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id="toc-Transition_from_Republic_to_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pax_Romana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pax_Romana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Pax Romana </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pax_Romana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transition_from_classical_to_late_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transition_from_classical_to_late_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Transition from classical to late antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transition_from_classical_to_late_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_in_the_West_and_survival_in_the_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_in_the_West_and_survival_in_the_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Fall in the West and survival in the East </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_in_the_West_and_survival_in_the_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography_and_demography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography_and_demography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Geography and demography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography_and_demography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Society </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Legal status </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Women_in_Roman_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_Roman_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Women in Roman law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_Roman_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slaves_and_the_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slaves_and_the_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Slaves and the law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slaves_and_the_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedmen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedmen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 Freedmen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedmen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Census_rank" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Census_rank"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Census rank </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Census_rank-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unequal_justice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unequal_justice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Unequal justice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unequal_justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_and_military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_and_military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Government and military </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government_and_military-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Government and military subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Government_and_military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Central_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Central government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Provincial_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provincial_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Provincial government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provincial_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Taxation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Economy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Currency_and_banking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Currency_and_banking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Currency and banking </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Currency_and_banking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mining_and_metallurgy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mining_and_metallurgy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Mining and metallurgy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mining_and_metallurgy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation_and_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation_and_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Transportation and communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation_and_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_and_commodities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_and_commodities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Trade and commodities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_and_commodities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labour_and_occupations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labour_and_occupations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Labour and occupations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labour_and_occupations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture_and_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture_and_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Architecture and engineering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture_and_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Daily_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Daily_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Daily life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Daily_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Daily life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Daily_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-City_and_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#City_and_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 City and country </div> </a> <ul id="toc-City_and_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_and_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_and_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Health and disease </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_and_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_and_dining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_and_dining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Food and dining </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_and_dining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spectacles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spectacles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Spectacles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spectacles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recreation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recreation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Recreation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recreation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clothing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clothing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Clothing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clothing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Arts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Arts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Portraiture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portraiture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Portraiture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portraiture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sculpture_and_sarcophagi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sculpture_and_sarcophagi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Sculpture and sarcophagi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sculpture_and_sarcophagi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Painting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Painting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Painting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Painting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mosaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mosaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Mosaic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mosaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decorative_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decorative_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Decorative arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decorative_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Performing_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Performing_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 Performing arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Performing_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literacy,_books,_and_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literacy,_books,_and_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Literacy, books, and education </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literacy,_books,_and_education-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Literacy, books, and education subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Literacy,_books,_and_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Roman Empire</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 184 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-184" aria-hidden="true" > 184 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keurajeu%C3%ABn_Romawi" title="Keurajeuën Romawi – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Keurajeuën Romawi" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8D_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8D" title="Ромэ Империэ – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Ромэ Империэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinse_Ryk" title="Romeinse Ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Romeinse Ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%AE%E1%88%9B_%E1%8C%8D%E1%8B%9B%E1%89%B5" title="የሮማ ግዛት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የሮማ ግዛት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanisc_Rice" title="Romanisc Rice – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Romanisc Rice" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الإمبراطورية الرومانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإمبراطورية الرومانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Romano" title="Imperio Romano – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Imperio Romano" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A7%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հռոմէական Կայսրութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Հռոմէական Կայսրութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="ৰোমান সাম্ৰাজ্য – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ৰোমান সাম্ৰাজ্য" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_romanu" title="Imperiu romanu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Imperiu romanu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rr%C3%B3ma_Mburuvi" title="Rróma Mburuvi – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Rróma Mburuvi" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8A%D1%83%D0%BB_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Румалъул империя – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Румалъул империя" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_imperiyas%C4%B1" title="Roma imperiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Roma imperiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88" title="روم ایمپیراتورلوغو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="روم ایمپیراتورلوغو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="রোমান সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রোমান সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B4-m%C3%A1_T%C3%A8-kok" title="Lô-má Tè-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lô-má Tè-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Рим империяһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Рим империяһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Рымская імперыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рымская імперыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Рымская імпэрыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рымская імпэрыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Romano" title="Imperyong Romano – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Imperyong Romano" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Римска империя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Римска империя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimsko_Carstvo" title="Rimsko Carstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rimsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impalaeriezh_roman" title="Impalaeriezh roman – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Impalaeriezh roman" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%B9_%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8D_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Римэй эзэнтэ гүрэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Римэй эзэнтэ гүрэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Rom%C3%A0" title="Imperi Romà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imperi Romà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Romano" title="Imperyong Romano – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Imperyong Romano" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%ADmsk%C3%A1_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1e" title="Římská říše – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Římská říše" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ufumu_wa_Roma" title="Ufumu wa Roma – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Ufumu wa Roma" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiTumbuka</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperu_Rumanu" title="Imperu Rumanu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Imperu Rumanu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Ymerodraeth_Rufeinig" title="Yr Ymerodraeth Rufeinig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Ymerodraeth Rufeinig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romerske_Kejserrige" title="Romerske Kejserrige – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Romerske Kejserrige" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لإمبراطورية الرومانية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لإمبراطورية الرومانية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misch_Imperium" title="Römisch Imperium – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Römisch Imperium" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6mische_Kaiserzeit" title="Römische Kaiserzeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Römische Kaiserzeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romski_imperium" title="Romski imperium – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Romski imperium" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooma_keisririik" title="Rooma keisririik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rooma keisririik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%91%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_romano" title="Imperio romano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio romano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romia_Imperio" title="Romia Imperio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Romia Imperio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_romanu" title="Imperiu romanu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Imperiu romanu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erromatar_Inperioa" title="Erromatar Inperioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erromatar Inperioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="امپراتوری روم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپراتوری روم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Samrajya" title="Roman Samrajya – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Roman Samrajya" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3mverjar%C3%ADki%C3%B0" title="Rómverjaríkið – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Rómverjaríkið" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_romain" title="Empire romain – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empire romain" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinske_Ryk" title="Romeinske Ryk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Romeinske Ryk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impireacht_na_R%C3%B3imhe" title="Impireacht na Róimhe – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Impireacht na Róimhe" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impireachd_na_R%C3%B2imhe" title="Impireachd na Ròimhe – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Impireachd na Ròimhe" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Romano" title="Imperio Romano – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Imperio Romano" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Рума импери – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Рума импери" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="羅馬帝國 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="羅馬帝國" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8C%BC%F0%90%8D%89%F0%90%8C%BD%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8D%83%F0%90%8C%BA_%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%B4%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8C%BA%F0%90%8C%B9" title="𐍂𐌿𐌼𐍉𐌽𐌹𐍃𐌺 𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌺𐌹 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐍂𐌿𐌼𐍉𐌽𐌹𐍃𐌺 𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌺𐌹" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B2-m%C3%A2_Ti-koet" title="Lò-mâ Ti-koet – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Lò-mâ Ti-koet" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="로마 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로마 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հռոմեական կայսրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հռոմեական կայսրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="रोमन साम्राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रोमन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romske_m%C3%B3cnarstwo" title="Romske mócnarstwo – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Romske mócnarstwo" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimsko_Carstvo" title="Rimsko Carstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rimsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romana_Imperio" title="Romana Imperio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Romana Imperio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_a_Romano" title="Imperio a Romano – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Imperio a Romano" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekaisaran_Romawi" title="Kekaisaran Romawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekaisaran Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Roman" title="Imperio Roman – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Imperio Roman" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8B_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Ромы импери – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Ромы импери" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3mverska_keisarad%C3%A6mi%C3%B0" title="Rómverska keisaradæmið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rómverska keisaradæmið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_romano" title="Impero romano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impero romano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האימפריה הרומית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האימפריה הרומית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamaharajan_Rum" title="Kamaharajan Rum – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kamaharajan Rum" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ರೋಮನ್ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ರೋಮನ್ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="რომის იმპერია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რომის იმპერია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Рим империясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Рим империясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperoureth_Romanek" title="Emperoureth Romanek – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Emperoureth Romanek" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dola_la_Roma" title="Dola la Roma – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Dola la Roma" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nsi_ya_Roma" title="Nsi ya Roma – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Nsi ya Roma" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romafo_gindaxo" title="Romafo gindaxo – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Romafo gindaxo" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kotava</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anpi_Women" title="Anpi Women – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Anpi Women" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampir_romen" title="Ampir romen – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Ampir romen" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emperatoriya_Rom%C3%AA" title="Împeratoriya Romê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Împeratoriya Romê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Romano" title="Imperio Romano – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Imperio Romano" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%99" title="ຈັກກະວັດໂລມັນ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຈັກກະວັດໂລມັນ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Romanum" title="Imperium Romanum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Imperium Romanum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romas_imp%C4%93rija" title="Romas impērija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Romas impērija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9imescht_R%C3%A4ich" title="Réimescht Räich – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Réimescht Räich" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Рим империя – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Рим империя" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romos_imperija" title="Romos imperija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Romos imperija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%AAo_Roman" title="Impêo Roman – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Impêo Roman" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeins_Riek" title="Romeins Riek – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Romeins Riek" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_Roman" title="Impero Roman – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Impero Roman" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/latmo_sosygugje%27a" title="latmo sosygugje'a – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="latmo sosygugje'a" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imper_Roman" title="Imper Roman – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Imper Roman" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3mai_Birodalom" title="Római Birodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Római Birodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Римско Царство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Римско Царство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empira_R%C3%B4mana" title="Empira Rômana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Empira Rômana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="റോമാ സാമ്രാജ്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റോമാ സാമ്രാജ്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperu_Ruman" title="Imperu Ruman – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Imperu Ruman" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emepaea_R%C5%8Dmana" title="Emepaea Rōmana – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Emepaea Rōmana" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="रोमन साम्राज्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रोमन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="რომიშ იმპერია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რომიშ იმპერია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الامبراطوريه الرومانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الامبراطوريه الرومانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="روم امپراتوری – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="روم امپراتوری" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empayar_Rom" title="Empayar Rom – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Empayar Rom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakaisaran_Romawi" title="Kakaisaran Romawi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Kakaisaran Romawi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B2%CC%A4-m%C4%81_D%C3%A1%CC%A4-gu%C3%B3k" title="Lò̤-mā Dá̤-guók – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Lò̤-mā Dá̤-guók" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amp%C3%A9rio_Romano" title="Ampério Romano – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Ampério Romano" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Ромын эзэнт гүрэн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ромын эзэнт гүрэн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%99%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%AB%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC" title="ရောမအင်ပါယာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရောမအင်ပါယာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na_Matanitu_ki_Roma" title="Na Matanitu ki Roma – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Na Matanitu ki Roma" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinse_Keizerrijk" title="Romeinse Keizerrijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Romeinse Keizerrijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinse_Riek" title="Romeinse Riek – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Romeinse Riek" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="रोमन साम्राज्य – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="रोमन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="रोमन साम्राज्य – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="रोमन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="ローマ帝国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ローマ帝国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_Rumano" title="Impero Rumano – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Impero Rumano" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Руман импери – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Руман импери" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6%C3%B6msk_Keisertidj" title="Röömsk