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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecumenical_councils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecumenical_councils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Ecumenical councils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecumenical_councils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Council_of_Nicaea_(325)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Council_of_Nicaea_(325)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Council of Nicaea (325)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Council_of_Nicaea_(325)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Council_of_Constantinople_(381)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Council_of_Constantinople_(381)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Council of Constantinople (381)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Council_of_Constantinople_(381)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Council_of_Ephesus_(431)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Council_of_Ephesus_(431)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Council of Ephesus (431)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Council_of_Ephesus_(431)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Council_of_Chalcedon_(451)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Council_of_Chalcedon_(451)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.4</span> <span>Council of Chalcedon (451)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Council_of_Chalcedon_(451)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biblical_canon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_canon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Biblical canon</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biblical_canon-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biblical canon subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biblical_canon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constantine_commissions_Bibles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constantine_commissions_Bibles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Constantine commissions Bibles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constantine_commissions_Bibles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_canon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_canon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Current canon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_canon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Church_structure_within_the_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Church_structure_within_the_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Church structure within the Empire</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Church_structure_within_the_Empire-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Church structure within the Empire subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Church_structure_within_the_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dioceses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dioceses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Dioceses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dioceses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Pentarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Pentarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>The Pentarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Pentarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Papacy_and_Primacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Papacy_and_Primacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Papacy and Primacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Papacy_and_Primacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outside_the_Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outside_the_Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Outside the Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Outside_the_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Outside the Roman Empire subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Outside_the_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Church_of_the_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Church_of_the_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Church of the East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Church_of_the_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Persian_Empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian_Empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Persian Empires</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian_Empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caucasus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caucasus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Caucasus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caucasus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethiopia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethiopia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Ethiopia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethiopia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germanic_peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germanic_peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Germanic peoples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germanic_peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Goths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Goths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.1</span> <span>Goths</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Goths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Franks_and_Alemanni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Franks_and_Alemanni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.2</span> <span>Franks and Alemanni</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Franks_and_Alemanni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monasticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monasticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Monasticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monasticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Print_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Print_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Print resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Print_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is an overview of Christianity in late antiquity. For more specifically, see <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">Christianity in the 4th century</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">Christianity in the 5th century</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VirgenNino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/VirgenNino.jpg/300px-VirgenNino.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/VirgenNino.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the <a href="/wiki/Catacombs" title="Catacombs">catacombs</a>, Rome, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th century</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Christianity in late antiquity</b> traces <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> — the period from the rise of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Christianity under Emperor Constantine</a> (c. 313), until the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a> (c. 476). The end-date of this period varies because the transition to the <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Sub-Roman">sub-Roman</a> period occurred gradually and at different times in different areas. One may generally date late ancient Christianity as lasting to the late 6th century and the re-conquests under <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a> (reigned 527–565) of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, though a more traditional end-date is 476, the year in which <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a> deposed <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Romulus Augustus">Romulus Augustus</a>, traditionally considered the last western emperor. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">Christianity began to spread initially</a> from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Judaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Judaea">Roman Judaea</a> without state support or endorsement. It became the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_Dynasty_of_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia">Armenia</a> in either 301 or 314, of <a href="/wiki/Aksumite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksumite Empire">Ethiopia</a> in 325, and of <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianization of Georgia">Georgia</a> in 337. With the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Thessalonica" title="Edict of Thessalonica">Edict of Thessalonica</a> it became the <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">state religion of the Roman Empire</a> in 380. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Persecution_and_legalisation">Persecution and legalisation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Persecution and legalisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religio_licita" title="Religio licita">Religio licita</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine the Great and Christianity</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Serdica" title="Edict of Serdica">Edict of Serdica</a> was issued in 311 by the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a>, officially ending the <a href="/wiki/Diocletianic_persecution" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocletianic persecution">Diocletianic persecution</a> of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> in the East.<sup id="cite_ref-PersecutionsEnded_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PersecutionsEnded-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the passage in 313 AD of the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a>, in which the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor">Roman Emperors</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> and <a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a> legalised the <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> religion, persecution of Christians by the Roman state ceased.<sup id="cite_ref-ReligionFacts_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReligionFacts-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I (emperor)">Constantine I</a> was exposed to Christianity by his mother, <a href="/wiki/Helena_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Helena of Constantinople">Helena</a>. There is scholarly controversy, however, as to whether Constantine adopted his mother's Christianity in his youth, or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life.<sup id="cite_ref-H._Moran_Cruz_2004_p._55_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-H._Moran_Cruz_2004_p._55-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constantine_Musei_Capitolini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Constantine_Musei_Capitolini.jpg/200px-Constantine_Musei_Capitolini.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Constantine_Musei_Capitolini.jpg/300px-Constantine_Musei_Capitolini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Constantine_Musei_Capitolini.jpg/400px-Constantine_Musei_Capitolini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="538" data-file-height="858" /></a><figcaption>Head of Constantine's colossal statue at <a href="/wiki/Musei_Capitolini" class="mw-redirect" title="Musei Capitolini">Musei Capitolini</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 313, he and <a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a> issued the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a>, officially legalizing Christian worship. In 316, he acted as a judge in a North African dispute concerning the <a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatist</a> controversy. More significantly, in 325 he summoned the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Council of Nicaea</a>, effectively the first <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecumenical Council">Ecumenical Council</a> (unless the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> is so classified), to deal mostly with the <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arian</a> controversy, but which also issued the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a>, which among other things professed a belief in <i>One Holy Catholic Apostolic Church</i>, the start of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>. </p><p>The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the position of the Christian Emperor in the Church. Emperors considered themselves responsible to <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> for the spiritual health of their subjects, and thus they had a duty to maintain orthodoxy.