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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>International mediation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_mediation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U.S._rationale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._rationale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>U.S. rationale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S._rationale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation_Just_Cause" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation_Just_Cause"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Operation Just Cause</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Operation_Just_Cause-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Operation Just Cause subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Operation_Just_Cause-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Capture_of_Noriega" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capture_of_Noriega"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Capture of Noriega</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capture_of_Noriega-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Casualties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Casualties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Casualties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Casualties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women's_roles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women's_roles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Women's roles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women's_roles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_of_the_name_"Operation_Just_Cause"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_the_name_"Operation_Just_Cause""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Origin of the name "Operation Just Cause"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_the_name_"Operation_Just_Cause"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_and_international_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_and_international_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Local and international reactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_and_international_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Timeline</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Timeline subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1987" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1987"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>1987</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1987-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1988" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1988"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>1988</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1988-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1989" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1989"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>1989</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1989-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1990" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>1990</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1994" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1994"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>1994</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1994-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_operations_and_involved_U.S._units" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_operations_and_involved_U.S._units"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Major operations and involved U.S. units</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Major_operations_and_involved_U.S._units-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Major operations and involved U.S. units subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Major_operations_and_involved_U.S._units-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Operations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Related operations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">United States invasion of Panama</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">36 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B2%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A_%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7" title="الغزو الأمريكي لبنما – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الغزو الأمريكي لبنما" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/AB%C5%9E-nin_Panamaya_m%C3%BCdaxil%C9%99si" title="ABŞ-nin Panamaya müdaxiləsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="ABŞ-nin Panamaya müdaxiləsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%97%D0%A8%D0%90_%D1%9E_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Уварванне ЗША ў Панаму – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Уварванне ЗША ў Панаму" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B2_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Американско нахлуване в Панама – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Американско нахлуване в Панама" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasi%C3%B3_de_Panam%C3%A0" title="Invasió de Panamà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Invasió de Panamà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invaze_Spojen%C3%BDch_st%C3%A1t%C5%AF_americk%C3%BDch_do_Panamy" title="Invaze Spojených států amerických do Panamy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Invaze Spojených států amerických do Panamy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA%27s_invasion_af_Panama" title="USA's invasion af Panama – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="USA's invasion af Panama" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/US-Invasion_in_Panama" title="US-Invasion in Panama – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="US-Invasion in Panama" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasi%C3%B3n_estadounidense_de_Panam%C3%A1" title="Invasión estadounidense de Panamá – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Invasión estadounidense de Panamá" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamako_estatubatuar_inbasioa" title="Panamako estatubatuar inbasioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Panamako estatubatuar inbasioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D9%87_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7" title="حمله ایالات متحده آمریکا به پاناما – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حمله ایالات متحده آمریکا به پاناما" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_du_Panama_par_les_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Invasion du Panama par les États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Invasion du Panama par les États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%ED%8C%8C%EB%82%98%EB%A7%88_%EC%B9%A8%EA%B3%B5" title="미국의 파나마 침공 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국의 파나마 침공" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasi_Panama_oleh_Amerika_Serikat" title="Invasi Panama oleh Amerika Serikat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Invasi Panama oleh Amerika Serikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasione_statunitense_di_Panama" title="Invasione statunitense di Panama – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Invasione statunitense di Panama" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%9C%D7%A4%D7%A0%D7%9E%D7%94" title="הפלישה האמריקאית לפנמה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הפלישה האמריקאית לפנמה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%80%9EIgaz_%C3%BCgy%E2%80%9D_hadm%C5%B1velet" title="„Igaz ügy” hadművelet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="„Igaz ügy” hadművelet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serangan_Amerika_Syarikat_ke_atas_Panama" title="Serangan Amerika Syarikat ke atas Panama – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Serangan Amerika Syarikat ke atas Panama" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operatie_Just_Cause" title="Operatie Just Cause – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Operatie Just Cause" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%91%E3%83%8A%E3%83%9E%E4%BE%B5%E6%94%BB" title="パナマ侵攻 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="パナマ侵攻" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAs_invasjon_av_Panama" title="USAs invasjon av Panama – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="USAs invasjon av Panama" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_de_Panam%C3%A0" title="Invasion de Panamà – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Invasion de Panamà" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/AQShning_Panamaga_bosqini" title="AQShning Panamaga bosqini – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="AQShning Panamaga bosqini" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inwazja_Stan%C3%B3w_Zjednoczonych_na_Panam%C4%99" title="Inwazja Stanów Zjednoczonych na Panamę – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Inwazja Stanów Zjednoczonych na Panamę" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invas%C3%A3o_do_Panam%C3%A1_pelos_Estados_Unidos_em_1989" title="Invasão do Panamá pelos Estados Unidos em 1989 – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Invasão do Panamá pelos Estados Unidos em 1989" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90_%D0%B2_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Вторжение США в Панаму – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вторжение США в Панаму" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pushtimi_i_Panamas%C3%AB_nga_Shtetet_e_Bashkuara" title="Pushtimi i Panamasë nga Shtetet e Bashkuara – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Pushtimi i Panamasë nga Shtetet e Bashkuara" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="United States invasion of Panama" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%94_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Инвазија САД на Панаму – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Инвазија САД на Панаму" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invazija_Sjedinjenih_Ameri%C4%8Dkih_Dr%C5%BEava_na_Panamu" title="Invazija Sjedinjenih Američkih Država na Panamu – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Invazija Sjedinjenih Američkih Država na Panamu" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operaatio_Just_Cause" title="Operaatio Just Cause – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Operaatio Just Cause" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA:s_invasion_av_Panama" title="USA:s invasion av Panama – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="USA:s invasion av Panama" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABD%27nin_Panama%27y%C4%B1_i%C5%9Fgali" title="ABD'nin Panama'yı işgali – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="ABD'nin Panama'yı işgali" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90_%D0%B2_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Вторгнення США в Панаму – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вторгнення США в Панаму" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoa_K%E1%BB%B3_x%C3%A2m_l%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3c_Panama" title="Hoa Kỳ xâm lược Panama – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1989 United States military invasion of Panama</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">United States invasion of Panama</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/War_on_Drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Drugs">War on Drugs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Operation_Just_Cause.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Operation_Just_Cause.png/300px-Operation_Just_Cause.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="455" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Operation_Just_Cause.png/450px-Operation_Just_Cause.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Operation_Just_Cause.png/600px-Operation_Just_Cause.png 2x" data-file-width="2336" data-file-height="3544" /></a></span><br />Clockwise from top: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>Marines stand guard with their <a href="/wiki/LAV-25" title="LAV-25">LAV-25</a></li> <li>Aircraft parked at <a href="/wiki/Tocumen_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Tocumen Airport">Tocumen Airport</a></li> <li>Three U.S. soldiers walk past a restaurant</li> <li>Flames engulf a <a href="/wiki/Panama_City" title="Panama City">Panama City</a> neighborhood</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>December 20, 1989<span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated itvstart">1989-12-20</span>)</span> – January 31, 1990<sup id="cite_ref-archives.gov_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-archives.gov-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />(1 month, 1 week and 4 days)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location">Panama</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> American victory<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/23px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/35px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/45px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Panama" title="List of political parties in Panama">Panamanian opposition</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/23px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/35px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/45px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Dick Cheney</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Maxwell_R._Thurman" title="Maxwell R. Thurman">Maxwell R. Thurman</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jack_B._Farris" title="Jack B. Farris">Jack B. Farris</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/John_W._Hendrix" title="John W. Hendrix">John W. Hendrix</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/James_O._Ellis" title="James O. Ellis">James O. Ellis</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama"><img alt="Panama" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/23px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/35px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/45px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Guillermo_Endara" title="Guillermo Endara">Guillermo Endara</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama"><img alt="Panama" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/23px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/35px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/45px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Noriega" title="Manuel Noriega">Manuel Noriega</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>)<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama"><img alt="Panama" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/23px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/35px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/45px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Marcos_Justine" title="Marcos Justine">Marcos Justine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>)<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama"><img alt="Panama" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/23px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/35px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/45px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Rodr%C3%ADguez_(President_of_Panama)" title="Francisco Rodríguez (President of Panama)">Francisco A. Rodríguez</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 27,000</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> 16,000</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 23 killed<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />325 wounded</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> 314 killed<sup id="cite_ref-strivetosettle_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strivetosettle-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />1,908 captured</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p>Panamanian civilians killed according to:<sup id="cite_ref-strivetosettle_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strivetosettle-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> U.S. military: 202<br /> Americas Watch: 300<br /> United Nations: 500<br /> Central American Human Rights Commission: 2,000–3,000<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> </p> 1 Spanish journalist killed<sup id="cite_ref-Riding_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riding-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="wrap">American invasion of Panama</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Torrijos_Airport" title="Capture of Torrijos Airport">Torrijos Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Acid_Gambit" title="Operation Acid Gambit"><i>Acid Gambit</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_at_Renacer_Prison" title="Raid at Renacer Prison">Renacer Prison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rio_Hato_Airfield" title="Battle of Rio Hato Airfield">Rio Hato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Paitilla_Airport" title="Battle of Paitilla Airport">Paitilla Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Balboa_Harbour_Raid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Balboa Harbour Raid (page does not exist)">Balboa Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Fort_Amador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Fort Amador (page does not exist)">Fort Amador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Coco_Solo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Coco Solo (page does not exist)">Coco Solo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Pacora_River_Bridge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of the Pacora River Bridge (page does not exist)">Pacora Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Panama_City&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Panama City (page does not exist)">Panama City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Nifty_Package" title="Operation Nifty Package"><i>Nifty Package</i></a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operations_in_the_West&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operations in the West (page does not exist)">Western Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Madden_Dam_skirmish&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Madden Dam skirmish (page does not exist)">Madden Dam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><table class="sidebar nomobile sidebar-person vcard hlist" style="border-color: #d69d36"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color: #002466;color:inherit;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_(cropped_2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/75px-George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/113px-George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/150px-George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1252" data-file-height="1634" /></a></span></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color: #002466;color: #FFF;"><div><span class="tmp-color" style="color: #FFF">This article is part of <br />a series about</span></div><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: #FFF; text-decoration: inherit;">George H. W. Bush</span></a></span></span></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Personal</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bush_family" title="Bush family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Electoral history of George H. W. Bush">Electoral history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_George_H._W._Bush" title="List of things named after George H. W. Bush">Eponyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_George_H._W._Bush" title="List of awards and honors received by George H. W. Bush">Honors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Bibliography of George H. W. Bush">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_School_of_Government_%26_Public_Service" title="Bush School of Government & Public Service">Bush School of Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Points_of_Light" title="Points of Light">Points of Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Death and state funeral of George H. W. Bush">Death</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">43rd Vice President of the United States</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidential transition of Ronald Reagan">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Reagan administration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="First inauguration of Ronald Reagan">first inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Second inauguration of Ronald Reagan">second inauguration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan">Reagan assassination attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration">Foreign policy</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Vice presidential campaigns</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_1980_presidential_campaign" title="Ronald Reagan 1980 presidential campaign">1980</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980_United_States_presidential_election" title="1980 United States presidential election">election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_Party_vice_presidential_candidate_selection" title="1980 Republican Party vice presidential candidate selection">selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_National_Convention" title="1980 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_United_States_presidential_debates" title="1980 United States presidential debates">debates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_1984_presidential_campaign" title="Ronald Reagan 1984 presidential campaign">1984</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_election" title="1984 United States presidential election">election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Republican_National_Convention" title="1984 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_debates" title="1984 United States presidential debates">debates</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">41st President of the United States</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidency of George H. W. Bush">Presidency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidential transition of George H. W. Bush">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Inauguration of George H. W. Bush">Inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H.W._Bush_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum">Presidential library</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Tenure</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thousand_points_of_light" title="Thousand points of light">Thousand points of light</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Task_Force" title="Unified Task Force">Operation Restore Hope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_presidential_trips_made_by_George_H._W._Bush" title="List of international presidential trips made by George H. W. Bush">International trips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_pardoned_by_George_H._W._Bush" title="List of people pardoned by George