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<div class="user-welcome"></div> <div class="login-form-wrapper-mobile"> <div class="login-form"> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-primary keep-label-space-top"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-user"></i> Mon Compte </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-lg-none text-center mb-3"> <a href="/abonnement" title="Je m'abonne" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Top (mobile)"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/6/csm_banner-cta_534716667b.webp" width="728" height="90" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" class="img-max shadow-sm"/> </a> </div> <div class="row"> <div id="main-content" class="col-lg-8 col-xl-9 pb-4"> <div class="free-toc-container"> <ul id="free-toc" class="collapse list-group shadow-sm mb-1" style="overflow: hidden"> <li class="list-group-item active"> <a class="d-block" title="SUJET, Cartésianisme et psychanalyse" href="/encyclopedie/sujet/"> 1. Cartésianisme et psychanalyse </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="SUJET, Le sujet psychanalytique" href="/encyclopedie/sujet/2-le-sujet-psychanalytique/"> 2. Le sujet psychanalytique </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="SUJET, Le signifiant et le désir" href="/encyclopedie/sujet/3-le-signifiant-et-le-desir/"> 3. Le signifiant et le désir </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="SUJET, Sujet, moi et parole" href="/encyclopedie/sujet/4-sujet-moi-et-parole/"> 4. Sujet, moi et parole </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="SUJET, Bibliographie" href="/encyclopedie/sujet/5-bibliographie/"> 5. Bibliographie </a> </li> </ul> <button class="btn btn-sm btn-universalis" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#free-toc" aria-expanded="false" title="Afficher / masquer le sommaire"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-eye"></i> Sommaire </button> </div> <h1 class="mb-1"> <strong>SUJET</strong> </h1> <ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><p class="text-sm text-muted mb-1">Article modifié le <time datetime="2025-01-29"> 29/01/2025 </time></p><div class="content paged type-article" ><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yR171061_0"><i class="anchor" id="yR171061_0"></i><p>Il n'est point de sujet sans dépendance affirmée à l'égard d'une puissance dont ce sujet relève, de par les hasards de sa constitution anatomique, de son caractère et de sa situation au sein d'une classe sociale et d'une constellation familiale déterminées, mais aussi de par les lois et coutumes de son pays, les études et les recherches en cours et, d'une façon générale, les conditions culturelles et politiques qui sont celles de son époque. « Derrière l'être aimé, notait W. Benjamin, l'abîme du sexe se referme comme celui de la famille. » Car qui pourrait ignorer que le sujet de l'<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="« Dieu aimeras et ton prochain comme toi-même. » Toute la civilisation judéo-chrétienne est fondée sur ce double commandement énigmatique, dont la théorie freudienne semble fournir la version moderne lorsqu'elle montre l'injonction de jouir comme issue des profondeurs du psychisme. Mais il est vrai qu'entre une simple exigence du sujet et l' altruisme total prôné par Jésus-C..." title="Article : AMOUR" href="/encyclopedie/amour/">amour</a> est aussi celui du sexe et de la tribu, comme il est par ailleurs celui du droit, du prince ou de la science ? Bref, tout se passe comme si l'être humain se découpait suivant les différentes incidences qui ont été arbitrairement adoptées à son égard : travailleur ou <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La notion d'individualité ne se laisse définir ni par les procédés étymologiques habituels aux philosophes depuis que Platon en a établi la coutume dans le Cratyle , ni par une axiomatique rationnelle. Lorsqu'on s'y attache, c'est pour trouver des différences, lui opposer d'autres notions ; tout se passe comme si elle relevait de plusieurs champs sémantiques, sans qu'au premier abord i..." title="Article : INDIVIDU" href="/encyclopedie/individu/">individu</a> sexué, malade à soigner ou cadavre à disséquer, être inconséquent ou sujet responsable, matière à pétrir ou <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La notion de personne a longtemps été du seul ressort de la psychologie et de la philosophie : une longue tradition occidentale s'est interrogée sur la persona , devenue progressivement la catégorie permettant de subsumer l' âme et le corps pensés comme indissociables, doués de raison et perfectibles. Par la suite, les études psychologiques de la personne se sont davantage centrées s..." title="Article : PERSONNE" href="/encyclopedie/personne/">personne</a> à respecter...</p><p>En ce sens, on pourrait dire que tout sujet participe du <em>medium</em>, puisqu'il se situe dans une zone tierce entre l'être indéterminé toujours en gésine et le point de vue transsubjectif qu'on adopte pour donner consistance à ce qui serait, sans une distribution particulière de la lumière, simple masse amorphe. Aussi bien ne saurait-on jamais partir d'un sujet isolé et absolu. Et, de fait, l'on connaît les difficultés rencontrées dans l'élaboration de la notion du « droit subjectif » par Grotius, Hobbes ou Rudolf von Jhering : comment le droit pourrait-il être tiré analytiquement de la notion de sujet, comment pourrait-il être son attribut, lors même qu'il résulte d'une attribution moins de « pouvoirs » que de « biens » dans une organisation générale du <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le terme de monde est utilisé dans des contextes très divers pour indiquer, d'une manière ou de l'autre, une totalité d'appartenance. Ainsi on parle du « monde grec » ou du « monde de la Renaissance », pour désigner des ensembles culturels spécifiques, situés dans notre passé historique et auxquels nous avons accès à travers un certain nombre d'œuvres qui sont venues jusqu'à ..." title="Article : MONDE" href="/encyclopedie/monde/">monde</a> grâce à laquelle se trouve distribué à chacun son « lot » ?