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emperor did not decide doctrine — that was the responsibility of the bishops — rather his role was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emperor ensured that God was properly worshiped in his empire; what proper worship consisted of was the responsibility of the church. This precedent would continue until certain emperors of the fifth and six centuries sought to alter doctrine by imperial edict without recourse to councils, though even after this Constantine's precedent generally remained the norm.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reign of Constantine did not bring the total unity of Christianity within the Empire. His successor in the East, <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a>, was an Arian who kept Arian bishops at his court and installed them in various sees, expelling the orthodox bishops. </p><p>Constantius's successor, <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian</a>, known in the Christian world as <i>Julian the Apostate</i>, was a philosopher who upon becoming emperor renounced Christianity and embraced a <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neo-platonic</a> and mystical form of paganism shocking the Christian establishment. Intent on re-establishing the prestige of the old pagan beliefs, he modified them to resemble Christian traditions such as the episcopal structure and public charity (hitherto unknown in Roman paganism). Julian eliminated most of the privileges and prestige previously afforded to the Christian Church. His reforms attempted to create a form of religious heterogeneity by, among other things, reopening pagan temples, accepting Christian bishops previously exiled as heretics, promoting <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, and returning Church lands to their original owners. However, Julian's short reign ended when he died while campaigning in the East. Christianity came to dominance during the reign of Julian's successors, <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(Emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jovian (Emperor)">Jovian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_I" title="Valentinian I">Valentinian I</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a> (the last Eastern <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arian</a> Christian Emperor). </p><p>However, although state persecution ended, by the early fifth century there was still much remaining prejudice within the empire against Christians: a popular proverb at the time was, according to <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, "No rain! It's all the fault of the Christians."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="State_religion_of_Rome">State religion of Rome</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: State religion of Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Thessalonica" title="Edict of Thessalonica">Edict of Thessalonica</a></div> <p>On <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Thessalonica" title="Edict of Thessalonica">February 27, 380</a>, the Roman Empire officially adopted <a href="/wiki/Trinitarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitarianism">Trinitarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Nicene Christianity</a> as its <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to this date, <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II#Christianity_under_Constantius" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a> (337-361) and <a href="/wiki/Valens#Struggles_with_the_religious_nature_of_the_Empire" title="Valens">Valens</a> (364-378) had personally favored Arian or <a href="/wiki/Semi-Arianism" title="Semi-Arianism">Semi-Arianism</a> forms of Christianity, but Valens' successor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> supported the Trinitarian doctrine as expounded in the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a>. </p><p>On this date, Theodosuis I decreed that only the followers of Trinitarian Christianity were entitled to be referred to as <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> Christians, while all others were to be considered to be practicers of <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>, which was to be considered illegal. In 385, this new legal authority of the Church resulted in the first case of many to come, of the capital punishment of a heretic, namely <a href="/wiki/Priscillian" title="Priscillian">Priscillian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TheodosiusDecree_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheodosiusDecree-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HereticsExecuted_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HereticsExecuted-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the several centuries of state sponsored Christianity that followed, <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagans</a> and heretical Christians were routinely persecuted by the Empire and the many kingdoms and countries that later occupied the place of the Empire,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but some <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a> remained Arian well into the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theology_and_heresy">Theology and heresy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Theology and heresy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heresies">Heresies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Heresies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest controversies were generally <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christological</a> in nature; that is, they were related to Jesus' (eternal) divinity or humanity. <a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a> held that Jesus' humanity was merely an illusion, thus denying the incarnation. <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a> held that Jesus, while not merely mortal, was not eternally divine and was, therefore, of lesser status than <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">God the Father</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%2014:28&version=nrsv">John 14:28</a>). <a href="/wiki/Modalistic_Monarchianism" title="Modalistic Monarchianism">Modalism</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/Sabellianism" title="Sabellianism">Sabellianism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Patripassianism" title="Patripassianism">Patripassianism</a>) is the belief that the <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a>, <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">Son</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a> are three different modes or aspects of God, as opposed to the <a href="/wiki/Trinitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitarian">Trinitarian</a> view of three distinct persons or <a href="/wiki/Hypostasis_(philosophy_and_religion)" title="Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)">hypostases</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Godhead_in_Christianity" title="Godhead in Christianity">Godhead</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many groups held <a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">dualistic beliefs</a>, maintaining that reality was composed into two radically opposing parts: matter, usually seen as evil, and spirit, seen as good. Others held that both the material and spiritual worlds were created by God and were therefore both good, and that this was represented in the unified divine and human natures of Christ.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The development of doctrine, the position of orthodoxy, and the relationship between the various opinions is a matter of continuing academic debate. Since most Christians today subscribe to the doctrines established by the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a>, modern Christian theologians tend to regard the early debates as a unified orthodox position (see also <a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">Proto-orthodox Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palaeo-orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeo-orthodoxy">Palaeo-orthodoxy</a>) against a minority of heretics. Other scholars, drawing upon, among other things, distinctions between <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christians">Jewish Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Christianity" title="Pauline Christianity">Pauline Christians</a>, and other groups such as <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnostics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcionites" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcionites">Marcionites</a>, argue that <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">early Christianity</a> was fragmented, with contemporaneous competing orthodoxies.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers">Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Later <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> wrote volumes of theological texts, including <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nazianzus" title="Gregory of Nazianzus">Gregory Nazianzus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Jerusalem" title="Cyril of Jerusalem">Cyril of Jerusalem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose of Milan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a>, and others. What resulted was a golden age of literary and scholarly activity unmatched since the days of Virgil and Horace. Some of these fathers, such as <a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a>, suffered exile, persecution, or martyrdom from Arian <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Emperors">Byzantine Emperors</a>. Many of their writings are translated into English in the compilations of <a href="/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers" title="Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers">Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecumenical_councils">Ecumenical councils</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ecumenical councils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicaea_icon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nicaea_icon.jpg/220px-Nicaea_icon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nicaea_icon.jpg/330px-Nicaea_icon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nicaea_icon.jpg/440px-Nicaea_icon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1388" /></a><figcaption>Icon depicting <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">the Emperor Constantine</a> (center) and the <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a> of the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> (325) holding the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed#Niceno-Constantinopolitan_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a></div> <p>During this era, several Ecumenical Councils were convened. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> (325)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a> (381)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Ephesus" class="mw-redirect" title="First Council of Ephesus">First Council of Ephesus</a> (431)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a> (451)</li></ul> <p>These were mostly concerned with Christological disputes and represent an attempt to reach an <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">orthodox</a> consensus and to establish a unified <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a>. The Council of Nicaea (325) condemned Arian teachings as heresy and produced a creed (see <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a>). The Council of Ephesus condemned <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> and affirmed the <a href="/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Blessed Virgin Mary">Blessed Virgin Mary</a> to be <a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a> ("God-bearer" or "Mother of God"). The Council of Chalcedon asserted that Christ had two natures, fully God and fully man, distinct yet always in perfect union, largely affirming Leo's "Tome." It overturned the result of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Ephesus" title="Second Council of Ephesus">Second Council of Ephesus</a>, condemned <a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysitism</a> and influenced later condemnations of <a href="/wiki/Monothelitism" title="Monothelitism">Monothelitism</a>. None of the councils were universally accepted, and each major doctrinal decision resulted in a schism. The First Council of Ephesus caused the <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_schism" title="Nestorian schism">Nestorian schism</a> in 431 and separated the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a>, and the Council of Chalcedon caused the Chalcedonian Schism in 451, which separated Oriental Orthodoxy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Council_of_Nicaea_(325)"><span id="Council_of_Nicaea_.28325.29"></span>Council of Nicaea (325)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Council of Nicaea (325)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a></div> <p>Emperor Constantine convened this council to settle a controversial issue, the relation between <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a> and <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">God the Father</a>. The Emperor wanted to establish universal agreement on it. Representatives came from across the Empire, subsidized by the Emperor. Previous to this council, the bishops would hold local councils, such as the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a>, but there had been no universal, or ecumenical, council. </p><p>The council drew up a creed, the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed#Original_Nicene_Creed_of_325" title="Nicene Creed">original Nicene Creed</a>, which received nearly unanimous support. The council's description of "God's only-begotten Son", <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a>, as of the <a href="/wiki/Homoousios" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoousios">same substance</a> with <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">God the Father</a> became a touchstone of Christian <a href="/wiki/Trinitarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitarianism">Trinitarianism</a>. The council also addressed the issue of dating Easter (see <a href="/wiki/Quartodecimanism" title="Quartodecimanism">Quartodecimanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Easter_controversy" title="Easter controversy">Easter controversy</a>), recognised the right of the see of Alexandria to jurisdiction outside of its own province (by analogy with the jurisdiction exercised by Rome) and the prerogatives of the churches in Antioch and the other provinces<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and approved the custom by which <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Christianity" title="Jerusalem in Christianity">Jerusalem</a> was honoured, but without the metropolitan dignity.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Council was opposed by the <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arians</a>, and Constantine tried to reconcile <a href="/wiki/Arius" title="Arius">Arius</a>, after whom Arianism is named, with the Church. Even when Arius died in 336, one year before the death of Constantine, the controversy continued, with various separate groups espousing Arian sympathies in one way or another.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 359, a double council of Eastern and Western bishops affirmed a formula stating that the Father and the Son were similar in accord with the scriptures, the crowning victory for Arianism.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opponents of Arianism rallied, but in the First Council of Constantinople in 381 marked the final victory of Nicene orthodoxy within the Empire, though Arianism had by then spread to the Germanic tribes, among whom it gradually disappeared after the conversion of the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> to Catholicism in 496.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Council_of_Constantinople_(381)"><span id="Council_of_Constantinople_.28381.29"></span>Council of Constantinople (381)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Council of Constantinople (381)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hagia_Irene2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Hagia_Irene2.jpg/180px-Hagia_Irene2.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Hagia_Irene2.jpg/270px-Hagia_Irene2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Hagia_Irene2.jpg/360px-Hagia_Irene2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6283" data-file-height="4878" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Irene" title="Hagia Irene">Hagia Irene</a> is a former <a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">church</a>, now a museum, in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>. Commissioned in the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th century</a>, it ranks as the first church built in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, and has its original <a href="/wiki/Atrium_(architecture)" title="Atrium (architecture)">atrium</a>. In 381 the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a> took place in the church. Damaged by an earthquake in the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">8th century</a>, its present form largely dates from repairs made at that time.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a></div> <p>The council approved the current form of the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a> as used in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox Churches</a>, but, except when <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> is used, with two additional <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> phrases ("Deum de Deo" and "Filioque") in the West. The form used by the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Apostolic Church</a>, which is part of Oriental Orthodoxy, has many more additions.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This fuller creed may have existed before the Council and probably originated from the baptismal creed of Constantinople.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The council also condemned <a href="/wiki/Apollinarism" title="Apollinarism">Apollinarism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the teaching that there was no human mind or soul in Christ.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also granted Constantinople honorary precedence over all churches save Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The council did not include Western bishops or Roman legates, but it was accepted as ecumenical in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Council_of_Ephesus_(431)"><span id="Council_of_Ephesus_.28431.29"></span>Council of Ephesus (431)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Council of Ephesus (431)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Ephesus" class="mw-redirect" title="First Council of Ephesus">First Council of Ephesus</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a> called the council to settle the Nestorian controversy. <a href="/wiki/Nestorius" title="Nestorius">Nestorius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch of Constantinople">Patriarch of Constantinople</a>, opposed use of the term <a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a> (Greek Η Θεοτόκος, "God-bearer").<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This term had long been used by orthodox writers, and it was gaining popularity along with devotion to Mary as Mother of God.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He reportedly taught that there were two separate persons in the incarnate Christ, though whether he actually taught this is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The council deposed Nestorius, repudiated <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> as <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretical</a>, and proclaimed the Virgin <a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a>. After quoting the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a> in its original form, as at the First Council of Nicaea, without the alterations and additions made at the First Council of Constantinople, it declared it "unlawful for any man to bring forward, or to write, or to compose a different (ἑτέραν) Faith as a rival to that established by the holy Fathers assembled with the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Ghost" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Ghost">Holy Ghost</a> in Nicæa."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The result of the Council led to political upheaval in the church, as the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian Church of the East</a> and the Persian <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> supported Nestorius, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_schism" title="Nestorian schism">Nestorian schism</a>, which separated the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> from the Latin Byzantine Church. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Council_of_Chalcedon_(451)"><span id="Council_of_Chalcedon_.28451.29"></span>Council of Chalcedon (451)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Council of Chalcedon (451)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christological_spectrum.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Christological_spectrum.svg/400px-Christological_spectrum.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Christological_spectrum.svg/600px-Christological_spectrum.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Christological_spectrum.svg/800px-Christological_spectrum.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="875" /></a><figcaption>Spectrum of Christological beliefs in late antiquity</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a></div> <p>The council repudiated the <a href="/wiki/Eutyches" title="Eutyches">Eutychian</a> doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysitism</a>, described and delineated the "<a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypostatic Union">Hypostatic Union</a>" and <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypostatic Union">two natures of Christ</a>, human and divine; adopted the <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Creed" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalcedonian Creed">Chalcedonian Creed</a>. For those who accept it, it is the Fourth Ecumenical Council. It rejected the decision of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Ephesus" title="Second Council of Ephesus">Second Council of Ephesus</a>, referred to by the pope at the time as the "Robber Council". </p><p>The Council of Chalcedon resulted in a schism, with the <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox Churches</a> breaking communion with <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian Christianity</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biblical_canon">Biblical canon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Biblical canon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon_(Christian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical canon (Christian)">Biblical canon (Christian)</a></div> <p>The Biblical canon—is the set of books Christians regard as divinely inspired and thus constituting the Christian Bible-- <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">developed over time</a>. While there was a good measure of debate in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the major writings were accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the 2nd century.