Keisertidj – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Röömsk Keisertidj" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_romerske_keiserriket" title="Det romerske keiserriket – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Det romerske keiserriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romarriket" title="Romarriket – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Romarriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_Roman" title="Empire Roman – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Empire Roman" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emp%C3%A8ri_roman" title="Empèri roman – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Empèri roman" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%AE%E0%AD%80%E0%AD%9F_%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AE%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F" title="ରୋମୀୟ ସାମ୍ରାଜ୍ୟ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ରୋମୀୟ ସାମ୍ରାଜ୍ୟ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rim_imperiyasi" title="Rim imperiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Rim imperiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C" title="ਰੋਮਨ ਸਮਰਾਜ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰੋਮਨ ਸਮਰਾਜ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="رومی سلطنت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="رومی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_romano" title="Imperio romano – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Imperio romano" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%8A" title="روم سترواکي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="روم سترواکي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruoman_Empaya" title="Ruoman Empaya – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ruoman Empaya" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%98" title="ចក្រភពរ៉ូម – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ចក្រភពរ៉ូម" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impire_Romain" title="Impire Romain – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Impire Romain" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Roman" title="Imperi Roman – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Imperi Roman" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6%C3%B6msch_Kaiserriek" title="Röömsch Kaiserriek – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Röömsch Kaiserriek" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesarstwo_Rzymskie" title="Cesarstwo Rzymskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Cesarstwo Rzymskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_Romano" title="Império Romano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império Romano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rim_imperiyas%C4%B1" title="Rim imperiyası – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Rim imperiyası" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_%C4%B0mperiyas%C4%B1" title="Roma İmperiyası – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Roma İmperiyası" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiul_Roman" title="Imperiul Roman – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imperiul Roman" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_roman_(sursilvan)" title="Imperi roman (sursilvan) – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Imperi roman (sursilvan)" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumanu_qhapaq_suyu" title="Rumanu qhapaq suyu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Rumanu qhapaq suyu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Римска империя – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Римска империя" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Римская империя – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Римская империя" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Рим империята – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Рим империята" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emepaea_o_Roma" title="Emepaea o Roma – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Emepaea o Roma" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A8riu_romanu" title="Impèriu romanu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Impèriu romanu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Roman Empire" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roomske_Riek" title="Roomske Riek – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Roomske Riek" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perandoria_Romake" title="Perandoria Romake – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Perandoria Romake" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mp%C3%A8riu_rumanu" title="Mpèriu rumanu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Mpèriu rumanu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%BA" title="රෝමානු අධිරාජ්‍යය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="රෝමානු අධිරාජ්‍යය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Roman Empire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="رومي سلطنت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="رومي سلطنت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADmske_cis%C3%A1rstvo" title="Rímske cisárstvo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rímske cisárstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimsko_cesarstvo" title="Rimsko cesarstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimsko cesarstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%86%D9%85%DB%8C" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی ڕۆمی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی ڕۆمی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Римско царство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Римско царство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimsko_Carstvo" title="Rimsko Carstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rimsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakaisaran_Romawi" title="Kakaisaran Romawi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kakaisaran Romawi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooman_keisarikunta" title="Rooman keisarikunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rooman keisarikunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%CC%B1byintyokshan_Rom" title="A̱byintyokshan Rom – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="A̱byintyokshan Rom" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Римська імперія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Римська імперія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="رومی سلطنت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="رومی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="اردو" 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vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Roman Empire</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">27 BC – AD 395 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>(unified)<a href="#cite_note-3">[a]</a> AD 395 – 476/480 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(<a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a>) AD 395–1453 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a>)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div style="padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Better_Imperial_Aquila.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Imperial aquila of Roman Empire"><img alt="Imperial aquila of Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Better_Imperial_Aquila.png/100px-Better_Imperial_Aquila.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Better_Imperial_Aquila.png/150px-Better_Imperial_Aquila.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Better_Imperial_Aquila.png/200px-Better_Imperial_Aquila.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div>Imperial <a href="/wiki/Aquila_(Roman)" title="Aquila (Roman)">aquila</a></div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png/250px-Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png/375px-Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png/500px-Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png 2x" data-file-width="2534" data-file-height="1614" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Roman Empire in AD 117 at its greatest territorial extent, at the time of <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>'s death</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">Vassal states</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett1997-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[b]</a></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Animated_map_of_the_Roman_territorial_evolution_from_the_rise_of_the_city-state_of_Rome_to_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Roman territorial evolution from the rise of the city-state of Rome to the fall of the Western Roman Empire"><img alt="Roman territorial evolution from the rise of the city-state of Rome to the fall of the Western Roman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Animated_map_of_the_Roman_territorial_evolution_from_the_rise_of_the_city-state_of_Rome_to_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire.gif/250px-Animated_map_of_the_Roman_territorial_evolution_from_the_rise_of_the_city-state_of_Rome_to_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Animated_map_of_the_Roman_territorial_evolution_from_the_rise_of_the_city-state_of_Rome_to_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire.gif/375px-Animated_map_of_the_Roman_territorial_evolution_from_the_rise_of_the_city-state_of_Rome_to_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Animated_map_of_the_Roman_territorial_evolution_from_the_rise_of_the_city-state_of_Rome_to_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire.gif/500px-Animated_map_of_the_Roman_territorial_evolution_from_the_rise_of_the_city-state_of_Rome_to_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire.gif 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Roman territorial evolution from the rise of the city-state of Rome to the fall of the Western Roman Empire</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> (27 BC – AD 476)<a href="#cite_note-16">[c]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> (330–1453)<a href="#cite_note-19">[d]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Languages of the Roman Empire">Regional languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a>-driven <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">polytheism</a> (until AD 380)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Nicene Christianity</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">officially</a> from AD 380)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Roman</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor#Titles" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">List</a>)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classical_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical era">Classical era</a> to <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">25 BC<a href="#cite_note-size-20">[16]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2,750,000 km2 (1,060,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">AD 117<a href="#cite_note-size-20">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-East-West-21">[17]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">5,000,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">AD 390<a href="#cite_note-size-20">[16]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">3,400,000 km2 (1,300,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 25 BC<a href="#cite_note-22">[18]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">56,800,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sestertius" title="Sestertius">Sestertius</a>,<a href="#cite_note-23">[e]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aureus" title="Aureus">aureus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">solidus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">nomisma</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> The Roman Empire was the era of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman civilisation</a> lasting from 27 BC to 476 AD. Rome ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a> conquered most of this during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a>, and it was ruled by emperors following <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a>'s assumption of effective sole rule in 27 BC. The <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">western empire</a> collapsed in 476 AD, but the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">eastern empire</a> lasted until the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453. By 100 BC, Rome had expanded its rule to most of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> and beyond. However, it was severely destabilised by <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">civil wars and political conflicts</a>, which culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Augustus" title="Wars of Augustus">victory of Octavian</a> over <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a> in 31 BC, and the subsequent conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> in Egypt. In 27 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> granted <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a> overarching military power (<a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a>) and the new title of <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a>, marking his <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Augustus" title="Constitutional reforms of Augustus">accession as the first Roman emperor</a>. The vast Roman territories were organized into <a href="/wiki/Senatorial_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Senatorial province">senatorial</a> provinces, governed by proconsuls who were appointed by lot annually, and <a href="/wiki/Imperial_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial province">imperial</a> provinces, which belonged to the emperor but were governed by <a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">legates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">first two centuries of the Empire</a> saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Roman Peace'). Rome reached its <a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">greatest territorial extent</a> under <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 98–117 AD), but a period of increasing trouble and decline began under <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 180–192). In the 3rd century, the Empire underwent a <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">49-year crisis</a> that threatened its existence due to civil war, <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">plagues</a> and <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">barbarian invasions</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene</a> empires broke away from the state and a series of <a href="/wiki/Barracks_emperor" title="Barracks emperor">short-lived emperors</a> led the Empire, which was later reunified under <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 270–275). The civil wars ended with the victory of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 284–305), who set up two different imperial courts in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_East_and_Latin_West" title="Greek East and Latin West">Greek East and Latin West</a>. <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 306–337), the first <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Christian emperor</a>, moved the imperial seat from Rome to <a href="/wiki/Names_of_Istanbul" title="Names of Istanbul">Byzantium</a> in 330, and renamed it <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a>, involving <a href="/wiki/Germanic%E2%80%93Roman_contacts" title="Germanic–Roman contacts">large invasions by Germanic peoples</a> and by the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> of <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a>, led to the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>. With the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ravenna_(476)" title="Battle of Ravenna (476)">fall of Ravenna</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Heruli" title="Heruli">Germanic Herulians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Deposition_of_Romulus_Augustus" title="Deposition of Romulus Augustus">deposition of Romulus Augustus</a> in 476 by <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a>, the Western Empire finally collapsed. The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> survived for another millennium with <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> as its sole capital, until <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">the city's fall</a> in 1453.<a href="#cite_note-26">[f]</a> Due to the Empire's extent and endurance, its institutions and culture had <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">a lasting influence</a> on the development of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">forms of government</a> across its territories. <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> while <a href="/wiki/History_of_Greek" title="History of Greek">Medieval Greek</a> became the language of the East. The <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Thessalonica" title="Edict of Thessalonica">Empire's adoption</a> of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Christianity</a> resulted in the formation of medieval <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>. Roman and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Greek art</a> had a profound impact on the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a>. Rome's architectural tradition served as the basis for <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Renaissance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">Neoclassical architecture</a>, influencing <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a>. The rediscovery of <a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">classical science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">technology</a> (which formed the basis for <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic science</a>) in medieval Europe contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance" title="Science in the Renaissance">Scientific Renaissance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>. Many modern legal systems, such as the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Code" title="Napoleonic Code">Napoleonic Code</a>, descend from Roman law. Rome's republican institutions have influenced the <a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Italian city-state republics</a> of the medieval period, the early <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and modern democratic <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republics</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History of the Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline of Roman history</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaign history of the Roman military</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Roman_Empire_map.ogv/220px--Roman_Empire_map.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="209" data-durationhint="39" data-mwtitle="Roman_Empire_map.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_map.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/45/Roman_Empire_map.ogv/Roman_Empire_map.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="506" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/45/Roman_Empire_map.ogv/Roman_Empire_map.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="758" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Roman_Empire_map.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="800" data-height="760" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/45/Roman_Empire_map.ogv/Roman_Empire_map.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="252" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/45/Roman_Empire_map.ogv/Roman_Empire_map.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="378" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/45/Roman_Empire_map.ogv/Roman_Empire_map.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="378" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>Animated overview of the Roman territorial history from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a> until the fall of its last remnant (the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>) in 1453</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transition_from_Republic_to_Empire">Transition from Republic to Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_(inv._2290).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg/170px-Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg/255px-Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg/340px-Augustus_of_Prima_Porta_%28inv._2290%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2813" data-file-height="4500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta" title="Augustus of Prima Porta">Augustus of Prima Porta</a></figcaption></figure> Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> in the 6th century BC, though not outside the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a> until the 3rd century BC. Thus, it was an "empire" (a great power) long before it had an emperor.<a href="#cite_note-27">[21]</a> The Republic was not a nation-state in the modern sense, but a network of self-ruled towns (with varying degrees of independence from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>) and provinces administered by military commanders. It was governed by annually elected <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Roman consuls</a> above all) in conjunction with the Senate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009179-28">[22]</a> The 1st century BC was a time of political and military upheaval, which ultimately led to rule by emperors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolet19911,_15-29">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hekster-30">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[25]</a> The consuls' military power rested in the Roman legal concept of <a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a>, meaning "command" (typically in a military sense).<a href="#cite_note-32">[26]</a> Occasionally, successful consuls or generals were given the honorary title <a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">imperator</a> (commander); this is the origin of the word emperor, since this title was always bestowed to the early emperors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson20111–2-33">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[g]</a> Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts, conspiracies, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_civil_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman civil wars">civil wars</a> from the late second century BC (see <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Crisis of the Roman Republic">Crisis of the Roman Republic</a>) while greatly extending its power beyond Italy. In 44 BC <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> was briefly <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_dictator" class="mw-redirect" title="Perpetual dictator">perpetual dictator</a> before being <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">assassinated</a> by a faction that opposed his concentration of power. This faction was driven from Rome and defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippi" title="Battle of Philippi">Battle of Philippi</a> in 42 BC by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a> and Caesar's adopted son <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Octavian</a>. Antony and Octavian <a href="/wiki/Second_Triumvirate" title="Second Triumvirate">divided the Roman world</a> between them, but this did not last long. Octavian's forces defeated those of Mark Antony and <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a> in 31 BC. In 27 BC the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a> gave him the title <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a> ("venerated") and made him <a href="/wiki/Princeps" title="Princeps">princeps</a> ("foremost") with <a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">proconsular</a> <a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a>, thus beginning the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a>, the first epoch of Roman imperial history. Although the republic stood in name, Augustus had all meaningful authority.<a href="#cite_note-36">[29]</a> During his 40-year rule, a new constitutional order emerged so that, upon his death, <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a> would succeed him as the new <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> monarch.<a href="#cite_note-37">[30]</a> As <a href="/wiki/Roman_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman provinces">Roman provinces</a> were being established throughout the Mediterranean, Italy maintained a special status which made it <a href="/wiki/Dominus_(title)" title="Dominus (title)">domina</a> provinciarum ("ruler of the provinces"),<a href="#cite_note-38">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-books.google.it-39">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[33]</a> and – especially in relation to the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">first centuries of imperial stability</a> – rectrix mundi ("governor of the world")<a href="#cite_note-41">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[35]</a> and omnium terrarum parens ("parent of all lands").<a href="#cite_note-43">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pax_Romana">Pax Romana</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:492px;max-width:492px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">The so-called "<a href="/wiki/Five_Good_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Good Emperors">Five Good Emperors</a>" of 96–180 AD</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:84px;max-width:84px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:124px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Nerva_Tivoli_Massimo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nerva_Tivoli_Massimo.jpg/82px-Nerva_Tivoli_Massimo.jpg" decoding="async" width="82" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nerva_Tivoli_Massimo.jpg/123px-Nerva_Tivoli_Massimo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nerva_Tivoli_Massimo.jpg/164px-Nerva_Tivoli_Massimo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="2350" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 96–98)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:98px;max-width:98px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:124px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Traianus_Glyptothek_Munich_72.