H. W. Bush">Pardons</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Policies</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_of_the_United_States#The_George_H._W._Bush_Administration_(1989–1993)" title="Environmental policy of the United States">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_administration" title="Foreign policy of the George H. W. Bush administration">Foreign</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Appointments</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_George_H._W._Bush" title="List of federal judges appointed by George H. W. Bush">Federal judges</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination">Thomas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Presidential campaigns</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_1980_presidential_campaign" title="George H. W. Bush 1980 presidential campaign">1980</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1980 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_National_Convention" title="1980 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_1988_presidential_campaign" title="George H. W. Bush 1988 presidential campaign">1988</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1988_United_States_presidential_election" title="1988 United States presidential election">election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1988 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Republican_National_Convention" title="1988 Republican National Convention">convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Read_my_lips:_no_new_taxes" title="Read my lips: no new taxes">"No new taxes"</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_United_States_presidential_debates" title="1988 United States presidential debates">debates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_1992_presidential_campaign" title="George H. W. Bush 1992 presidential campaign">1992</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election" title="1992 United States presidential election">election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1992 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Republican_National_Convention" title="1992 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_debates" title="1992 United States presidential debates">debates</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="skin-invert-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush's signature"><img alt="George H. W. Bush's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/George_HW_Bush_Signature.svg/150px-George_HW_Bush_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="48" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/George_HW_Bush_Signature.svg/225px-George_HW_Bush_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/George_HW_Bush_Signature.svg/300px-George_HW_Bush_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="412" data-file-height="132" /></a></span></div> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Seal of the President of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/70px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/105px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/140px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></span></span></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:George_H._W._Bush_series" title="Template:George H. W. Bush series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:George_H._W._Bush_series" title="Template talk:George H. W. Bush series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:George_H._W._Bush_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:George H. W. Bush series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> invaded <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> in mid-December 1989 during the presidency of <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>. The primary purpose of the invasion was to depose the <i><a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a></i> ruler of Panama, General <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Noriega" title="Manuel Noriega">Manuel Noriega</a>, who was wanted by U.S. authorities for <a href="/wiki/Racket_(crime)" class="mw-redirect" title="Racket (crime)">racketeering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drug_trafficking" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug trafficking">drug trafficking</a>. The operation, codenamed <b>Operation Just Cause</b>, concluded in late January 1990 with the surrender of Noriega.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Panama_Defense_Forces" title="Panama Defense Forces">Panama Defense Forces</a> (PDF) were dissolved, and President-elect <a href="/wiki/Guillermo_Endara" title="Guillermo Endara">Guillermo Endara</a> was sworn into office. </p><p>Noriega, who had longstanding ties to United States intelligence agencies, consolidated power to become Panama's <i>de facto</i> dictator in the early 1980s. In the mid-1980s, relations between Noriega and the U.S. began to deteriorate due to fallout of the murder of <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Spadafora" title="Hugo Spadafora">Hugo Spadafora</a> and the removal from office of President <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Ardito_Barletta" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicolas Ardito Barletta">Nicolas Ardito Barletta</a>. His criminal activities and association with other spy agencies came to light, and in 1988 he was indicted by federal <a href="/wiki/Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">grand juries</a> on several drug-related charges. Negotiations seeking his resignation, which began under the presidency of <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>, were ultimately unsuccessful. In 1989, Noriega annulled the results of the <a href="/wiki/1989_Panamanian_general_election" title="1989 Panamanian general election">Panamanian general elections</a>, which appeared to have been won by opposition candidate Guillermo Endara; President Bush responded by reinforcing the U.S. garrison in the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone" title="Panama Canal Zone">Canal Zone</a>. After a U.S. Marine officer was shot dead at a PDF roadblock, Bush authorized the execution of the Panama invasion plan. </p><p>On December 20, the U.S. invasion of Panama began. Panamanian forces were rapidly overwhelmed, although operations continued for several weeks. Endara was sworn in as president shortly after the start of the invasion. Noriega eluded capture for several days before seeking refuge in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a> diplomatic mission in Panama City. He surrendered on January 3, 1990, and was then flown to the U.S., where he was tried, convicted and sentenced to 40 years in prison. </p><p>The Pentagon estimated that 516 Panamanians were killed during the invasion, including 314 soldiers and 202 civilians. A total of 23 U.S. soldiers and 3 U.S. civilians were killed. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">Organization of American States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> condemned the invasion as a violation of international law.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States invasion of Panama can be seen as a rare example of <a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratization</a> by <a href="/wiki/Regime_change#Foreign-imposed_regime_change" title="Regime change">foreign-imposed regime change</a> that was effective long-term.<sup id="cite_ref-panama_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-panama-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Panama%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Panama–United States relations">Panama–United States relations</a></div> <p>In the late 20th century, the United States had maintained numerous military bases and a substantial garrison throughout the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone" title="Panama Canal Zone">Canal Zone</a> to protect and maintain American control of the strategically important <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal</a>. On September 7, 1977, <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">U.S. President</a> <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a></i> leader of Panama, General <a href="/wiki/Omar_Torrijos" title="Omar Torrijos">Omar Torrijos</a>, signed the Torrijos–Carter Treaties, which set in motion the process of handing over the canal to Panamanian control by 2000. Although the canal was destined for Panamanian administration, the military bases remained, and one condition of the transfer was that the canal would remain open to American shipping. The U.S. had long-standing relations with Torrijos' successor, General <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Noriega" title="Manuel Noriega">Manuel Noriega</a>, who served as a U.S. intelligence asset and paid informant of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (CIA) from 1967, including the period when <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> was <a href="/wiki/Director_of_the_Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Director of the Central Intelligence Agency">director</a> of the agency (1976–77).<sup id="cite_ref-jones_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jones-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Noriega had sided with the U.S. rather than the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>, notably in sabotaging the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Sandinista" class="mw-redirect" title="Sandinista">Sandinista</a> government in Nicaragua, and the revolutionaries of the <a href="/wiki/Farabundo_Mart%C3%AD_National_Liberation_Front" title="Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front">Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front</a> (FMLN) in El Salvador. Noriega received upward of $100,000 per year from the 1960s until the 1980s, when his salary was increased to $200,000 per year.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although he worked with the <a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">Drug Enforcement Administration</a> (DEA) to restrict <a href="/wiki/Drug_trafficking" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug trafficking">illegal drug shipments</a>, Noriega was known to simultaneously accept significant financial support from drug dealers and facilitate the <a href="/wiki/Money_laundering" title="Money laundering">laundering</a> of drug money.<sup id="cite_ref-jones_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jones-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These drug dealers received protection from DEA investigations due to Noriega's special relationship with the CIA.<sup id="cite_ref-Cockburn_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cockburn-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the mid-1980s, relations between Noriega and the U.S. began to deteriorate. In 1986, U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> opened negotiations with Noriega, requesting that the Panamanian leader step down after his criminal activities were publicly exposed in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Hersh" title="Seymour Hersh">Seymour Hersh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Security_Archive_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Security_Archive-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reagan pressured Noriega with several drug-related <a href="/wiki/Indictment" title="Indictment">indictments</a> in U.S. courts; however, since <a href="/wiki/Extradition" title="Extradition">extradition</a> laws between Panama and the U.S. were weak, Noriega deemed this threat not credible and did not submit to Reagan's demands.<sup id="cite_ref-Buckley_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buckley-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1988, <a href="/wiki/Elliot_Abrams" class="mw-redirect" title="Elliot Abrams">Elliot Abrams</a> and others in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Pentagon</a> began pushing for a U.S. invasion. Reagan refused due to Bush's ties to Noriega through his previous positions in the CIA and their potentially negative impact on Bush's <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_1988_presidential_campaign" title="George H. W. Bush 1988 presidential campaign">presidential campaign</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oakley_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oakley-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later negotiations involved dropping the drug-related indictments. </p><p>In March 1988, Noriega's forces resisted an attempted <i><a href="/wiki/1988_Panamanian_coup_attempt" title="1988 Panamanian coup attempt">coup d'etat</a></i> against his regime. As relations continued to deteriorate, Noriega appeared to shift his Cold War allegiance toward the Soviet bloc, soliciting and receiving military aid from <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, Nicaragua, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Libya_under_Muammar_Gaddafi#Great_Socialist_People's_Libyan_Arab_Jamahiriya_(1977–2011)" title="History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi">Libya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> U.S. military planners began preparing contingency plans to invade Panama. </p><p>In September 1988, Panamanian authorities reported that they had arrested 16 people on suspicion of plotting another coup d'état. Twelve of the conspirators were alleged to be part of the "National Patriotic Committee", a U.S.-supported guerrilla group that sought to oust Noriega. Panamanian newspaper <i>Critica</i> claimed that the plot had been financed by the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 1989, during the <a href="/wiki/Panamanian_general_election,_1989" class="mw-redirect" title="Panamanian general election, 1989">Panamanian national elections</a>, an alliance of parties opposed to the Noriega regime counted results from the country's election precincts, before they were sent to the district centers. Their tally showed their candidate, <a href="/wiki/Guillermo_Endara" title="Guillermo Endara">Guillermo Endara</a>, defeating <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Duque" title="Carlos Duque">Carlos Duque</a>, candidate of a pro-Noriega coalition, by nearly 3–1. Endara was physically assaulted by Noriega supporters the next day in his motorcade.<sup id="cite_ref-jones_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jones-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Noriega declared the election null and <a href="/wiki/Self-coup" title="Self-coup">maintained power by force</a>, making him unpopular among Panamanians. Noriega's regime insisted that it had won the presidential election and that irregularities had been on the part of U.S.-backed candidates from opposition parties.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President Bush called on Noriega to honor the will of the Panamanian people while the U.S. reinforced its Canal Zone garrison, and increased the tempo of training and other activities intended to put pressure on Noriega.<sup id="cite_ref-jones_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jones-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 1989, Noriega foiled <a href="/wiki/1989_Panamanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1989 Panamanian coup d'état attempt">another coup attempt</a> by members of the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Defense_Forces" title="Panama Defense Forces">Panama Defense Forces</a> (PDF), led by Major <a href="/wiki/Mois%C3%A9s_Giroldi" title="Moisés Giroldi">Moisés Giroldi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bush, under mounting pressure, declared that the U.S. would not negotiate with a drug trafficker and denied knowledge of Noriega's involvement with the drug trade prior to his February 1988 indictment, although he had met with Noriega as CIA director and had been chair of the Task Force on Drugs while <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On December 15, the Panamanian general assembly passed a resolution declaring that a state of war existed between Panama and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Cole,_Ronald_H._1995._p._27_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole,_Ronald_H._1995._p._27-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Paz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Robert_Paz.jpg/220px-Robert_Paz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Robert_Paz.jpg/330px-Robert_Paz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Robert_Paz.jpg/440px-Robert_Paz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="653" /></a><figcaption>1st Lt Robert Paz, 2nd Battalion, 9th Marines</figcaption></figure> <p>On the night following the war declaration, at approximately 9:00 p.m., four U.S. military personnel were stopped at a roadblock outside PDF headquarters in the <a href="/wiki/El_Chorrillo" title="El Chorrillo">El Chorrillo</a> neighborhood of <a href="/wiki/Panama_City,_Panama" class="mw-redirect" title="Panama City, Panama">Panama City</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine</a> Captain Richard E. Hadded, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a> Lieutenant Michael J. Wilson, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a> Captain Barry L. Rainwater and Marine First Lieutenant Robert Paz had left the U.S. base at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Clayton" title="Fort Clayton">Fort Clayton</a> and were on their way to have dinner at the Marriott Caesar Park Hotel in downtown Panama City. The Pentagon reported that the servicemen had been unarmed, were in a private vehicle and attempted to flee only after their vehicle was surrounded by an angry crowd of civilians and PDF troops. The PDF asserted later that the Americans were armed and on a <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">reconnaissance</a> mission. The PDF opened fire and Paz was fatally wounded by a round that entered the rear of the vehicle and struck him in the back. Hadded, the driver of the vehicle, was also wounded in the foot. Paz was rushed to <a href="/wiki/Gorgas_Hospital" title="Gorgas Hospital">Gorgas Army Hospital</a> but died of his wounds; he received the <a href="/wiki/Purple_Heart" title="Purple Heart">Purple Heart</a> posthumously.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to U.S. military sources, a U.S. Naval officer, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_SEALs" title="United States Navy SEALs">SEAL</a> Lieutenant Adam Curtis, and his wife, Bonnie, witnessed the incident and were detained by PDF troops.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While in police custody, Curtis was beaten, and his wife threatened with <a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">sexual assault</a>. Curtis spent two weeks in the hospital recovering from the beating.<sup id="cite_ref-Cole,_Ronald_H._1995._p._27_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole,_Ronald_H._1995._p._27-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On December 16 Bush ordered the execution of the Panama invasion plan; the military set <a href="/wiki/H-Hour" class="mw-redirect" title="H-Hour">H-Hour</a> as 0100 on December 20.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_mediation">International mediation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: International mediation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several neighboring governments secretly tried to negotiate a peaceful outcome and Noriega's willing resignation. Presidents <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Arias" class="mw-redirect" title="Oscar Arias">Oscar Arias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Oduber" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel Oduber">Daniel Oduber</a> of Costa Rica, <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Andr%C3%A9s_P%C3%A9rez" title="Carlos Andrés Pérez">Carlos Andrés Pérez</a> of Venezuela, <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_L%C3%B3pez_Michelsen" title="Alfonso López Michelsen">Alfonso López Michelsen</a> of Colombia and Spanish Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez" title="Felipe González">Felipe González</a> all on different occasions met Noriega in secret attempting to convince him to give up power and self-exile himself in Spain, to no avail.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="U.S._rationale">U.S. rationale</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: U.S. rationale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The official U.S. rationale for the invasion was articulated by President Bush on the morning of December 20, 1989, a few hours after the start of the operation. Bush cited Panama's declaration of a state of war with the United States and attacks on U.S. troops as <a href="/wiki/Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">justification for the invasion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-transcript_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-transcript-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bush further identified four objectives of the invasion: </p> <ul><li>Safeguarding the lives of U.S. citizens in Panama. In his statement, Bush stated that Noriega had declared that a state of war existed between the U.S. and Panama and had threatened the lives of the approximately 35,000 U.S. citizens living there. There had been numerous clashes between U.S. and Panamanian forces; one U.S. Marine had been killed a few days earlier.</li> <li>Defending democracy and human rights in Panama.</li> <li>Combating drug trafficking. Panama had become a center for drug money laundering and a transit point for drug trafficking to the U.S. and Europe.</li> <li>Protecting the integrity of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties. Members of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> and others in the U.S. political establishment claimed that Noriega threatened the neutrality of the Panama Canal, and that the U.S. had the right under the treaties to intervene militarily to protect the canal.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>U.S. forces were instructed to begin maneuvers and activities within the restrictions of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, such as ignoring PDF roadblocks and conducting short-notice "Category Three" <a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">military exercises</a> on security-sensitive targets, with the express goal of provoking PDF soldiers. U.S. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Southern_Command" title="United States Southern Command">SOUTHCOM</a> kept a list of abuses against U.S. servicemen and civilians by the PDF while the orders to incite PDF soldiers were in place.<sup id="cite_ref-Oakley_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oakley-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As for the Panamanian legislature's war declaration, Noriega insisted in his memoirs<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that this declaration referred to a state of war directed by the U.S. against Panama, in the form of what he claimed were harsh <a href="/wiki/Economic_sanction" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic sanction">economic sanctions</a> and provocative military maneuvers (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Purple_Storm" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Purple Storm">Operations Purple Storm</a> and Sand Flea)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> that were prohibited by the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. </p><p>Bush's four reasons for the invasion provided sufficient justification to establish bipartisan Congressional approval and support. However, the secrecy before the invasion's initiation, the speed and success of the invasion itself, and U.S. public support for it (80% public approval)<sup id="cite_ref-Cramer_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cramer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> did not allow <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> lawmakers to object to Bush's decision to use military force.