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constantine_commissions_Bibles">Constantine commissions Bibles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Constantine commissions Bibles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 331, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I_and_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I and Christianity">Constantine I</a> commissioned <a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a> to deliver <a href="/wiki/Fifty_Bibles_of_Constantine" title="Fifty Bibles of Constantine">"Fifty Bibles"</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of Constantinople">Church of Constantinople</a>. <a href="/wiki/Athanasius" class="mw-redirect" title="Athanasius">Athanasius</a> (<i>Apol. Const. 4</i>) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for <a href="/wiki/Constans" title="Constans">Constans</a>. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_Biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the Christian Biblical canon">canon lists</a>, and that <a href="/wiki/Codex_Vaticanus_Graecus_1209" class="mw-redirect" title="Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209">Codex Vaticanus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Codex_Sinaiticus" title="Codex Sinaiticus">Sinaiticus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Codex_Alexandrinus" title="Codex Alexandrinus">Alexandrinus</a> are examples of these Bibles. Together with the <a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a>, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_canon">Current canon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Current canon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his Easter letter of 367, <a href="/wiki/Athanasius" class="mw-redirect" title="Athanasius">Athanasius</a>, Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list of exactly the same books as what would become the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> canon,<sup id="cite_ref-Lingberg-2006_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lingberg-2006-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he used the word "canonised" (<i>kanonizomena</i>) in regards to them.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The African <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Hippo" title="Synod of Hippo">Synod of Hippo</a>, in 393, approved the New Testament, as it stands today, together with the Septuagint books, a decision that was repeated by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Carthage_(397)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Carthage (397)">Council of Carthage (397)</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Carthage_(419)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Carthage (419)">Council of Carthage (419)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These councils were under the authority of <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">St. Augustine</a>, who regarded the canon as already closed.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Damasus_I" title="Pope Damasus I">Pope Damasus I</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Rome" title="Council of Rome">Council of Rome</a> in 382, if the <i><a href="/wiki/Decretum_Gelasianum" class="mw-redirect" title="Decretum Gelasianum">Decretum Gelasianum</a></i> is correctly associated with it, issued a biblical canon identical to that mentioned above,<sup id="cite_ref-Lingberg-2006_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lingberg-2006-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or if not the list is at least a <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">sixth-century</a> compilation.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, Damasus's commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, <i>c</i>. 383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 405, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_I" title="Pope Innocent I">Pope Innocent I</a> sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop, <a href="/wiki/Exuperius" title="Exuperius">Exsuperius of Toulouse</a>. When these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, however, they were not defining something new, but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, from the 4th century, there existed unanimity in the West concerning the New Testament canon (as it is today),<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">fifth century</a> the East, with a few exceptions, had come to accept the Book of Revelation and thus had come into harmony on the matter of the canon.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nonetheless, a full dogmatic articulation of the canon was not made until the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">16th century</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">17th century</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Church_structure_within_the_Empire">Church structure within the Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Church structure within the Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">State church of the Roman Empire</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png/240px-Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png/360px-Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png/480px-Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png 2x" data-file-width="2187" data-file-height="1619" /></a><figcaption><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#1F63A7; color:white;"> </span> Spread of Christianity to AD 325</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#6AB4FF; color:black;"> </span> Spread of Christianity to AD 600</div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dioceses">Dioceses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Dioceses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After legalisation, the Church adopted the same organisational boundaries as the Empire: geographical provinces, called dioceses, corresponding to imperial governmental territorial division. The bishops, who were located in major urban centers by pre-legalisation tradition, thus oversaw each diocese. The bishop's location was his "seat", or "see"; among the sees, <a href="/wiki/Pentarchy" title="Pentarchy">five</a> held special eminence: Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The prestige of these sees depended in part on their apostolic founders, from whom the bishops were therefore the spiritual successors, e.g., St. Mark as founder of the See of Alexandria, St. Peter of the See of Rome, etc. There were other significant elements: Jerusalem was the location of Christ's death and resurrection, the site of a 1st-century council, etc., see also <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Christianity" title="Jerusalem in Christianity">Jerusalem in Christianity</a>. Antioch was where Jesus' followers were first labelled as Christians, it was used in a derogatory way to berate the followers of Jesus the Christ. Rome was where SS. Peter and Paul had been martyred (killed), Constantinople was the "New Rome" where Constantine had moved his capital c. 330, and, lastly, all these cities had important relics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Pentarchy">The Pentarchy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The Pentarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the 5th century, the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical" title="Ecclesiastical">ecclesiastical</a> had evolved a <a href="/wiki/Hierarchical" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical">hierarchical</a> "<a href="/wiki/Pentarchy" title="Pentarchy">pentarchy</a>" or system of five sees (<a href="/wiki/Patriarchates" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarchates">patriarchates</a>), with a settled order of precedence, had been established. Rome, as the ancient capital and once largest city of the empire, was understandably given certain primacy within the pentarchy into which Christendom was now divided; though it was and still held that the patriarch of Rome was the first among equals. Constantinople was considered second in precedence as the new capital of the empire. </p><p>Among these dioceses, the <a href="/wiki/Pentarchy" title="Pentarchy">five</a> with special eminence were <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch of Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Patriarch_of_Jerusalem" title="Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Antioch" title="Patriarch of Antioch">Antioch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Alexandria" title="Patriarch of Alexandria">Alexandria</a>. The prestige of most of these sees depended in part on their apostolic founders, from whom the bishops were therefore the spiritual successors. Though the patriarch of Rome was still held to be the first among equals, Constantinople was second in precedence as the new capital of the empire. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Papacy_and_Primacy">Papacy and Primacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Papacy and Primacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Papacy">History of the Papacy</a></div> <p>The Bishop of Rome has the title of Pope and the office is the "papacy." As a bishopric, its origin is consistent with the development of an episcopal structure in the 1st century. The papacy, however, also carries the notion of primacy: that the See of Rome is pre-eminent among all other sees. The origins of this concept are historically obscure; theologically, it is based on three ancient Christian traditions: (1) that the apostle Peter was pre-eminent among the apostles, see <a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_Simon_Peter" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy of Simon Peter">Primacy of Simon Peter</a>, (2) that Peter ordained his successors for the Roman See, and (3) that the bishops are the successors of the apostles (<a href="/wiki/Apostolic_succession" title="Apostolic succession">apostolic succession</a>). As long as the Papal See also happened to be the capital of the Western Empire, the prestige of the Bishop of Rome could be taken for granted without the need of sophisticated theological argumentation beyond these points; after its shift to Milan and then Ravenna, however, more detailed arguments were developed based on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew%2016:18–19&version=nrsv">Matthew 16:18–19</a> etc.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, in antiquity the Petrine and Apostolic quality, as well as a "primacy of respect", concerning the Roman See went unchallenged by emperors, eastern patriarchs, and the Eastern Church alike.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in 381 affirmed the primacy of Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the appellate jurisdiction of the Pope, and the position of Constantinople, would require further doctrinal clarification, by the close of Antiquity the primacy of Rome and the sophisticated theological arguments supporting it were fully developed. Just what exactly was entailed in this primacy, and its being exercised, would become a matter of controversy at certain later times. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outside_the_Roman_Empire">Outside the Roman Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Outside the Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Christianity was by no means confined to the Roman Empire during late antiquity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Church_of_the_East">Church of the East</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Church of the East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historically, the most widespread Christian church in Asia was the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a>, the Christian church of <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Persia</a>. This church is often known as the Nestorian Church, due to its adoption of the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a>, which emphasized the disunity of the divine and human natures of Christ. It has also been known as the Persia Church, the East Syrian Church, the Assyrian Church, and, in China, as the "Luminous Religion". </p><p>The Church of the East developed almost wholly apart from the <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">Greek and Roman churches</a>. In the 5th century it endorsed the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Nestorius" title="Nestorius">Nestorius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch of Constantinople">Patriarch of Constantinople</a> from 428 to 431, especially following the <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_Schism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian Schism">Nestorian Schism</a> after the condemnation of Nestorius for <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Ephesus" class="mw-redirect" title="First Council of Ephesus">First Council of Ephesus</a>. For at least twelve hundred years the Church of the East was noted for its missionary zeal, its high degree of <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">lay</a> participation, its superior educational standards and cultural contributions in less developed countries, and its fortitude in the face of persecution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persian_Empires">Persian Empires</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Persian Empires"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iran" title="Christianity in Iran">Christianity in Iran</a></div> <p>The Church of the East had its inception at a very early date in the buffer zone between the Roman Empire and the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> in Upper Mesopotamia. <a href="/wiki/Edessa,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Edessa, Mesopotamia">Edessa</a> (now <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eanl%C4%B1urfa" class="mw-redirect" title="Şanlıurfa">Şanlıurfa</a>) in northwestern Mesopotamia was from apostolic times the principal center of <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>-speaking Christianity. The missionary movement in the East began which gradually spread throughout <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> and by AD 280. When Constantine converted to Christianity the Persian Empire, suspecting a new "enemy within", became violently anti-Christian. The great persecution fell upon the Christians in Persia about the year 340. Though the religious motives were never unrelated, the primary cause of the persecution was political. Sometime before the death of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> in 379, the intensity of the persecution slackened. Tradition calls it a forty-year persecution, lasting from 339-379 and ending only with Shapur's death. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caucasus">Caucasus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Caucasus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Christianity became the official religion of <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> in 301 or 314,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when Christianity was still illegal in the Roman Empire. Some<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2011)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> claim the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Apostolic Church</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Gregory_the_Illuminator" title="Gregory the Illuminator">Gregory the Illuminator</a> of the late third – early fourth centuries while they trace their origins to the missions of <a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_the_Apostle" title="Bartholomew the Apostle">Bartholomew the Apostle</a> and Thaddeus (<a href="/wiki/Jude_the_Apostle" title="Jude the Apostle">Jude the Apostle</a>) in the 1st century. </p><p>Christianity in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> (ancient <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasian Iberia">Iberia</a>) extends back to the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th century</a>, if not earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA1_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Iberian king, <a href="/wiki/Mirian_III_of_Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirian III of Iberia">Mirian III</a>, converted to Christianity, probably in 326.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA1_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ethiopia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the fourth-century Western historian <a href="/wiki/Tyrannius_Rufinus" title="Tyrannius Rufinus">Rufinius</a>, it was <a href="/wiki/Saint_Frumentius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Frumentius">Frumentius</a> who brought Christianity to Ethiopia (the city of <a href="/wiki/Axum" title="Axum">Axum</a>) and served as its first bishop, probably shortly after 325.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germanic_peoples">Germanic peoples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Germanic peoples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christian_states_495_AD_(en).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Christian_states_495_AD_%28en%29.png/260px-Christian_states_495_AD_%28en%29.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Christian_states_495_AD_%28en%29.png/390px-Christian_states_495_AD_%28en%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Christian_states_495_AD_%28en%29.png/520px-Christian_states_495_AD_%28en%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2436" data-file-height="1372" /></a><figcaption>Christian states in 495 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Germanic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic people">Germanic people</a> underwent gradual <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a> from <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>. In the 4th century, the early process of <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a> of the various <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic people</a> was partly facilitated by the prestige of the Christian <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> amongst European pagans. Until the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">decline of the Roman Empire</a>, the Germanic <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribes</a> who had migrated there (with the exceptions of the <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a>, see below) had converted to Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-Padberg_1998,_26_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Padberg_1998,_26-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of them, notably the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a>, adopted <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a> instead of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinitarian</a> (a.k.a. <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicea" class="mw-redirect" title="First Council of Nicea">Nicene</a> or <i>orthodox</i>) beliefs that were dogmatically defined by the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Padberg_1998,_26_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Padberg_1998,_26-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gradual rise of Germanic Christianity was, at times, voluntary, particularly amongst groups associated with the Roman Empire. </p><p>From the 6th century AD, Germanic tribes were converted (and re-converted) by <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a> of the Catholic Church.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Many Goths converted to Christianity as individuals outside the Roman Empire. Most members of other tribes converted to Christianity when their respective tribes settled within the Empire, and most Franks and Anglo-Saxons converted a few generations later. During the later centuries following the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Rome">Fall of Rome</a>, as <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">schism</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">dioceses</a> loyal to the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Pope of Rome</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">West</a> and those loyal to the other <a href="/wiki/Patriarch" title="Patriarch">Patriarchs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">East</a>, most of the Germanic peoples (excepting the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Goths" title="Crimean Goths">Crimean Goths</a> and a few other eastern groups) would gradually become strongly allied with the Catholic Church in the West, particularly as a result of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Goths">Goths</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Goths"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic Christianity</a></div> <p>In the 3rd century, East-Germanic peoples migrated into Scythia. Gothic culture and identity emerged from various East-Germanic, local, and Roman influences. In the same period, Gothic raiders took captives among the Romans, including many Christians, (and Roman-supported raiders took captives among the Goths). </p><p>Wulfila or <a href="/wiki/Ulfilas" title="Ulfilas">Ulfilas</a> was the son or grandson of Christian captives from Sadagolthina in Cappadocia. In 337 or 341, Wulfila became the first bishop of the (Christian) Goths. By 348, one of the (Pagan) Gothic kings (<span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got">reikos</i></span>) began persecuting the Christian Goths, and Wulfila and many other Christian Goths fled to <a href="/wiki/Moesia_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Moesia Secunda">Moesia Secunda</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>) in the Roman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA2_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other Christians, including <a href="/wiki/Wereka_and_Batwin" class="mw-redirect" title="Wereka and Batwin">Wereka, Batwin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sabbas_the_Goth" title="Sabbas the Goth">Saba</a>, died in later persecutions. </p><p>Between 348 and 383, Wulfila translated the Bible into the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA2_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus some Arian Christians in the west used the vernacular languages, in this case including Gothic and Latin, for services, as did Christians in the eastern Roman provinces, while most Christians in the western provinces used Latin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Franks_and_Alemanni">Franks and Alemanni</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Franks and Alemanni"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christogramvormig_beslag_in_brons,_375_tot_450_NC,_vindplaats-_Neerharen-Rekem,_1982,_Germaanse_nederzetting,_afvalkuil_7,_collectie_Gallo-Romeins_Museum_Tongeren,_81.NE.023.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Christogramvormig_beslag_in_brons%2C_375_tot_450_NC%2C_vindplaats-_Neerharen-Rekem%2C_1982%2C_Germaanse_nederzetting%2C_afvalkuil_7%2C_collectie_Gallo-Romeins_Museum_Tongeren%2C_81.NE.023.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Christogramvormig_beslag_in_brons%2C_375_tot_450_NC%2C_vindplaats-_Neerharen-Rekem%2C_1982%2C_Germaanse_nederzetting%2C_afvalkuil_7%2C_collectie_Gallo-Romeins_Museum_Tongeren%2C_81.NE.023.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Christogramvormig_beslag_in_brons%2C_375_tot_450_NC%2C_vindplaats-_Neerharen-Rekem%2C_1982%2C_Germaanse_nederzetting%2C_afvalkuil_7%2C_collectie_Gallo-Romeins_Museum_Tongeren%2C_81.NE.023.