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Traianus_Glyptothek_Munich_72.jpg/96px-Traianus_Glyptothek_Munich_72.jpg" decoding="async" width="96" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Traianus_Glyptothek_Munich_72.jpg/144px-Traianus_Glyptothek_Munich_72.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Traianus_Glyptothek_Munich_72.jpg/192px-Traianus_Glyptothek_Munich_72.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1689" data-file-height="2200" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 98–117)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:124px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817.jpg/100px-Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817.jpg/150px-Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817.jpg/200px-Bust_Hadrian_Musei_Capitolini_MC817.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2125" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 117–138)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:101px;max-width:101px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:124px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Antoninus_Pius_(Museo_del_Prado)_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Antoninus_Pius_%28Museo_del_Prado%29_01.jpg/99px-Antoninus_Pius_%28Museo_del_Prado%29_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Antoninus_Pius_%28Museo_del_Prado%29_01.jpg/149px-Antoninus_Pius_%28Museo_del_Prado%29_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Antoninus_Pius_%28Museo_del_Prado%29_01.jpg/198px-Antoninus_Pius_%28Museo_del_Prado%29_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1210" data-file-height="1521" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 138–161)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:124px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:(Toulouse)_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A8_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Saint-Raymond_Ra_61_b_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/%28Toulouse%29_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A8_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Saint-Raymond_Ra_61_b_%28cropped%29.jpg/95px-%28Toulouse%29_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A8_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Saint-Raymond_Ra_61_b_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/%28Toulouse%29_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A8_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Saint-Raymond_Ra_61_b_%28cropped%29.jpg/143px-%28Toulouse%29_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A8_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Saint-Raymond_Ra_61_b_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/%28Toulouse%29_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A8_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Saint-Raymond_Ra_61_b_%28cropped%29.jpg/190px-%28Toulouse%29_Buste_cuirass%C3%A9_de_Marc_Aur%C3%A8le_ag%C3%A8_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Saint-Raymond_Ra_61_b_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4448" data-file-height="5852" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 161–180)</div></div></div></div></div> The 200 years that began with Augustus's rule is traditionally regarded as the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a> ("Roman Peace"). The cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced. Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent and put down "mercilessly and swiftly".<a href="#cite_note-45">[38]</a> The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs. The <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a> lasted for four more emperors—<a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>—before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife-torn <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the Four Emperors</a>, from which <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a> emerged as the victor. Vespasian became the founder of the brief <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavian dynasty</a>, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Nerva%E2%80%93Antonine_dynasty" title="Nerva–Antonine dynasty">Nerva–Antonine dynasty</a> which produced the "<a href="/wiki/Five_Good_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Good Emperors">Five Good Emperors</a>": <a href="/wiki/Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transition_from_classical_to_late_antiquity">Transition from classical to late antiquity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/300px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/450px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/600px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1382" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Barbarian invasions</a> consisted of the movement of (mainly) ancient <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> into Roman territory. Historically, this event marked the transition between <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.</figcaption></figure> In the view of contemporary Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, the accession of <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a> in 180 marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron",<a href="#cite_note-47">[40]</a> a comment which has led some historians, notably <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>, to take Commodus' reign as the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Empire's decline</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Commodus-Gibbon-48">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200950-49">[42]</a> In 212, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a> was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. The <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a> was tumultuous; an emperor's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution and, following its collapse, the Empire was engulfed by the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>, a period of <a href="/wiki/Invasion" title="Invasion">invasions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_strife" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil strife">civil strife</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">economic disorder</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">plague</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[43]</a> In defining <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">historical epochs</a>, this crisis sometimes marks the transition from <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Antiquity">Classical</a> to <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 270–275) stabilised the empire militarily and <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> reorganised and restored much of it in 285.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2009405–415-51">[44]</a> Diocletian's reign brought the empire's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Christianity</a>, the "<a href="/wiki/Diocletianic_Persecution" title="Diocletianic Persecution">Great Persecution</a>".<a href="#cite_note-52">[45]</a> Diocletian divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by a separate <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">tetrarch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[46]</a> Confident that he fixed the disorder plaguing Rome, he abdicated along with his co-emperor, but the Tetrarchy <a href="/wiki/Civil_wars_of_the_Tetrarchy" title="Civil wars of the Tetrarchy">collapsed shortly after</a>. Order was eventually restored by <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a>, who became the first emperor to <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">convert to Christianity</a>, and who established <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> as the new capital of the Eastern Empire. During the decades of the <a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_dynasty" title="Valentinian dynasty">Valentinian</a> dynasties, the empire was divided along an east–west axis, with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome. <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>, who under the influence of his adviser <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(philosopher)" title="Mardonius (philosopher)">Mardonius</a> attempted to restore <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Classical Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic religion</a>, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a>, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, died in 395 after making Christianity the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">state religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[47]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD(3).PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG/220px-628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG/330px-628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG/440px-628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="259" /></a><figcaption>The Roman Empire by 476, noting western and eastern divisions</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Roman_Empire,_AD_395.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The_Roman_Empire%2C_AD_395.png/250px-The_Roman_Empire%2C_AD_395.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The_Roman_Empire%2C_AD_395.png/375px-The_Roman_Empire%2C_AD_395.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/The_Roman_Empire%2C_AD_395.png/500px-The_Roman_Empire%2C_AD_395.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2171" /></a><figcaption>The administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395 AD</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_in_the_West_and_survival_in_the_East">Fall in the West and survival in the East</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> began to <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">disintegrate</a> in the early 5th century. The Romans fought off all invaders, most famously <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a>,<a href="#cite_note-55">[48]</a> but the empire had <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">assimilated so many Germanic peoples</a> of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to dismember itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury1923312–313-56">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Most chronologies</a> place the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476, when <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a> was <a href="/wiki/Deposition_of_Romulus_Augustulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Deposition of Romulus Augustulus">forced to abdicate</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> warlord <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Lang_AG-57">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Fall_of_Rome-58">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gibbons-59">[52]</a> Odoacer ended the Western Empire by declaring <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a> sole emperor and placing himself as Zeno's nominal subordinate. In reality, Italy was ruled by Odoacer alone.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Lang_AG-57">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Fall_of_Rome-58">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[53]</a> The Eastern Roman Empire, called the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> by later historians, continued until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_XI_Palaiologos" title="Constantine XI Palaiologos">Constantine XI Palaiologos</a>, the last Roman emperor. He died in battle in 1453 against <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> forces during the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">siege of Constantinople</a>. Mehmed II adopted the title of <a href="/wiki/Kayser-i_R%C3%BBm" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayser-i Rûm">caesar</a> in an attempt to claim a connection to the former Empire.<a href="#cite_note-61">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle200085-62">[55]</a> His claim was soon recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Patriarchate_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarchate of Constantinople">Patriarchate of Constantinople</a>, but not by most European monarchs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography_and_demography">Geography and demography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography of the Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders of the Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Classical_demography" title="Classical demography">Classical demography</a></div> The Roman Empire was <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">one of the largest</a> in history, with contiguous territories throughout Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly20073-63">[56]</a> The Latin phrase imperium sine fine ("empire without end"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolet199129-64">[57]</a>) expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the Empire. In <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a>, limitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(god)" title="Jupiter (god)">Jupiter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[58]</a> This claim of universal dominion was renewed when the Empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century.<a href="#cite_note-67">[h]</a> In addition to annexing large regions, the Romans directly altered their geography, for example <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">cutting down entire forests</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Roman expansion</a> was mostly accomplished under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a>, though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century, when Roman control in Europe, Africa, and Asia was strengthened. Under <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, a "global map of the known world" was displayed for the first time in public at Rome, coinciding with the creation of the most comprehensive <a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">political geography</a> that survives from antiquity, the <a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geography</a> of <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolet19917,_8-69">[61]</a> When Augustus died, the account of his achievements (<a href="/wiki/Res_Gestae_Divi_Augusti" title="Res Gestae Divi Augusti">Res Gestae</a>) prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolet19919,_16-70">[62]</a> Geography alongside meticulous written records were central concerns of <a href="#Central_government">Roman Imperial administration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolet199110,_11-71">[63]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Milecastle_39_on_Hadrian%27s_Wall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Milecastle_39_on_Hadrian%27s_Wall.jpg/220px-Milecastle_39_on_Hadrian%27s_Wall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Milecastle_39_on_Hadrian%27s_Wall.jpg/330px-Milecastle_39_on_Hadrian%27s_Wall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Milecastle_39_on_Hadrian%27s_Wall.jpg/440px-Milecastle_39_on_Hadrian%27s_Wall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A segment of the ruins of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> in northern England, overlooking <a href="/wiki/Crag_Lough" title="Crag Lough">Crag Lough</a></figcaption></figure> The Empire reached its largest expanse under <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 98–117),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern200114–16-72">[64]</a> encompassing 5 million km2.<a href="#cite_note-size-20">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-East-West-21">[17]</a> The traditional population estimate of 55–60 million inhabitants<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly20071-73">[65]</a> accounted for between one-sixth and one-fourth of the world's total population<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009184-74">[66]</a> and made it the most populous unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century.<a href="#cite_note-75">[67]</a> Recent <a href="/wiki/Classical_demography#Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Classical demography">demographic studies</a> have argued for a population peak from 70 million to more than 100 million.<a href="#cite_note-Population_and_demography-76">[68]</a> Each of the three largest cities in the Empire – Rome, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> – was almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000721-77">[69]</a> As the historian <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Kelly_(historian)" title="Christopher Kelly (historian)">Christopher Kelly</a> described it: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Then the empire stretched from <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> in drizzle-soaked <a href="/wiki/Northern_England" title="Northern England">northern England</a> to the sun-baked banks of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> in Syria; from the great <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>–<a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> river system, which snaked across the fertile, flat lands of Europe from the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, to the rich plains of the North African coast and the luxuriant gash of the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile Valley">Nile Valley</a> in Egypt. The empire completely circled the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> ... referred to by its conquerors as <a href="/wiki/Mare_Nostrum" title="Mare Nostrum">mare nostrum</a>—'our sea'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly20071-73">[65]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_cities_of_the_Roman_world_in_the_Imperial_period.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/The_cities_of_the_Roman_world_in_the_Imperial_period.jpg/220px-The_cities_of_the_Roman_world_in_the_Imperial_period.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/The_cities_of_the_Roman_world_in_the_Imperial_period.jpg/330px-The_cities_of_the_Roman_world_in_the_Imperial_period.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/The_cities_of_the_Roman_world_in_the_Imperial_period.jpg/440px-The_cities_of_the_Roman_world_in_the_Imperial_period.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10525" data-file-height="7444" /></a><figcaption>Roman cities in the Imperial period<a href="#cite_note-78">[70]</a></figcaption></figure> Trajan's successor <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire. Borders (fines) were marked, and the frontiers (<a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">limites</a>) patrolled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern200114–16-72">[64]</a> The most heavily fortified borders were the most unstable.<a href="#cite_note-Hekster-30">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>, which separated the Roman world from what was perceived as an ever-present <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarian</a> threat, is the primary surviving monument of this effort.<a href="#cite_note-79">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages">Languages</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Languages of the Roman Empire">Languages of the Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Jire%C4%8Dek_Line" title="Jireček Line">Jireček Line</a></div> Latin and Greek were the main languages of the Empire,<a href="#cite_note-diglossia-84">[i]</a> but the Empire was deliberately multilingual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2018117-85">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wallace-Hadrill" title="Andrew Wallace-Hadrill">Andrew Wallace-Hadrill</a> says "The main desire of the Roman government was to make itself understood".<a href="#cite_note-86">[77]</a> At the start of the Empire, knowledge of Greek was useful to pass as educated nobility and knowledge of Latin was useful for a career in the military, government, or law.<a href="#cite_note-87">[78]</a> Bilingual inscriptions indicate the everyday interpenetration of the two languages.<a href="#cite_note-88">[79]</a> Latin and Greek's mutual linguistic and cultural influence is a complex topic.<a href="#cite_note-89">[80]</a> Latin words incorporated into Greek were very common by the early imperial era, especially for military, administration, and trade and commerce matters.<a href="#cite_note-90">[81]</a> Greek grammar, literature, poetry and philosophy shaped Latin language and culture.<a href="#cite_note-91">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreeman2000438-92">[83]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P.Ryl._I_61.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/P.Ryl._I_61.tif/lossy-page1-310px-P.Ryl._I_61.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/P.Ryl._I_61.tif/lossy-page1-465px-P.Ryl._I_61.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/P.Ryl._I_61.tif/lossy-page1-620px-P.Ryl._I_61.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1924" data-file-height="1047" /></a><figcaption>A 5th-century <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> showing a parallel Latin-Greek text of a speech by <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[84]</a></figcaption></figure> There was never a legal requirement for Latin in the Empire, but it represented a certain status.<a href="#cite_note-94">[85]</a> High standards of Latin, <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Latinitas</a>, started with the advent of Latin literature.<a href="#cite_note-95">[86]</a> Due to the flexible language policy of the Empire, a natural competition of language emerged that spurred Latinitas, to defend Latin against the stronger cultural influence of Greek.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2018122-96">[87]</a> Over time Latin usage was used to project power and a higher social class.<a href="#cite_note-97">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2003205-98">[89]</a> Most of the emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a "rule" that first started during the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2023263,_268Rochette2018114–115,_118-99">[90]</a> Different emperors up until Justinian would attempt to require the use of Latin in various sections of the administration but there is no evidence that a linguistic imperialism existed during the early Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2018-100">[91]</a> After all freeborn inhabitants were universally <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/enfranchise" class="extiw" title="wikt:enfranchise">enfranchised</a> in <a href="/wiki/Constitutio_Antoniniana" title="Constitutio Antoniniana">212</a>, many Roman citizens would have lacked a knowledge of Latin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2003185–186,_205-101">[92]</a> The wide use of <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> was what enabled the spread of Christianity and reflects its role as the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of the Mediterranean during the time of the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold19975–7-102">[93]</a> Following Diocletian's reforms in the 3rd century CE, there was a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2018108–109-103">[94]</a> Spoken Latin later fragmented into the incipient <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">romance languages</a> in the 7th century CE following the collapse of the Empire's west.<a href="#cite_note-104">[95]</a> The dominance of Latin and Greek among the literate elite obscure the continuity of other spoken languages within the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-miles-105">[96]</a> Latin, referred to in its spoken form as <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>, gradually replaced <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-curchin-107">[98]</a> References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages, particularly in Egypt with <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>, and in military settings along the Rhine and Danube. Roman <a href="/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">jurists</a> also show a concern for local languages such as <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">Gaulish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> in assuring the correct understanding of laws and oaths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2012558–559-108">[99]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a>, Libyco-Berber and Punic were used in inscriptions into the 2nd century.<a href="#cite_note-miles-105">[96]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyrene</a> soldiers used their <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Palmyrene dialect">dialect of Aramaic</a> for inscriptions, an exception to the rule that Latin was the language of the military.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2003199-109">[100]</a> The last reference to Gaulish was between 560 and 575.<a href="#cite_note-110">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-Helix-111">[102]</a> The emergent <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance languages</a> would then be shaped by Gaulish.<a href="#cite_note-112">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Proto-Basque_language" title="Proto-Basque language">Proto-Basque</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aquitanian_language" title="Aquitanian language">Aquitanian</a> evolved with Latin loan words to modern <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[104]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Thracian_language" title="Thracian language">Thracian language</a>, as were several now-extinct languages in Anatolia, are attested in Imperial-era inscriptions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold19975–7-102">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-miles-105">[96]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:332px;max-width:332px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:237px;max-width:237px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:175px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Dendera_Tempel_Nordtor_09.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Dendera_Tempel_Nordtor_09.jpg/235px-Dendera_Tempel_Nordtor_09.jpg" decoding="async" width="235" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Dendera_Tempel_Nordtor_09.jpg/353px-Dendera_Tempel_Nordtor_09.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Dendera_Tempel_Nordtor_09.jpg/470px-Dendera_Tempel_Nordtor_09.