<sup id="cite_ref-Cramer_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cramer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One contemporary study suggests that Bush decided to invade for domestic political reasons, citing scarce strategic reasoning for the U.S. to invade and immediately withdraw without establishing the structure to enforce the interests that Bush used to justify the invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-Cramer_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cramer-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation_Just_Cause">Operation Just Cause</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Operation Just Cause"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_military_units_involved_in_Operation_Just_Cause" title="List of military units involved in Operation Just Cause">List of military units involved in Operation Just Cause</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Operation_Just_Cause.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Operation_Just_Cause.jpg/300px-Operation_Just_Cause.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Operation_Just_Cause.jpg/450px-Operation_Just_Cause.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Operation_Just_Cause.jpg/600px-Operation_Just_Cause.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1412" data-file-height="899" /></a><figcaption>Tactical map of Operation Just Cause showing major points of attack</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Parachutists_during_Operation_Just_Cause.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/US_Parachutists_during_Operation_Just_Cause.jpg/150px-US_Parachutists_during_Operation_Just_Cause.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/US_Parachutists_during_Operation_Just_Cause.jpg/225px-US_Parachutists_during_Operation_Just_Cause.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/US_Parachutists_during_Operation_Just_Cause.jpg/300px-US_Parachutists_during_Operation_Just_Cause.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="2850" /></a><figcaption>Elements of 1st Bn, 508th Infantry parachuting into a drop zone, during training, outside of Panama City.</figcaption></figure> <p>The U.S. Army, Navy, Marines, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a> participated in Operation Just Cause.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ground forces consisted of: </p> <ul><li>combat elements of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._XVIII_Airborne_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps">XVIII Airborne Corps</a>,</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/82nd_Airborne_Division" title="82nd Airborne Division">82nd Airborne Division</a>,</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/U.S._7th_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. 7th Infantry Division">7th Infantry Division (Light)</a>,</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/7th_Special_Forces_Group_(United_States)" title="7th Special Forces Group (United States)">7th Special Forces Group (Airborne)</a>,</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/4th_Psychological_Operations_Group_(Airborne)" class="mw-redirect" title="4th Psychological Operations Group (Airborne)">4th Psychological Operations Group (Airborne)</a>,</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/75th_Ranger_Regiment" title="75th Ranger Regiment">75th Ranger Regiment</a>,</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/96th_Civil_Affairs_Battalion" title="96th Civil Affairs Battalion">96th Civil Affairs Battalion</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_Air_Control_Party" title="Tactical Air Control Party">Tactical Air Control Parties</a> from the 507th and 602nd Tactical Air Control Wings and the <a href="/wiki/24th_Composite_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="24th Composite Wing">24th Composite Wing</a><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Combat Controllers from the 1721st Combat Control Squadron</li> <li>a <a href="/wiki/Joint_Special_Operations_Command" title="Joint Special Operations Command">Joint Special Operations Task Force</a></li> <li>elements of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._5th_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. 5th Infantry Division">5th Infantry Division</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/61st_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="61st Infantry Regiment (United States)">1st Battalion, 61st Infantry Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="6th Infantry Regiment (United States)">4th Battalion, 6th Infantry Regiment</a> (replacing 1/61st in September 1989)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Military_Police_Brigade" class="mw-redirect" title="16th Military Police Brigade">16th Military Police Brigade</a> (Airborne), <a href="/wiki/Fort_Liberty" title="Fort Liberty">Fort Bragg</a> North Carolina</li> <li>503rd Military Police Battalion (Airborne), Fort Bragg</li> <li>21st Military Police Company (Airborne), Fort Bragg</li> <li>65th Military Police Company, Fort Bragg</li> <li>108th Military Police Company (Air Assault), Fort Bragg</li> <li>519th Military Police Battalion</li> <li>1138th Military Police Company, <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Army_National_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="Missouri Army National Guard">Missouri Army National Guard</a></li> <li>988th Military Police Company, Fort Benning, Georgia</li> <li>555th Military Police Company, Fort Lee, Virginia</li> <li>534th Combat Military Police, Fort Clayton, Panama</li> <li><a href="/wiki/193rd_Infantry_Brigade_(United_States)" title="193rd Infantry Brigade (United States)">193rd Infantry Brigade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/87th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="87th Infantry Regiment (United States)">5th Battalion, 87th Infantry Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/508th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="508th Infantry Regiment (United States)">1st Battalion, 508th Infantry Regiment</a></li></ul></li> <li>8th Ordnance Company (Ammo), Ft Bragg, NC (Select detachment attached to SOUTHCOM)</li> <li>Marine Security Forces Battalion Panama,</li> <li>Company K, <a href="/wiki/6th_Marine_Regiment_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="6th Marine Regiment (United States)">3rd Battalion, 6th Marines Regiment</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_Antiterrorism_Security_Teams" class="mw-redirect" title="Fleet Antiterrorism Security Teams">Marine Fleet Antiterrorism Security Teams</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Light_Armored_Reconnaissance_Battalion" title="2nd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion">2nd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Marine_Logistics_Group" title="2nd Marine Logistics Group">2nd Marine Logistics Group</a> 39th Combat Engineer Battalion Co C.</li> <li>511th Military Police Company, Fort Drum, New York</li> <li><a href="/wiki/9th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="9th Infantry Regiment (United States)">9th Infantry Regiment</a> (Fort Ord, California, United States)</li> <li>63rd Security Police Squadron, Norton Air Force Base, California</li> <li>401st Military Police Company, Fort Hood, Texas</li></ul> <p>Air logistic support was provided by the <a href="/wiki/22nd_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="22nd Air Force">22nd Air Force</a> with air assets from the 60th, 62nd, and 63rd military airlift wings. </p><p>The U.S. invasion of Panama began on December 20, 1989, at 12:46 a.m. local time. The operation involved 27,684 U.S. troops and over 300 aircraft, including <a href="/wiki/C-130" class="mw-redirect" title="C-130">C-130 Hercules</a> tactical transports flown by the <a href="/wiki/317th_Tactical_Airlift_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="317th Tactical Airlift Wing">317th Tactical Airlift Wing</a> (which was equipped with the Adverse Weather Aerial Delivery System or AWADS) and <a href="/wiki/314th_Tactical_Airlift_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="314th Tactical Airlift Wing">314th Tactical Airlift Wing</a>, <a href="/wiki/AC-130" class="mw-redirect" title="AC-130">AC-130 Spectre</a> gunships, <a href="/wiki/A-37_Dragonfly" class="mw-redirect" title="A-37 Dragonfly">OA-37B Dragonfly</a> observation and attack aircraft, <a href="/wiki/C-141" class="mw-redirect" title="C-141">C-141 Starlifter</a> and <a href="/wiki/C-5_Galaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="C-5 Galaxy">C-5 Galaxy</a> strategic transports, <a href="/wiki/F-117_Nighthawk" class="mw-redirect" title="F-117 Nighthawk">F-117A Nighthawk</a> stealth ground-attack aircraft flown by the <a href="/wiki/37th_Training_Wing" title="37th Training Wing">37th Tactical Fighter Wing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/AH-64_Apache" class="mw-redirect" title="AH-64 Apache">AH-64 Apache</a> attack helicopters. The invasion was the first combat deployment for the AH-64, the <a href="/wiki/Humvee" title="Humvee">HMMWV</a>, and the F-117A. Panamanian radar units were jammed by two <a href="/wiki/EF-111A" class="mw-redirect" title="EF-111A">EF-111As</a> electronic warfare aircraft of the 390th ECS, 366th TFW.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These aircraft were deployed against the 16,000 members of the PDF.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The operation began with an assault of strategic installations, such as the civilian <a href="/wiki/Operation_Nifty_Package" title="Operation Nifty Package">Punta Paitilla Airport</a> in Panama City and a PDF <a href="/wiki/Garrison" title="Garrison">garrison</a> and airfield at <a href="/wiki/Rio_Hato" class="mw-redirect" title="Rio Hato">Rio Hato</a>, where Noriega also maintained a residence. <a href="/wiki/Navy_SEALs" class="mw-redirect" title="Navy SEALs">Navy SEALs</a> destroyed Noriega's private jet and sunk a Panamanian <a href="/wiki/Gunboat" title="Gunboat">gunboat</a>. A Panamanian ambush killed four SEALs and wounded nine. Other military command centers throughout the country were also attacked. C Company 1st Battalion (Airborne) 508th PIR was assigned the task of securing <i>La Comandancia</i>, the central headquarters of the PDF. This attack touched off several fires, one of which destroyed most of the adjoining and heavily populated El Chorrillo neighborhood in <a href="/wiki/Panama_City" title="Panama City">Panama City</a>. During the firefight at <i>La Comandancia</i>, the PDF downed two special operations helicopters and forced one <a href="/wiki/MD_Helicopters_MH-6_Little_Bird" title="MD Helicopters MH-6 Little Bird">MH-6 Little Bird</a> helicopter to crash-land in the Panama Canal.<sup id="cite_ref-OJCjcs_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OJCjcs-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opening round of attacks in Panama City also included a special operations raid on the Carcel Modelo prison (known as <a href="/wiki/Operation_Acid_Gambit" title="Operation Acid Gambit">Operation Acid Gambit</a>) to free Kurt Muse, a U.S. citizen convicted of espionage by Noriega. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PanamaM-113JustCauseUS-Invasion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/PanamaM-113JustCauseUS-Invasion.jpg/290px-PanamaM-113JustCauseUS-Invasion.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/PanamaM-113JustCauseUS-Invasion.jpg/435px-PanamaM-113JustCauseUS-Invasion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/PanamaM-113JustCauseUS-Invasion.jpg/580px-PanamaM-113JustCauseUS-Invasion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1448" /></a><figcaption>A U.S. Army <a href="/wiki/M113_armored_personnel_carrier" title="M113 armored personnel carrier">M113</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Fort_Amador" title="Fort Amador">Fort Amador</a> was secured by elements of the 1st Battalion (Airborne), 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 5th Infantry Division [Scouts] and 59th Engineer Company (sappers) in a nighttime air assault which secured the fort in the early hours of December 20. Fort Amador was a key position because of its relationship to the large oil farms adjacent to the canal, the <a href="/wiki/Bridge_of_the_Americas" title="Bridge of the Americas">Bridge of the Americas</a> over the canal, and the Pacific entrance to the canal. Key <a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">command and control</a> elements of the PDF were stationed there. Furthermore, Fort Amador had a large U.S. housing district that needed to be secured to prevent the PDF from taking U.S. citizens as hostages. This position also protected the left flank of the attack on <i>La Comandancia</i> and the securing of the El Chorrillos neighborhood, guarded by Noriega's <a href="/wiki/Dignity_Battalions" title="Dignity Battalions">Dignity Battalions</a>. Military police units from <a href="/wiki/Fort_Liberty" title="Fort Liberty">Fort Bragg</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, deployed via strategic airlift into <a href="/wiki/Howard_Air_Force_Base" title="Howard Air Force Base">Howard Air Force Base</a> the next morning and secured key government buildings in Panama City. MPs seized PDF weapons, vehicles and supplies during house-to-house searches in the following days and conducted <a href="/wiki/Urban_combat" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban combat">urban combat</a> operations against <a href="/wiki/Sniper" title="Sniper">snipers</a> and Dignity Battalion holdouts for the following week.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A few hours after the invasion began, Guillermo Endara, who had been the "presumed winner" of the scheduled presidential election earlier in 1989, was sworn in at Fort Clayton.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A platoon from the <a href="/wiki/1138th_Military_Police_Company" title="1138th Military Police Company">1138th Military Police Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Army_National_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="Missouri Army National Guard">Missouri Army National Guard</a>, which was on a routine two-week rotation to Panama, was called upon to set up a detainee camp on Empire Range to handle the mass of civilian and military detainees. This was the first National Guard unit called into active service since the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capture_of_Noriega">Capture of Noriega</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Capture of Noriega"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Antonio_Noriega" class="mw-redirect" title="Manuel Antonio Noriega">Manuel Antonio Noriega</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Nifty_Package" title="Operation Nifty Package">Operation Nifty Package</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Operation_Just_Cause_Rangers_3rd_sqd_la_comadancia_small.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Operation_Just_Cause_Rangers_3rd_sqd_la_comadancia_small.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="198" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="198" /></a><figcaption>American soldiers preparing to take <i>La Comandancia</i> in the <i>El Chorrillo</i> neighborhood of Panama City, December 1989</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Operation_Nifty_Package" title="Operation Nifty Package">Operation Nifty Package</a> was an operation launched by Navy SEALs to prevent Noriega's escape. They sank his boat and destroyed his jet, at a cost of four killed and nine wounded. Military operations continued for several weeks, mainly against PDF units. Noriega remained at large for several days, but realizing he had few options in the face of a massive manhunt and a $1 million reward for his capture, he obtained refuge in the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Nunciature" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Nunciature">Apostolic Nunciature</a> of the diplomatic mission of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a> in Panama City. However, the U.S. military's psychological warfare pressure on Noriega was relentless, reportedly with the playing of loud rock-and-roll music day and night in the densely populated area surrounding the Holy See mission.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A report of the Office of the Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a> claimed that the music was used principally to prevent <a href="/wiki/Parabolic_microphone" title="Parabolic microphone">parabolic microphones</a> from being used to eavesdrop on negotiations and not as a <a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">psychological weapon</a> based around Noriega's supposed loathing of rock music.<sup id="cite_ref-OJCjcs_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OJCjcs-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Noriega finally surrendered to U.S. forces on January 3, 1990. He was immediately put on an <a href="/wiki/MC-130E_Combat_Talon_I" class="mw-redirect" title="MC-130E Combat Talon I">MC-130E Combat Talon I</a> aircraft and flown to the United States. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Casualties">Casualties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Casualties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_UH-60_Black_Hawk_helicopter_hovers_near_the_position_of_Company_D,_2nd_Light_Armored_Infantry_Battalion,_as_it_picks_up_a_Marine_who_became_a_heat_casualty_during_Operation_CHEYEN_-_DPLA_-_6270666025399a4167ae02aed01a0344.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/A_UH-60_Black_Hawk_helicopter_hovers_near_the_position_of_Company_D%2C_2nd_Light_Armored_Infantry_Battalion%2C_as_it_picks_up_a_Marine_who_became_a_heat_casualty_during_Operation_CHEYEN_-_DPLA_-_6270666025399a4167ae02aed01a0344.jpeg/220px-thumbnail.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/A_UH-60_Black_Hawk_helicopter_hovers_near_the_position_of_Company_D%2C_2nd_Light_Armored_Infantry_Battalion%2C_as_it_picks_up_a_Marine_who_became_a_heat_casualty_during_Operation_CHEYEN_-_DPLA_-_6270666025399a4167ae02aed01a0344.jpeg/330px-thumbnail.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/A_UH-60_Black_Hawk_helicopter_hovers_near_the_position_of_Company_D%2C_2nd_Light_Armored_Infantry_Battalion%2C_as_it_picks_up_a_Marine_who_became_a_heat_casualty_during_Operation_CHEYEN_-_DPLA_-_6270666025399a4167ae02aed01a0344.jpeg/440px-thumbnail.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1870" data-file-height="2830" /></a><figcaption>A U.S. Army <a href="/wiki/Sikorsky_UH-60_Black_Hawk" title="Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk">Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk</a> picks up a Marine casualty</figcaption></figure> <p>According to official Pentagon figures, 516 Panamanians were killed during the invasion, including 314 soldiers and 202 civilians;<sup id="cite_ref-strivetosettle_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strivetosettle-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, an internal U.S. Army memo estimated the number at 1,000.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> estimated 500 civilian deaths,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> whereas <a href="/wiki/Americas_Watch" class="mw-redirect" title="Americas Watch">Americas Watch</a> estimated 300 civilian deaths. President Guillermo Endara said that "less than 600 Panamanians" died during the entire invasion. Former <a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Attorney General of the United States">U.S. Attorney General</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a> estimated 3,000 civilian deaths. The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> estimated that 673 Panamanians were killed in total. <a href="/wiki/Physicians_for_Human_Rights" title="Physicians for Human Rights">Physicians for Human Rights</a> said it had received "reliable reports of more than 100 civilian deaths" that were not included in the U.S. military estimate but also that there was no evidence of several thousand civilian deaths. According to <i>The New York Times</i>, figures estimating thousands of civilian casualties were widely rejected in Panama.<sup id="cite_ref-strivetosettle_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strivetosettle-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <p><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>'s 1991 report stated that even with these uncertainties, the figures on civilian casualties are "still troublesome" because: </p><blockquote><p> With respect to the United States forces, our report concluded that the tactics and weapons utilized resulted in an inordinate number of civilian victims, in violation of specific obligations under the Geneva Conventions. [...][Panama's civilian deaths] reveal that the "<a href="/wiki/Surgical_strike" title="Surgical strike">surgical operation</a>" by American forces inflicted a toll in civilian lives that was at least four-and-a-half times higher than military casualties in the enemy, and twelve or thirteen times higher than the casualties suffered by U.S. troops. By themselves, these ratios suggest that the <a href="/wiki/Proportionality_(law)#International_law" title="Proportionality (law)">rule of proportionality</a> and the duty to minimize harm to civilians, where doing so would not compromise a legitimate military objective, were not faithfully observed by the invading U.S. forces. For us, the controversy over the number of civilian casualties should not obscure the important debate on the manner in which those people died.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>U.S. military casualties in the invasion were 23 killed<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 325 wounded. In June 1990, the U.S. military announced that of its casualties, 2 dead and 19 wounded were victims of <a href="/wiki/Friendly_fire" title="Friendly fire">friendly fire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of Panamanian military dead was estimated at 314 by SOUTHCOM.<sup id="cite_ref-strivetosettle_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strivetosettle-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Civilian fatalities included Kandi Helin and Ray Dragseth, two American schoolteachers working in Panama for the Department of Defense Schools. The adult son of another teacher, Rick Paul, was also killed by friendly fire as he ran towards an American roadblock. Juan Antonio Rodriguez Moreno, a Spanish freelance press photographer on assignment for <i><a href="/wiki/El_Pa%C3%ADs" title="El País">El País</a></i>, was killed outside of the Marriott Caesar Park Hotel in Panama City early on December 21. In June 1990, his family filed a claim for <a href="/wiki/Wrongful_death_claim" title="Wrongful death claim">wrongful death</a> against the U.S. government.