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4809" data-file-height="4033" /></a><figcaption>Roman <a href="/wiki/Chi_Rho" title="Chi Rho">Chi Rho</a> applique in bronze found in a Germanic settlement in Neerharen (Belgium), 375-450 CE, <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_Museum,_Tongeren" title="Gallo-Roman Museum, Tongeren">Gallo-Roman Museum (Tongeren)</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> and their ruling <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingian dynasty</a>, that had migrated to <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> from the 3rd century had remained pagan at first. On Christmas 496,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> following his victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tolbiac" title="Battle of Tolbiac">Battle of Tolbiac</a> converted to the <i>orthodox</i> faith of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> and let himself be baptised at <a href="/wiki/Rheims" class="mw-redirect" title="Rheims">Rheims</a>. The details of this event have been passed down by <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours" title="Gregory of Tours">Gregory of Tours</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monasticism">Monasticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Monasticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a> is a form of asceticism whereby one renounces worldly pursuits (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">in contempu mundi</i></span>) and concentrates solely on heavenly and spiritual pursuits, especially by the virtues humility, poverty, and chastity. It began early in the Church as a family of similar traditions, modeled upon Scriptural examples and ideals, and with roots in certain strands of Judaism. St. John the Baptist is seen as the archetypical monk, and monasticism was also inspired by the organisation of the Apostolic community as recorded in <i>Acts of the Apostles</i>. </p><p>There are two forms of monasticism: <a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">eremitic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cenobitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cenobitic">cenobitic</a>. Eremitic monks, or hermits, live in solitude, whereas cenobitic monks live in communities, generally in a <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monastery</a>, under a rule (or code of practice) and are governed by an <a href="/wiki/Abbot" title="Abbot">abbot</a>. Originally, all Christian monks were hermits, following the example of <a href="/wiki/Anthony_the_Great" title="Anthony the Great">Anthony the Great</a>. However, the need for some form of organised spiritual guidance lead Saint <a href="/wiki/Pachomius" class="mw-redirect" title="Pachomius">Pachomius</a> in 318 to organise his many followers in what was to become the first monastery. Soon, similar institutions were established throughout the Egyptian desert as well as the rest of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Central figures in the development of monasticism were, in the East, St. <a href="/wiki/Basil_of_Caesarea" title="Basil of Caesarea">Basil the Great</a>, and St. Benedict in the West, who created the famous <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_Saint_Benedict" title="Rule of Saint Benedict">Benedictine Rule</a>, which would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Post-Nicene_Christianity" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Portal:Post-Nicene Christianity">Portal:Post-Nicene Christianity</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ante-Nicene_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ante-Nicene Period">Ante-Nicene Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Development of the New Testament canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Calvinist-Arminian_debate" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Calvinist-Arminian debate">History of Calvinist-Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History of Christian theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">History of Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">History of the Eastern Orthodox Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Roman Catholic Church">History of the Roman Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Church_Fathers" title="List of Church Fathers">List of Church Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patristics" title="Patristics">Patristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">State church of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Timeline of Christian missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline of Christianity</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-PersecutionsEnded-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PersecutionsEnded_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lactantius, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/lactant/lactpers.html#XXXIV"><i>De Mortibus Persecutorum</i></a> ("On the Deaths of the Persecutors") ch. 35–34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReligionFacts-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReligionFacts_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140325154903/http://religionfacts.com/christianity/history/persecution.htm">"Persecution in the Early Church"</a>. Religion Facts. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/history/persecution.htm">the original</a> on 2014-03-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Persecution+in+the+Early+Church&rft.pub=Religion+Facts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.religionfacts.com%2Fchristianity%2Fhistory%2Fpersecution.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-H._Moran_Cruz_2004_p._55-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-H._Moran_Cruz_2004_p._55_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, <i>Medieval Worlds</i> (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richards, Jeffrey. <i>The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752</i> (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 14–15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richards, Jeffrey. <i>The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752</i> (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) p. 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richards, Jeffrey. <i>The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752</i> (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFof_Hippo2004" class="citation book cs1">of Hippo, Augustine (6 January 2004). <i>City of God</i>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Classics" title="Penguin Classics">Penguin Classics</a>. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780140448948" title="Special:BookSources/9780140448948"><bdi>9780140448948</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=City+of+God&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=2004-01-06&rft.isbn=9780140448948&rft.aulast=of+Hippo&rft.aufirst=Augustine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhlerMorrall1967" class="citation book cs1">Ehler, Sidney Zdeneck; Morrall, John B (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2WuMyEzani8C&pg=PA6"><i>Church and State Through the Centuries: A Collection of Historic Documents with Commentaries</i></a>. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780819601896" title="Special:BookSources/9780819601896"><bdi>9780819601896</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Church+and+State+Through+the+Centuries%3A+A+Collection+of+Historic+Documents+with+Commentaries&rft.pages=6&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9780819601896&rft.aulast=Ehler&rft.aufirst=Sidney+Zdeneck&rft.au=Morrall%2C+John+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2WuMyEzani8C%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TheodosiusDecree-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TheodosiusDecree_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalsall1997" class="citation web cs1">Halsall, Paul (June 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070227120555/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/theodcodeXVI.html">"Theodosian Code XVI.i.2"</a>. <i>Medieval Sourcebook: Banning of Other Religions</i>. Fordham University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/theodcodeXVI.html">the original</a> on 2007-02-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-11-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Medieval+Sourcebook%3A+Banning+of+Other+Religions&rft.atitle=Theodosian+Code+XVI.i.2&rft.date=1997-06&rft.aulast=Halsall&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordham.edu%2Fhalsall%2Fsource%2FtheodcodeXVI.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HereticsExecuted-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HereticsExecuted_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture27b.html">"Lecture 27: Heretics, Heresies and the Church"</a>. 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-04-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lecture+27%3A+Heretics%2C+Heresies+and+the+Church&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyguide.org%2Fancient%2Flecture27b.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span> Review of Church policies towards heresy, including capital punishment (see Synod at Saragossa).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ramsay_MacMullen" title="Ramsay MacMullen">Ramsay MacMullen</a>, <i>Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries</i>, Yale University Press, September 23, 1997</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-67441/Christianity">"Christianity Missions and monasticism"</a>, <i>Encyclopædia Britannica Online</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. T. Stokes, “Sabellianism,” ed. William Smith and Henry Wace, A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines (London: John Murray, 1877–1887), 567.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, <i>Medieval Worlds</i> (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauer1971" class="citation book cs1">Bauer, Walter (1971). <i>Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8006-1363-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8006-1363-5"><bdi>0-8006-1363-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orthodoxy+and+Heresy+in+Earliest+Christianity&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-8006-1363-5&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPagels1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Pagels" title="Elaine Pagels">Pagels, Elaine</a> (1979). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gnosticgospels00page_0"><i>The Gnostic Gospels</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-72453-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-72453-2"><bdi>0-679-72453-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gnostic+Gospels&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-679-72453-2&rft.aulast=Pagels&rft.aufirst=Elaine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgnosticgospels00page_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrman2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bart_D._Ehrman" title="Bart D. Ehrman">Ehrman, Bart D.</a> (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lostchristianiti00ehrm"><i>Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew</i></a></span>. New York: Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-514183-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-514183-0"><bdi>0-19-514183-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+Christianities%3A+The+Battles+for+Scripture+and+the+Faiths+We+Never+Knew&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-19-514183-0&rft.aulast=Ehrman&rft.aufirst=Bart+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flostchristianiti00ehrm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080915191439/http://www.piar.hu/councils/ecum01.htm">"canon 6"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.piar.hu/councils/ecum01.htm">the original</a> on September 15, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=canon+6&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.piar.hu%2Fcouncils%2Fecum01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080915191439/http://www.piar.hu/councils/ecum01.htm">"canon 7"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.piar.hu/councils/ecum01.htm">the original</a> on September 15, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=canon+7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.piar.hu%2Fcouncils%2Fecum01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Arianism." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.armenianchurchlibrary.com/files/creed.pdf">"Armenian Church Library: Nicene Creed"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Armenian+Church+Library%3A+Nicene+Creed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.armenianchurchlibrary.com%2Ffiles%2Fcreed.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Nicene Creed." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Constantinople, First Council of." Cross, F. L., ed. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Apollinarius." Cross, F. L., ed. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Nestorius." Cross, F. L., ed. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3810.htm">"CHURCH FATHERS: Council of Ephesus (A.D. 431)"</a>. <i>www.newadvent.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.newadvent.org&rft.atitle=CHURCH+FATHERS%3A+Council+of+Ephesus+%28A.D.