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4414" data-file-height="3307" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:91px;max-width:91px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:175px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Emperor_Domitian_on_the_Northern_gate_of_Temple_of_Hathor,_Dendera,_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Roman_Emperor_Domitian_on_the_Northern_gate_of_Temple_of_Hathor%2C_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg/89px-Roman_Emperor_Domitian_on_the_Northern_gate_of_Temple_of_Hathor%2C_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="89" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Roman_Emperor_Domitian_on_the_Northern_gate_of_Temple_of_Hathor%2C_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg/134px-Roman_Emperor_Domitian_on_the_Northern_gate_of_Temple_of_Hathor%2C_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Roman_Emperor_Domitian_on_the_Northern_gate_of_Temple_of_Hathor%2C_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg/178px-Roman_Emperor_Domitian_on_the_Northern_gate_of_Temple_of_Hathor%2C_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1133" data-file-height="2237" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">"Gate of Domitian and <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>" at the northern entrance of the <a href="/wiki/Dendera_Temple_complex" title="Dendera Temple complex">Temple of Hathor</a>, and Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a> as <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharaoh of Egypt">Pharaoh of Egypt</a> on the same gate, together with <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[105]</a></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Roman society">Ancient Roman society</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg/220px-Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg/330px-Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg/440px-Pompeii_family_feast_painting_Naples.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2821" data-file-height="2518" /></a><figcaption>A multigenerational banquet depicted on a wall painting from <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> (1st century AD)</figcaption></figure> The Empire was remarkably multicultural, with "astonishing cohesive capacity" to create shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201112-115">[106]</a> Public monuments and communal spaces open to all—such as <a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">forums</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_amphitheatres" title="List of Roman amphitheatres">amphitheatres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">racetracks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">baths</a>—helped foster a sense of "Romanness".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201116-116">[107]</a> Roman society had multiple, overlapping <a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">social hierarchies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin20119-117">[108]</a> The civil war preceding Augustus caused upheaval,<a href="#cite_note-Garnsey-118">[109]</a> but did not effect an immediate <a href="/wiki/Redistribution_of_wealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Redistribution of wealth">redistribution of wealth</a> and social power. From the perspective of the lower classes, a peak was merely added to the social pyramid.<a href="#cite_note-119">[110]</a> Personal relationships—<a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">patronage</a>, friendship (amicitia), <a href="/wiki/Family_in_ancient_Rome" title="Family in ancient Rome">family</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">marriage</a>—continued to influence politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin20114–5-120">[111]</a> By the time of <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>, however, it was not unusual to find a former slave who was richer than a freeborn citizen, or an <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian order">equestrian</a> who exercised greater power than a senator.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinterling200911,_21-121">[112]</a> The blurring of the Republic's more rigid hierarchies led to increased <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a>,<a href="#cite_note-122">[113]</a> both upward and downward, to a greater extent than all other well-documented ancient societies.<a href="#cite_note-123">[114]</a> Women, freedmen, and slaves had opportunities to profit and exercise influence in ways previously less available to them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman200018-124">[115]</a> Social life, particularly for those whose personal resources were limited, was further fostered by a proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Associations_in_Ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Associations in Ancient Rome">voluntary associations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Confraternity" title="Confraternity">confraternities</a> (<a href="/wiki/Collegium" class="mw-redirect" title="Collegium">collegia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sodales" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodales">sodalitates</a>): professional and trade guilds, veterans' groups, religious sodalities, drinking and dining clubs,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201117,_20-125">[116]</a> performing troupes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar201281–82-126">[117]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burial_society" title="Burial society">burial societies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_status">Legal status</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status in Roman legal system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a></div> According to the <a href="/wiki/Gaius_(jurist)" title="Gaius (jurist)">jurist Gaius</a>, the essential distinction in the Roman "<a href="/wiki/Legal_personality" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal personality">law of persons</a>" was that all humans were either free (liberi) or slaves (servi).<a href="#cite_note-128">[119]</a> The legal status of free persons was further defined by their citizenship. Most citizens held limited rights (such as the <a href="/wiki/Ius_Latinum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius Latinum">ius Latinum</a>, "Latin right"), but were entitled to legal protections and privileges not enjoyed by non-citizens. Free people not considered citizens, but living within the Roman world, were <a href="/wiki/Peregrinus_(Roman)" title="Peregrinus (Roman)">peregrini</a>, non-Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrierMcGinn200431–32-129">[120]</a> In 212, the <a href="/wiki/Constitutio_Antoniniana" title="Constitutio Antoniniana">Constitutio Antoniniana</a> extended citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. This legal egalitarianism required a far-reaching revision of existing laws that distinguished between citizens and non-citizens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009177-130">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Women_in_Roman_law">Women in Roman law</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women in ancient Rome</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:304px;max-width:304px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Fanciulla_intenta_alla_lettura_(IV_stile),_I_sec,_da_pompei,_MANN_8946.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Fanciulla_intenta_alla_lettura_%28IV_stile%29%2C_I_sec%2C_da_pompei%2C_MANN_8946.JPG/160px-Fanciulla_intenta_alla_lettura_%28IV_stile%29%2C_I_sec%2C_da_pompei%2C_MANN_8946.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Fanciulla_intenta_alla_lettura_%28IV_stile%29%2C_I_sec%2C_da_pompei%2C_MANN_8946.JPG/240px-Fanciulla_intenta_alla_lettura_%28IV_stile%29%2C_I_sec%2C_da_pompei%2C_MANN_8946.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Fanciulla_intenta_alla_lettura_%28IV_stile%29%2C_I_sec%2C_da_pompei%2C_MANN_8946.JPG/320px-Fanciulla_intenta_alla_lettura_%28IV_stile%29%2C_I_sec%2C_da_pompei%2C_MANN_8946.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1980" data-file-height="2532" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:138px;max-width:138px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_young_girl_reading_CdM_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Bronze_young_girl_reading_CdM_Paris.jpg/136px-Bronze_young_girl_reading_CdM_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="136" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Bronze_young_girl_reading_CdM_Paris.jpg/204px-Bronze_young_girl_reading_CdM_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Bronze_young_girl_reading_CdM_Paris.jpg/272px-Bronze_young_girl_reading_CdM_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2350" data-file-height="3525" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Left: Fresco of an <a href="/wiki/Auburn_hair" title="Auburn hair">auburn</a> maiden reading a text, <a href="/wiki/Pompeian_Styles" title="Pompeian Styles">Pompeian Fourth Style</a> (60–79 AD), <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, Italy Right: Bronze statuette (1st century AD) of a young woman reading, based on a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic</a> original</div></div></div></div> Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens, but did not vote, hold political office, or serve in the military. A mother's citizen status determined that of her children, as indicated by the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos ("children born of two Roman citizens").<a href="#cite_note-133">[j]</a> A Roman woman kept her own <a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">family name</a> (nomen) for life. Children most often took the father's name, with some exceptions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawson198718-134">[124]</a> Women could own property, enter contracts, and engage in business.<a href="#cite_note-135">[125]</a> Inscriptions throughout the Empire honour women as benefactors in funding public works, an indication they could hold considerable fortunes.<a href="#cite_note-136">[126]</a> The archaic <a href="/wiki/Manus_marriage" title="Manus marriage">manus marriage</a> in which the woman was subject to her husband's authority was largely abandoned by the Imperial era, and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the marriage. Technically she remained under her father's legal authority, even though she moved into her husband's home, but when her father died she became legally emancipated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrierMcGinn200419–20-137">[127]</a> This arrangement was a factor in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed compared to many other cultures up to the modern period:<a href="#cite_note-138">[128]</a> although she had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free of his direct scrutiny in daily life,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawson198715-139">[129]</a> and her husband had no legal power over her.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrierMcGinn200419–20,_22-140">[130]</a> Although it was a point of pride to be a "one-man woman" (univira) who had married only once, there was little stigma attached to <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome#Divorce" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">divorce</a>, nor to speedy remarriage after being widowed or divorced.<a href="#cite_note-141">[131]</a> Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will.<a href="#cite_note-142">[132]</a> A mother's right to own and dispose of property, including setting the terms of her will, gave her enormous influence over her sons into adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-143">[133]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wall_painting_-_mistress_and_three_maids_-_Herculaneum_(insula_orientalis_II_-_palaestra_-_room_III)_-_Napoli_MAN_9022.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Wall_painting_-_mistress_and_three_maids_-_Herculaneum_%28insula_orientalis_II_-_palaestra_-_room_III%29_-_Napoli_MAN_9022.jpg/300px-Wall_painting_-_mistress_and_three_maids_-_Herculaneum_%28insula_orientalis_II_-_palaestra_-_room_III%29_-_Napoli_MAN_9022.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Wall_painting_-_mistress_and_three_maids_-_Herculaneum_%28insula_orientalis_II_-_palaestra_-_room_III%29_-_Napoli_MAN_9022.jpg/450px-Wall_painting_-_mistress_and_three_maids_-_Herculaneum_%28insula_orientalis_II_-_palaestra_-_room_III%29_-_Napoli_MAN_9022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Wall_painting_-_mistress_and_three_maids_-_Herculaneum_%28insula_orientalis_II_-_palaestra_-_room_III%29_-_Napoli_MAN_9022.jpg/600px-Wall_painting_-_mistress_and_three_maids_-_Herculaneum_%28insula_orientalis_II_-_palaestra_-_room_III%29_-_Napoli_MAN_9022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4917" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Dressing of a priestess or bride, Roman fresco from <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>, Italy (30–40 AD)</figcaption></figure> As part of the Augustan programme to restore traditional morality and social order, <a href="/wiki/Leges_Iuliae" class="mw-redirect" title="Leges Iuliae">moral legislation</a> attempted to regulate conduct as a means of promoting "<a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">family values</a>". <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome#Adultery" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Adultery</a> was criminalized,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevery20024-144">[134]</a> and defined broadly as an illicit sex act (<a href="/wiki/Stuprum" class="mw-redirect" title="Stuprum">stuprum</a>) between a male citizen and a married woman, or between a married woman and any man other than her husband. That is, a <a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">double standard</a> was in place: a married woman could have sex only with her husband, but a married man did not commit adultery if he had sex with a prostitute or person of marginalized status.<a href="#cite_note-145">[135]</a> Childbearing was encouraged: a woman who had given birth to three children was granted symbolic honours and greater legal freedom (the <a href="/wiki/Ius_trium_liberorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius trium liberorum">ius trium liberorum</a>).<a href="#cite_note-146">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Slaves_and_the_law">Slaves and the law</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery in ancient Rome</a></div> At the time of Augustus, as many as 35% of the people in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Roman Italy</a> were slaves,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley199412-147">[137]</a> making Rome one of five historical "slave societies" in which slaves constituted at least a fifth of the population and played a major role in the economy.<a href="#cite_note-148">[k]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley199412-147">[137]</a> Slavery was a complex institution that supported traditional Roman social structures as well as contributing economic utility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley199415-149">[138]</a> In urban settings, slaves might be professionals such as teachers, physicians, chefs, and accountants; the majority of slaves provided trained or unskilled labour. <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a> and industry, such as milling and mining, relied on the exploitation of slaves. Outside Italy, slaves were on average an estimated 10 to 20% of the population, sparse in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a> but more concentrated in some Greek areas. Expanding Roman ownership of arable land and industries affected preexisting practices of slavery in the provinces.<a href="#cite_note-150">[139]</a> Although slavery has often been regarded as waning in the 3rd and 4th centuries, it remained an integral part of Roman society until gradually ceasing in the 6th and 7th centuries with the disintegration of the complex Imperial economy.<a href="#cite_note-151">[140]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg/220px-Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg/330px-Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg/440px-Sarcofago_avvocato_Valerius_Petrnianus-optimized.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1246" data-file-height="954" /></a><figcaption>Slave holding writing tablets for his master (<a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> from a 4th-century sarcophagus)</figcaption></figure> Laws pertaining to slavery were "extremely intricate".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrierMcGinn20047-152">[141]</a> Slaves were considered property and had no <a href="/wiki/Person_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Person (law)">legal personhood</a>. They could be subjected to forms of corporal punishment not normally exercised on citizens, <a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome#Master-slave_relations" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">sexual exploitation</a>, torture, and <a href="/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summary execution</a>. A slave could not as a matter of law be raped; a slave's rapist had to be prosecuted by the owner for property damage under the <a href="/wiki/Lex_Aquilia" title="Lex Aquilia">Aquilian Law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[142]</a> Slaves had no right to the form of legal marriage called <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">conubium</a>, but their unions were sometimes recognized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrierMcGinn200431–33-154">[143]</a> Technically, a slave could not own property,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrierMcGinn200421-155">[144]</a> but a slave who conducted business might be given access to an individual fund (peculium) that he could use, depending on the degree of trust and co-operation between owner and slave.<a href="#cite_note-156">[145]</a> Within a household or workplace, a hierarchy of slaves might exist, with one slave acting as the master of others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley19942–3-157">[146]</a> Talented slaves might accumulate a large enough peculium to justify their freedom, or be <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumitted</a> for services rendered. Manumission had become frequent enough that in 2 BC a law (<a href="/wiki/Lex_Fufia_Caninia" title="Lex Fufia Caninia">Lex Fufia Caninia</a>) limited the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley199410-158">[147]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Servile_Wars" title="Servile Wars">Servile Wars</a> of the Republic, legislation under Augustus and his successors shows a driving concern for controlling the threat of rebellions through limiting the size of work groups, and for hunting down fugitive slaves.<a href="#cite_note-159">[148]</a> Over time slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. A bill of sale might contain a clause stipulating that the slave could not be employed for prostitution, as <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_ancient_Rome" title="Prostitution in ancient Rome">prostitutes in ancient Rome</a> were often slaves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinn1998288ff-160">[149]</a> The burgeoning trade in <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a> in the late 1st century prompted legislation that prohibited the <a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome#Castration_and_circumcision" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">castration</a> of a slave against his will "for lust or gain".<a href="#cite_note-161">[150]</a> Roman slavery was not based on <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>.<a href="#cite_note-162">[151]</a> Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians,<a href="#cite_note-163">[152]</a> with a minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) estimated at 5% of the total in the capital at its peak, where their number was largest. Foreign slaves had higher mortality and lower birth rates than natives, and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions.<a href="#cite_note-164">[153]</a> The average recorded age at death for the slaves of the city of Rome was seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females).<a href="#cite_note-165">[154]</a> During the period of republican expansionism when slavery had become pervasive, war captives were a main source of slaves. The range of ethnicities among slaves to some extent reflected that of the armies Rome defeated in war, and the <a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era" title="Greece in the Roman era">conquest of Greece</a> brought a number of highly skilled and educated slaves. Slaves were also traded in markets and sometimes sold by <a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">pirates</a>. <a href="/wiki/Child_abandonment" title="Child abandonment">Infant abandonment</a> and self-enslavement among the poor were other sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1999-166">[155]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome#Vernae" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Vernae</a>, by contrast, were "homegrown" slaves born to female slaves within the household, estate or farm. Although they had no special legal status, an owner who mistreated or failed to care for his vernae faced social disapproval, as they were considered part of the family household and in some cases might actually be the children of free males in the family.<a href="#cite_note-167">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Freedmen">Freedmen</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DM_Tiberius_Claudius_Chryseros.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/DM_Tiberius_Claudius_Chryseros.jpg/220px-DM_Tiberius_Claudius_Chryseros.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/DM_Tiberius_Claudius_Chryseros.jpg/330px-DM_Tiberius_Claudius_Chryseros.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/DM_Tiberius_Claudius_Chryseros.jpg/440px-DM_Tiberius_Claudius_Chryseros.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1413" data-file-height="1611" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Urn#Cremation_urns" title="Urn">Cinerary urn</a> for the freedman Tiberius Claudius Chryseros and two women, probably his wife and daughter</figcaption></figure> Rome differed from <a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greek city-states</a> in allowing freed slaves to become citizens; any future children of a freedman were born free, with full rights of citizenship. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed active political freedom (libertas), including the right to vote.<a href="#cite_note-168">[157]</a> His former master became his patron (<a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">patronus</a>): the two continued to have customary and legal obligations to each other.<a href="#cite_note-169">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-berger-170">[159]</a> A freedman was not entitled to hold public office or the highest state priesthoods, but could play a <a href="/wiki/Augustales" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustales">priestly role</a>. He could not marry a woman from a senatorial family, nor achieve legitimate senatorial rank himself, but during the early Empire, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, so much so that <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> limited their participation by law.<a href="#cite_note-berger-170">[159]</a> The rise of successful freedmen—through political influence or wealth—is a characteristic of early Imperial society. The prosperity of a high-achieving group of freedmen is attested by <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Liberti_and_libertae_in_Ancient_Roman_inscriptions" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Liberti and libertae in Ancient Roman inscriptions">inscriptions throughout the Empire</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Census_rank">Census rank</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Senate of the Roman Empire">Senate of the Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian order">Equestrian order</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Decurion_(administrative)" class="mw-redirect" title="Decurion (administrative)">Decurion (administrative)</a></div> The Latin word ordo (plural ordines) is translated variously and inexactly into English as "class, order, rank". One purpose of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_census" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman census">Roman census</a> was to determine the ordo to which an individual belonged.<a href="#cite_note-171">[160]</a> Two of the highest ordines in Rome were the senatorial and equestrian. Outside Rome, cities or colonies were led by <a href="/wiki/Decurion_(administrative)" class="mw-redirect" title="Decurion (administrative)">decurions</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/Curiales" title="Curiales">curiales</a>.<a href="#cite_note-172">[161]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0_Sarcophage_d%27Acilia_-_Pal._Massimo_alle_Terme.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/0_Sarcophage_d%27Acilia_-_Pal._Massimo_alle_Terme.JPG/220px-0_Sarcophage_d%27Acilia_-_Pal._Massimo_alle_Terme.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/0_Sarcophage_d%27Acilia_-_Pal._Massimo_alle_Terme.JPG/330px-0_Sarcophage_d%27Acilia_-_Pal._Massimo_alle_Terme.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/0_Sarcophage_d%27Acilia_-_Pal._Massimo_alle_Terme.JPG/440px-0_Sarcophage_d%27Acilia_-_Pal._Massimo_alle_Terme.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Fragment of a sarcophagus depicting <a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a> and senators (3rd century)</figcaption></figure> "Senator" was not itself an elected office in ancient Rome; an individual gained admission to the Senate after he had been elected to and served at least one term as an <a href="/wiki/Executive_magistrates_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire">executive magistrate</a>. A senator also had to meet a minimum property requirement of 1 million <a href="/wiki/Sestertii" class="mw-redirect" title="Sestertii">sestertii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[162]</a> Not all men who qualified for the ordo senatorius chose to take a Senate seat, which required <a href="/wiki/Domicile_(law)" title="Domicile (law)">legal domicile</a> at Rome. Emperors often filled vacancies in the 600-member body by appointment.