</p><p>Or, dans la perspective ouverte par Freud, Lacan joint et oppose aux différentes interprétations possibles de la notion de sujet celle de sujet psychanalytique, compris comme sujet de l'<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Dans un article paru en 1917, Freud compare la révolution provoquée par la psychanalyse à celles de Copernic et de Darwin. De même que la Terre ne peut plus être considérée comme le centre de l'univers et que l'homme apparaît tard venu dans la lignée animale, de même le moi conscient n'est plus le maître dans sa propre maison. Après une première humiliation dans l'ordre cosmolog..." title="Article : INCONSCIENT" href="/encyclopedie/inconscient/">inconscient</a>. Il faudrait alors d'emblée définir celui-ci d'une façon tautologique comme ce qui est justiciable de l'investigation psychanalytique. Ainsi prétendrait-on éviter le contresens si naturel, pourrait-on dire, par lequel le sujet d'une praxis se trouve confondu avec l'être humain dans son entier. « L' homme de la science n'existe pas, mais seulement son sujet », écrit Lacan. Aussi bien nulle discipline ne pourra atteindre un statut scientifique, si elle ne parvient à déterminer – à « purifier » et à « réduire » – son sujet, de manière à se mettre en situation d'<em>opérer </em>correctement <em>sur </em>lui.</p><div class="clearfix"></div></div><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yR171061_1"><i class="anchor" id="yR171061_1"></i><h2>Cartésianisme et psychanalyse</h2><p>Un premier point est essentiel : le sujet psychanalytique vient au jour en même <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Chacun sait à quel aspect de son expérience répond le mot de temps ; mais aucune définition de la notion correspondante n'a reçu jusqu'ici, chez les savants comme chez les philosophes, une approbation unanime. Sensible à cette difficulté qu'il jugeait caractéristique de toutes les notions premières, Pascal estimait que le temps est de ces choses qu'il est impossible et même inutile de..." title="Article : TEMPS" href="/encyclopedie/temps/">temps</a> que la science moderne et, plus exactement, au temps où l'impérialisme de celle-ci, se réfractant du côté de la logique, apprend à connaître ses bornes dans l'impossibilité d'une démonstration de consistance et l'indécidabilité formelle de ses énoncés. Le sujet psychanalytique, c'est celui que la science moderne s'est efforcée en vain de « suturer » et à partir duquel elle a pu se définir de cette impuissance même. Bref, c'est son « corrélat antinomique », comme l'écrit Lacan.</p><p>Mais revenons au sujet cartésien, surgi comme on le sait d'un rejet du Savoir : le sujet doutant exclut de lui quelque chose – tout le champ de l'inévident – pour parvenir à une certitude, dont on connaît pourtant le peu d'ampleur : même si le malin <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="À l'éloge réitéré depuis l'Antiquité jusqu'à la fin du xvii e siècle du génie comme « divine ardeur », « fureur démoniaque », « sublime folie », « inspiration surhumaine », fait place au début du xviii e une description positive du genius , de ses causes et de sa nature. Un peu postérieure à la renaissance (grâce à la traduction que donna Boileau du Peri upsous..." title="Article : GÉNIE" href="/encyclopedie/genie/">génie</a> me trompe, je pense, donc je suis ; et « la proposition <em>je suis, j'existe </em>est nécessairement vraie, toutes les fois que je la prononce, ou que je la conçois en mon<a href="javascript:" title="Lire la suite" class="read-more ms-1">[...]</a></p></div><div class="clearfix"></div></div><ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><div class="folio-block"><p class="folio-block-title text-center text-uc"><strong>La suite de cet article est accessible aux abonnés</strong></p><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Des contenus variés, complets et fiables</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Accessible sur tous les écrans</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Pas de publicité</li></ul><p class="text-center"><a href="/abonnement/" class="btn btn-cta text-uc" id="folio-button" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="Block bottom">Découvrez nos offres </a></p><p class="text-center text-sm"> Déjà abonné ? <a href="/identification/" id="folio-login">Se connecter</a></p></div><div id="ad_mpuslot" class="pub-container text-center"><div class="pub-placeholder"></div></div><section class="mt-3 mb-5"><i class="anchor" id="R171061_AUTHORS"></i><p class="title-minor">Écrit par</p><ul class="list-group"><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="SAINT GIRONS, Baldine"><a title="Auteur : Baldine SAINT GIRONS" rel="author" href="/auteurs/baldine-saint-girons/"><strong>Baldine SAINT GIRONS</strong></a> : maître de conférences en philosophie à l'université de Paris-X-Nanterre </li></ul></section><section class="mb-5"><div class="text-center mb-3 d-print-none"><a class="d-inline-flex flex-row justify-content-center align-items-center btn btn-light btn-large text-start" title="Carte mentale : SUJET" href="/carte-mentale/sujet/"><i class="fa fa-sitemap fa-rotate-270 me-1 fs-1 text-universalis"></i><p class="m-0"><strong