+431%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Ffathers%2F3810.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Cambridge History of the Bible</i> (volume 1) eds. P. R. Ackroyd and C. F. Evans (Cambridge University Press, 1970) p. 308</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McDonald & Sanders, <i>The Canon Debate</i>, pages 414-415, for the entire paragraph</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lingberg-2006-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lingberg-2006_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lingberg-2006_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2006" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, Carter (2006). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/briefhistorychri00lind"><i>A Brief History of Christianity</i></a></span>. Blackwell Publishing. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/briefhistorychri00lind/page/n26">15</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-1078-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-1078-3"><bdi>1-4051-1078-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Christianity&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-4051-1078-3&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=Carter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbriefhistorychri00lind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Brakke, "Canon Formation and Social Conflict in Fourth Century Egypt: Athanasius of Alexandria's Thirty Ninth Festal Letter", in <i>Harvard Theological Review</i> 87 (1994) pp. 395–419</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McDonald & Sanders' <i>The Canon Debate</i>, 2002, Appendix D-2, note 19: "<a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a> was added later in 419 at the subsequent synod of Carthage."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in <i>The Canon Debate</i>. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) p. 320; F. F. Bruce, <i>The Canon of Scripture</i> (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 230; cf. Augustine, <i>De Civitate Dei</i> 22.8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F. F. Bruce, <i>The Canon of Scripture</i> (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 234</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F. F. Bruce, <i>The Canon of Scripture</i> (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 225</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in <i>The Canon Debate</i>. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) p. 320; Bruce Metzger, <i>The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origins, Development, and Significance</i> (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987) pp. 237–238; F. F. Bruce, <i>The Canon of Scripture</i> (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F. F. Bruce, <i>The Canon of Scripture</i> (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 215</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Cambridge History of the Bible</i> (volume 1) eds. P. R. Ackroyd and C. F. Evans (Cambridge University Press, 1970) p. 305; cf. the Catholic Encyclopedia, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03274a.htm">Canon of the New Testament</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a> of 1546 for Roman Catholicism, the <a href="/wiki/Thirty-Nine_Articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirty-Nine Articles">Thirty-Nine Articles</a> of 1563 for the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Confession_of_Faith" title="Westminster Confession of Faith">Westminster Confession of Faith</a> of 1647 for <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Jerusalem_(1672)" title="Synod of Jerusalem (1672)">Synod of Jerusalem</a> of 1672 for the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf. Richards, Jeffrey. <i>The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752</i> (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) p. 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richards, Jeffrey. <i>The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752</i> (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 10 and 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see J. D. Mansi, <i>Sacrorum Conciliorum Nova et Amplissima Collectio</i> 3, p. 559</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030214123721/http://www.armenianhistory.info/christianity.htm">"Armenian History : Chapter III - The First Christian State in History"</a>. February 14, 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.armenianhistory.info/christianity.htm">the original</a> on 2003-02-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Armenian+History+%3A+Chapter+III+-+The+First+Christian+State+in+History&rft.date=2003-02-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.armenianhistory.info%2Fchristianity.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA1-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA1_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA1_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Georgia, Church of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05566a.htm">"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Ethiopia"</a>. <i>www.newadvent.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.newadvent.org&rft.atitle=CATHOLIC+ENCYCLOPEDIA%3A+Ethiopia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F05566a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Padberg_1998,_26-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Padberg_1998,_26_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Padberg_1998,_26_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Padberg 1998, 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA2-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA2_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA2_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Philostorgius" title="Philostorgius">Philostorgius</a> via Photius, <i>Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius</i>, book 2, chapter 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Auxentius_of_Durostorum" title="Auxentius of Durostorum">Auxentius of Durostorum</a>, <i>Letter of Auxentius</i>, quoted in Heather and Matthews, <i>Goths in the Fourth Century</i>, pp. 141-142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Auxentius_of_Durostorum" title="Auxentius of Durostorum">Auxentius of Durostorum</a>, <i>Letter of Auxentius</i>, quoted in Heather and Matthews, <i>Goths in the Fourth Century</i>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">497 or 499 are also possible; Padberg 1998: 53</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Print_resources">Print resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Print resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuericke1857" class="citation book cs1">Guericke, Heinrich Ernst; et al. (1857). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DZ5Pq0oYx-EC"><i>A Manual of Church History: Ancient Church History Comprising the First Six Centuries</i></a>. New York: Wiley and Halsted.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Manual+of+Church+History%3A+Ancient+Church+History+Comprising+the+First+Six+Centuries&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley+and+Halsted&rft.date=1857&rft.aulast=Guericke&rft.aufirst=Heinrich+Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDZ5Pq0oYx-EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzález1984" class="citation book cs1">González, Justo L. (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storyofchristian01gonz"><i>The Story of Christianity: Vol. 1: The Early Church to the Reformation</i></a></span>. San Francisco: Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-063315-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-063315-8"><bdi>0-06-063315-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Christianity%3A+Vol.+1%3A+The+Early+Church+to+the+Reformation&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-06-063315-8&rft.aulast=Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.aufirst=Justo+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoryofchristian01gonz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLatourette1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Scott_Latourette" title="Kenneth Scott Latourette">Latourette, Kenneth Scott</a> (1975). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchristi01lato"><i>A History of Christianity, Volume 1: Beginnings to 1500 (Revised)</i></a></span> (paperback). San Francisco: Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-064952-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-064952-6"><bdi>0-06-064952-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Christianity%2C+Volume+1%3A+Beginnings+to+1500+%28Revised%29&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-06-064952-6&rft.aulast=Latourette&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofchristi01lato&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShelley1996" class="citation book cs1">Shelley, Bruce L. (1996). <i>Church History in Plain Language</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8499-3861-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8499-3861-9"><bdi>0-8499-3861-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Church+History+in+Plain+Language&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8499-3861-9&rft.aulast=Shelley&rft.aufirst=Bruce+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHastings1999" class="citation book cs1">Hastings, Adrian (1999). <i>A World History of Christianity</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-4875-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-4875-3"><bdi>0-8028-4875-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+History+of+Christianity&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-8028-4875-3&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_late_antiquity&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 48em;"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/reading-rooms/history">History of Christianity Reading Room:</a> Extensive online resources for the study of global church history (Tyndale Seminary).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.christianity.com/History/AD/SketchesofChurchHistory/">Sketches of Church History</a> From AD 33 to the Reformation by Rev. J. C Robertson, M.A, Canon of Canterbury</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Church History"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Church_History">"Church History" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). pp. 330–345.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Church+History&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=330-345&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Walter+Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+late+antiquity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100724191531/http://www.theandros.com/">Theandros</a>, a journal of Orthodox theology and philosophy, containing articles on early Christianity and patristic studies.