</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-jurisprudence" class="definition-section-title">Case references</h3> <div class="crayon article-reference-112191 reference"><p>Aronson v. Quick Point Pencil Co., 440 U.S. 257 (1979) (‘Aronson’)</p> <p><a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/bulletin/news-issues/june-2015/The-US-Supreme-Court-reaffirms-the">Kimble v. Marvel Entertainment, LLC, 576 U.S. 446 (2015) (‘Kimble’)</a></p> <p>Mycalex Corp. of America v. Pemco Corp., 64 F. Supp. 420 (D. Md. 1946) (‘Mycalex’)</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-biblio" class="definition-section-title">Bibliography</h3> <div class="crayon article-ps-112191 jurisprudence"><p>Colleen V. Chien, ‘Software Patents as a Currency, Not Tax, On Innovation’ (2016) 31 <i>Berkeley Technology Law Journal</i> 1669</p> <p>Jorge L Contreras, <i>Intellectual Property Licensing and Transactions: Theory and Practice</i> (Cambridge Univ Press 2022), § 6.1.3</p> <p>Richard Gilbert & Carl Shapiro, ‘Antitrust Issues in the Licensing of Intellectual Property: The Nine No-No’s Meet the Nineties’ (1997) <i>Brookings Papers on Economic Activity. Microeconomics</i>, 283</p> <p>W Nicholson Price II, Arti K Rai and Timo Minssen, ‘Knowledge Transfer for Large-Scale Vaccine Manufacturing’ (2020) 369 <i>Science</i> 912</p> <p>Nuno Sousa e Silva, ‘What exactly is a trade secret under the proposed directive?’ (2014) 9 <i>Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice</i> 923</p></div> </div> </div> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"> <div class="miniplan miniplan_definition sticky-top" id="definition-index"> <ul class="nav nav-list"> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#part-apercu" data-target="#part-apercu">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#part-texte" data-target="#part-texte">Commentary</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#part-jurisprudence" data-target="#part-jurisprudence">Case references</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#part-biblio" data-target="#part-biblio">Bibliography</a></li> </ul> </div> <h2>Author</h2> <div class="auteurs"> <ul class="liste-items liste-items-well"> <li class="item"><div class="entry auteur" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <strong class="entry-title"> <a href="en/authors/jorge-l-contreras" itemprop="url"> <span class='logo-img-wrapper spip_logo' style="width:50px;"><span class="img" style="display:block;position:relative;height:0;width:100%;padding-bottom:100%;overflow:hidden;background:url(local/cache-vignettes/L100xH100/auton51183-04e08.png?1711359209) no-repeat center;background-size:100%;"> </span></span> <span itemprop="name" class="nom">Jorge L. Contreras</span></a> </strong> <div class="entry-content"> <span class='organisation' itemprop="worksFor" itemtype="http://schema.org/Organization">University of Utah (Salt Lake City)</span> </div> <div class="entry-meta"> <span class="pays">United States</span> <span class="articles"><em>6</em> contributions</span> <span class="visites"><em>4525</em> visits</span> </div> </div></li> </ul> </div> <div class="well citation"> <h2>Quotation</h2> <article class="entry article article-dictionary hentry"> <span class="authors">Jorge L. Contreras, </span> <span class="entry-title">Know-How</span><span class="rubrique"><span class="sep">, </span> Global Dictionary of Competition Law, Concurrences, Art. N° 12364</span> </article> </div> <div class="well stats"> <p><i class="picto picto-eye"></i> <b>Visits</b> <em class="number">5212</em></p> </div> </aside> </div> </section> <section class="section section_primary section_cols section_author scrollable-anchor"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="section__main"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="institution"> <span>Institution Definition</span> </h2> <div class="section__content"> <div class="crayon article-texte-12364 texte surlignable"><p>Specific knowledge held by an individual or a company on a product or production process, often obtained through extensive and costly research and development (R&D). Under the EU competition rules know-how is normally deemed to be a body of technical information that is secret, substantial and identified. Secret means that the know-how package as a body or in the precise configuration and assembly of its components is not generally known or easily accessible. Substantial means that the know-how includes information which must be useful. Identified means that the know-how is described or recorded in such a manner as to make it possible to verify that it satisfies the criteria of secrecy and substantiality.</p> <p><strong>©</strong> <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/competition/" class="spip_out" rel="external"><strong>European Commission</strong></a></p></div> </div> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"></aside> </div> </section> <div class="index-overlay collapse" id="index"> <span class="arrow-top"></span> <button class="close">×</button> <div class="glossaire-index"> <div class="main"> <div class="index"> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#a" data-anchor="#a">a</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#b" data-anchor="#b">b</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#c" data-anchor="#c">c</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#d" data-anchor="#d">d</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#e" data-anchor="#e">e</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#f" data-anchor="#f">f</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#g" data-anchor="#g">g</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#h" data-anchor="#h">h</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#i" data-anchor="#i">i</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#j" data-anchor="#j">j</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#k" data-anchor="#k">k</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#l" data-anchor="#l">l</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#m" data-anchor="#m">m</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#n" data-anchor="#n">n</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#o" data-anchor="#o">o</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#p" data-anchor="#p">p</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#r" data-anchor="#r">r</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#s" data-anchor="#s">s</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#t" data-anchor="#t">t</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#u" data-anchor="#u">u</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#v" data-anchor="#v">v</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/Know-how#w" data-anchor="#w">w</a> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="a"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">a</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/absolute-territorial-protection">Absolute territorial protection </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/abuse-of-dominant-position-en">Abuse of dominant position</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/abuse-of-economic-dependence">Abuse of economic dependence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/access-to-the-file-en">Access to the file</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/actual-competitor">Actual competitor </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/administered-prices">Administered prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/advisory-committee-118302">Advisory