<sup id="cite_ref-Riding_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riding-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the claim was rejected by the U.S. government in 1992, the Spanish government sent a <a href="/wiki/Note_Verbale" class="mw-redirect" title="Note Verbale">Note Verbale</a> extending <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_protection" title="Diplomatic protection">diplomatic protection</a> to Rodriguez and demanding compensation on behalf of his family.<sup id="cite_ref-moreno_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moreno-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. government again rejected the claim, disputing both its liability for warzone deaths in general and whether Rodriguez had been killed by U.S. rather than Panamanian gunfire.<sup id="cite_ref-moreno_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moreno-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women's_roles"><span id="Women.27s_roles"></span>Women's roles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Women's roles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Operation Just Cause involved the unprecedented use of U.S. military women during an invasion. Approximately 600 of the 26,000 members of the U.S. forces involved in the invasion were women. Women did not serve in direct combat roles or combat arms units, but did serve as military police, truck drivers, helicopter pilots, and in other logistical roles.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Captain <a href="/wiki/Linda_L._Bray" title="Linda L. Bray">Linda L. Bray</a>, commander of the 988th Military Police Company of <a href="/wiki/Fort_Benning" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Benning">Fort Benning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, led her troops in a three-hour firefight against PDF troops who refused to surrender a dog kennel which (it was later discovered) they were using to store weapons. Bray was said to be the first woman to lead U.S. troops in battle, and her role in the firefight led to controversy in the media and in Congress over women's roles in the U.S. military. Bray requested and received a discharge in 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>First Lieutenant Lisa Kutschera and Warrant Officer Debra Mann piloted <a href="/wiki/UH-60" class="mw-redirect" title="UH-60">UH-60</a> "Blackhawk" helicopters ferrying infantry troops. Their helicopters came under fire during the invasion, and like their male counterparts, both women were awarded <a href="/wiki/Air_Medal" title="Air Medal">Air Medals</a> for their roles during the invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The traditional role of women in wars has also seen a transformation during the invasion. Besides being combat medics and logisticians, many women took on support roles and provided crucial support that facilitated the operational objectives. This included roles in transportation, supply chain management, and intelligence. Outside of the battlefield, female journalists and reporters expansively covered the invasion, providing critical information to the public and bringing international attention to the events unfolding in Panama. These perspectives and the subsequent public discussion eventually led to the shaping of the public perception of the U.S. military action. After the invasion was concluded, women in both Panama and the U.S. participated in the reconstruction of communities and advocacy for human rights. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin_of_the_name_"Operation_Just_Cause""><span id="Origin_of_the_name_.22Operation_Just_Cause.22"></span>Origin of the name "Operation Just Cause"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Origin of the name "Operation Just Cause""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Operation plans directed against Panama had evolved from plans designed to defend the Panama Canal. They became more aggressive as the situation between the two nations deteriorated. The <a href="/wiki/Operation_Prayer_Book" title="Operation Prayer Book"><i>Prayer Book</i></a> series of plans included rehearsals for a possible clash (Operation Purple Storm) and missions to secure U.S. sites (Operation Bushmaster). The original operation, in which U.S. troops were deployed to Panama in early 1989, was called Operation Nimrod Dancer.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Eventually these plans became Operation Blue Spoon, renamed Operation Just Cause by the Pentagon to sustain the perceived legitimacy of the invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/General_(United_States)" title="General (United States)">General</a> <a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a> said that he liked the name because "even our severest critics would have to utter 'Just Cause' while denouncing us."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics, however, renamed it Operation "Just 'Cuz", arguing that it had been undertaken "just [be]cause Bush felt like it."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The post-invasion civil-military operation designed to stabilize the situation, support the U.S.-installed government, and restore basic services was originally planned as Operation Blind Logic, but was renamed "Operation Promote Liberty" by the Pentagon on the eve of the invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-usacac.army.mil_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usacac.army.mil-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legality">Legality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Legality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The U.S. government invoked <a href="/wiki/Self-defense" title="Self-defense">self-defense</a> as a legal justification for the invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-transcript_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-transcript-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several scholars and observers have opined that the invasion was illegal under international law, arguing that the government's justifications were, according to these sources, factually groundless, and moreover, even if they had been true they would have provided inadequate support for the invasion under international law.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Article 2 of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Charter">United Nations Charter</a>, a cornerstone of international law, prohibits the use of force by member states to settle disputes except in self-defense or when authorized by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>. Articles 18 and 20 of the <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_Organization_of_American_States" title="Charter of the Organization of American States">Charter of the Organization of American States</a>, written in part in reaction to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change_in_Latin_America" title="United States involvement in regime change in Latin America">history of U.S. military interventions in Central America</a>, also explicitly prohibit the use of force by member states: "[n]o state or group of states has the right to intervene, directly or indirectly, for any reason whatever, in the internal affairs of any other state". The OAS charter further states that "the territory of a states is inviolable; it may not be the object, even temporarily, of military occupation or of other measures of force taken by another state, directly or indirectly, on any grounds whatever."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other international law experts who have examined the legal justification of the invasion have concluded that it was a "gross violation" of international law.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> passed a resolution which determined that the U.S. invasion was a "flagrant violation of international law."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar resolution proposed by the United Nations Security Council was supported by the majority of its member nations but vetoed by the U.S., the United Kingdom and France.<sup id="cite_ref-postgraduate.ias.unu.edu_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-postgraduate.ias.unu.edu-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Independent experts and observers have also concluded that the invasion also exceeded the authority of the president under the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">United States Constitution</a>. Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution grants the power to declare war solely to the Congress, not to the president.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bush administration argued that the military intervention was constitutional because the Panamanian national assembly had declared a state of war with the United States. This argument is supported by the Federal Convention, where James Madison moved to insert "declare" instead of "make" in "make war", leaving to the executive the power to repel sudden attacks. According to observers, the invasion also violated the <a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Resolution" title="War Powers Resolution">War Powers Resolution</a><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – a federal law designed to limit presidential action without Congressional authorization – because the president failed to consult with Congress regarding the invasion prior to its execution.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-postgraduate.ias.unu.edu_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-postgraduate.ias.unu.edu-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Local_and_international_reactions">Local and international reactions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Local and international reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The invasion provoked international outrage. Some countries charged that the U.S. had committed an act of aggression by invading Panama and was trying to conceal a new manifestation of its interventionist policy of force in Central America. On December 29, the United Nations General Assembly voted 75–20, with 40 abstentions, to condemn the invasion as a flagrant violation of international law.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On December 22, the <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">Organization of American States</a> (OAS) passed a resolution denouncing the invasion and calling for withdrawal of U.S. troops, as well as a resolution condemning the violation of the diplomatic status of the Nicaraguan embassy in Panama by <a href="/wiki/U.S._Special_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Special Forces">U.S. Special Forces</a> who had entered the building.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the United Nations Security Council, seven nations initiated a draft resolution demanding the immediate withdrawal of U.S. forces from Panama.<sup id="cite_ref-UN_S21048_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UN_S21048-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was <a href="/wiki/List_of_Vetoed_United_Nation_Security_Council_Resolutions" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Vetoed United Nation Security Council Resolutions">vetoed</a> on December 23 by the U.S., the United Kingdom and France,<sup id="cite_ref-UN_SPV2902_page15_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UN_SPV2902_page15-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which cited its right of self-defense of 35,000 Americans present on the Panama Canal.<sup id="cite_ref-UN_SPV2902_page10_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UN_SPV2902_page10-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peru recalled <a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_Peru_to_the_United_States" title="List of ambassadors of Peru to the United States">its ambassador from the U.S.</a> in protest of the invasion. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a>, President <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a>, who was being overthrown in a <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">violent revolution</a>, criticized the invasion as "brutal aggression".<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Polls show that the Panamanian people overwhelmingly supported the invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-pastor_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pastor-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a <a href="/wiki/CBS_News" title="CBS News">CBS News</a> poll, 92% of Panamanian adults supported the invasion, and 76% wished that U.S. forces had invaded in October during the second attempted coup.<sup id="cite_ref-pastor_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pastor-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The poll was conducted in 158 randomly selected areas of the country covering about 75 percent of Panama's adult population. CBS News said the margin of sampling error was plus or minus four percentage points.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human Rights Watch described the reaction of the civilian population to the invasion as "generally sympathetic".<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Pastor" title="Robert Pastor">Robert Pastor</a>, a former U.S. national security advisor, 74% of Americans polled approved of the action.<sup id="cite_ref-pastor_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pastor-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eighteen years after the invasion, Panama's <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Panama" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of Panama">National Assembly</a> unanimously declared December 20, 2007, to be a day of national mourning. The resolution was vetoed by President <a href="/wiki/Martin_Torrijos" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Torrijos">Martin Torrijos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On December 19, 2019, the Panamanian government declared December 20 to be a National Day of Mourning (<i>Dia de duelo nacional</i>), to be marked by lowering the national flag to half-staff.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i> disclosed several rulings of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Legal_Counsel" title="Office of Legal Counsel">Office of Legal Counsel</a>, issued shortly before the invasion, regarding the U.S. forces being charged with making an arrest abroad. One ruling interpreted <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_11905" title="Executive Order 11905">an executive order</a> which prohibits the assassination of foreign leaders as suggesting that accidental killings would be acceptable foreign policy. Another ruling concluded that the <a href="/wiki/Posse_Comitatus_Act" title="Posse Comitatus Act">Posse Comitatus Act</a> of 1878, which prohibits the armed forces from making arrests without Congressional authorization, is effective only within the boundaries of the U.S., such that the military could be used as a police force abroad—for example, in Panama, to enforce a federal court warrant against Noriega.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panama_clashes_1989.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Panama_clashes_1989.JPEG/320px-Panama_clashes_1989.JPEG" decoding="async" width="320" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Panama_clashes_1989.JPEG/480px-Panama_clashes_1989.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Panama_clashes_1989.JPEG/640px-Panama_clashes_1989.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="2830" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/El_Chorrillo" title="El Chorrillo">El Chorrillo</a> was badly damaged by fighting. More than 20,000 Panamanians were displaced during the invasion, and disorder continued for nearly two weeks.</figcaption></figure> <p>Guillermo Endara, in hiding, was sworn in as president by a judge on the night preceding the invasion. In later years, he staged a <a href="/wiki/Hunger_strike" title="Hunger strike">hunger strike</a>, calling attention to the poverty and homelessness left in the wake of both the Noriega years and the destruction caused by the U.S. invasion. </p><p>On July 19, 1990, a group of sixty companies with operations in Panama filed a lawsuit against the U.S. government in <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Southern_District_of_New_York" title="United States District Court for the Southern District of New York">Federal District Court in New York City</a>, alleging that the invasion was "done in a tortuous, careless and negligent manner with disregard for the property of innocent Panamanian residents". Most of the businesses had insurance, but the insurers either went <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">bankrupt</a> or refused to pay, claiming that acts of war were not covered.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About 20,000 people lost their homes and became <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugees</a> as a result of <a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">urban warfare</a>. About 2,700 families displaced by the El Chorrillo fire were given $6,500 each by the U.S. to build a new house or apartment in selected areas in or near Panama City. However, numerous problems were reported with the new constructions just two years after the invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Endara's government designated the first anniversary of the invasion a "national day of reflection". Hundreds of Panamanians marked the day with a "black march" through the streets of Panama City to denounce the invasion and Endara's economic policies. Protesters echoed claims that 3,000 people were killed as a result of U.S. military action. Since Noriega's ousting, Panama has had four presidential elections, with candidates from opposing parties succeeding each other in the <a href="/wiki/Palacio_de_las_Garzas" title="Palacio de las Garzas">Palacio de las Garzas</a>. Panama's press, however, is still subject to numerous restrictions.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On February 10, 1990, the Endara government abolished the PDF and reformed the security apparatus by creating the <a href="/wiki/Panamanian_Public_Forces" title="Panamanian Public Forces">Panamanian Public Forces</a> (PPF). In 1994, a constitutional amendment permanently abolished the military of Panama. Concurrent with a severe <a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">recession</a> in Central America throughout the 1990s, Panama's <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> recovered by 1993, but very high unemployment remained a serious problem. </p><p>Noriega was brought to the U.S. to stand trial. He was subsequently convicted on eight counts of <a href="/wiki/Drug_trafficking" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug trafficking">drug trafficking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racketeering" title="Racketeering">racketeering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Money_laundering" title="Money laundering">money laundering</a> and sentenced to 40 years in prison. His sentence was later reduced to 30 years.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He died in Panama City on May 29, 2017, at the age of 83. </p><p>On December 20, 2015, Vice President <a href="/wiki/Isabel_Saint_Malo" title="Isabel Saint Malo">Isabel De Saint Malo de Alvarado</a> announced Panama's intention to form a special independent commission that would publish a report to mark the 26th anniversary of the invasion. The commission's goal would be to identify victims so that <a href="/wiki/War_reparations" title="War reparations">reparations</a> could be paid to their families, as well as to establish public monuments and school curriculums to honor history and reclaim Panama's collective memory. Victims' families have claimed that past investigations into the invasion had been funded by U.S. authorities and therefore were biased.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline">Timeline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Information in this section<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1987">1987</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 1987"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>September 1987 </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">U.S. Senate</a> passes resolution urging Panama to re-establish a civilian government. Panama protests alleged U.S. violations of the <a href="/wiki/Torrijos%E2%80%93Carter_Treaties" title="Torrijos–Carter Treaties">Torrijos–Carter Treaties</a>.</li></ul> <p>November 1987 </p> <ul><li>U.S. Senate resolution cuts military and economic aid to Panama. Panamanians adopt resolution restricting U.S. military presence.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1988">1988</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1988"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>February 1988 </p> <ul><li>Noriega indicted on drug-related charges. U.S. forces begin planning contingency operations in Panama (OPLAN Blue Spoon).</li></ul> <p>March 1988 </p> <ul><li>March 15: First of four deployments of U.S. forces begins providing additional security to U.S. installations.</li> <li>March 16: PDF officers attempt a coup against Noriega.</li></ul> <p>April 1988 </p> <ul><li>April 5: Additional U.S. forces deployed to provide security.</li> <li>April 9: Joint Task Force Panama activated.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1989">1989</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 1989"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>May 1989 </p> <ul><li>May 7: <a href="/wiki/1989_Panamanian_general_election" title="1989 Panamanian general election">General election</a> are held in Panama; opposition alliance tally shows their candidate, <a href="/wiki/Guillermo_Endara" title="Guillermo Endara">Guillermo Endara</a>, beating Noriega's candidate, <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Duque" title="Carlos Duque">Carlos Duque</a>, by a 3 to 1 margin. The election is declared invalid two days later by Noriega.</li> <li>May 11: President Bush orders 1,900 additional combat troops to Panama (Operation Nimrod Dancer).<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>May 22: Convoys conducted to assert U.S. freedom of movement. Additional transport units travel from bases in the territorial U.S. to bases in Panama, and back, for this express purpose.</li></ul> <p>June–September 1989 (Operation Nimrod Dancer) </p> <ul><li>U.S. begins conducting joint training and freedom of movement exercises (Operation Sand Flea<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and Operation Purple Storm<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>). Additional transport units continue repeatedly traveling from bases in the territorial U.S. to bases in Panama, and back, for this express purpose.</li></ul> <p>October 1989 (Operation Nimrod Dancer) </p> <ul><li>October 3: PDF, loyal to Noriega, defeat second coup attempt.</li></ul> <p>December 1989 </p> <ul><li>December 15: Noriega refers to himself as leader of Panama and declares that the U.S. is in a <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_war" title="Declaration of war">state of war</a> with Panama.</li> <li>December 16: U.S. Marine lieutenant shot and killed by PDF. Navy lieutenant and wife detained and assaulted by PDF.</li> <li>December 17: NCA directs execution of Operation Just Cause.</li> <li>December 18: Army lieutenant shoots PDF sergeant. Joint Task Force South (JTFSO) advance party deploys. JCS designates D-Day/H-Hour as 20 December/1:00 a.m.</li> <li>December 19: U.S. forces alerted, marshalled, and launched.