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130126010821/http://www.fourthcentury.com/">Fourth-Century Christianity</a></li></ul> </div> <table class="wikitable noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%; text-align:center"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="11"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a>: <br />Late ancient Christianity </th></tr> <tr style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;"> <td colspan="11" style="padding:0;"> <table style="margin:0; border-spacing:0; border-collapse:collapse;width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <td>Preceded by:<br /><a href="/wiki/Ante-Nicene_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ante-Nicene Period">Ante-Nicene<br />Period</a> </td> <td style="border-left:#aaa 1px solid; border-right:#aaa 1px solid">Late ancient<br />Christianity </td> <td>Followed by:<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_of_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity of the Middle Ages">The Middle<br />Ages</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">BC</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">C1</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_2nd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 2nd century">C2</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_3rd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 3rd century">C3</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">C4</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">C5</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">C6</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">C7</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">C8</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">C9</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">C10</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">C11</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">C12</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">C13</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">C14</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">C15</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">C16</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">C17</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">C18</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">C19</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">C20</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">C21</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Christianity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">2nd and 3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">7th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">8th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">9th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">14th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">17th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">21st</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins and<br />Apostolic Age</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus" title="Life of Jesus">Life of Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene<br />period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Early African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Late antiquity</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Roman state religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">Constantinople I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Ephesus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Non-Chalcedonian Christianity">Non-Chalcedonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Development of primacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy" title="Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy">Eastern Orthodox opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Lateran IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_patronage_of_Julius_II" title="Art patronage of Julius II">Art patronage of Julius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Xavier</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Monastery dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_rock" title="Mass rock">Mass rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest_hole" title="Priest hole">priest holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Neo-Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">Vatican I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesial_community" title="Ecclesial community">Ecclesial community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Christianity" title="History of Eastern Christianity">Eastern<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon#History" title="Icon">Icons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">Iconodulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia" title="Christianization of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iberia" title="Christianization of Iberia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Russian Orthodox Church">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_North_America" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Iceland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Slavs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bohemia" title="Christianization of Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Pomerania" title="Christianization of Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Church" title="Bosnian Church">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Brethren" title="Apostolic Brethren">Apostolic Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulcinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulcinian">Dulcinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Early_Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Early Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Five Ways</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">Wycliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Papal Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Hus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">Conciliarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synods</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate" title="History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate">Calvinist–Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_theory_in_the_Early_Modern_period#Christian_resistance_theories_of_the_early_modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance theory in the Early Modern period">Resistance theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Reformation" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_and_material_principles_of_theology" title="Formal and material principles of theology">Formal and material principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Melanchthon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reformed_Christianity" title="History of Reformed Christianity">Calvinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_points_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Five points of Calvinism">TULIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology" title="Reformed baptismal theology">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Dort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Forms_of_Unity" title="Three Forms of Unity">Three Forms of Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Assembly" title="Westminster Assembly">Westminster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_orthodoxy" title="Reformed orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Anglicanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_English_Reformation" title="Timeline of the English Reformation">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">39 Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music" title="Anglican church music">Church music</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_theology" title="Anabaptist theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Grebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Brethren" title="Swiss Brethren">Swiss Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Synod" title="Martyrs' Synod">Martyrs' Synod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smyth_(English_theologian)" title="John Smyth (English theologian)">Smyth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_Mirror" title="Martyrs Mirror">Martyrs Mirror</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1640–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Revivalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Missionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_toleration#Early_modern_period" title="Edict of toleration">Edicts of toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millerism" title="Millerism">Millerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Fostering of early experimental science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Lutherans" title="Old Lutherans">Old Lutherans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1789–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">Camp meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="History of the Latter Day Saint movement">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakening_(Finnish_religious_movement)" title="Awakening (Finnish religious movement)">Finnish Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist%E2%80%93Modernist_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy">Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five <i>solae</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic Movement">Charismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">Mainline</a> Protestants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">Martyrs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_footer" title="Template talk:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christians" title="Lists of Christians">Lists of Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a><br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_texts#Christianity" title="List of religious texts">(Scriptures)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_gospel" title="The gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">timeline</a>)<br />(<a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parables_of_Jesus" title="Parables of Jesus">Parables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">State church of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canon">Christian biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Relations with Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Influences</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">members</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Rite_Orthodoxy" title="Western Rite Orthodoxy">Western Rite Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East (Nestorian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a></li> <li><span title="Tagalog-language text"><span lang="tl" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_again" title="Born again">Born again</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_worship" title="Eastern Orthodox worship">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Protestant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Christianity" title="Angels in Christianity">Angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacraments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick" title="Anointing of the sick">Anointing of the Sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">Holy orders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">Ablution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">Hygiene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics" title="Christianity and politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Views on poverty and wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">Architecture of cathedrals and great churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marian art in the Catholic Church">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Trinity_in_art" title="The Trinity in art">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_in_Western_art" title="God the Father in Western art">God the Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christian_art" title="Holy Spirit in Christian art">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">Catechism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Flag" title="Christian Flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mythology" title="Christian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">Church buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cathedrals" title="Lists of cathedrals">Cathedrals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_movements" title="List of Christian movements">Movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Left</a>/<a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cooperation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Charta_Oecumenica" title="Charta Oecumenica">Charta Oecumenica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Evangelical_Alliance" title="World Evangelical Alliance">World Evangelical Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">Relations with other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimited_atonement" title="Unlimited atonement">Unlimited atonement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/24px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/32px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li> <li><span 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mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of 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