committee</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/agent-en">Agent</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/agreement-notion-en">Agreement (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ai-collusion-algorithm">AI Collusion (Algorithm)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/AKZO-Procedure">AKZO Procedure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/amicus-curiae">Amicus curiae</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ancillary-restraints">Ancillary restraints </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/annulment">Annulment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-market-distortions">Anticompetitive Market Distortions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-object-or-effect-en">Anticompetitive object or effect</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-practices">Anticompetitive practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Antitrust">Antitrust</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/applicable-law">Applicable law</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/arbitration">Arbitration</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/article-11-letter">Article 11 letter </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/artificial-intelligence">Artificial Intelligence </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/aec-as-efficient-competitor-principle-and-test">As-Efficient Competitor (AEC)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="b"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">b</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/barriers-to-entry-en">Barriers to entry</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bertrand-nash-equilibrium">Bertrand (Nash) equilibrium</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bid-rigging">Bid rigging</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/block-exemption-regulation">Block exemption (Regulation) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/boycott">Boycott</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/brand-competition-en">Brand competition</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bundling">Bundling</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/burden-of-proof">Burden of proof</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/buyer-power">Buyer power </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="c"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">c</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/cartel">Cartel </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/clearance-phase-ii-merger">Clearance phase II (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collecting-society">Collecting society </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collective-dominance">Collective dominance</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collective-redress-class-action">Collective redress (class action)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/comity">Comity </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/commission-communication">Commission communication</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/competence">Competence </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/competition-policy-89181">Competition policy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/complaint">Complaint </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Compliance-programme">Compliance programme </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/compulsory-license">Compulsory license</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concentration-indexes-en">Concentration indexes</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concerted-practices-en">Concerted practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concession-86056">Concession</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concurrent-jurisdiction">Concurrent jurisdiction</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Consortium-12192">Consortium </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/consumer-protection">Consumer protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/consumers-associations-en">Consumers’ associations</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/control-change">Control (change)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/control-notion">Control (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cooperation-between-competition-authorities-en">Cooperation between competition authorities</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/coordinated-effects">Coordinated effects</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/copyright">Copyright</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/corruption">Corruption</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cost-based-access">Cost-based access</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cournot-nash-equilibrium">Cournot (Nash) equilibrium</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/criminal-sanctions">Criminal sanctions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cross-subsidisation">Cross subsidisation </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="d"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">d</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/damages">Damages</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/de-minimis-notice">De minimis notice</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/digital-markets-act">Digital Markets Act</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/direct-effect">Direct effect</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/discriminatory-practices">Discriminatory practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/distribution-agreement">Distribution agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/divestiture">Divestiture</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/dominance-notion">Dominance (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/downstream-market-117440">Downstream market</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="e"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">e</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/echr">ECHR</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economic-analysis">Economic analysis</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economic-efficiency">Economic efficiency</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economies-of-scale">Economies of scale </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ecosystem-failures">Ecosystem Failures</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effect-on-trade-between-member-states">Effect on trade between Member States</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effective-judicial-protection">Effective judicial protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effects-doctrine-118100">Effects doctrine</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/efta-surveillance-authority-esa-court">EFTA Surveillance Authority (ESA) & Court </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/environmental-protection-en">Environmental protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/error-costs-108946">Error costs</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/essential-facility">Essential facility</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/european-competition-network-ecn-en">European Competition Network (ECN)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/excessive-prices-en">Excessive prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exchange-of-information">Exchanges of information</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusionary-practice">Exclusionary