class="fs-4">Carte mentale</strong><br /> Élargissez votre recherche dans Universalis </p></a></div></section> <section class="mb-5 article-classification" data-print-label="la classification" data-print-target=".article-classification"> <i class="anchor" id="yR171061_ROOT_LINES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Classification</p> <nav aria-label="Classification 1"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Philosophie" href="/classification/philosophie/"> Philosophie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Philosophie générale" href="/classification/philosophie/philosophie-generale/"> Philosophie générale </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Sujet"> <a title="Classification : Sujet" href="/classification/philosophie/philosophie-generale/sujet/"> Sujet </a> </li> </ol> </nav> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yR171061_REFERENCES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Autres références</p> <ul class="list-group"> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/conscience-notions-de-base/#c3936"> <span class="rg">CONSCIENCE </span><span class="rm">(notions de base)</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Philippe GRANAROLO</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">2 719 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie de RENÉ DESCARTES (1596-1650). René Descartes est à la fois le plus célèbre et le plus grand des philosophes français. En France, cependant, sa célébrité ne tient pas toujours à son génie, mais à une simplification désastreuse de sa doctrine, où l'on ne voit qu'un rationalisme étroit et à courte vue : chacun, alors, croit pouvoir invoquer à tout propos l'autorité d..." title="Article : RENÉ DESCARTES (1596-1650)" href="/encyclopedie/rene-descartes/">Descartes</a> (1596-1650) est incontournable si nous avons l’intention de nous réconcilier avec la conscience.Qu’est-ce donc que le « cogito » (le « Je pense donc je suis ») cartésien ? C’est la découverte de la certitude inébranlable de notre vie intérieure, acquise à l’issue du doute méthodique,... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/acting-out/"> <span class="rg">ACTING OUT</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Pierre-Paul LACAS</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 162 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p><em>Acting out</em>, expression anglaise utilisée principalement en <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La psychanalyse n'aurait pas occupé la place qui lui revient, non seulement dans le progrès des disciplines médicales et des sciences humaines , mais dans le développement général de la civilisation, si la préoccupation la plus intime de Freud n'avait été, de toujours, celle de la souffrance . En témoignent, aux origines de sa carrière, ses recherches sur les stupéfiants ; et l..." title="Article : PSYCHANALYSE" href="/encyclopedie/psychanalyse/">psychanalyse</a> et en thérapie de groupe pour désigner une transgression de la règle fondamentale de verbalisation, dans l'association libre, ou celle du « faire comme si », dans le <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La représentation dramatique ne procure pas seulement une émotion esthétique. Elle mobilise souvenirs, sentiments et imagination. Aristote a, le premier, étudié ses effets psychologiques en soulignant la valeur cathartique de l'action théâtrale : le thème joué suscite chez le spectateur des émotions dont il peut ainsi se dégager. L'usage pédagogique du théâtre date de l'âge class..." title="Article : PSYCHODRAME" href="/encyclopedie/psychodrame/">psychodrame</a>, l'<em>acting out</em> définit...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/amour/#c3936"> <span class="rg">AMOUR</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Georges BRUNEL</span> et <span rel="author">Baldine SAINT GIRONS</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">10 184 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">5 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : AMOUR" href="/encyclopedie/amour/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Amour jouant du luth, R. Fiorentino - crédits : Rabatti - Domingie/ AKG-images" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/3/8/csm_ph040010_c35ce3e2c2.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...Seul le sacrifice de son objet permet à l'amour de prendre conscience de lui-même, lui qui se nourrit plus encore d'absence que de présence. Aussi bien le sujet amoureux, ne pouvant s'enrichir, par simple « identification », des qualités de l'aimé, est-il conduit à vivre dans l'ahurissement cette immolation... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/auteur/#c3936"> <span class="rg">AUTEUR</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Alain BRUNN</span> , <span rel="author"> Encyclopædia Universalis</span> et <span rel="author">François-René MARTIN</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">3 112 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">12 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : AUTEUR" href="/encyclopedie/auteur/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Voltaire - crédits : Hulton Archive/ Getty Images" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/7/b/csm_ph991836_567f02913f.