<a href="#cite_note-174">[163]</a> A senator's son belonged to the ordo senatorius, but he had to qualify on his own merits for admission to the Senate. A senator could be removed for violating moral standards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar201288-175">[164]</a> In the time of Nero, senators were still primarily from <a href="/wiki/Italy_(Roman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italy (Roman Empire)">Italy</a>, with some from the Iberian peninsula and southern France; men from the Greek-speaking provinces of the East began to be added under Vespasian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000218–219-176">[165]</a> The first senator from the easternmost province, <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(Roman_province)" title="Cappadocia (Roman province)">Cappadocia</a>, was admitted under Marcus Aurelius.<a href="#cite_note-178">[l]</a> By the <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a> (193–235), Italians made up less than half the Senate.<a href="#cite_note-179">[167]</a> During the 3rd century, domicile at Rome became impractical, and inscriptions attest to senators who were active in politics and munificence in their homeland (patria).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar201288-175">[164]</a> Senators were the traditional governing class who rose through the <a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">cursus honorum</a>, the political career track, but equestrians often possessed greater wealth and political power. Membership in the equestrian order was based on property; in Rome's early days, equites or knights had been distinguished by their ability to serve as mounted warriors, but cavalry service was a separate function in the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-181">[m]</a> A census valuation of 400,000 sesterces and three generations of free birth qualified a man as an equestrian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiseman197071–72,_76-182">[169]</a> The census of 28 BC uncovered large numbers of men who qualified, and in 14 AD, a thousand equestrians were registered at <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Padua</a> alone.<a href="#cite_note-184">[n]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiseman197075–76,_78-185">[171]</a> Equestrians rose through a military career track (<a href="/wiki/Tres_militiae" title="Tres militiae">tres militiae</a>) to become highly placed <a href="/wiki/Prefect" title="Prefect">prefects</a> and <a href="/wiki/Procurator_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Procurator (Roman)">procurators</a> within the Imperial administration.<a href="#cite_note-186">[172]</a> The rise of provincial men to the senatorial and equestrian orders is an aspect of social mobility in the early Empire. Roman aristocracy was based on competition, and unlike later <a href="/wiki/European_nobility" class="mw-redirect" title="European nobility">European nobility</a>, a Roman family could not maintain its position merely through hereditary succession or having title to lands.<a href="#cite_note-187">[173]</a> Admission to the higher ordines brought distinction and privileges, but also responsibilities. In antiquity, a city depended on its leading citizens to fund public works, events, and services (<a href="/wiki/Munera_(ancient_Rome)" title="Munera (ancient Rome)">munera</a>). Maintaining one's rank required massive personal expenditures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar201296-188">[174]</a> Decurions were so vital for the functioning of cities that in the later Empire, as the ranks of the town councils became depleted, those who had risen to the Senate were encouraged to return to their hometowns, in an effort to sustain civic life.<a href="#cite_note-189">[175]</a> In the later Empire, the <a href="/wiki/Dignitas_(Roman_concept)" title="Dignitas (Roman concept)">dignitas</a> ("worth, esteem") that attended on senatorial or equestrian rank was refined further with titles such as <a href="/wiki/Vir_illustris" title="Vir illustris">vir illustris</a> ("illustrious man").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar201290calls_them_"status-appellations"-190">[176]</a> The appellation clarissimus (Greek lamprotatos) was used to designate the <a href="/wiki/Dignitas_(Roman_concept)" title="Dignitas (Roman concept)">dignitas</a> of certain senators and their immediate family, including women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar201291-191">[177]</a> "Grades" of equestrian status proliferated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar201290-192">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unequal_justice">Unequal justice</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tunisia-3363_-_Amphitheatre_Spectacle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Tunisia-3363_-_Amphitheatre_Spectacle.jpg/220px-Tunisia-3363_-_Amphitheatre_Spectacle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Tunisia-3363_-_Amphitheatre_Spectacle.jpg/330px-Tunisia-3363_-_Amphitheatre_Spectacle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Tunisia-3363_-_Amphitheatre_Spectacle.jpg/440px-Tunisia-3363_-_Amphitheatre_Spectacle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Condemned man attacked by a leopard in the arena (3rd-century mosaic from Tunisia)</figcaption></figure> As the republican principle of citizens' equality under the law faded, the symbolic and social privileges of the upper classes led to an informal division of Roman society into those who had acquired greater honours (honestiores) and humbler folk (humiliores). In general, honestiores were the members of the three higher "orders", along with certain military officers.<a href="#cite_note-verb-193">[179]</a> The granting of universal citizenship in 212 seems to have increased the competitive urge among the upper classes to have their superiority affirmed, particularly within the justice system.<a href="#cite_note-194">[180]</a> Sentencing depended on the judgment of the presiding official as to the relative "worth" (dignitas) of the defendant: an honestior could pay a fine for a crime for which an humilior might receive a <a href="/wiki/Scourging" class="mw-redirect" title="Scourging">scourging</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin2011153–154-195">[181]</a> Execution, which was an infrequent legal penalty for free men under the Republic,<a href="#cite_note-196">[182]</a> could be quick and relatively painless for honestiores, while humiliores might suffer the kinds of torturous death previously reserved for slaves, such as <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion" title="Crucifixion">crucifixion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Damnatio_ad_bestias" title="Damnatio ad bestias">condemnation to the beasts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fatal-197">[183]</a> In the early Empire, those who converted to Christianity could lose their standing as honestiores, especially if they declined to fulfil religious responsibilities, and thus became subject to punishments that created the conditions of <a href="/wiki/Christian_martyrs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian martyrs">martyrdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_and_military">Government and military</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Constitution of the Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jerash_BW_12.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Jerash_BW_12.JPG/220px-Jerash_BW_12.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Jerash_BW_12.JPG/330px-Jerash_BW_12.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Jerash_BW_12.JPG/440px-Jerash_BW_12.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3764" data-file-height="2496" /></a><figcaption>Forum of Gerasa (<a href="/wiki/Jerash" title="Jerash">Jerash</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>), with columns marking a covered walkway (<a href="/wiki/Stoa" title="Stoa">stoa</a>) for vendor stalls, and a semicircular space for public speaking</figcaption></figure> The three major elements of the Imperial state were the central government, the military, and the provincial government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBohec20008-199">[185]</a> The military established control of a territory through war, but after a city or people was brought under treaty, the mission turned to policing: protecting Roman citizens, agricultural fields, and religious sites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBohec200014–15-200">[186]</a> The Romans lacked sufficient manpower or resources to rule through force alone. <a href="/wiki/Local_government_(ancient_Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Local government (ancient Roman)">Cooperation with local elites</a> was necessary to maintain order, collect information, and extract revenue. The Romans often exploited internal political divisions.<a href="#cite_note-201">[187]</a> Communities with demonstrated loyalty to Rome retained their own laws, could collect their own taxes locally, and in exceptional cases were exempt from Roman taxation. Legal privileges and relative independence incentivized compliance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009184-202">[188]</a> Roman government was thus <a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">limited</a>, but efficient in its use of available resources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009181-203">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_government">Central government</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Senate of the Roman Empire">Senate of the Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antoninus_Pius_Hermitage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Antoninus_Pius_Hermitage.jpg/164px-Antoninus_Pius_Hermitage.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Antoninus_Pius_Hermitage.jpg/246px-Antoninus_Pius_Hermitage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Antoninus_Pius_Hermitage.jpg/327px-Antoninus_Pius_Hermitage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1468" data-file-height="2788" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 138–161) wearing a <a href="/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">toga</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">Imperial cult of ancient Rome</a> identified <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">emperors</a> and some members of their families with <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divinely sanctioned</a> authority (<a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">auctoritas</a>). The rite of <a href="/wiki/Apotheosis" title="Apotheosis">apotheosis</a> (also called consecratio) signified the deceased emperor's deification.<a href="#cite_note-204">[190]</a> The dominance of the emperor was based on the consolidation of powers from several republican offices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1901354-205">[191]</a> The emperor made himself the central religious authority as <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">pontifex maximus</a>, and centralized the right to declare war, ratify treaties, and negotiate with foreign leaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1901345-206">[192]</a> While these functions were clearly defined during the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a>, the emperor's powers over time became less constitutional and more monarchical, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1901341-207">[193]</a> The emperor was the ultimate authority in policy- and decision-making, but in the early Principate, he was expected to be accessible and deal personally with official business and petitions. A bureaucracy formed around him only gradually.<a href="#cite_note-208">[194]</a> The Julio-Claudian emperors relied on an informal body of advisors that included not only senators and equestrians, but trusted slaves and freedmen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000195ff-209">[195]</a> After Nero, the influence of the latter was regarded with suspicion, and the emperor's council (consilium) became subject to official appointment for greater <a href="/wiki/Open_government" title="Open government">transparency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000205–209-210">[196]</a> Though the Senate took a lead in policy discussions until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonine dynasty">Antonine dynasty</a>, equestrians played an increasingly important role in the consilium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000202–203,_205,_210-211">[197]</a> The women of the emperor's family often intervened directly in his decisions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000211-212">[198]</a> Access to the emperor might be gained at the daily reception (salutatio), a development of the traditional homage a client paid to his patron; public banquets hosted at the palace; and religious ceremonies. The common people who lacked this access could manifest their approval or displeasure as a group at <a href="#Spectacles">games</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000212-213">[199]</a> By the 4th century, the Christian emperors became remote figureheads who issued general rulings, no longer responding to individual petitions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar201276-214">[200]</a> Although the Senate could do little short of assassination and open rebellion to contravene the will of the emperor, it retained its symbolic political centrality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000215-215">[201]</a> The Senate legitimated the emperor's rule, and the emperor employed senators as legates (<a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">legati</a>): generals, diplomats, and administrators.<a href="#cite_note-216">[202]</a> The practical source of an emperor's power and authority was the military. The <a href="/wiki/Legionary" title="Legionary">legionaries</a> were paid by the Imperial treasury, and swore an annual <a href="/wiki/Sacramentum_(oath)" title="Sacramentum (oath)">oath of loyalty</a> to the emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200380-217">[203]</a> Most emperors chose a successor, usually a close family member or <a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">adopted</a> heir. The new emperor had to seek a swift acknowledgement of his status and authority to stabilize the political landscape. No emperor could hope to survive without the allegiance of the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a> and the legions. To secure their loyalty, several emperors paid the <a href="/wiki/Donativum" title="Donativum">donativum</a>, a monetary reward. In theory, the Senate was entitled to choose the new emperor, but did so mindful of acclamation by the army or Praetorians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinterling200916-218">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Roman_army" title="Imperial Roman army">Imperial Roman army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">Late Roman army</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structural history of the Roman military</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palestra_grande_di_pompei,_affreschi_di_Moregine,_terzo_triclinio,_IV_stile,_epoca_neroniana,_07_vittoria_con_tripode.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Palestra_grande_di_pompei%2C_affreschi_di_Moregine%2C_terzo_triclinio%2C_IV_stile%2C_epoca_neroniana%2C_07_vittoria_con_tripode.jpg/170px-Palestra_grande_di_pompei%2C_affreschi_di_Moregine%2C_terzo_triclinio%2C_IV_stile%2C_epoca_neroniana%2C_07_vittoria_con_tripode.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Palestra_grande_di_pompei%2C_affreschi_di_Moregine%2C_terzo_triclinio%2C_IV_stile%2C_epoca_neroniana%2C_07_vittoria_con_tripode.jpg/255px-Palestra_grande_di_pompei%2C_affreschi_di_Moregine%2C_terzo_triclinio%2C_IV_stile%2C_epoca_neroniana%2C_07_vittoria_con_tripode.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Palestra_grande_di_pompei%2C_affreschi_di_Moregine%2C_terzo_triclinio%2C_IV_stile%2C_epoca_neroniana%2C_07_vittoria_con_tripode.jpg/340px-Palestra_grande_di_pompei%2C_affreschi_di_Moregine%2C_terzo_triclinio%2C_IV_stile%2C_epoca_neroniana%2C_07_vittoria_con_tripode.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3204" /></a><figcaption>Winged <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(mythology)" title="Victoria (mythology)">Victory</a>, ancient Roman fresco of the Neronian era from <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_125.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Roman_Empire_125.png/300px-Roman_Empire_125.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Roman_Empire_125.png/450px-Roman_Empire_125.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Roman_Empire_125.png/600px-Roman_Empire_125.png 2x" data-file-width="2186" data-file-height="1817" /></a><figcaption>The Roman Empire under <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> (ruled 117–138) showing the location of the Roman legions deployed in 125 AD</figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a>, the Roman army comprised professional soldiers who volunteered for 20 years of active duty and five as reserves. The transition to a professional military began during the late Republic and was one of the many profound shifts away from republicanism, under which an army of <a href="/wiki/Conscripts" class="mw-redirect" title="Conscripts">conscript citizens</a> defended the homeland against a specific threat. The Romans expanded their war machine by "organizing the communities that they conquered in Italy into a system that generated huge reservoirs of manpower for their army".<a href="#cite_note-219">[205]</a> By Imperial times, military service was a full-time career.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdmondson1996111–112-220">[206]</a> The pervasiveness of military garrisons throughout the Empire was a major influence in the process of <a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBohec20009-221">[207]</a> The primary mission of the military of the early empire was to preserve the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-222">[208]</a> The three major divisions of the military were: <ul><li>the garrison at Rome, comprising the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cohortes_urbanae" title="Cohortes urbanae">cohortes urbanae</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vigiles" title="Vigiles">vigiles</a>, who functioned as police and firefighters;</li> <li>the provincial army, comprising the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legions" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman legions">Roman legions</a> and the auxiliaries provided by the provinces (<a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxilia</a>);</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">navy</a>.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:042_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule,_Tafel_XLII.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/042_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLII.jpg/350px-042_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLII.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/042_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLII.jpg/525px-042_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/042_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLII.jpg/700px-042_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="997" /></a><figcaption>Relief panel from <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a> in Rome, showing the building of a fort and the reception of a <a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacian</a> embassy</figcaption></figure> Through his military reforms, which included consolidating or disbanding units of questionable loyalty, Augustus regularized the legion. A legion was organized into ten <a href="/wiki/Cohort_(military_unit)" title="Cohort (military unit)">cohorts</a>, each of which comprised six <a href="/wiki/Centuria" title="Centuria">centuries</a>, with a century further made up of ten squads (<a href="/wiki/Contubernium_(Roman_army_unit)" title="Contubernium (Roman army unit)">contubernia</a>); the exact size of the Imperial legion, which was likely determined by <a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">logistics</a>, has been estimated to range from 4,800 to 5,280.<a href="#cite_note-223">[209]</a> After Germanic tribes wiped out three legions in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Teutoburg_Forest" title="Battle of the Teutoburg Forest">Battle of the Teutoburg Forest</a> in 9 AD, the number of legions was increased from 25 to around 30.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2003183-224">[210]</a> The army had about 300,000 soldiers in the 1st century, and under 400,000 in the 2nd, "significantly smaller" than the collective armed forces of the conquered territories. No more than 2% of adult males living in the Empire served in the Imperial army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009196-225">[211]</a> Augustus also created the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>: nine cohorts, ostensibly to maintain the public peace, which were garrisoned in Italy. Better paid than the legionaries, the Praetorians served only sixteen years.<a href="#cite_note-226">[212]</a> The auxilia were recruited from among the non-citizens. Organized in smaller units of roughly cohort strength, they were paid less than the legionaries, and after 25 years of service were rewarded with <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a>, also extended to their sons. According to <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[213]</a> there were roughly as many auxiliaries as there were legionaries—thus, around 125,000 men, implying approximately 250 auxiliary regiments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200351-228">[214]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_cavalry" title="Roman cavalry">Roman cavalry</a> of the earliest Empire were primarily from Celtic, Hispanic or Germanic areas. Several aspects of training and equipment derived from the Celts.<a href="#cite_note-229">[215]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman navy</a> not only aided in the supply and transport of the legions but also in the protection of the <a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">frontiers</a> along the rivers <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>. Another duty was protecting maritime trade against pirates. It patrolled the Mediterranean, parts of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">North Atlantic</a> coasts, and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>. Nevertheless, the army was considered the senior and more prestigious branch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2003114-230">[216]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provincial_government">Provincial government</h3></div> An annexed territory became a <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> in three steps: making a register of cities, taking a census, and surveying the land.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009183-231">[217]</a> Further government recordkeeping included births and deaths, real estate transactions, taxes, and juridical proceedings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009177–179Most_government_records_that_are_preserved_come_from_Roman_Egypt,_where_the_climate_preserved_the_papyri.-232">[218]</a> In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the central government sent out around 160 officials annually to govern outside Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009179-28">[22]</a> Among these officials were the <a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Roman governors</a>: <a href="/wiki/Executive_magistrates_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire">magistrates elected at Rome</a> who in the name of the <a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">Roman people</a> governed <a href="/wiki/Senatorial_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Senatorial province">senatorial provinces</a>; or governors, usually of equestrian rank, who held their imperium on behalf of the emperor in <a href="/wiki/Imperial_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial province">imperial provinces</a>, most notably <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2009179The_exclusion_of_Egypt_from_the_senatorial_provinces_dates_to_the_rise_of_Octavian_before_he_became_Augustus:_Egypt_had_been_the_stronghold_of_his_last_opposition,_[[Mark_Antony]]_and_his_ally_[[Cleopatra]]._233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009179The_exclusion_of_Egypt_from_the_senatorial_provinces_dates_to_the_rise_of_Octavian_before_he_became_Augustus:_Egypt_had_been_the_stronghold_of_his_last_opposition,_[[Mark_Antony]]_and_his_ally_[[Cleopatra]].-233">[219]</a> A governor had to make himself accessible to the people he governed, but he could delegate various duties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009180-234">[220]</a> His staff, however, was minimal: his official attendants (<a href="/wiki/Apparitor" title="Apparitor">apparitores</a>), including <a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">lictors</a>, heralds, messengers, <a href="/wiki/Scriba_(ancient_Rome)" title="Scriba (ancient Rome)">scribes</a>, and bodyguards; <a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">legates</a>, both civil and military, usually of equestrian rank; and friends who accompanied him unofficially.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009180-234">[220]</a> Other officials were appointed as supervisors of government finances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009179-28">[22]</a> Separating fiscal responsibility from justice and administration was a reform of the Imperial era, to avoid provincial governors and <a href="/wiki/Farm_(revenue_leasing)" title="Farm (revenue leasing)">tax farmers</a> exploiting local populations for personal gain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009179,_187-235">[221]</a> Equestrian <a href="/wiki/Procurator_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Procurator (Roman)">procurators</a>, whose authority was originally "extra-judicial and extra-constitutional", managed both state-owned property and the personal property of the emperor (<a href="/wiki/Privatus" title="Privatus">res privata</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009180-234">[220]</a> Because Roman government officials were few, a provincial who needed help with a legal dispute or criminal case might seek out any Roman perceived to have some official capacity.<a href="#cite_note-236">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:448px;max-width:448px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Giovane_con_rotolo.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Giovane_con_rotolo.JPG/220px-Giovane_con_rotolo.