</li></ul> <p>D-Day, December 20, 1989 </p> <ul><li>U.S. invasion of Panama begins. The operation was conducted as a campaign with limited military objectives. JTFSO objectives in PLAN 90-2 were to: protect U.S. lives and key sites and facilities, capture and deliver Noriega to competent authority, neutralize PDF forces, neutralize PDF command and control, support establishment of a U.S.-recognized government in Panama, and restructure the PDF. Major operations detailed elsewhere continued through December 24.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990">1990</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 1990"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>JCS directs execution of Operation Promote Liberty.</li></ul> <p>January 3, 1990 (D-Day + 14) </p> <ul><li>Noriega surrenders to U.S. forces in Panama City</li></ul> <p>January 31, 1990 (D-Day + 42) </p> <ul><li>Operation Just Cause ends.</li> <li>Operation Promote Liberty begins.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1994">1994</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 1994"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>September 1994 (D-Day + approximately 4.5 years) </p> <ul><li>Operation Promote Liberty ends.<sup id="cite_ref-usacac.army.mil_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usacac.army.mil-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_operations_and_involved_U.S._units">Major operations and involved U.S. units</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Major operations and involved U.S. units"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="Special:EditPage/United States invasion of Panama">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22United+States+invasion+of+Panama%22">"United States invasion of Panama"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22United+States+invasion+of+Panama%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22United+States+invasion+of+Panama%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22United+States+invasion+of+Panama%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22United+States+invasion+of+Panama%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22United+States+invasion+of+Panama%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operations">Operations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Operations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All 27 objectives related to the Panamanian Defense Force were completed on D-Day, December 20, 1989. As initial forces moved to new objectives, follow-on forces from the 7th Infantry Division (L) moved into the western areas of Panama and into Panama City. </p><p>December 18, 1989 (D-Day – 2) </p> <ul><li>SFODA-795/796 of Company C, 3rd Bn, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne), part of Task Force Black, moves to Albrook Air Force Station as a forward element in preparation to secure the Panamanian President-elect Endara and his two vice presidents-elect, by force, if necessary.</li></ul> <p>December 19, 1989 (D-Day − 1) </p> <ul><li>Company A, 1st Bn, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) – already deployed into Panama, along with 3rd Bn, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) – then permanently headquartered at Fort Davis, Panama, both elements of Task Force Black, moved to predetermined positions.</li> <li>Task Force Black receives Presidential cross-border authority message from President Bush.</li> <li>Company C, 3rd Battalion, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) is stood down from its mission to rescue of the duly elected Panamanian Presidency and awaits a new mission.</li> <li>3d Bde, 7th Infantry Division (L) (4/17th Inf), already deployed as part of peacekeeping forces in the region, was deployed to predetermined positions.</li> <li>2nd Bde, 7th Inf Div (L), was alerted for deployment. DRF 1 (5/21st Inf) and DRF 2 (2/27th INF) were deployed.</li> <li>Tow Platoon, HHC, 5/87th Inf (L), conducts pre-invasion recon of all objectives for Task Force Wildcat.</li></ul> <p>December 20, 1989 (D-Day) </p> <ul><li>3d Bde, 7th Infantry Division (L) (4/17th Inf) began operations in Colon City, the Canal Zone, and Panama City.</li> <li>The remainder of the 2d Bde was deployed and closed in Panama.</li> <li>Elements of 1st and 3rd Bn, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) conducted air assault and secured Pacora River Bridge preventing PDF reinforcements from reaching Omar Torrijos Airport and Panama City.</li> <li>The entire 75th Ranger Regiment, split into two elements (Team Black and Team Gold), conducted simultaneous parachute drops at Rio Hato Airfield, along with half the command and control of the HQ 75th RGR, the entire 2nd Battalion 75th RGR, and two companies from 3rd Battalion 75th, to neutralize PDF and Macho de Montes units present, seize the runway, and secure Manuel Noriega's beachside facility.</li> <li>The other half of HQ 75th RGR C&C, along with 1st Battalion 75th RGR and the remaining elements of 3rd Battalion 75th RGR, dropped into Omar Torrijos Airport to seize the runway and tower for follow-on operations by elements of the 82nd Airborne Division, deployed by C141 airdrop/airland elements of the 317th Combat Control Squadron, 507th Tactical Air Control Squadron.</li> <li>193d Infantry Brigade (Light) assaulted PDF headquarters at La Commandancia, PDF Engineer Battalion, PDF 5th Company at Fort Amador, PDF units at Balboa and Ancon.</li> <li>45 minutes after the 75th RGR RGT conducted their parachute drop onto Omar Torrijos Airport the 1st BDE 82 ABN DIV begins parachuting onto the airfield, and then assembles for movement to assigned follow on objectives.</li> <li>Company C, 3rd Battalion, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) conducts a daylight raid on Panama National Radio in downtown Panama City by fast-roping onto the roof of its 20-story building from MH-60 helicopters, destroying its FM broadcast capability. In a short turn around operation with 15 minutes warning and on order from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the unit air assaults the Radio Panama AM radio transmitter site destroying the transmission tower and cutting off Noriega's final link to rally his supporters.</li></ul> <p>December 21, 1989 (D-Day + 1) </p> <ul><li>JCS directed execution of Operation Promote Liberty (renamed from Plan Blind Logic).</li> <li>The Panama Canal reopened for daylight operations.</li> <li>Refugee situation became critical.</li> <li>C Company, 5th Battalion, 87th Infantry Regiment (193d Infantry Brigade) repelled a PDF counterattack at the PDF DNTT headquarters and rescued Panamanian Vice President Ford, whose convoy was also attacked.</li> <li>TF Bayonet began CMO in Panama City.</li> <li>Marriott Caesar Park Hotel was secured and hostages evacuated.</li></ul> <p>December 22, 1989 (D-Day + 2) </p> <ul><li>FPP established.</li> <li>CMO and stability operations became primary focus.</li> <li>2d Bde, 7th Inf Div (L), deployed to Rio Hato.</li> <li>1st Bde (9th Regiment), 7th Inf Div (L), was alerted for deployment.</li></ul> <p>December 23, 1989 (D-Day + 3) </p> <ul><li>International airport reopened.</li> <li>2d Bde, 7th Inf Div (L) and SF elements began operations in west.</li> <li>96th CA Bn assumed responsibility for DC Camp from USARSO.</li> <li>1st Bde (9th Regiment) 7th Inf Div (L) closed in Panama.</li></ul> <p>December 24, 1989 (D-Day + 4) </p> <ul><li>Noriega entered Papal Nunciatura.</li> <li>Money for Weapons program initiated.</li> <li>Combined U.S./FPP patrols began.</li></ul> <p>December 25, 1989 (D-Day + 5) </p> <ul><li>Rangers secured Davíd.</li> <li>Operations in western Panama continued successfully.</li></ul> <p>January 3, 1990 (D-Day + 14) </p> <ul><li>Noriega surrendered to U.S. forces.</li> <li>Combat and stability ops continue.</li></ul> <p>January 31, 1990 (D-Day + 42) </p> <ul><li>Operation Just Cause ends.<sup id="cite_ref-archives.gov_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-archives.gov-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Operation Promote Liberty begins.</li></ul> <p>September 1994 (D-Day + approximately 4.5 years) </p> <ul><li>Operation Promote Liberty ends.<sup id="cite_ref-usacac.army.mil_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usacac.army.mil-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Above information in this section<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_operations">Related operations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Related operations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Nifty_Package" title="Operation Nifty Package">Operation Nifty Package</a>: an operation which the SEALs undertook in order to capture Manuel Noriega or destroy his two escape routes: his private jet, located at Paitilla Airfield, was destroyed in the operation along with his gunboat, which was docked in a canal. Noriega surrendered to U.S. troops on January 3, 1990.</li> <li>Operation Nimrod Dancer: an operation which reinforced the forward-deployed U.S. forces with a brigade headquarters and an infantry battalion task force from the 7th Inf Div (L), a mechanized infantry battalion from the 5th Inf Div (M), and a U.S. Marine Corps Light Armored Infantry (LAI) Company. Augmentation continued with units rotating from both divisions under Operation Nimrod Sustain.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Prayer_Book" title="Operation Prayer Book">Operation Prayer Book</a></li> <li>Operation Promote Liberty: an operation whose purpose was to rebuild the Panamanian military and Panama's civilian infrastructure.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Purple_Storm" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Purple Storm">Operation Purple Storm</a>: an operation whose purpose was to assert, display, and exercise U.S. freedom-of-movement rights, with convoys traveling both inside and outside Panama for that express purpose.</li> <li>Operation Sand Flea: an operation whose purpose was to exercise, display, and assert U.S. freedom-of-movement rights, with convoys traveling both inside and outside Panama for that express purpose.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_at_Renacer_Prison" title="Raid at Renacer Prison">Raid at Renacer Prison</a>: a military operation in which the prison was taken over and 64 prisoners were rescued.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Panama_Deception" title="The Panama Deception">The Panama Deception</a></i>, an Academy Award-winning 1992 documentary which was narrated by <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Montgomery" title="Elizabeth Montgomery">Elizabeth Montgomery</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Invasion_(2014_film)" title="Invasion (2014 film)">Invasion</a></i>, a 2014 Panamanian documentary.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Call_of_Duty:_Black_Ops_II" title="Call of Duty: Black Ops II">Call of Duty: Black Ops II</a></i>, a 2012 first-person shooter video game which featured the invasion.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_interventions_by_the_United_States" title="Foreign interventions by the United States">Foreign interventions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_Cause_(video_game_series)" title="Just Cause (video game series)">Just Cause (video game series)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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href="#cite_ref-archives.gov_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/st-louis/military-personnel/vso/veterans_preference_and_wartime_service.html">"Veterans Preference and "Wartime" Service"</a>. <i>archives.gov</i>. August 15, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archives.gov&rft.atitle=Veterans+Preference+and+%22Wartime%22+Service&rft.date=2016-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fst-louis%2Fmilitary-personnel%2Fvso%2Fveterans_preference_and_wartime_service.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.army.mil/-news/2008/12/14/14302-operation-just-cause-the-invasion-of-panama-december-1989">"Operation Just Cause: The Invasion of Panama, December 1989"</a>. United States Army.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Operation+Just+Cause%3A+The+Invasion+of+Panama%2C+December+1989&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.army.mil%2F-news%2F2008%2F12%2F14%2F14302-operation-just-cause-the-invasion-of-panama-december-1989&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArchibold2017" class="citation news cs1">Archibold, Randal C. (May 30, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/30/world/americas/manuel-antonio-noriega-dead-panama.html">"Manuel Noriega, Dictator Ousted by U.S. in Panama, Dies at 83"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 24,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Panama+and+U.S.+Strive+To+Settle+on+Death+Toll&rft.date=1990-04-01&rft.aulast=Rohter&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1990%2F04%2F01%2Fworld%2Fpanama-and-us-strive-to-settle-on-death-toll.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomsky1991" class="citation book cs1">Chomsky, Noam (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uZui06DXqmcC"><i>Deterring Democracy</i></a>. Boston, MA: South End Press. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781466801530" title="Special:BookSources/9781466801530"><bdi>9781466801530</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deterring+Democracy&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=South+End+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9781466801530&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuZui06DXqmcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archived at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/O35bBYFepjM">Ghostarchive</a> and the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200224184308/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O35bBYFepjM&gl=US&hl=en">Wayback Machine</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrent1992" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Trent, Barbara (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O35bBYFepjM"><i>The Panama Deception</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Panama+Deception&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Trent&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DO35bBYFepjM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Riding-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Riding_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riding_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiding1990" class="citation news cs1">Riding, Alan (June 24, 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/06/24/world/us-sued-in-death-of-a-journalist-in-panama.html">"U.S. Sued in Death of a Journalist in Panama"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=U.S.+Sued+in+Death+of+a+Journalist+in+Panama&rft.date=1990-06-24&rft.aulast=Riding&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1990%2F06%2F24%2Fworld%2Fus-sued-in-death-of-a-journalist-in-panama.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-12-21-mn-1201-story.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'It's Been Worth It': Bush—U.S. Troops Take Control of Panama"</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i>. December 21, 1989.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=%27It%27s+Been+Worth+It%27%3A+Bush%E2%80%94U.S.+Troops+Take+Control+of+Panama&rft.date=1989-12-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1989-12-21-mn-1201-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonnellyRothBaker1991" class="citation book cs1">Donnelly, Thomas; Roth, Margaret; Baker, Caleb (1991). <i>Operation Just Cause: The Storming of Panama</i>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Lexington Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-669-24975-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-669-24975-0"><bdi>0-669-24975-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operation+Just+Cause%3A+The+Storming+of+Panama&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-669-24975-0&rft.aulast=Donnelly&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Roth%2C+Margaret&rft.au=Baker%2C+Caleb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://documents.un.org/doc/resolution/gen/nr0/549/99/pdf/nr054999.pdf">"United Nations, 88th plenary meeting of the General Assembly, Resolution 44/240: Effects of the military intervention of the United States of America in Panama on the situation in Central America"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>documents.un.org</i>. December 29, 1989<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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SR Books. p. 494. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8420-2918-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8420-2918-6"><bdi>978-0-8420-2918-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crucible+of+Power%3A+A+History+of+US+Foreign+Relations+Since+1897&rft.pages=494&rft.pub=SR+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8420-2918-6&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn6Al88smOAUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKempe1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Kempe" title="Frederick Kempe">Kempe, Frederick</a> (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/divorcingdictato00kemp"><i>Divorcing the Dictator</i></a></span>. New York: Putnam. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/divorcingdictato00kemp/page/26">26</a>–30, 162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-259-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-259-3"><bdi>978-1-85043-259-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Divorcing+the+Dictator&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=26-30%2C+162&rft.pub=Putnam&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-1-85043-259-3&rft.aulast=Kempe&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdivorcingdictato00kemp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cockburn-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cockburn_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCockburnSt._Clair1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Cockburn" title="Alexander Cockburn">Cockburn, Alexander</a> & <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_St._Clair" title="Jeffrey St. Clair">St. Clair, Jeffrey</a> (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whiteoutciadrugs00cock"><i>Whiteout: the CIA, Drugs, and the Press</i></a></span>. London: Verso. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85984-139-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85984-139-6"><bdi>978-1-85984-139-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Whiteout%3A+the+CIA%2C+Drugs%2C+and+the+Press&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-85984-139-6&rft.aulast=Cockburn&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=St.+Clair%2C+Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhiteoutciadrugs00cock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-National_Security_Archive-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-National_Security_Archive_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu//NSAEBB/NSAEBB2/index.html"><i>The Contras, Cocaine, and Covert Operations</i></a>. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing, <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a>. 1999. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Contras%2C+Cocaine%2C+and+Covert+Operations&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=National+Security+Archive+Electronic+Briefing%2C+George+Washington+University&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnsarchive2.gwu.edu%2F%2FNSAEBB%2FNSAEBB2%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buckley-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buckley_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuckley1991" class="citation book cs1">Buckley, Kevin (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/panamawholestory00buck"><i>Panama: The Whole Story</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-72794-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-72794-9"><bdi>978-0-671-72794-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Panama%3A+The+Whole+Story&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-671-72794-9&rft.aulast=Buckley&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpanamawholestory00buck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oakley-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oakley_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oakley_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOakleyDziedzicGoldberg1998" class="citation book cs1">Oakley, Robert B.; Dziedzic, Michael J. & Goldberg, Eliot M. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nA5JrT1Rv6IC"><i>Policing the New World Disorder: Peace Operations and Public Security</i></a>. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57906-006-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57906-006-0"><bdi>978-1-57906-006-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Policing+the+New+World+Disorder%3A+Peace+Operations+and+Public+Security&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=National+Defense+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-57906-006-0&rft.aulast=Oakley&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rft.au=Dziedzic%2C+Michael+J.&rft.au=Goldberg%2C+Eliot+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnA5JrT1Rv6IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole1995" class="citation book cs1">Cole, Ronald H. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/History/Monographs/Just_Cause.pdf"><i>Operation Just Cause: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama, February 1988 – January 1990</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Joint History Office, Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7881-3557-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7881-3557-6"><bdi>978-0-7881-3557-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operation+Just+Cause%3A+The+Planning+and+Execution+of+Joint+Operations+in+Panama%2C+February+1988+%E2%80%93+January+1990&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Joint+History+Office%2C+Office+of+the+Joint+Chiefs+of+Staff&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7881-3557-6&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Ronald+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jcs.mil%2FPortals%2F36%2FDocuments%2FHistory%2FMonographs%2FJust_Cause.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/102074799">"US Plot"</a>. <i>The Canberra Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Canberra+Times&rft.atitle=US+Plot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftrove.nla.gov.au%2Fnewspaper%2Farticle%2F102074799&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201020050541/http://www.cidh.org/countryrep/panama89eng/TOC.htm">Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Panama</a> (Report). <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">Organization of American States</a>: <a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="Inter-American Commission on Human Rights">Inter-American Commission on Human Rights</a>. November 9, 1989. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cidh.org/countryrep/panama89eng/TOC.htm">the original</a> on October 20, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Report+on+the+Situation+of+Human+Rights+in+Panama&rft.pub=Organization+of+American+States%3A+Inter-American+Commission+on+Human+Rights&rft.date=1989-11-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cidh.org%2Fcountryrep%2Fpanama89eng%2FTOC.