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...détaché de l'espace religieux, et que la séparation du spirituel et du temporel soit menée à terme, après les <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="En France, on appelle d'ordinaire « guerres de religion » les conflits armés qui opposèrent, dans le royaume, catholiques et calvinistes entre 1562 et 1598. La perspective historique impliquée par cette géographie et par cette chronologie est à tous égards trop étroite. En effet la lutte armée entre chrétiens fidèles à Rome et réformés reprit en France après la mort d' Henri..." title="Article : GUERRES DE RELIGION" href="/encyclopedie/guerres-de-religion/">guerres de Religion</a>, par l'<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Comme tous les concepts à plusieurs dimensions (ici politique, historique, juridique, doctrinal), le concept d'absolutisme est assez flou. Son étude présente trois sortes de difficultés portant sur l'objet lui-même.. La première difficulté tient à ce que l'on désigne généralement par ce terme des doctrines, ou un corps de doctrines. Or une analyse même sommaire montre à quel point ces..." title="Article : ABSOLUTISME" href="/encyclopedie/absolutisme/">absolutisme</a>. L'invention moderne du sujet philosophique marque la rupture avec le régime anonyme de la parole qui préside au texte médiéval. Elle change la définition... </div> </li> <li class="list-unstyled text-center mt-3"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" title="Afficher la liste complète des références" rel="related" href="/index/sujet/"> Afficher les 70 références <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i> </a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none article-indexes learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yR171061_INDEXES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Voir aussi</p> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet"> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : REPRÉSENTATION & CONNAISSANCE" href="/index/representation-et-connaissance/"> <span class="rg">REPRÉSENTATION & CONNAISSANCE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PAROLE" href="/index/parole/"> <span class="rg">PAROLE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : COGITO" href="/index/cogito/"> <span class="rg">COGITO</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : LANGAGE, psychanalyse" href="/index/langage-psychanalyse/"> <span class="rg">LANGAGE, </span><em class="it">psychanalyse</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SIGNIFIANT" href="/index/signifiant/"> <span class="rg">SIGNIFIANT</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : DÉSIR, psychanalyse" href="/index/desir-psychanalyse/"> <span class="rg">DÉSIR, </span><em class="it">psychanalyse</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : IMAGINAIRE, psychanalyse" href="/index/imaginaire-psychanalyse/"> <span class="rg">IMAGINAIRE, </span><em class="it">psychanalyse</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : RÉEL, psychanalyse" href="/index/reel-psychanalyse/"> <span class="rg">RÉEL, </span><em class="it">psychanalyse</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : FREUDIENNE THÉORIE" href="/index/theorie-freudienne/"> <span class="rg">FREUDIENNE </span><span class="pc">THÉORIE</span> </a> </li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block side-bar position-relative"> <div id="ad_rightslot" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <div id="ad_rightslot2" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <a class="wrapper cta" href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Col right"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/6/csm_abo-3_74169bae4d.webp" class="full-height" loading="lazy" width="290" height="476" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro"> </a> <div id="newsletter_subscription" class="wrapper p-3"> <p class="fs-3 fw-bold text-center text-light mb-1">Rejoignez-nous</p> <p class="text-center"> Inscrivez-vous à notre <strong>newsletter</strong></p> <div class="input-group mb-3"> <input type="text" class="form-control" placeholder="votre email"> <div class="input-group-append"> <button id="newsletter_subscription_button" class="btn btn-primary text-uppercase" type="button"> <strong>S'inscrire</strong></button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="bandeau-footer"> <div class="container"> <p><a href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro">Accédez à l'intégralité d'Universalis.fr <strong>sans publicité</strong></a></p> </div> </div> <footer class="container footer text-center d-print-none"> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-2"> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="http://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/" title="Encyclopædia Universalis" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Encyclopædia Universalis </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/nous-contacter/infos/" title="Contactez-nous" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank">Contact</a></li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Mentions légales" rel="nofollow" href="/mentions-legales/">Mentions légales et politique de confidentialité</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Crédits images Accueil" rel="nofollow" href="/credits-illustrations/">Crédits images</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://abonnement.universalis.fr/typo3conf/ext/mailer/Resources/Public/Pdf/cgv.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="Conditions générales de vente">CGV</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="javascript:" id="rgpd" rel="nofollow" title="Consentement RGPD">RGPD</a> </li> </ul> <p class="mb-2">Consulter le <a title="Dictionnaire de l'Encyclopædia Universalis" href="/dictionnaire/"> dictionnaire </a> de l'Encyclopædia Universalis </p> <p class="mb-3">© 2025 Encyclopædia Universalis France. 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