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Giovane_con_rotolo.JPG/330px-Giovane_con_rotolo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Giovane_con_rotolo.JPG/440px-Giovane_con_rotolo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1837" data-file-height="1833" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:MANNapoli_120620_a_Fresco_young_man_with_rolls_from_Pompeii_Italy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/MANNapoli_120620_a_Fresco_young_man_with_rolls_from_Pompeii_Italy.jpg/220px-MANNapoli_120620_a_Fresco_young_man_with_rolls_from_Pompeii_Italy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/MANNapoli_120620_a_Fresco_young_man_with_rolls_from_Pompeii_Italy.jpg/330px-MANNapoli_120620_a_Fresco_young_man_with_rolls_from_Pompeii_Italy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/MANNapoli_120620_a_Fresco_young_man_with_rolls_from_Pompeii_Italy.jpg/440px-MANNapoli_120620_a_Fresco_young_man_with_rolls_from_Pompeii_Italy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2223" data-file-height="2225" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Roman_portraiture" title="Roman portraiture">Roman portraiture</a> <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">frescos</a> from <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, 1st century AD, depicting two different men wearing <a href="/wiki/Laurel_wreath" title="Laurel wreath">laurel wreaths</a>, one holding the <a href="/wiki/Rotulus" title="Rotulus">rotulus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Blond" title="Blond">blondish</a> figure, left), the other a <a href="/wiki/History_of_scrolls" title="History of scrolls">volumen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Brown_hair" title="Brown hair">brunet</a> figure, right), both made of <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a></div></div></div></div> Roman courts held <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</a> over cases involving Roman citizens throughout the empire, but there were too few judicial functionaries to impose Roman law uniformly in the provinces. Most parts of the Eastern Empire already had well-established law codes and juridical procedures.<a href="#cite_note-Garnsey-118">[109]</a> Generally, it was Roman policy to respect the mos regionis ("regional tradition" or "law of the land") and to regard local laws as a source of legal precedent and social stability.<a href="#cite_note-Garnsey-118">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009184–185-237">[223]</a> The compatibility of Roman and local law was thought to reflect an underlying <a href="/wiki/Ius_gentium" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius gentium">ius gentium</a>, the "law of nations" or <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> regarded as common and customary.<a href="#cite_note-238">[224]</a> If provincial law conflicted with Roman law or custom, Roman courts heard <a href="/wiki/Appellate_court" title="Appellate court">appeals</a>, and the emperor held final decision-making authority.<a href="#cite_note-Garnsey-118">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009184–185-237">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[o]</a> In the West, law had been administered on a highly localized or tribal basis, and <a href="/wiki/Private_property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Private property rights">private property rights</a> may have been a novelty of the Roman era, particularly among <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a>. Roman law facilitated the acquisition of wealth by a pro-Roman elite.<a href="#cite_note-Garnsey-118">[109]</a> The extension of universal citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire in 212 required the uniform application of Roman law, replacing local law codes that had applied to non-citizens. Diocletian's efforts to stabilize the Empire after the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a> included two major compilations of law in four years, the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Gregorianus" title="Codex Gregorianus">Codex Gregorianus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Hermogenianus" title="Codex Hermogenianus">Codex Hermogenianus</a>, to guide provincial administrators in setting consistent legal standards.<a href="#cite_note-240">[225]</a> The pervasiveness of Roman law throughout Western Europe enormously influenced the Western legal tradition, reflected by continued use of <a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin_legal_terms" title="List of Latin legal terms">Latin legal terminology</a> in modern law. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taxation">Taxation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Taxation in ancient Rome">Taxation in ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg/220px-Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg/330px-Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg/440px-Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Saturn" title="Temple of Saturn">Temple of Saturn</a>, a religious monument that housed the treasury in ancient Rome</figcaption></figure> Taxation under the Empire amounted to about 5% of its <a href="/wiki/Roman_gross_domestic_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman gross domestic product">gross product</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009183-241">[226]</a> The typical tax rate for individuals ranged from 2 to 5%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009187-242">[227]</a> The tax code was "bewildering" in its complicated system of <a href="/wiki/Direct_taxation" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct taxation">direct</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indirect_taxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect taxes">indirect taxes</a>, some paid in cash and some <a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">in kind</a>. Taxes might be specific to a province, or kinds of properties such as <a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">fisheries</a>; they might be temporary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009185–187-243">[228]</a> Tax collection was justified by the need to maintain the military,<a href="#cite_note-244">[229]</a> and taxpayers sometimes got a refund if the army captured a surplus of booty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009185-245">[230]</a> In-kind taxes were accepted from less-<a href="/wiki/Monetization" title="Monetization">monetized</a> areas, particularly those who could supply grain or goods to army camps.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009188-246">[231]</a> The primary source of direct tax revenue was individuals, who paid a <a href="/wiki/Tax_per_head" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax per head">poll tax</a> and a tax on their land, construed as a tax on its produce or productive capacity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009187-242">[227]</a> Tax obligations were determined by the census: each head of household provided a headcount of his household, as well as an accounting of his property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009186-247">[232]</a> A major source of indirect-tax revenue was the portoria, customs and tolls on trade, including among provinces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009187-242">[227]</a> Towards the end of his reign, Augustus instituted a 4% tax on the sale of slaves,<a href="#cite_note-248">[233]</a> which Nero shifted from the purchaser to the dealers, who responded by raising their prices.<a href="#cite_note-249">[234]</a> An owner who manumitted a slave paid a "freedom tax", calculated at 5% of value.<a href="#cite_note-250">[p]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">inheritance tax</a> of 5% was assessed when Roman citizens above a certain net worth left property to anyone outside their immediate family. Revenues from the estate tax and from an auction tax went towards the veterans' pension fund (<a href="/wiki/Aerarium_militare" title="Aerarium militare">aerarium militare</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009187-242">[227]</a> Low taxes helped the Roman aristocracy increase their wealth, which equalled or exceeded the revenues of the central government. An emperor sometimes replenished his treasury by confiscating the estates of the "super-rich", but in the later period, the <a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">resistance</a> of the wealthy to paying taxes was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009184-74">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Roman economy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Green_glass_Roman_cup_unearthed_at_Eastern_Han_tomb,_Guixian,_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Green_glass_Roman_cup_unearthed_at_Eastern_Han_tomb%2C_Guixian%2C_China.jpg/220px-Green_glass_Roman_cup_unearthed_at_Eastern_Han_tomb%2C_Guixian%2C_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Green_glass_Roman_cup_unearthed_at_Eastern_Han_tomb%2C_Guixian%2C_China.jpg/330px-Green_glass_Roman_cup_unearthed_at_Eastern_Han_tomb%2C_Guixian%2C_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Green_glass_Roman_cup_unearthed_at_Eastern_Han_tomb%2C_Guixian%2C_China.jpg/440px-Green_glass_Roman_cup_unearthed_at_Eastern_Han_tomb%2C_Guixian%2C_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="918" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>A green <a href="/wiki/Roman_glass" title="Roman glass">Roman glass</a> cup unearthed from an <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han dynasty">Eastern Han dynasty</a> (25–220 AD) tomb in <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, China</figcaption></figure> The Empire is best thought of as a network of regional economies, based on a form of "political capitalism" in which the state regulated commerce to assure its own revenues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009286,_295-251">[235]</a> Economic growth, though not comparable to modern economies, was greater than that of most other societies prior to <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">industrialization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009286-252">[236]</a> Territorial conquests permitted a large-scale reorganization of <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land use</a> that resulted in agricultural surplus and specialization, particularly in north Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009285-253">[237]</a> Some cities were known for particular industries. The scale of urban building indicates a significant construction industry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009285-253">[237]</a> Papyri preserve complex accounting methods that suggest elements of <a href="/wiki/Economic_rationalism" title="Economic rationalism">economic rationalism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009285-253">[237]</a> and the Empire was highly monetized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009292-254">[238]</a> Although the means of communication and transport were limited in antiquity, transportation in the 1st and 2nd centuries expanded greatly, and trade routes connected regional economies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009285–286,_296ff-255">[239]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_the_Roman_army" title="Economics of the Roman army">supply contracts for the army</a> drew on local suppliers near the base (<a href="/wiki/Castrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Castrum">castrum</a>), throughout the province, and across provincial borders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009296-256">[240]</a> <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic historians</a> vary in their calculations of the gross domestic product during the Principate.<a href="#cite_note-257">[241]</a> In the sample years of 14, 100, and 150 AD, estimates of per capita GDP range from 166 to 380 <a href="/wiki/Sestertius" title="Sestertius">HS</a>. The GDP per capita of <a href="/wiki/Italia_(Roman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italia (Roman Empire)">Italy</a> is estimated as 40<a href="#cite_note-Lo_Cascio,_Malanima_2009,_391–401-258">[242]</a> to 66%<a href="#cite_note-259">[243]</a> higher than in the rest of the Empire, due to tax transfers from the provinces and the concentration of elite income. Economic dynamism resulted in social mobility. Although aristocratic values permeated traditional elite society, wealth requirements for <a href="#Census_rank">rank</a> indicate a strong tendency towards <a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">plutocracy</a>. Prestige could be obtained through investing one's wealth in grand estates or townhouses, luxury items, <a href="#Spectacles">public entertainments</a>, funerary monuments, and <a href="/wiki/Votum" title="Votum">religious dedications</a>. Guilds (<a href="/wiki/Collegium" class="mw-redirect" title="Collegium">collegia</a>) and corporations (corpora) provided support for individuals to succeed through networking.<a href="#cite_note-verb-193">[179]</a> "There can be little doubt that the lower classes of ... provincial towns of the Roman Empire enjoyed a high <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> not equaled again in Western Europe until the 19th century".<a href="#cite_note-260">[244]</a> Households in the top 1.5% of <a href="/wiki/Income_distribution" title="Income distribution">income distribution</a> captured about 20% of income. The "vast majority" produced more than half of the total income, but lived near <a href="/wiki/Subsistence" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsistence">subsistence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-261">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Currency_and_banking">Currency and banking</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Roman currency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Roman finance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HADRIANUS_RIC_II_938-789065.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/HADRIANUS_RIC_II_938-789065.jpg/220px-HADRIANUS_RIC_II_938-789065.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/HADRIANUS_RIC_II_938-789065.jpg/330px-HADRIANUS_RIC_II_938-789065.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/HADRIANUS_RIC_II_938-789065.jpg/440px-HADRIANUS_RIC_II_938-789065.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="390" /></a><figcaption>Sestertius issued under <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> circa AD 134–138</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solidus_Constantine_II-heraclea_RIC_vII_101.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Solidus_Constantine_II-heraclea_RIC_vII_101.jpg/220px-Solidus_Constantine_II-heraclea_RIC_vII_101.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Solidus_Constantine_II-heraclea_RIC_vII_101.jpg/330px-Solidus_Constantine_II-heraclea_RIC_vII_101.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Solidus_Constantine_II-heraclea_RIC_vII_101.jpg/440px-Solidus_Constantine_II-heraclea_RIC_vII_101.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>Solidus issued under <a href="/wiki/Constantine_II_(emperor)" title="Constantine II (emperor)">Constantine II</a>, and on the reverse <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(mythology)" title="Victoria (mythology)">Victoria</a>, one of the last deities to appear on Roman coins, gradually transforming into an <a href="/wiki/Angel#Christianity" title="Angel">angel</a> under Christian rule<a href="#cite_note-262">[246]</a></figcaption></figure> The early Empire was monetized to a near-universal extent, using money as a way to express <a href="/wiki/Price" title="Price">prices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Debt" title="Debt">debts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kessler-263">[247]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sestertius" title="Sestertius">sestertius</a> (English "sesterces", symbolized as HS) was the basic unit of reckoning value into the 4th century,<a href="#cite_note-Harl-264">[248]</a> though the silver <a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">denarius</a>, worth four sesterces, was also used beginning in the <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowmanGarnseyCameron2005333-265">[249]</a> The smallest coin commonly circulated was the bronze <a href="/wiki/As_(Roman_coin)" title="As (Roman coin)">as</a>, one-tenth denarius.<a href="#cite_note-266">[250]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bullion" title="Bullion">Bullion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ingot" title="Ingot">ingots</a> seem not to have counted as pecunia ("money") and were used only on the frontiers. Romans in the first and second centuries counted coins, rather than weighing them—an indication that the coin was valued on its face. This tendency towards <a href="/wiki/Fiat_money" title="Fiat money">fiat money</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Debasement" title="Debasement">debasement</a> of Roman coinage in the later Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2010-267">[251]</a> The standardization of money throughout the Empire promoted trade and market integration.<a href="#cite_note-Kessler-263">[247]</a> The high amount of metal coinage in circulation increased the <a href="/wiki/Money_supply" title="Money supply">money supply</a> for trading or saving.<a href="#cite_note-268">[252]</a> Rome had no <a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">central bank</a>, and regulation of the banking system was minimal. Banks of classical antiquity typically kept <a href="/wiki/Fractional_reserve_banking" class="mw-redirect" title="Fractional reserve banking">less in reserves</a> than the full total of customers' deposits. A typical bank had fairly limited <a href="/wiki/Financial_capital" title="Financial capital">capital</a>, and often only one principal. <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a> assumes that anyone involved in <a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Roman commerce</a> needs access to <a href="/wiki/Credit_(finance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Credit (finance)">credit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2010-267">[251]</a> A professional <a href="/wiki/Deposit_account" title="Deposit account">deposit</a> banker received and held deposits for a fixed or indefinite term, and lent money to third parties. The senatorial elite were involved heavily in private lending, both as creditors and borrowers.<a href="#cite_note-269">[253]</a> The holder of a debt could use it as a means of payment by transferring it to another party, without cash changing hands. Although it has sometimes been thought that ancient Rome lacked <a href="/wiki/Negotiable_instrument" title="Negotiable instrument">documentary transactions</a>, the system of banks throughout the Empire permitted the exchange of large sums without physically transferring coins, in part because of the risks of moving large amounts of cash. Only one serious credit shortage is known to have occurred in the early Empire, in 33 AD;<a href="#cite_note-270">[254]</a> generally, available capital exceeded the amount needed by borrowers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2010-267">[251]</a> The central government itself did not borrow money, and without <a href="/wiki/Public_debt" class="mw-redirect" title="Public debt">public debt</a> had to fund <a href="/wiki/Government_budget_balance" title="Government budget balance">deficits</a> from cash reserves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuncan-Jones19943–4-271">[255]</a> Emperors of the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonine dynasty">Antonine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan</a> dynasties debased the currency, particularly the denarius, under the pressures of meeting military payrolls.<a href="#cite_note-Harl-264">[248]</a> Sudden inflation under <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a> damaged the credit market.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2010-267">[251]</a> In the mid-200s, the supply of <a href="/wiki/Bullion_coin" title="Bullion coin">specie</a> contracted sharply.<a href="#cite_note-Harl-264">[248]</a> Conditions during the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>—such as reductions in long-distance trade, disruption of mining operations, and the physical transfer of gold coinage outside the empire by invading enemies—greatly diminished the money supply and the banking sector.<a href="#cite_note-Harl-264">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2010-267">[251]</a> Although Roman coinage had long been fiat money or <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary currency">fiduciary currency</a>, general economic anxieties came to a head under <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a>, and bankers lost confidence in coins. Despite <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>'s introduction of the gold <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">solidus</a> and monetary reforms, the credit market of the Empire never recovered its former robustness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris2010-267">[251]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mining_and_metallurgy">Mining and metallurgy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mining_in_ancient_Rome" title="Mining in ancient Rome">Mining in ancient Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Roman metallurgy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg/220px-Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg/330px-Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg/440px-Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Landscape resulting from the <a href="/wiki/Ruina_montium" title="Ruina montium">ruina montium</a> mining technique at <a href="/wiki/Las_M%C3%A9dulas" title="Las Médulas">Las Médulas</a>, Spain, one of the most important gold mines in the Roman Empire</figcaption></figure> The main mining regions of the Empire were the Iberian Peninsula (silver, copper, lead, iron and gold);<a href="#cite_note-:1-6">[4]</a> Gaul (gold, silver, iron);<a href="#cite_note-sanchez-272">[256]</a> Britain (mainly iron, lead, tin),<a href="#cite_note-:02-273">[257]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Danubian_provinces" title="Danubian provinces">Danubian provinces</a> (gold, iron);<a href="#cite_note-274">[258]</a> <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Macedonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thrace</a> (gold, silver); and Asia Minor (gold, silver, iron, tin). Intensive large-scale mining—of alluvial deposits, and by means of <a href="/wiki/Open-cast_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-cast mining">open-cast mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Underground_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining">underground mining</a>—took place from the reign of Augustus up to the early 3rd century, when the instability of the Empire disrupted production.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_mining" title="Hydraulic mining">Hydraulic mining</a> allowed <a href="/wiki/Base_metal" title="Base metal">base</a> and <a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">precious metals</a> to be extracted on a proto-industrial scale.<a href="#cite_note-wilson-275">[259]</a> The total annual iron output is estimated at 82,500 <a href="/wiki/Tonnes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonnes">tonnes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-276">[260]</a> Copper and lead production levels were unmatched until the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hong-277">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-hong2-278">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-tay-279">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-Settle-280">[264]</a> At its peak around the mid-2nd century, the Roman silver stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">medieval Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Caliphate</a> around 800 AD.<a href="#cite_note-tay-279">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[265]</a> As an indication of the scale of Roman metal production, lead pollution in the <a href="/wiki/Greenland_ice_sheet" title="Greenland ice sheet">Greenland ice sheet</a> quadrupled over prehistoric levels during the Imperial era and dropped thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009197-282">[266]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transportation_and_communication">Transportation and communication</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cursus_publicus" title="Cursus publicus">Cursus publicus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TabulaPeutingeriana_Roma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/TabulaPeutingeriana_Roma.jpg/220px-TabulaPeutingeriana_Roma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/TabulaPeutingeriana_Roma.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tabula_Peutingeriana" title="Tabula Peutingeriana">Tabula Peutingeriana</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for "The Peutinger Map") an <a href="/wiki/Itinerarium" title="Itinerarium">Itinerarium</a>, often assumed to be based on the Roman cursus publicus</figcaption></figure> The Empire completely encircled the Mediterranean, which they called "our sea" (<a href="/wiki/Mare_Nostrum" title="Mare Nostrum">Mare Nostrum</a>).<a href="#cite_note-283">[267]</a> Roman sailing vessels navigated the Mediterranean as well as major rivers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000721-77">[69]</a> Transport by water was preferred where possible, as moving commodities by land was more difficult.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000714-284">[268]</a> Vehicles, wheels, and ships indicate the existence of a great number of skilled woodworkers.<a href="#cite_note-285">[269]</a> Land transport utilized the advanced system of <a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roman roads</a>, called "viae". These roads were primarily built for military purposes,<a href="#cite_note-286">[270]</a> but also served commercial ends. The in-kind taxes paid by communities included the provision of personnel, animals, or vehicles for the <a href="/wiki/Cursus_publicus" title="Cursus publicus">cursus publicus</a>, the state mail and transport service established by Augustus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009188-246">[231]</a> Relay stations were located along the roads every seven to twelve <a href="/wiki/Roman_mile" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman mile">Roman miles</a>, and tended to grow into villages or trading posts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStambaugh1988253-287">[271]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Mansio" title="Mansio">mansio</a> (plural mansiones) was a privately run service station franchised by the imperial bureaucracy for the cursus publicus. The distance between mansiones was determined by how far a wagon could travel in a day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStambaugh1988253-287">[271]</a> Carts were usually pulled by mules, travelling about 4 mph.