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole1995" class="citation book cs1">Cole, Ronald H. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/History/Monographs/Just_Cause.pdf"><i>Operation Just Cause: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama, February 1988 – January 1990</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Joint History Office, Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7881-3557-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7881-3557-6"><bdi>978-0-7881-3557-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operation+Just+Cause%3A+The+Planning+and+Execution+of+Joint+Operations+in+Panama%2C+February+1988+%E2%80%93+January+1990&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Joint+History+Office%2C+Office+of+the+Joint+Chiefs+of+Staff&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7881-3557-6&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Ronald+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jcs.mil%2FPortals%2F36%2FDocuments%2FHistory%2FMonographs%2FJust_Cause.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYates2008" class="citation book cs1">Yates, Lawrence A. (2008). <i>The US Military Intervention in Panama: Origins, Planning and Crises Management, June 1987 – December 1989</i>. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+US+Military+Intervention+in+Panama%3A+Origins%2C+Planning+and+Crises+Management%2C+June+1987+%E2%80%93+December+1989&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Center+of+Military+History%2C+United+States+Army&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Yates&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Noriega Challenge to George Bush's Credibility and the 1989 Invasion of Panama". 2000.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2014)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cole,_Ronald_H._1995._p._27-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cole,_Ronald_H._1995._p._27_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cole,_Ronald_H._1995._p._27_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole1995" class="citation book cs1">Cole, Ronald H. (1995). <i>Operation Just Cause: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama, February 1988 – January 1990</i>. Joint History Office, Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. p. 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operation+Just+Cause%3A+The+Planning+and+Execution+of+Joint+Operations+in+Panama%2C+February+1988+%E2%80%93+January+1990&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Joint+History+Office%2C+Office+of+the+Joint+Chiefs+of+Staff&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Ronald+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-11th-circuit/1089768.html#sthash.3UwJFMG0.dpuf">"UNITED STATES v. NORIEGA"</a>. <q>On December 15, 1989, Noriega publicly declared that a state of war existed between Panama and the United States.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UNITED+STATES+v.+NORIEGA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcaselaw.findlaw.com%2Fus-11th-circuit%2F1089768.html%23sthash.3UwJFMG0.dpuf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuigley" class="citation web cs1">Quigley, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openyls.law.yale.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.13051/6236/14_15YaleJIntlL276_1990_.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y">"The Legality of the United States Invasion of Panama"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Legality+of+the+United+States+Invasion+of+Panama&rft.aulast=Quigley&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenyls.law.yale.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F20.500.13051%2F6236%2F14_15YaleJIntlL276_1990_.pdf%3Fsequence%3D2%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Operation Just Cause". <i>870-5a Organizational History Files</i> (Corps Historian's Notes). XVIII Airborne Corps. 1989–1990. Notebook #1. Permanent.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=870-5a+Organizational+History+Files&rft.atitle=Operation+Just+Cause&rft.date=1989%2F1990&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span> Corps Historian's Personal Notes Recorded During the Operation</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMann2019" class="citation book cs1">Mann, Don (2019). <i>Navy SEALs: The Combat History of the Deadliest Warriors on the Planet</i>. Skyhorse. p. 108.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Navy+SEALs%3A+The+Combat+History+of+the+Deadliest+Warriors+on+the+Planet&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Skyhorse&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.aufirst=Don&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole1995" class="citation book cs1">Cole, Ronald H (1995). <i>Operation Just Cause: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama, February 1988 – January 1990</i>. Joint History Office, Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. p. 30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operation+Just+Cause%3A+The+Planning+and+Execution+of+Joint+Operations+in+Panama%2C+February+1988+%E2%80%93+January+1990&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Joint+History+Office%2C+Office+of+the+Joint+Chiefs+of+Staff&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Ronald+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChinchilla2019" class="citation news cs1">Chinchilla, Sofia (December 18, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nacion.com/el-pais/politica/archivo-de-cia-revela-gestiones-de-arias-y-oduber/76II6MWDQZBS3HP3XBVBB3O4KI/story/">"Archivo de CIA revela gestiones de Óscar Arias y Daniel Oduber para negociar salida de Noriega"</a>. <a href="/wiki/La_Naci%C3%B3n_(San_Jos%C3%A9)" class="mw-redirect" title="La Nación (San José)">La Nación (San José)</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 25,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Archivo+de+CIA+revela+gestiones+de+%C3%93scar+Arias+y+Daniel+Oduber+para+negociar+salida+de+Noriega&rft.date=2019-12-18&rft.aulast=Chinchilla&rft.aufirst=Sofia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nacion.com%2Fel-pais%2Fpolitica%2Farchivo-de-cia-revela-gestiones-de-arias-y-oduber%2F76II6MWDQZBS3HP3XBVBB3O4KI%2Fstory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJauregui1988" class="citation news cs1">Jauregui, Fernando (March 27, 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elpais.com/diario/1988/03/28/internacional/575503204_850215.html">"Óscar Arias arfirmaa que el general Noriega considera la posibilidad de exiliarse en España"</a>. <a href="/wiki/El_Pa%C3%ADs_(Spain)" class="mw-redirect" title="El País (Spain)">El País (Spain)</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 25,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%C3%93scar+Arias+arfirmaa+que+el+general+Noriega+considera+la+posibilidad+de+exiliarse+en+Espa%C3%B1a&rft.date=1988-03-27&rft.aulast=Jauregui&rft.aufirst=Fernando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felpais.com%2Fdiario%2F1988%2F03%2F28%2Finternacional%2F575503204_850215.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-transcript-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-transcript_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-transcript_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/21/world/fighting-panama-president-transcript-bush-s-address-decision-use-force-panama.html">"A Transcript of Bush's Address on the Decision to Use Force in Panama"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. December 21, 1989. p. A19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Transcript+of+Bush%27s+Address+on+the+Decision+to+Use+Force+in+Panama&rft.pages=A19&rft.date=1989-12-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F12%2F21%2Fworld%2Ffighting-panama-president-transcript-bush-s-address-decision-use-force-panama.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">transcript</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoriegaEisner1997" class="citation book cs1">Noriega, Manuel & Eisner, Peter (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americasprisoner00nori"><i>America's Prisoner: The Memoirs of Manuel Noriega</i></a></span>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780679432272" title="Special:BookSources/9780679432272"><bdi>9780679432272</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+Prisoner%3A+The+Memoirs+of+Manuel+Noriega&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780679432272&rft.aulast=Noriega&rft.aufirst=Manuel&rft.au=Eisner%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericasprisoner00nori&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cramer-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cramer_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cramer_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cramer_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCramer2006" class="citation journal cs1">Cramer, Jane Kellett (2006). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Just Cause" or Just Politics?: U.S. Panama Invasion and Standardizing Qualitative Tests for Diversionary War". <i>Armed Forces & Society</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 178–201. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0095327x05277899">10.1177/0095327x05277899</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145717080">145717080</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Armed+Forces+%26+Society&rft.atitle=%22Just+Cause%22+or+Just+Politics%3F%3A+U.S.+Panama+Invasion+and+Standardizing+Qualitative+Tests+for+Diversionary+War&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=178-201&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0095327x05277899&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145717080%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cramer&rft.aufirst=Jane+Kellett&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170930032911/http://archive.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=14769">"U.S. Coast Guard Defends Against Terrorism Locally, Globally"</a>. <i>archive.defense.gov</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=14769">the original</a> on September 30, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 22,</span> 2018</span>. <q>Coast Guardsmen served in the War of 1812, Mexican-American War, Civil War, Spanish-American War, World Wars I and II, Korean War, Vietnam War, Mayaguez Incident in Cambodia in 1975, Operation Urgent Fury in Grenada, Operation Just Cause in Panama,-</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive.defense.gov&rft.atitle=U.S.+Coast+Guard+Defends+Against+Terrorism+Locally%2C+Globally&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.defense.gov%2Fnews%2Fnewsarticle.aspx%3Fid%3D14769&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://usafunithistory.com/PDF/0500/507%20AIR%20CONTROL%20WG.pdf">"507th AIR CONTROL WING"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=507th+AIR+CONTROL+WING&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fusafunithistory.com%2FPDF%2F0500%2F507%2520AIR%2520CONTROL%2520WG.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ww35.usafunithistory.com/PDF/0600/602%20TACTICAL%20AIR%20CONTROL%20WG.pdf">"602nd Tactical Air Control Wing"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 28,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=602nd+Tactical+Air+Control+Wing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ww35.usafunithistory.com%2FPDF%2F0600%2F602%2520TACTICAL%2520AIR%2520CONTROL%2520WG.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110615114306/http://www.mountainhome.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=4278">"366th Fighter Wing History"</a>. United States Air Force. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mountainhome.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=4278">the original</a> on 15 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=366th+Fighter+Wing+History&rft.pub=United+States+Air+Force&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mountainhome.af.mil%2Flibrary%2Ffactsheets%2Ffactsheet.asp%3Fid%3D4278&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPizzurnoAndrés_Araúz" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pizzurno, Patricia & Andrés Araúz, Celestino. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060421073615/http://www.critica.com.pa/archivo/historia/f14-01.html">"Estados Unidos invade Panamá Crónica de una invasión anunciada"</a> (in Spanish). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.critica.com.pa/archivo/historia/f14-01.html">the original</a> on 21 April 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Estados+Unidos+invade+Panam%C3%A1+Cr%C3%B3nica+de+una+invasi%C3%B3n+anunciada&rft.aulast=Pizzurno&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft.au=Andr%C3%A9s+Ara%C3%BAz%2C+Celestino&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.critica.com.pa%2Farchivo%2Fhistoria%2Ff14-01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2014)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> According to this piece, the PDF had 16,000 troops, but only 3,000 of them were trained for combat: "Para entonces las Fuerzas de Defensa poseían 16.000 efectivos, de los cuales apenas 3.000 estaban entrenados para el combate."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OJCjcs-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OJCjcs_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OJCjcs_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole" class="citation web cs1">Cole, Ronald H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217200850/http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/history/justcaus.pdf">"Operation Just Cause: Panama"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Joint History Office, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/history/justcaus.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 17 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Operation+Just+Cause%3A+Panama&rft.pub=Joint+History+Office%2C+Office+of+the+Chairman+of+the+Joint+Chiefs+of+Staff&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Ronald+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dtic.mil%2Fdoctrine%2Fjel%2Fhistory%2Fjustcaus.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFishel1997" class="citation book cs1">Fishel, John T. (1997). <i>Civil Military Operations in the New World</i>. Greenwood Publishing Group.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+Military+Operations+in+the+New+World&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Fishel&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2014)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Combat in Panama, Operation Just Cause". <i>Los Angeles Times</i>. December 21, 1989. p. A4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Combat+in+Panama%2C+Operation+Just+Cause&rft.pages=A4&rft.date=1989-12-21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalguard.mil/news/todayinhistory/december.aspx">"Guard News – the National Guard"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Guard+News+%E2%80%93+the+National+Guard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalguard.mil%2Fnews%2Ftodayinhistory%2Fdecember.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker1990" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Russell_Baker" title="Russell Baker">Baker, Russell</a> (January 3, 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/03/opinion/observer-is-this-justice-necessary.html">"Is This Justice Necessary?"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. p. A19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 9,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Is+This+Justice+Necessary%3F&rft.pages=A19&rft.date=1990-01-03&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1990%2F01%2F03%2Fopinion%2Fobserver-is-this-justice-necessary.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsay-Poland2003" class="citation book cs1">Lindsay-Poland, John (2003). <i>Emperors in the Jungle: The Hidden History of the U.S. in Panama</i>. Duke University Press. p. 118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-3098-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-3098-9"><bdi>0-8223-3098-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emperors+in+the+Jungle%3A+The+Hidden+History+of+the+U.S.+in+Panama&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8223-3098-9&rft.aulast=Lindsay-Poland&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2014)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/reports/1991/panama/">"Human Rights in Post-Invasion Panama: Justice Delayed is Justice Denied"</a>. April 7, 1991.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Rights+in+Post-Invasion+Panama%3A+Justice+Delayed+is+Justice+Denied&rft.date=1991-04-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Freports%2F1991%2Fpanama%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2014)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120406091440/http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/papa/panamaus1989.htm">"US Invasion of Panama 1989"</a>. <i>Wars of za warudo</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/papa/panamaus1989.htm">the original</a> on April 6, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wars+of+za+warudo&rft.atitle=US+Invasion+of+Panama+1989&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.onwar.com%2Faced%2Fdata%2Fpapa%2Fpanamaus1989.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroder1990" class="citation news cs1">Broder, John M. (June 19, 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-06-19-mn-196-story.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Friendly Fire' Killed 2 GIs in Panama, Invasion: The Pentagon sharply increases its estimate of U.S. casualties inflicted by own forces"</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 12,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=%27Friendly+Fire%27+Killed+2+GIs+in+Panama%2C+Invasion%3A+The+Pentagon+sharply+increases+its+estimate+of+U.S.+casualties+inflicted+by+own+forces&rft.date=1990-06-19&rft.aulast=Broder&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1990-06-19-mn-196-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-moreno-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-moreno_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-moreno_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_IAUGd23qZgC&pg=PA158"><i>Spanish Yearbook of International Law: 1992</i></a>. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 1992. pp. 158–161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9041102310" title="Special:BookSources/9041102310"><bdi>9041102310</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spanish+Yearbook+of+International+Law%3A+1992&rft.pages=158-161&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9041102310&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_IAUGd23qZgC%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elpais.com/diario/1992/03/27/sociedad/701650805_850215.html">"España ha asumido ante el Departamento de Estado de EE UU la defensa de Juantxu"</a>. <i>El País</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 26,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Army+Probes+Allegations+Two+Women+Refused+to+Obey+Orders+in+Panama&rft.date=1990-01-20&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Molly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fpolitics%2F1990%2F01%2F20%2Farmy-probes-allegations-two-women-refused-to-obey-orders-in-panama%2F90bc43cb-0a5a-4516-9d95-c537a0649481%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200614120452/https://www.womensmemorial.org/history/detail/?s=first-woman-to-lead-us-troops-in-battle">"First Woman to Lead U.S. Troops in Battle"</a>. <i>Women in Military Service for America Memorial (Women's Memorial)</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 26,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Women+in+Military+Service+for+America+Memorial+%28Women%27s+Memorial%29&rft.atitle=First+Woman+to+Lead+U.S.+Troops+in+Battle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.womensmemorial.org%2Fhistory%2Fdetail%2F%3Fs%3Dfirst-woman-to-lead-us-troops-in-battle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_C.1990" class="citation web cs1">Charles C., Moskos (August 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1990/08/army-women/306156/">"Army Women"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Jr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://smallwarsjournal.com/documents/conley.pdf">"Operations 'Just Cause' and 'Promote Liberty': The implications of Military Operations Other than War"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Small Wars Journal</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Small+Wars+Journal&rft.atitle=Operations+%27Just+Cause%27+and+%27Promote+Liberty%27%3A+The+implications+of+Military+Operations+Other+than+War&rft.aulast=Conley&rft.aufirst=William+J.+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsmallwarsjournal.com%2Fdocuments%2Fconley.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2014)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowellPersico1995" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Colin & Persico, Joseph E. (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/myamericanjourne00powe"><i>My American Journey</i></a></span>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780679432968" title="Special:BookSources/9780679432968"><bdi>9780679432968</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+American+Journey&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780679432968&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft.au=Persico%2C+Joseph+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmyamericanjourne00powe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoyner2011" class="citation web cs1">Joyner, James (May 12, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.outsidethebeltway.com/war-and-rhetoric/">"War and Rhetoric"</a>. <i>Outside the Beltway</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 30,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Outside+the+Beltway&rft.atitle=War+and+Rhetoric&rft.date=2011-05-12&rft.aulast=Joyner&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.outsidethebeltway.com%2Fwar-and-rhetoric%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lonelyplanet.com/a/nar/0ce56542-c65c-4da3-8990-1b51033fc8b0/358509">"Panama"</a>. <i>Lonely Planet</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://usacac.army.mil/CAC/milreview/download/English/MayJun05/yates.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 25 June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Military+Review&rft.atitle=Panama%2C+1988%E2%80%931990%3A+The+Discontent+between+Combat+and+Stability+Operations&rft.date=2005-05%2F2005-06&rft.aulast=Yates&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusacac.army.mil%2FCAC%2Fmilreview%2Fdownload%2FEnglish%2FMayJun05%2Fyates.