practice </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Exclusive-distribution-12218">Exclusive distribution </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en">Exclusive purchasing agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusive-right-art-106-tfeu">Exclusive right (Art. 106 TFEU)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause">Exclusivity clause</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Exhaustion">Exhaustion </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Extra-territoriality">Extra-territoriality</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="f"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">f</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/Failing-firm-defence">Failing firm defence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/fidelity-rebates">Fidelity rebates</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Fine">Fine</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/fintech">Fintech</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreclosure-117887">Foreclosure</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreign-direct-investment-fdi">Foreign direct investment (FDI)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreign-subsidies">Foreign Subsidies</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/form-co">Form CO (EU) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/frand">FRAND</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Free-riding">Free riding </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="g"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">g</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/geographic-market">Geographic market</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/corporate-group">Group of undertakings</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/group-purchasing-organization">Group purchasing organization</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/guidelines-119080">Guidelines</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/gun-jumping">Gun jumping</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="h"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">h</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/hard-core-restrictions">Hard core restrictions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Hearing-officer">Hearing officer </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/horizontal-agreement">Horizontal cooperation agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/hsr-filing-us-108854">HSR Filing (US)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="i"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">i</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/independence-and-impartiality">Independence and impartiality</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/individual-exemption-86377">Individual exemption</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/industrial-policy">Industrial policy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/intellectual-property-right-en">Intellectual property right</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/inter-brand-competition">Inter-brand competition </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Interim-measures">Interim measures </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/international-co-operation">International co-operation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/international-competition-network-icn">International competition network (ICN) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/investigations-inquiries-en">Investigations / inquiries</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="j"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">j</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/judicial-review">Judicial review</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="k"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">k</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/Know-how">Know-how </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="l"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">l</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/legal-privilege">Legal privilege</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Leniency-programme">Leniency</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/lerner-index">Lerner index</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/letter-of-formal-notice-118055">Letter of formal notice </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/licensing">Licensing</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/limitation-period-119083">Limitation Period </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="m"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">m</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/margin-squeeze">Margin squeeze</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/marginal-costs">Marginal costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-economy-investor">Market economy investor</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-power">Market power</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-share">Market share </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/media-pluralism">Media pluralism</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-notion-12318-en">Merger (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-prohibition">Merger (prohibition)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-withdrawal-118046">Merger (withdrawal)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Merger-control-procedure">Merger control procedure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-remedies-100323">Merger remedies</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/minority-shareholdings-89176">Minority shareholdings</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/misinformation">Misinformation</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/mobility-barriers-117741">Mobility Barriers</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Monopoly">Monopoly </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="n"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">n</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/ne-bis-in-idem-86490">Ne bis in idem</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/negative-clearance-118047">Negative clearance</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Network-effect">Network effect </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/non-compete-obligation-12156-en">Non-compete obligation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/non-horizontal-mergers">Non-Horizontal Mergers </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/notification-12310">Notification</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/nullity">Nullity </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="o"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">o</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/oligopoly">Oligopoly </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/online-platforms">Online Platforms</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="p"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">p</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/parallel-imports-parallel-trade-en">Parallel imports (parallel trade)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/passing-on-en">Passing-on</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Passive-sales">Passive sales </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/patents">Patents</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/pay-for-delay">Pay-for-delay</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/periodic-penalty-payment">Periodic penalty payment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/potential-competition">Potential competition </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/predatory-pricing">Predatory pricing</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/preliminary-rulings-art-267-tfue">Preliminary ruling (Art. 267 TFUE) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-discrimination-en">Price discrimination </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-leadership">Price leadership</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-signaling">Price signalling</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-fixing-agreement">Price-fixing agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/prices-en">Prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-equal-treatment">Principle of equal treatment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-equivalence">Principle of equivalence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-proportionality">Principle of proportionality</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/privacy-and-data-protection">Privacy and data protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/private-enforcement">Private enforcement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/privatization-en">Privatization</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/procedural-autonomy">Procedural autonomy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/professional-association-86373-en">Professional association</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/public-procurement">Public procurement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Public-undertaking">Public undertaking</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="r"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">r</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/r-d-agreement">R&D agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/case-referral-system-mergers">Referral (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/refusal-to-deal">Refusal to deal</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/the-registry-of-the-general-court-of-the-european-union">Registry of the General Court of the European Union</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Relevant-market">Relevant market</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/remedies-antitrust-en">Remedies (antitrust)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/request-for-information">Request for information</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/resale-below-cost-en">Resale below cost </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/resale-price-maintenance-rpm">Resale price maintenance (RPM)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/restriction-on-exportation">Restriction on exportation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/rule-of-reason">Rule of reason</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="s"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">s</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/sunk-costs-117836"> Sunk Costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sector-inquiry">Sector inquiry</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/selective-distribution">Selective distribution </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/self-preference-111802">Self-Preference</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Services-of-general-economic">Services of general economic interest </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Single-branding">Single branding </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sole-control">Sole control</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/specialization-agreements">Specialization agreements </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Spill-over-effects">Spill-over effects </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/standard-essential-patent-sep">Standard-Essential Patent (SEP)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-action-defense">State action defence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-compatibility">State aid (compatibility)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-existing-aid">State aid (existing aid) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-notification-en">State aid (notification)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid">State aid (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-recovery">State aid (recovery) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-unlawful-aid">State aid (unlawful aid) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/State-measure">State measure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Statement-of-objections-SO">Statement of objections (SO) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Substitutability">Substitutability </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sustainability">Sustainability</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/switching-costs">Switching Costs</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="t"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">t</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/technology-transfer">Technology transfer</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/test-siec-merger-en">Test SIEC (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-slc-src-sdc-tests">Test SLC (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/tipping">Tipping</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/business-secrets">Trade Secrets</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/trademark">Trademark</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/trustee-mergers-en">Trustee (mergers)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/turnover-threshold-merger">Turnover threshold (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/two-sided-market">Two-sided market</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="u"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">u</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/undertaking-notion">Undertaking (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/unfair-competition">Unfair competition</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/universal-service-118054">Universal Service</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/upstream-market">Upstream market </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="v"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">v</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/variable-costs">Variable costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Vertical-agreement">Vertical agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/vertical-restraints-or-restrictions">Vertical restraints (or restrictions)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="w"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">w</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/White-clause">White clause</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/withdrawal-of-the-benefit-of-a-block-exemption">Withdrawal (of the benefit of a block exemption)</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> <script type="text/javascript"> jQuery(function(){ // hack on appelle 1 scrollspy sur body et 1 sur window pour pas les melanger jQuery(window).scrollspy({ target: '#menu-definition', offset: 130 }); jQuery('body').scrollspy({ target: '#definition-index', 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