<a href="#cite_note-288">[272]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_and_commodities">Trade and commodities</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Roman commerce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Indo-Roman trade relations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sino-Roman_relations" title="Sino-Roman relations">Sino-Roman relations</a></div> Roman provinces traded among themselves, but trade extended outside the frontiers to regions as far away as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000713-289">[273]</a> Chinese trade was mostly conducted overland through middle men along the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>; Indian trade also occurred by sea from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egyptian</a> ports. The main <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodity</a> was grain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000710-290">[274]</a> Also traded were olive oil, foodstuffs, <a href="/wiki/Garum" title="Garum">garum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fish_sauce" title="Fish sauce">fish sauce</a>), slaves, ore and manufactured metal objects, fibres and textiles, timber, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_pottery" title="Ancient Roman pottery">pottery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_glass" title="Roman glass">glassware</a>, marble, <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, spices and <a href="/wiki/Materia_medica" title="Materia medica">materia medica</a>, ivory, pearls, and gemstones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000717–729-291">[275]</a> Though most provinces could produce wine, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">regional varietals</a> were desirable and wine was a central trade good.<a href="#cite_note-292">[276]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labour_and_occupations">Labour and occupations</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg/220px-Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg/330px-Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg/440px-Pompeii_-_Fullonica_of_Veranius_Hypsaeus_1_-_MAN.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2162" data-file-height="2005" /></a><figcaption>Workers at a cloth-processing shop, in a painting from the <a href="/wiki/Fullonica" class="mw-redirect" title="Fullonica">fullonica</a> of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii</figcaption></figure> Inscriptions record 268 different occupations in Rome and 85 in Pompeii.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009196-225">[211]</a> Professional associations or trade guilds (collegia) are attested for a wide range of occupations, some quite specialized.<a href="#cite_note-verb-193">[179]</a> Work performed by slaves falls into five general categories: domestic, with epitaphs recording at least 55 different household jobs; <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome#Servus_publicus" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">imperial or public service</a>; urban crafts and services; agriculture; and mining. Convicts provided much of the labour in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010323-293">[277]</a> In practice, there was little division of labour between slave and free,<a href="#cite_note-Garnsey-118">[109]</a> and most workers were illiterate and without special skills.<a href="#cite_note-294">[278]</a> The greatest number of common labourers were employed in agriculture: in Italian industrial farming (<a href="/wiki/Latifundia" class="mw-redirect" title="Latifundia">latifundia</a>), these may have been mostly slaves, but elsewhere slave farm labour was probably less important.<a href="#cite_note-Garnsey-118">[109]</a> Textile and clothing production was a major source of employment. Both textiles and finished garments were traded and products were often named for peoples or towns, like a <a href="/wiki/Fashion_brand" title="Fashion brand">fashion "label"</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1960184–185-295">[279]</a> Better ready-to-wear was exported by local businessmen (negotiatores or mercatores).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1960192-296">[280]</a> Finished garments might be retailed by their sales agents, by vestiarii (clothing dealers), or peddled by itinerant merchants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1960192-296">[280]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fulling" title="Fulling">fullers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fullonica" class="mw-redirect" title="Fullonica">fullones</a>) and dye workers (coloratores) had their own guilds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1960190–191-297">[281]</a> Centonarii were guild workers who specialized in textile production and the recycling of old clothes into <a href="/wiki/Patchwork" title="Patchwork">pieced goods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-300">[q]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cacera_Centcelles_panor%C3%A0mica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Cacera_Centcelles_panor%C3%A0mica.jpg/660px-Cacera_Centcelles_panor%C3%A0mica.jpg" decoding="async" width="660" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Cacera_Centcelles_panor%C3%A0mica.jpg/990px-Cacera_Centcelles_panor%C3%A0mica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Cacera_Centcelles_panor%C3%A0mica.jpg/1320px-Cacera_Centcelles_panor%C3%A0mica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="17656" data-file-height="4075" /></a><figcaption>Recreation of a deer hunt inspired by hunting scenes represented in Roman art.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture_and_engineering">Architecture and engineering</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Ancient Roman architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman engineering">Roman engineering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman technology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colosseum_in_Rome,_Italy_-_April_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Colosseum_in_Rome%2C_Italy_-_April_2007.jpg/220px-Colosseum_in_Rome%2C_Italy_-_April_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Colosseum_in_Rome%2C_Italy_-_April_2007.jpg/330px-Colosseum_in_Rome%2C_Italy_-_April_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Colosseum_in_Rome%2C_Italy_-_April_2007.jpg/440px-Colosseum_in_Rome%2C_Italy_-_April_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4827" data-file-height="2833" /></a><figcaption>The Flavian Amphitheatre, more commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a></figcaption></figure> The chief <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Roman contributions to architecture</a> were the <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vault_(architecture)" title="Vault (architecture)">vault</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a>. Some Roman structures still stand today, due in part to sophisticated methods of making cements and <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">concrete</a>.<a href="#cite_note-301">[284]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Roman temples</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_architecture" title="Etruscan architecture">Etruscan</a> and Greek forms, with some distinctive elements. <a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roman roads</a> are considered the most advanced built until the early 19th century.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Roman_bridges" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman bridges">Roman bridges</a> were among the first large and lasting bridges, built from stone (and in most cases concrete) with the arch as the basic structure. The largest Roman bridge was <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Trajan's bridge">Trajan's bridge</a> over the lower Danube, constructed by <a href="/wiki/Apollodorus_of_Damascus" title="Apollodorus of Damascus">Apollodorus of Damascus</a>, which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built.<a href="#cite_note-302">[285]</a> The Romans built many <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dams_and_reservoirs" title="List of Roman dams and reservoirs">dams and reservoirs</a> for water collection, such as the <a href="/wiki/Subiaco_Dams" title="Subiaco Dams">Subiaco Dams</a>, two of which fed the <a href="/wiki/Anio_Novus" class="mw-redirect" title="Anio Novus">Anio Novus</a>, one of the largest aqueducts of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-303">[286]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/290px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/435px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/580px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12648" data-file-height="4882" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a> aqueduct, which crosses the river <a href="/wiki/Gardon" title="Gardon">Gardon</a> in southern France, is on <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>'s list of <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Sites</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Romans constructed numerous <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueducts</a>. <a href="/wiki/De_aquaeductu" title="De aquaeductu">De aquaeductu</a>, a treatise by <a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a>, who served as <a href="/wiki/Curator_Aquarum" title="Curator Aquarum">water commissioner</a>, reflects the administrative importance placed on the water supply. Masonry channels carried water along a precise <a href="/wiki/Grade_(slope)" title="Grade (slope)">gradient</a>, using <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> alone. It was then collected in tanks and fed through pipes to public fountains, baths, <a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">toilets</a>, or industrial sites.<a href="#cite_note-304">[287]</a> The main aqueducts in Rome were the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Claudia" title="Aqua Claudia">Aqua Claudia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Marcia" title="Aqua Marcia">Aqua Marcia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-305">[288]</a> The complex system built to supply Constantinople had its most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a route of more than 336 km.<a href="#cite_note-306">[289]</a> Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine <a href="/wiki/Engineering_tolerance" title="Engineering tolerance">tolerance</a>, and to a technological standard not equalled until modern times.<a href="#cite_note-307">[290]</a> The Romans also used aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesBird201259–74-308">[291]</a> <a href="/wiki/Insulated_glazing" title="Insulated glazing">Insulated glazing</a> (or "double glazing") was used in the construction of <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">public baths</a>. Elite housing in cooler climates might have <a href="/wiki/Hypocaust" title="Hypocaust">hypocausts</a>, a form of central heating. The Romans were the first culture to assemble all essential components of the much later <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a>: the crank and connecting rod system, <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Aeolipile" title="Aeolipile">aeolipile</a> (generating steam power), the <a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_cylinder" title="Pneumatic cylinder">cylinder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Piston" title="Piston">piston</a> (in metal force pumps), non-return <a href="/wiki/Valves" class="mw-redirect" title="Valves">valves</a> (in water pumps), and <a href="/wiki/Gear_train" title="Gear train">gearing</a> (in water mills and clocks).<a href="#cite_note-309">[292]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Daily_life">Daily life</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture of ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Altr%C3%B6mische_Wandmalerei_in_der_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor,_Wandmalerei-Detail_nach_B%C3%BChnenmanie,_Boscoreale,_Campaia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Altr%C3%B6mische_Wandmalerei_in_der_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor%2C_Wandmalerei-Detail_nach_B%C3%BChnenmanie%2C_Boscoreale%2C_Campaia.jpg/170px-Altr%C3%B6mische_Wandmalerei_in_der_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor%2C_Wandmalerei-Detail_nach_B%C3%BChnenmanie%2C_Boscoreale%2C_Campaia.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Altr%C3%B6mische_Wandmalerei_in_der_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor%2C_Wandmalerei-Detail_nach_B%C3%BChnenmanie%2C_Boscoreale%2C_Campaia.jpg/255px-Altr%C3%B6mische_Wandmalerei_in_der_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor%2C_Wandmalerei-Detail_nach_B%C3%BChnenmanie%2C_Boscoreale%2C_Campaia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Altr%C3%B6mische_Wandmalerei_in_der_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor%2C_Wandmalerei-Detail_nach_B%C3%BChnenmanie%2C_Boscoreale%2C_Campaia.jpg/340px-Altr%C3%B6mische_Wandmalerei_in_der_Villa_of_P._Fannius_Synistor%2C_Wandmalerei-Detail_nach_B%C3%BChnenmanie%2C_Boscoreale%2C_Campaia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="363" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">Cityscape</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Villa_Boscoreale" title="Villa Boscoreale">Villa Boscoreale</a> (60s AD)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="City_and_country">City and country</h3></div> The city was viewed as fostering civilization by being "properly designed, ordered, and adorned".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009192-310">[293]</a> Augustus undertook a vast building programme in Rome, supported public displays of art that expressed imperial ideology, and <a href="/wiki/14_regions_of_Augustan_Rome" title="14 regions of Augustan Rome">reorganized the city</a> into neighbourhoods (<a href="/wiki/Vicus" title="Vicus">vici</a>) administered at the local level with police and firefighting services.<a href="#cite_note-rehak-311">[294]</a> A focus of Augustan monumental architecture was the <a href="/wiki/Campus_Martius" title="Campus Martius">Campus Martius</a>, an open area outside the city centre: the Altar of Augustan Peace (<a href="/wiki/Ara_Pacis_Augustae" class="mw-redirect" title="Ara Pacis Augustae">Ara Pacis Augustae</a>) was located there, as was <a href="/wiki/Obelisk_of_Montecitorio" title="Obelisk of Montecitorio">an obelisk</a> imported from Egypt that formed the pointer (<a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomon</a>) of a <a href="/wiki/Solarium_Augusti" title="Solarium Augusti">horologium</a>. With its public gardens, the Campus was among the most attractive places in Rome to visit.<a href="#cite_note-rehak-311">[294]</a> City planning and urban lifestyles was influenced by the Greeks early on,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStambaugh198823ff,_244-312">[295]</a> and in the Eastern Empire, Roman rule shaped the development of cities that already had a strong Hellenistic character. Cities such as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aphrodisias" title="Aphrodisias">Aphrodisias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gerasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerasa">Gerasa</a> tailored city planning and architecture to imperial ideals, while expressing their individual identity and regional preeminence.<a href="#cite_note-313">[296]</a> In areas inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples, Rome encouraged the development of urban centres with stone temples, forums, monumental fountains, and amphitheatres, often on or near the sites of preexisting walled settlements known as <a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">oppida</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStambaugh1988252,_253-314">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-brenda-315">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-317">[r]</a> Urbanization in Roman Africa expanded on Greek and Punic coastal cities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStambaugh1988253-287">[271]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos,_Bath,_Inglaterra,_2014-08-12,_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos%2C_Bath%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-12%2C_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG/220px-Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos%2C_Bath%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-12%2C_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos%2C_Bath%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-12%2C_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG/330px-Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos%2C_Bath%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-12%2C_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos%2C_Bath%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-12%2C_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG/440px-Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos%2C_Bath%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-12%2C_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5304" data-file-height="3600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_Baths_(Bath)" title="Roman Baths (Bath)">Aquae Sulis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>, England: architectural features above the level of the pillar bases are a later reconstruction.</figcaption></figure> The network of cities (<a href="/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)" title="Colonia (Roman)">coloniae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Municipium" title="Municipium">municipia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civitas" title="Civitas">civitates</a> or in Greek terms <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">poleis</a>) was a primary cohesive force during the Pax Romana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar201276-214">[200]</a> Romans of the 1st and 2nd centuries were encouraged to "inculcate the habits of peacetime".<a href="#cite_note-318">[300]</a> As the classicist <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Ando" title="Clifford Ando">Clifford Ando</a> noted: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Most of the cultural <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/appurtenance" class="extiw" title="wikt:appurtenance">appurtenances</a> popularly associated with imperial culture—<a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">public cult</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Ludi" title="Ludi">games</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epulones" title="Epulones">civic banquets</a>, competitions for artists, speakers, and athletes, as well as the funding of the great majority of public buildings and public display of art—were financed by private individuals, whose expenditures in this regard helped to justify their economic power and legal and provincial privileges.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009185–186-319">[301]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ostia-Toilets.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ostia-Toilets.JPG/220px-Ostia-Toilets.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ostia-Toilets.JPG/330px-Ostia-Toilets.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ostia-Toilets.JPG/440px-Ostia-Toilets.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Public toilets (latrinae) from <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></figcaption></figure> In the city of Rome, most people lived in multistory apartment buildings (<a href="/wiki/Insula_(building)" title="Insula (building)">insulae</a>) that were often squalid firetraps. Public facilities—such as baths (<a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">thermae</a>), toilets with running water (latrinae), basins or elaborate fountains (<a href="/wiki/Nymphaeum" title="Nymphaeum">nymphea</a>) delivering fresh water,<a href="#cite_note-brenda-315">[298]</a> and large-scale entertainments such as <a href="/wiki/Chariot_races" class="mw-redirect" title="Chariot races">chariot races</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiator combat</a>—were aimed primarily at the common people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2003-320">[302]</a> The public baths served hygienic, social and cultural functions.<a href="#cite_note-321">[303]</a> Bathing was the focus of daily socializing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin2011366-322">[304]</a> Roman baths were distinguished by a series of rooms that offered communal bathing in three temperatures, with amenities that might include an <a href="/wiki/Palaestra" title="Palaestra">exercise room</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudatorium" title="Sudatorium">sauna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exfoliation_(cosmetology)" title="Exfoliation (cosmetology)">exfoliation</a> spa, <a href="/wiki/Sphaeristerium" title="Sphaeristerium">ball court</a>, or outdoor swimming pool. Baths had <a href="/wiki/Hypocaust" title="Hypocaust">hypocaust</a> heating: the floors were suspended over hot-air channels.<a href="#cite_note-fagan-323">[305]</a> Public baths were part of urban culture <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_public_baths" title="List of Roman public baths">throughout the provinces</a>, but in the late 4th century, individual tubs began to replace communal bathing. Christians were advised to go to the baths only for hygiene.<a href="#cite_note-324">[306]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ricostruzione_del_giardino_della_casa_dei_vetii_di_pompei_(mostra_al_giardino_di_boboli,_2007)_01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ricostruzione_del_giardino_della_casa_dei_vetii_di_pompei_%28mostra_al_giardino_di_boboli%2C_2007%29_01.JPG/220px-Ricostruzione_del_giardino_della_casa_dei_vetii_di_pompei_%28mostra_al_giardino_di_boboli%2C_2007%29_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ricostruzione_del_giardino_della_casa_dei_vetii_di_pompei_%28mostra_al_giardino_di_boboli%2C_2007%29_01.JPG/330px-Ricostruzione_del_giardino_della_casa_dei_vetii_di_pompei_%28mostra_al_giardino_di_boboli%2C_2007%29_01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ricostruzione_del_giardino_della_casa_dei_vetii_di_pompei_%28mostra_al_giardino_di_boboli%2C_2007%29_01.JPG/440px-Ricostruzione_del_giardino_della_casa_dei_vetii_di_pompei_%28mostra_al_giardino_di_boboli%2C_2007%29_01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Reconstructed peristyle garden based on the <a href="/wiki/House_of_the_Vettii" title="House of the Vettii">House of the Vettii</a></figcaption></figure> Rich families from Rome usually had two or more houses: a townhouse (<a href="/wiki/Domus" title="Domus">domus</a>) and at least one luxury home (<a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">villa</a>) outside the city. The domus was a privately owned single-family house, and might be furnished with a private bath (balneum),<a href="#cite_note-fagan-323">[305]</a> but it was not a place to retreat from public life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarke19911–2-325">[307]</a> Although some neighbourhoods show a higher concentration of such houses, they were not segregated enclaves. The domus was meant to be visible and accessible. The atrium served as a reception hall in which the <a href="/wiki/Paterfamilias" class="mw-redirect" title="Paterfamilias">paterfamilias</a> (head of household) met with <a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">clients</a> every morning.<a href="#cite_note-rehak-311">[294]</a> It was a centre of family religious rites, containing a <a href="/wiki/Lararium" class="mw-redirect" title="Lararium">shrine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_funerals_and_burial#Funerary_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman funerals and burial">images of family ancestors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarke199111–12-326">[308]</a> The houses were located on busy public roads, and ground-level spaces were often rented out as shops (<a href="/wiki/Taberna" title="Taberna">tabernae</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarke19912-327">[309]</a> In addition to a kitchen garden—windowboxes might substitute in the insulae—townhouses typically enclosed a <a href="/wiki/Peristyle" title="Peristyle">peristyle</a> garden.<a href="#cite_note-328">[310]</a> The villa by contrast was an escape from the city, and in literature represents a lifestyle that balances intellectual and artistic interests (<a href="/wiki/Otium" title="Otium">otium</a>) with an appreciation of nature and agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-329">[311]</a> Ideally a villa commanded a view or vista, carefully framed by the architectural design.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarke199119-330">[312]</a> Augustus' programme of urban renewal, and the growth of Rome's population to as many as one million, was accompanied by nostalgia for rural life. Poetry idealized the lives of farmers and shepherds. Interior decorating often featured painted gardens, fountains, landscapes, vegetative ornament,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarke199119-330">[312]</a> and animals, rendered accurately enough to be identified by species.<a href="#cite_note-331">[313]</a> On a more practical level, the central government took an active interest in supporting <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">agriculture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191-332">[314]</a> Producing food was the priority of land use.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000679-333">[315]</a> Larger farms (<a href="/wiki/Latifundium" title="Latifundium">latifundia</a>) achieved an <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of scale">economy of scale</a> that sustained urban life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191-332">[314]</a> Small farmers benefited from the development of local markets in towns and trade centres. Agricultural techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">crop rotation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">selective breeding</a> were disseminated throughout the Empire, and new crops were introduced from one province to another.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009195–196-334">[316]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sale_bread_MAN_Napoli_Inv9071_n01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Sale_bread_MAN_Napoli_Inv9071_n01.jpg/170px-Sale_bread_MAN_Napoli_Inv9071_n01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Sale_bread_MAN_Napoli_Inv9071_n01.jpg/255px-Sale_bread_MAN_Napoli_Inv9071_n01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Sale_bread_MAN_Napoli_Inv9071_n01.jpg/340px-Sale_bread_MAN_Napoli_Inv9071_n01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2450" data-file-height="2700" /></a><figcaption>Bread stall, from a Pompeiian wall painting</figcaption></figure> Maintaining an affordable food supply to the city of Rome had become a major political issue in the late Republic, when the state began to provide a grain dole (<a href="/wiki/Cura_Annonae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cura Annonae">Cura Annonae</a>) to citizens who registered for it<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191-332">[314]</a> (about 200,000–250,000 adult males in Rome).