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 3(2), 1995, pages 43–52, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.albany.edu/scj/jcjpc/vol3is2/state.html">Exploring State Criminality: The Invasion of Panama</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190803085930/https://www.albany.edu/scj/jcjpc/vol3is2/state.html">Archived</a> August 3, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_B._Quigley" title="John B. Quigley">John B. Quigley</a>, "The Legality of the United States Invasion of Panama", 15 <a href="/wiki/Yale_Journal_of_International_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale Journal of International Law">Yale Journal of International Law</a> (1990), page 285 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/yjil/vol15/iss2/3">https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/yjil/vol15/iss2/3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Henkin" title="Louis Henkin">Louis Henkin</a>, 29 <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Journal_of_Transnational_Law" title="Columbia Journal of Transnational Law">Columbia Journal of Transnational Law</a> 293 (1991), "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/cjtl29&div=21&id=&page=">The Invasion of Panama under International Law: A Gross Violation</a>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United Nations General Assembly, A/RES/44/240, 88th Plenary Meeting, December 29, 1989 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/44/a44r240.htm">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-postgraduate.ias.unu.edu-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-postgraduate.ias.unu.edu_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-postgraduate.ias.unu.edu_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">DAM Rodolfo, United Nations Peace and Progress, Vol. 3 (1), pp. 50–63 "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://postgraduate.ias.unu.edu/upp/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/6_Dam_article.pdf">Legality of the 1989 Panama Invasion and the 'Responsibility to Protect' Doctrine</a>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Bogus" title="Carl Bogus">Carl Bogus</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40706992">The Invasion of Panama and the Rule of Law</a>", <a href="/wiki/The_International_Lawyer" title="The International Lawyer">The International Lawyer</a> (a publication of the <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a>'s Section on International Law and Practice), Vol. 26, No. 3 (Fall 1992), p. 786</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/The_Chicago_Tribune" class="mw-redirect" title="The Chicago Tribune">The Chicago Tribune</a>, December 21, 1989, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1989-12-21-8903190920-story.html">In Panama, An Illegal and Unwarranted Invasion</a>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">50 U.S.C. (1541–1548)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eileen Burgin, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3235109?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">Congress, the War Powers Resolution, & the Invasion of Panama</a>", Polity, Vol. 25, No. 2 (Winter, 1992), pp. 217–242</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a>, March 28, 2017, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R42699.pdf">The War Powers Resolution: Concepts and Practice</a>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071213081648/http://www.idrc.ca/openebooks/963-1/">"The Responsibility to Protect"</a>. International Development Research Centre. December 2001. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idrc.ca/openebooks/963-1/">the original</a> on 13 December 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Responsibility+to+Protect&rft.pub=International+Development+Research+Centre&rft.date=2001-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.idrc.ca%2Fopenebooks%2F963-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2014)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooke1989" class="citation news cs1">Brooke, James (December 21, 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/21/world/fighting-panama-latin-america-us-denounced-nations-touchy-about-intervention.html">"U.S. Denounced by Nations Touchy About Intervention"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. p. A24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=U.S.+Denounced+by+Nations+Touchy+About+Intervention&rft.pages=A24&rft.date=1989-12-21&rft.aulast=Brooke&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F12%2F21%2Fworld%2Ffighting-panama-latin-america-us-denounced-nations-touchy-about-intervention.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UN_S21048-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UN_S21048_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>  <i>Draft Resolution</i>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://undocs.org/Home/Mobile?FinalSymbol=S/21048">S/21048</a>  December 22, 1989.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UN_SPV2902_page15-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UN_SPV2902_page15_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>  <i>Verbatim Report</i>  <i>2902</i>.  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://undocs.org/Home/Mobile?FinalSymbol=S/PV/2902">S/PV/2902</a>  page 15.  December 23, 1989. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2020">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UN_SPV2902_page10-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UN_SPV2902_page10_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>  <i>Verbatim Report</i>  <i>2902</i>.  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://undocs.org/Home/Mobile?FinalSymbol=S/PV/2902">S/PV/2902</a>  page 10.  December 22, 1989. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2020">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEuropean_Parliament,_Office_for_official_publications_of_the_European_Communities1990" class="citation report cs1">European Parliament, Office for official publications of the European Communities (May 3, 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/484eeb28-baef-4e40-ad1c-b0f7dce71093">The Political Situation in Romania</a> (Report). European Parliament. p. 78<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 19,</span> 2022</span>. <q>The Ceausescu regime criticised the US invasion of Panama as 'brutal aggression.'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+Political+Situation+in+Romania&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=European+Parliament&rft.date=1990-05-03&rft.au=European+Parliament%2C+Office+for+official+publications+of+the+European+Communities&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fop.europa.eu%2Fen%2Fpublication-detail%2F-%2Fpublication%2F484eeb28-baef-4e40-ad1c-b0f7dce71093&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Bucharest and Beijing Condemn the Invasion". <i><a href="/wiki/International_Herald_Tribune" title="International Herald Tribune">International Herald Tribune</a></i>. International Herald Tribune. Associated Press. December 22, 1989. p. 4. <q>Romania condemned on Thursday the U.S. invasion of Panama as "brutal aggression" as its own security forces reportedly fired on civilians protesting the hard-line Communist government.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Herald+Tribune&rft.atitle=Bucharest+and+Beijing+Condemn+the+Invasion&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1989-12-22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pastor-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pastor_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pastor_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pastor_78-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPastor2001" class="citation book cs1">Pastor, Robert A. (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/exitingwhirlpool00past"><i>Exiting the Whirlpool: U.S. Foreign Policy Toward Latin America and the Caribbean</i></a></span>. Avalon. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/exitingwhirlpool00past/page/96">96</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813338118" title="Special:BookSources/9780813338118"><bdi>9780813338118</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exiting+the+Whirlpool%3A+U.S.+Foreign+Policy+Toward+Latin+America+and+the+Caribbean&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Avalon&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780813338118&rft.aulast=Pastor&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fexitingwhirlpool00past&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2014)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kagay, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/06/us/the-noriega-case-public-opinion-panamanians-strongly-back-us-move.html?mtrref=www.google.com">The Noriega Case: Public Opinion; Panamanians Strongly Back U.S. Move.</a> New York Times. Jan 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/reports/1989/WR89/Panama.htm#TopOfPage">"Panama"</a>. <i>Human Rights Watch World Report 1989</i>. 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(December 2014)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080313235920/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/02/29/america/LA-GEN-Panama-US-Invasion.php">"Panama's President Vetoes Law Declaring Anniversary of US Invasion a 'Day of Mourning'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. 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(December 2014)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081219012741/http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/americas/12/21/panama.invasion.ap/index.html">"Panama Marks '89 Invasion as Day of 'National Mourning'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. CNN. 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(December 2014)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2019/12/19/gobierno-de-panama-declara-20-de-diciembre-dia-de-duelo-nacional-a-30-anos-de-la-invasion-militar-de-ee-uu/">"Gobierno de Panamá declara 20 de diciembre "Día de duelo nacional" a 30 años de la invasión militar de EE.UU"</a>. December 19, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gobierno+de+Panam%C3%A1+declara+20+de+diciembre+%22D%C3%ADa+de+duelo+nacional%22+a+30+a%C3%B1os+de+la+invasi%C3%B3n+militar+de+EE.UU.&rft.date=2019-12-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcnnespanol.cnn.com%2F2019%2F12%2F19%2Fgobierno-de-panama-declara-20-de-diciembre-dia-de-duelo-nacional-a-30-anos-de-la-invasion-militar-de-ee-uu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenkin1991" class="citation book cs1">Henkin, Louis (1991). <i>Right v. Might: International Law and the Use of Force</i>. pp. 161–2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Right+v.+Might%3A+International+Law+and+the+Use+of+Force&rft.pages=161-2&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Henkin&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2014)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/21/world/panama-companies-sue-us-for-damages.html">"Panama Companies Sue U.S. for Damages"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. July 21, 1990. p. 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120912195145/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/21/world/panama-companies-sue-us-for-damages.html">Archived</a> from the original on September 12, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Panama+Companies+Sue+U.S.+for+Damages&rft.pages=5&rft.date=1990-07-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1990%2F07%2F21%2Fworld%2Fpanama-companies-sue-us-for-damages.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott1991" class="citation news cs1">Scott, David Clark (December 20, 1991). "El Chorrillo Two Years after the U.S. Invaded Panama, Those Displaced by the War Have New Homes". <i>Christian Science Monitor</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=El+Chorrillo+Two+Years+after+the+U.S.+Invaded+Panama%2C+Those+Displaced+by+the+War+Have+New+Homes&rft.date=1991-12-20&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=David+Clark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cpj.org/attacks01/americas01/panama.html">"Attacks on the Press 2001: Panama"</a>. Committee to Protect Journalists. March 26, 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Attacks+on+the+Press+2001%3A+Panama&rft.pub=Committee+to+Protect+Journalists&rft.date=2002-03-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cpj.org%2Fattacks01%2Famericas01%2Fpanama.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110616135122/http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-11th-circuit/1089768.html">"BOP: FCI Miami"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-11th-circuit/1089768.html">the original</a> on June 16, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 16,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BOP%3A+FCI+Miami&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaselaw.findlaw.com%2Fus-11th-circuit%2F1089768.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3G3bAAAAMAAJ"><i>Combined Arms in Battle Since 1939</i></a>. U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Press. 1992. p. 209.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Combined+Arms+in+Battle+Since+1939&rft.pages=209&rft.pub=U.S.+Army+Command+and+General+Staff+College+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3G3bAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEisenmann1989" class="citation news cs1">Eisenmann, Roberto (December 21, 1989). "For a Panamanian, Hope and Tragedy". <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=For+a+Panamanian%2C+Hope+and+Tragedy&rft.date=1989-12-21&rft.aulast=Eisenmann&rft.aufirst=Roberto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Crandall, Russell. <i>Gunboat democracy: US interventions in the Dominican Republic, Grenada, and Panama</i> (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2006).</li> <li>Gilboa, Eytan. "The Panama Invasion Revisited: Lessons for the Use of Force in the Post Cold War Era." <i>Political Science Quarterly</i> 110.4 (1995): 539–562. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2151883">2151883</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarding2001" class="citation book cs1">Harding, Robert C. (2001). <i>Military Foundations of Panamanian Politics</i>. Transaction Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7658-0075-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7658-0075-6"><bdi>978-0-7658-0075-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Military+Foundations+of+Panamanian+Politics&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7658-0075-6&rft.aulast=Harding&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarding2006" class="citation book cs1">——— (2006). <i>The History of Panama</i>. Greenwood Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33322-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33322-4"><bdi>978-0-313-33322-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Panama&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33322-4&rft.aulast=Harding&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Michaud, Nelson and Howard M. Hensel, eds. <i>Global Media Perspectives on the Crisis in Panama</i> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1409429490/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Ratcliff, Ronald. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/navy/pmi/panama.pdf">"Panama–The Enduring Crisis 1985–1989"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829064210/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/navy/pmi/panama.pdf">Archived</a> August 29, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Case studies in policy making and implementation</i> (2002).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYates2008" class="citation book cs1">Yates, Lawrence A. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100607230730/http://www.history.army.mil//html/books/just_cause/index.html"><i>The U.S. Military Intervention in Panama: Origins, Planning and Crisis Management, June 1987 – December 1989</i></a> (1st ed.). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Center_of_Military_History" title="United States Army Center of Military History">United States Army Center of Military History</a>. CMH Pub 55–1–1. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil//html/books/just_cause/index.html">the original</a> on June 7, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 4,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+U.S.+Military+Intervention+in+Panama%3A+Origins%2C+Planning+and+Crisis+Management%2C+June+1987+%E2%80%93+December+1989&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=United+States+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Yates&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2F%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2Fjust_cause%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYates2014" class="citation book cs1">Yates, Lawrence A. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.army.mil/html/books/055/55-3-1/index.html"><i>The U.S. Military Intervention in Panama: Operation Just Cause, December 1989 – January 1990</i></a> (1st ed.). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Center_of_Military_History" title="United States Army Center of Military History">United States Army Center of Military History</a>. CMH Pub 55–3–1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+U.S.+Military+Intervention+in+Panama%3A+Operation+Just+Cause%2C+December+1989+%E2%80%93+January+1990&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=United+States+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Yates&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2F055%2F55-3-1%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+invasion+of+Panama" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_invasion_of_Panama&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~hbf/panama.htm">Panama: Background of U.S. Invasion of 1989</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181017154705/http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~hbf/panama.htm">Archived</a> October 17, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – historical timeline</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040515220517/http://www.dean.usma.edu/HISTORY/web03/atlases/conflicts%2058%20west/conflicts%20west%20%20pages/wars%20conflicts%20west%20map%2053.htm">Tactical map of Operation Just Cause</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/44/a44r240.htm">Effects of the military intervention by the United States of America in Panama on the situation in Central America</a>, UN General Assembly Meeting December 29, 1989</li> <li>Interview with UH-60 helicopter pilot 1LT Lisa Kutschhera, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.army.mil/html/documents/Panama/interviews/JC001.html">Operation JUST CAUSE Interview #001 – 1LT Lisa Kutschera</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Armed_conflicts_involving_the_Armed_Forces_of_the_United_States" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li 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class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div>Listed chronologically</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Domestic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fries%27s_Rebellion" title="Fries's Rebellion">Fries's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1811_German_Coast_uprising" title="1811 German Coast uprising">1811 German Coast uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Turner's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1838_Mormon_War" title="1838 Mormon War">Mormon War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorr_Rebellion" title="Dorr Rebellion">Dorr Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_War" title="Utah War">Utah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">Harpers Ferry raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City draft riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">American Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks%E2%80%93Baxter_War" title="Brooks–Baxter War">Brooks–Baxter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Place" title="Battle of Liberty Place">Battle of Liberty Place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Range_war" title="Range war">Range War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_massacre" title="Hamburg massacre">Hamburg riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_County_War" title="Lincoln County War">Lincoln County War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_County_War" title="Johnson County War">Johnson County War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_Creek_War" title="Coal Creek War">Coal Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_strike" title="Homestead strike">Homestead strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pullman_Strike" title="Pullman Strike">Pullman Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Coalfield_War" title="Colorado Coalfield War">Colorado Coalfield War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blair_Mountain" title="Battle of Blair Mountain">Battle of Blair Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonus_Army" title="Bonus Army">Bonus Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Nationalist_Party_revolts_of_the_1950s" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Nationalist Party revolts of the 1950s">Puerto Rican revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_riots_(1964%E2%80%931969)" title="Ghetto riots (1964–1969)">1960s ghetto rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Greensboro_uprising" title="1969 Greensboro uprising">1969 Greensboro uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_shootings" title="Kent State shootings">Kent State shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots">1992 Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_United_States_racial_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2023 United States racial unrest">2020 racial unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">2021 U.S. Capitol attack</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American%E2%80%93Algerian_War_(1785%E2%80%931795)" title="American–Algerian War (1785–1795)">American–Algerian War (1785–1795)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Barbary_War" title="First Barbary War">First Barbary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Barbary_War" title="Second Barbary War">Second Barbary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sumatran_expedition" title="First Sumatran expedition">First Sumatran expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sumatran_expedition" title="Second Sumatran expedition">Second Sumatran expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast_expedition" title="Ivory Coast expedition">Ivory Coast expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Fiji_expedition" title="First Fiji expedition">First Fiji expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Fiji_expedition" title="Second Fiji expedition">Second Fiji expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formosa_Expedition" title="Formosa Expedition">Formosa Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_expedition_to_Korea" title="United States expedition to Korea">Korean Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">Banana Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Border_War_(1910%E2%80%931919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican Border War (1910–1919)">Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinational_Force_in_Lebanon" title="Multinational Force in Lebanon">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Uphold_Democracy" title="Operation Uphold Democracy">Intervention in Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Deliberate_Force" title="Operation Deliberate Force">Bosnian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO_bombing_of_Yugoslavia" title="NATO bombing of Yugoslavia">Kosovo War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">War in North-West Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_military_intervention_in_Libya" title="2011 military intervention in Libya">First Libyan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_against_the_Islamic_State" title="War against the Islamic State">War against the Islamic State</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American-led_intervention_in_Iraq_(2014%E2%80%932021)" class="mw-redirect" title="American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–2021)">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="US intervention in the Syrian civil war">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram_insurgency#American_military_support" title="Boko Haram insurgency">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_intervention_in_Libya_(2015%E2%80%932019)" class="mw-redirect" title="American intervention in Libya (2015–2019)">Libya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_civil_war_(2014%E2%80%93present)" title="Yemeni civil war (2014–present)">Yemeni civil war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_the_United_States" title="List of conflicts in the United States">Conflicts in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_United_States" title="List of wars involving the United States">Wars involving the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_military_operations" title="Timeline of United States military operations">Timeline of U.S. military operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_lengths_of_United_States_participation_in_wars" title="List of the lengths of United States participation in wars">Length of U.S. participation in major wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="History of the Central Intelligence Agency">History of the Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_casualties_of_war" title="United States military casualties of war">Casualties of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement#United_States" title="Peace movement">Peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-war_organizations#United_States" title="List of anti-war organizations">List of anti-war organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector#United_States" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes" title="United States war crimes">War crimes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cold_War" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cold_War" title="Template talk:Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cold_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cold War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cold_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">NEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hukbalahap_rebellion" title="Hukbalahap rebellion">Hukbalahap rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation <i>Priboi</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation <i>Jungle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation <i>Unthinkable</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouzenko_Affair" title="Gouzenko Affair">Gouzenko Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation <i>Masterdom</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation <i>Beleaguer</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation <i>Blacklist Forty</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1947 Polish parliamentary election">1947 Polish parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council#Incapacitation_of_the_council" title="Allied Control Council">Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_curtain" title="Bamboo curtain">Bamboo curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War (1952–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the <i>Tuapse</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation <i>Gladio</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Soviets_from_Albania" title="Expulsion of Soviets from Albania">Expulsion of Soviets from Albania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_War" title="Sand War">Sand War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS <i>Pueblo</i> incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968%E2%80%931971_East_Pakistan_communist_insurgency" title="1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency">1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru" title="Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru">Revolutionary Government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koza_riot" title="Koza riot">Koza riot</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective revolution (Egypt)">Corrective revolution (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Yemenite_War" title="First Yemenite War">First Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15_August_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="3 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Siege of Dhaka (1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Sipahi-Janata revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Somali_coup_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup attempt">1978 Somali coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_conflict_(1979%E2%80%931998)" title="Cambodian conflict (1979–1998)">Cambodian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation <i>Condor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Chadian–Libyan War">Chadian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Yemenite_War" title="Second Yemenite War">Second Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Agreement" title="Gdańsk Agreement">Gdańsk Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Star Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen_civil_war" title="South Yemen civil war">South Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia_conflict" title="Abkhazia conflict">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">American conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-worldism" title="Third-worldism">Third-worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_and_Non-Aligned_European_States" title="Neutral and Non-Aligned European States">NN States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rud%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rudé právo">Rudé právo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trybuna_Ludu" title="Trybuna Ludu">Trybuna Ludu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paix_et_Libert%C3%A9" title="Paix et Liberté">Paix et Liberté</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technological<br />competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Judt" title="Tony Judt">Tony Judt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Vojtech Mastny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">M. E. Sarotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Espionage and<br />intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Soviet involvement in regime change">Soviet involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union–United States summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="George_H._W._Bush" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:George_H._W._Bush" title="Template:George H. W. Bush"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:George_H._W._Bush" title="Template talk:George H. W. Bush"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:George_H._W._Bush" title="Special:EditPage/Template:George H. W. Bush"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="George_H._W._Bush" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">41st</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1989–1993)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of vice presidents of the United States">43rd</a> <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a> (1981–1989)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Director_of_Central_Intelligence" title="Director of Central Intelligence">Director of Central Intelligence</a> (1976–1977)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_the_United_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to the United Nations">UN Ambassador</a> (1971–1973)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Texas%27s_7th_congressional_district" title="Texas's 7th congressional district">TX–7</a> (1967–1971)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidency of George H. W. Bush">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidential transition of George H. W. Bush">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Inauguration of George H. W. Bush">Inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_presidency_(1989)" title="Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency (1989)">1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_presidency_(1990)" title="Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency (1990)">1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_presidency_(1991)" title="Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency (1991)">1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_presidency_(1992%E2%80%93January_1993)" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency (1992–January 1993)">1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_presidency_(1992%E2%80%93January_1993)#January_1993" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency (1992–January 1993)">January 1993</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_of_the_United_States#The_George_H._W._Bush_Administration_(1989–1993)" title="Environmental policy of the United States">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union summits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Summit" title="Malta Summit">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Summit_(1990)" title="Helsinki Summit (1990)">Helsinki</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Chemical_Weapons_Accord" title="1990 Chemical Weapons Accord">Chemical Weapons Accord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrid_Conference_of_1991" title="Madrid Conference of 1991">1991 Madrid Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Space_Council" title="National Space Council">National Space Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_world_order_(politics)#The_Gulf_War_and_Bush's_formulation" title="New world order (politics)">New world order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Task_Force" title="Unified Task Force">Unified Task Force</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement#Negotiation_and_U.S._ratification" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">Negotiations for the North American Free Trade Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_policy_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_administration" title="Cannabis policy of the George H. W. Bush administration">Cannabis policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_vomiting_incident" title="George H. W. Bush vomiting incident">Vomiting incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_broccoli_comments" title="George H. W. Bush broccoli comments">Broccoli comments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_horseshoe_pit" title="White House horseshoe pit">White House horseshoe pit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_pardoned_by_George_H._W._Bush" title="List of people pardoned by George H. W. Bush">Presidential pardons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_presidential_trips_made_by_George_H._W._Bush" title="List of international presidential trips made by George H. W. Bush">International trips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%26O_desk" title="C&O desk">Oval Office desk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush#Administration" title="Presidency of George H. W. Bush">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_George_H._W._Bush" title="List of federal judges appointed by George H. W. Bush">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="George H. W. Bush Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court candidates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="George H. W. Bush judicial appointment controversies">controversies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:George_Herbert_Walker_Bush/Executive_orders" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:George Herbert Walker Bush/Executive orders">Executive orders</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:George_Herbert_Walker_Bush/Presidential_Proclamations" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:George Herbert Walker Bush/Presidential Proclamations">Presidential proclamations</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/100px-George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/200px-George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2100" /></span></span><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_H.W._Bush_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum">Presidential Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_School_of_Government_and_Public_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Bush School of Government and Public Service">Bush School of Government and Public Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walker%27s_Point_Estate" title="Walker's Point Estate">Walker's Point Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Post-presidency of George H. W. Bush">Post-presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Death and state funeral of George H. W. Bush">Death and state funeral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Speeches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1989_George_H._W._Bush_speech_to_a_joint_session_of_Congress" title="1989 George H. W. Bush speech to a joint session of Congress">Joint session of Congress</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union addresses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1990_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1990 State of the Union Address">1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1991 State of the Union Address">1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1992 State of the Union Address">1992</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicken_Kiev_speech" title="Chicken Kiev speech">Chicken Kiev</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Electoral history of George H. W. Bush">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">U.S. Senate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1964_United_States_Senate_election_in_Texas" title="1964 United States Senate election in Texas">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_United_States_Senate_election_in_Texas" title="1970 United States Senate election in Texas">1970</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">U.S. House</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1966_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1966 United States House of Representatives elections">1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1968 United States House of Representatives elections">1968</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vice Presidential</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_1980_presidential_campaign" title="Ronald Reagan 1980 presidential campaign">1980 campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_Party_vice_presidential_candidate_selection" title="1980 Republican Party vice presidential candidate selection">selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_National_Convention" title="1980 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_United_States_presidential_election" title="1980 United States presidential election">election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidential transition of Ronald Reagan">transition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_1984_presidential_campaign" title="Ronald Reagan 1984 presidential campaign">1984 campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1984_Republican_National_Convention" title="1984 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_election" title="1984 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidential</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush#1980_presidential_election" title="George H. W. Bush">1980 campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1980 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_1988_presidential_campaign" title="George H. W. Bush 1988 presidential campaign">1988 campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1988_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1988 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Republican_Party_vice_presidential_candidate_selection" title="1988 Republican Party vice presidential candidate selection">running mate selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Republican_National_Convention" title="1988 Republican National Convention">convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thousand_points_of_light" title="Thousand points of light">"a thousand points of light"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Read_my_lips:_no_new_taxes" title="Read my lips: no new taxes">"Read my lips: no new taxes"</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_United_States_presidential_debates" title="1988 United States presidential debates">debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_United_States_presidential_election" title="1988 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_1992_presidential_campaign" title="George H. W. Bush 1992 presidential campaign">1992 campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1992_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1992 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Republican_National_Convention" title="1992 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_debates" title="1992 United States presidential debates">debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election" title="1992 United States presidential election">election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Bill_Clinton" title="Presidential transition of Bill Clinton">Clinton transition</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush#Public_image" title="George H. W. Bush">Public image</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live_parodies_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Saturday Night Live parodies of George H. W. Bush">Saturday Night Live parodies</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_X-Presidents" title="The X-Presidents">The X-Presidents</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Reunion" title="Presidential Reunion">Presidential Reunion</a></i> (2010 short film)</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Naked_Gun_2%C2%BD:_The_Smell_of_Fear" title="The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear">The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/What_It_Takes:_The_Way_to_the_White_House" title="What It Takes: The Way to the White House">What It Takes: The Way to the White House</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Silence_of_the_Hams" title="The Silence of the Hams">The Silence of the Hams</a></i> (1994)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/George_Bush:_The_Life_of_a_Lone_Star_Yankee" title="George Bush: The Life of a Lone Star Yankee">George Bush: The Life of a Lone Star Yankee</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Family:_The_Real_Story_of_the_Bush_Dynasty" title="The Family: The Real Story of the Bush Dynasty">The Family: The Real Story of the Bush Dynasty</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/George_H.W._Bush_(film)" title="George H.W. Bush (film)">George H.W. Bush</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bad_for_Democracy" title="Bad for Democracy">Bad for Democracy</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Secrets" title="Family of Secrets">Family of Secrets</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/41:_A_Portrait_of_My_Father" title="41: A Portrait of My Father">41: A Portrait of My Father</a></i> (2014 book)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Destiny_and_Power" title="Destiny and Power">Destiny and Power</a></i> (2015 book)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Bibliography of George H. W. Bush">Books</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/A_World_Transformed" title="A World Transformed">A World Transformed</a></i> (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/All_the_Best_(book)" title="All the Best (book)">All the Best</a></i> (1999)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials,_honors,_and_awards_of_George_H._W._Bush" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memorials, honors, and awards of George H. W. Bush">Legacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Bibliography of George H. W. Bush">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H.W._Bush_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum">Presidential Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom" title="Presidential Medal of Freedom">Medal of Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_School_of_Government_and_Public_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Bush School of Government and Public Service">Bush School of Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_Freedom_Award" title="Ronald Reagan Freedom Award">Reagan Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bush_Intercontinental_Airport" title="George Bush Intercontinental Airport">George Bush Intercontinental Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_George_H.W._Bush" title="USS George H.W. Bush">USS <i>George H.W. Bush</i> (CVN-77)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bush_family" title="Bush family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Bush" title="Barbara Bush">Barbara Bush</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (son</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">presidency</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_Robinson_Bush" title="Pauline Robinson Bush">Pauline Robinson Bush</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeb_Bush" title="Jeb Bush">Jeb Bush</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Bush" title="Neil Bush">Neil Bush</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Bush" title="Marvin Bush">Marvin Bush</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Bush_Koch" title="Dorothy Bush Koch">Dorothy Bush Koch</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Bush_(born_1981)" title="Barbara Bush (born 1981)">Barbara Bush Coyne</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenna_Bush_Hager" title="Jenna Bush Hager">Jenna Bush Hager</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_P._Bush" title="George P. Bush">George P. Bush</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lauren_Bush" title="Lauren Bush">Lauren Bush</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Bush" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierce Bush">Pierce Bush</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescott_Bush" title="Prescott Bush">Prescott Bush</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Walker_Bush" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorothy Walker Bush">Dorothy Walker Bush</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Walker_Bush_Ellis" title="Nancy Walker Bush Ellis">Nancy Walker Bush Ellis</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bush" title="Jonathan Bush">Jonathan Bush</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._T._Bush" title="William H. T. Bush">William H. T. Bush</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Bush" title="Samuel P. Bush">Samuel P. 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