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191reckoning_that_the_surplus_of_wheat_from_the_province_of_Egypt_alone_could_meet_and_exceed_the_needs_of_the_city_of_Rome_and_the_provincial_armies_335-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191reckoning_that_the_surplus_of_wheat_from_the_province_of_Egypt_alone_could_meet_and_exceed_the_needs_of_the_city_of_Rome_and_the_provincial_armies-335">[317]</a> The dole cost at least 15% of state revenues,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191-332">[314]</a> but improved living conditions among the lower classes,<a href="#cite_note-336">[318]</a> and subsidized the rich by allowing workers to spend more of their earnings on the wine and olive oil produced on estates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191-332">[314]</a> The grain dole also had symbolic value: it affirmed the emperor's position as universal benefactor, and the right of citizens to share in "the fruits of conquest".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191-332">[314]</a> The annona, public facilities, and spectacular entertainments mitigated the otherwise dreary living conditions of lower-class Romans, and kept social unrest in check. The satirist <a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a>, however, saw "<a href="/wiki/Bread_and_circuses" title="Bread and circuses">bread and circuses</a>" (panem et circenses) as emblematic of the loss of republican political liberty:<a href="#cite_note-337">[319]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The public has long since cast off its cares: the people that once bestowed commands, consulships, legions and all else, now meddles no more and longs eagerly for just two things: bread and circuses.<a href="#cite_note-338">[320]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_and_disease">Health and disease</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Disease_in_Imperial_Rome" title="Disease in Imperial Rome">Disease in Imperial Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonine_plague" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonine plague">Antonine plague</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">Plague of Cyprian</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemics">Epidemics</a> were common in the ancient world, and occasional <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemics</a> in the Empire killed millions. The Roman population was unhealthy. About 20 percent—a large percentage by ancient standards—lived in cities, Rome being the largest. The cities were a "demographic sink": the death rate exceeded the birth rate and constant immigration was necessary to maintain the population. Average lifespan is estimated at the mid-twenties, and perhaps more than half of children died before reaching adulthood. Dense urban populations and <a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">poor sanitation</a> contributed to disease. Land and sea connections facilitated and sped the transfer of infectious diseases across the empire's territories. The rich were not immune; only two of emperor Marcus Aurelius's fourteen children are known to have reached adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-Harper-339">[321]</a> The importance of a good diet to health was recognized by medical writers such as <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> (2nd century). Views on nutrition were influenced by beliefs like <a href="/wiki/Humoral_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Humoral theory">humoral theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-340">[322]</a> A good indicator of nutrition and disease burden is average height: the average Roman was shorter in stature than the population of pre-Roman Italian societies and medieval Europe.<a href="#cite_note-341">[323]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_and_dining">Food and dining</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Food_and_dining_in_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Food and dining in the Roman Empire">Food and dining in the Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Ancient Roman cuisine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Ancient Rome and wine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Still_life_Tor_Marancia_Vatican.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Still_life_Tor_Marancia_Vatican.jpg/220px-Still_life_Tor_Marancia_Vatican.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Still_life_Tor_Marancia_Vatican.jpg/330px-Still_life_Tor_Marancia_Vatican.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Still_life_Tor_Marancia_Vatican.jpg/440px-Still_life_Tor_Marancia_Vatican.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1770" data-file-height="1830" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Still_life" title="Still life">Still life</a> on a 2nd-century <a href="/wiki/Roman_mosaic" title="Roman mosaic">Roman mosaic</a></figcaption></figure> Most apartments in Rome lacked kitchens, though a charcoal <a href="/wiki/Brazier" title="Brazier">brazier</a> could be used for rudimentary cookery.<a href="#cite_note-342">[324]</a> Prepared food was sold at pubs and bars, inns, and food stalls (<a href="/wiki/Taberna" title="Taberna">tabernae</a>, cauponae, <a href="/wiki/Popina" title="Popina">popinae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermopolium" title="Thermopolium">thermopolia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolleran2012136ff-343">[325]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carryout" class="mw-redirect" title="Carryout">Carryout</a> and restaurants were for the lower classes; <a href="/wiki/Fine_dining" title="Fine dining">fine dining</a> appeared only at dinner parties in wealthy homes with a <a href="/wiki/Chef" title="Chef">chef</a> (archimagirus) and kitchen staff,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010299-344">[326]</a> or banquets hosted by social clubs (<a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">collegia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-345">[327]</a> Most Romans consumed at least 70% of their daily <a href="/wiki/Calorie" title="Calorie">calories</a> in the form of cereals and <a href="/wiki/Legumes" class="mw-redirect" title="Legumes">legumes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000681-346">[328]</a> <a href="/wiki/Puls_(food)" title="Puls (food)">Puls</a> (pottage) was considered the food of the Romans,<a href="#cite_note-347">[329]</a> and could be elaborated to produce dishes similar to <a href="/wiki/Polenta" title="Polenta">polenta</a> or <a href="/wiki/Risotto" title="Risotto">risotto</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStambaugh1988144-348">[330]</a> Urban populations and the military preferred bread.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000681-346">[328]</a> By the reign of <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a>, the state had begun to distribute the annona as a daily ration of bread baked in state factories, and added <a href="/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">olive oil</a>, wine, and pork to the dole.<a href="#cite_note-349">[331]</a> Roman literature focuses on the dining habits of the upper classes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009354-350">[332]</a> for whom the evening meal (<a href="/wiki/Cena" title="Cena">cena</a>) had important social functions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009356-351">[333]</a> Guests were entertained in a finely decorated dining room (<a href="/wiki/Triclinium" title="Triclinium">triclinium</a>) furnished with couches. By the late Republic, women dined, reclined, and drank wine along with men.<a href="#cite_note-352">[334]</a> The poet Martial describes a dinner, beginning with the gustatio ("tasting" or "appetizer") salad. The main course was <a href="/wiki/Goat_meat" title="Goat meat">kid</a>, beans, greens, a chicken, and leftover ham, followed by a dessert of fruit and wine.<a href="#cite_note-353">[335]</a> Roman "<a href="/wiki/Foodie" title="Foodie">foodies</a>" indulged in <a href="/wiki/Wild_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Wild game">wild game</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fowl" title="Fowl">fowl</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Peacock" class="mw-redirect" title="Peacock">peacock</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flamingo" title="Flamingo">flamingo</a>, large fish (<a href="/wiki/Mullet_(fish)" title="Mullet (fish)">mullet</a> was especially prized), and <a href="/wiki/Shellfish" title="Shellfish">shellfish</a>. Luxury ingredients were imported from the far reaches of empire.<a href="#cite_note-354">[336]</a> A book-length collection of Roman recipes is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Apicius" title="Apicius">Apicius</a>, a name for several figures in antiquity that became synonymous with "<a href="/wiki/Gourmet" title="Gourmet">gourmet</a>".<a href="#cite_note-355">[337]</a> Refined cuisine could be moralized as a sign of either civilized progress or decadent decline.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010201-356">[338]</a> Most often, because of the importance of landowning in Roman culture, produce—cereals, legumes, vegetables, and fruit—were considered more civilized foods than meat. The <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_diet" title="Mediterranean diet">Mediterranean staples</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sacramental_bread" title="Sacramental bread">bread</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sacramental_wine" title="Sacramental wine">wine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chrism" title="Chrism">oil</a> were <a href="/wiki/Sanctification" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctification">sacralized</a> by Roman Christianity, while Germanic meat consumption became a mark of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">paganism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-357">[339]</a> Some philosophers and Christians resisted the demands of the body and the pleasures of food, and adopted <a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fasting</a> as an ideal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009365–366-358">[340]</a> Food became simpler in general as urban life in the West diminished and trade routes were disrupted;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlandrinMontanari1999165–167-359">[341]</a> the Church formally discouraged <a href="/wiki/Gluttony" title="Gluttony">gluttony</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowersockBrownGrabar1999455-360">[342]</a> and hunting and <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralism</a> were seen as simple and virtuous.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlandrinMontanari1999165–167-359">[341]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spectacles">Spectacles</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ludi" title="Ludi">Ludi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chariot_racing" title="Chariot racing">Chariot racing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Recitationes" title="Recitationes">Recitationes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Winner_of_a_Roman_chariot_race.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Winner_of_a_Roman_chariot_race.jpg/220px-Winner_of_a_Roman_chariot_race.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Winner_of_a_Roman_chariot_race.jpg/330px-Winner_of_a_Roman_chariot_race.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Winner_of_a_Roman_chariot_race.jpg/440px-Winner_of_a_Roman_chariot_race.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="980" /></a><figcaption>A victor in his <a href="/wiki/Quadriga" title="Quadriga">four-horse chariot</a></figcaption></figure> When <a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a> complained that the Roman people had exchanged their political liberty for "bread and circuses", he was referring to the state-provided grain dole and the circenses, events held in the entertainment venue called a <a href="/wiki/Circus_(building)" class="mw-redirect" title="Circus (building)">circus</a>. The largest such venue in Rome was the <a href="/wiki/Circus_Maximus" title="Circus Maximus">Circus Maximus</a>, the setting of <a href="/wiki/Horse_racing" title="Horse racing">horse races</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chariot_races" class="mw-redirect" title="Chariot races">chariot races</a>, the equestrian <a href="/wiki/Lusus_Troiae" title="Lusus Troiae">Troy Game</a>, staged beast hunts (<a href="/wiki/Venatio" title="Venatio">venationes</a>), athletic contests, <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiator combat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Historical_re-enactment" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical re-enactment">historical re-enactments</a>. From earliest times, several <a href="/wiki/Roman_festivals" title="Roman festivals">religious festivals</a> had featured games (<a href="/wiki/Ludi" title="Ludi">ludi</a>), primarily horse and chariot races (ludi circenses).<a href="#cite_note-361">[343]</a> The races retained religious significance in connection with agriculture, <a href="/wiki/Initiation_ritual" class="mw-redirect" title="Initiation ritual">initiation</a>, and the cycle of birth and death.<a href="#cite_note-363">[s]</a> Under Augustus, public entertainments were presented on 77 days of the year; by the reign of Marcus Aurelius, this had expanded to 135.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDyson2010240-364">[345]</a> Circus games were preceded by an elaborate parade (<a href="/wiki/Pompa_circensis" title="Pompa circensis">pompa circensis</a>) that ended at the venue.<a href="#cite_note-365">[346]</a> Competitive events were held also in smaller venues such as the <a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheater" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman amphitheater">amphitheatre</a>, which became the characteristic Roman spectacle venue, and stadium. Greek-style athletics included <a href="/wiki/Stadion_(running_race)" title="Stadion (running race)">footraces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_boxing" title="Ancient Greek boxing">boxing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_wrestling" title="Greek wrestling">wrestling</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Pankration" title="Pankration">pancratium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterMattingly1999242-366">[347]</a> Aquatic displays, such as the mock sea battle (<a href="/wiki/Naumachia" title="Naumachia">naumachia</a>) and a form of "water ballet", were presented in engineered pools.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterMattingly1999235–236-367">[348]</a> State-supported <a href="#Performing_arts">theatrical events</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ludi_scaenici" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludi scaenici">ludi scaenici</a>) took place on temple steps or in grand stone theatres, or in the smaller enclosed theatre called an <a href="/wiki/Odeon_(building)" title="Odeon (building)">odeon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterMattingly1999223–224-368">[349]</a> Circuses were the largest structure regularly built in the Roman world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterMattingly1999303-369">[350]</a> The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>, became the regular arena for blood sports in Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphrey19861–3-370">[351]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_amphitheatres" title="List of Roman amphitheatres">Roman amphitheatres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circus_(building)#List_of_Roman_circuses" class="mw-redirect" title="Circus (building)">circuses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">theatres</a> built in cities outside Italy are visible as ruins today.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphrey19861–3-370">[351]</a> The local ruling elite were responsible for sponsoring spectacles and arena events, which both enhanced their status and drained their resources.<a href="#cite_note-fatal-197">[183]</a> The physical arrangement of the amphitheatre represented the order of Roman society: the emperor in his opulent box; senators and equestrians in reserved advantageous seats; women seated at a remove from the action; slaves given the worst places, and everybody else in-between.<a href="#cite_note-371">[352]</a> The crowd could call for an outcome by booing or cheering, but the emperor had the final say. Spectacles could quickly become sites of social and political protest, and emperors sometimes had to deploy force to put down crowd unrest, most notoriously at the <a href="/wiki/Nika_riots" title="Nika riots">Nika riots</a> in 532.<a href="#cite_note-372">[353]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bestiarii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Bestiarii.jpg/220px-Bestiarii.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Bestiarii.jpg/330px-Bestiarii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Bestiarii.jpg/440px-Bestiarii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="919" data-file-height="1321" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Zliten_mosaic" title="Zliten mosaic">Zliten mosaic</a>, from a dining room in present-day Libya, depicts a series of arena scenes: from top, musicians; gladiators; <a href="/wiki/Bestiarii" class="mw-redirect" title="Bestiarii">beast fighters</a>; and convicts <a href="/wiki/Damnatio_ad_bestias" title="Damnatio ad bestias">condemned to the beasts</a><a href="#cite_note-373">[354]</a></figcaption></figure> The chariot teams were known by the <a href="/wiki/Chariot_racing#Factions" title="Chariot racing">colours they wore</a>. Fan loyalty was fierce and at times erupted into <a href="/wiki/Sports_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Sports riots">sports riots</a>.<a href="#cite_note-374">[355]</a> Racing was perilous, but charioteers were among the most celebrated and well-compensated athletes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDyson2010238-375">[356]</a> Circuses were designed to ensure that no team had an unfair advantage and to minimize collisions (naufragia),<a href="#cite_note-376">[357]</a> which were nonetheless frequent and satisfying to the crowd.<a href="#cite_note-377">[358]</a> The races retained a magical aura through their early association with <a href="/wiki/Chthonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chthonic">chthonic</a> rituals: circus images were considered protective or lucky, <a href="/wiki/Curse_tablet" title="Curse tablet">curse tablets</a> have been found buried at the site of racetracks, and charioteers were often suspected of sorcery.<a href="#cite_note-378">[359]</a> Chariot racing continued into the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship, but the decline of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries led to its eventual demise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterMattingly1999303-369">[350]</a> The Romans thought gladiator contests had originated with <a href="/wiki/Funeral_games_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Funeral games (antiquity)">funeral games</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_in_ancient_Roman_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacrifice in ancient Roman religion">sacrifices</a>. Some of the earliest <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gladiator_types" title="List of Roman gladiator types">styles of gladiator fighting</a> had ethnic designations such as "<a href="/wiki/Thraex" title="Thraex">Thracian</a>" or "Gallic".<a href="#cite_note-379">[360]</a> The staged combats were considered munera, "services, offerings, benefactions", initially distinct from the festival games (ludi).<a href="#cite_note-380">[361]</a> To mark the opening of the Colosseum, <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a> presented <a href="/wiki/Inaugural_games_of_the_Flavian_Amphitheatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre">100 days of arena events</a>, with 3,000 gladiators competing on a single day.<a href="#cite_note-381">[362]</a> Roman fascination with gladiators is indicated by how widely they are depicted on mosaics, wall paintings, lamps, and in graffiti.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards200749-382">[363]</a> Gladiators were trained combatants who might be slaves, convicts, or free volunteers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards200750-383">[364]</a> Death was not a necessary or even desirable outcome in matches between these highly skilled fighters, whose training was costly and time-consuming.<a href="#cite_note-384">[365]</a> By contrast, noxii were convicts sentenced to the arena with little or no training, often unarmed, and with no expectation of survival; physical suffering and humiliation were considered appropriate <a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">retributive justice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fatal-197">[183]</a> These executions were sometimes staged or ritualized as re-enactments of <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">myths</a>, and amphitheatres were equipped with elaborate <a href="/wiki/Stagecraft" title="Stagecraft">stage machinery</a> to create special effects.<a href="#cite_note-fatal-197">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-385">[366]</a> Modern scholars have found the pleasure Romans took in the "theatre of life and death"<a href="#cite_note-386">[367]</a> difficult to understand.<a href="#cite_note-387">[368]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a> rationalized gladiator spectacles as good for the people, "to inspire them to face honourable wounds and despise death, by exhibiting love of glory and desire for victory".<a href="#cite_note-388">[369]</a> Some Romans such as <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a> were critical of the brutal spectacles, but found virtue in the courage and dignity of the defeated fighter<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards200766–67,_72-389">[370]</a>—an attitude that finds its fullest expression with the <a href="/wiki/Christian_martyr" title="Christian martyr">Christians martyred</a> in the arena. Tertullian considered deaths in the arena to be nothing more than a dressed-up form of <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-390">[371]</a> Even <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_martyrs" class="mw-redirect" title="Acts of the martyrs">martyr literature</a>, however, offers "detailed, indeed luxuriant, descriptions of bodily suffering",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2007212-391">[372]</a> and became a popular genre at times indistinguishable from fiction.<a href="#cite_note-392">[373]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recreation">Recreation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Casale_Bikini_modified.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Casale_Bikini_modified.jpg/220px-Casale_Bikini_modified.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Casale_Bikini_modified.jpg/330px-Casale_Bikini_modified.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Casale_Bikini_modified.jpg/440px-Casale_Bikini_modified.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1884" /></a><figcaption>So-called "Bikini Girls" mosaic from the <a href="/wiki/Villa_del_Casale" class="mw-redirect" title="Villa del Casale">Villa del Casale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Sicily">Roman Sicily</a>, 4th century</figcaption></figure> The singular <a href="/wiki/Ludus_(ancient_Rome)" title="Ludus (ancient Rome)">ludus</a>, "play, game, sport, training", had a wide range of meanings such as "word play", "theatrical performance", "board game", "primary school", and even "gladiator training school" (as in <a href="/wiki/Ludus_Magnus" title="Ludus Magnus">Ludus Magnus</a>).<a href="#cite_note-393">[374]</a> Activities for children and young people in the Empire included <a href="/wiki/Hoop_rolling#Ancient_Rome_and_Byzantium" title="Hoop rolling">hoop rolling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Knucklebones" title="Knucklebones">knucklebones</a> (astragali or "jacks"). Girls had <a href="/wiki/Doll" title="Doll">dolls</a> made of wood, <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a>, and especially <a href="/wiki/Ivory_carving" title="Ivory carving">bone and ivory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawson2003128-394">[375]</a> Ball games include <a href="/wiki/Trigon_(game)" title="Trigon (game)">trigon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harpastum" title="Harpastum">harpastum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-395">[376]</a> People of all ages played <a href="/wiki/Board_game" title="Board game">board games</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Ludus_latrunculorum" title="Ludus latrunculorum">latrunculi</a> ("Raiders") and <a href="/wiki/Ludus_duodecim_scriptorum" title="Ludus duodecim scriptorum">XII scripta</a> ("Twelve Marks").<a href="#cite_note-396">[377]</a> A game referred to as alea (dice) or tabula (the board) may have been similar to <a href="/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon">backgammon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-games-397">[378]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">Dicing</a> as a form of gambling was disapproved of, but was a popular pastime during the festival of the <a href="/wiki/Saturnalia" title="Saturnalia">Saturnalia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-398">[379]</a> After adolescence, most physical training for males was of a military nature. The <a href="/wiki/Campus_Martius" title="Campus Martius">Campus Martius</a> originally was an exercise field where young men learned horsemanship and warfare. Hunting was also considered an appropriate pastime. According to <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, conservative Romans disapproved of Greek-style athletics that promoted a fine body for its own sake, and condemned <a href="/wiki/Quinquennial_Neronia" title="Quinquennial Neronia">Nero's efforts to encourage Greek-style athletic games</a>.<a href="#cite_note-399">[380]</a> Some women trained as gymnasts and dancers, and a rare few as <a href="/wiki/Gladiatrix" title="Gladiatrix">female gladiators</a>. The "Bikini Girls" mosaic shows young women engaging in routines comparable to <a href="/wiki/Rhythmic_gymnastics" title="Rhythmic gymnastics">rhythmic gymnastics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-401">[t]</a><a href="#cite_note-402">[382]</a> Women were encouraged to maintain health through activities such as playing ball, swimming, walking, or reading aloud (as a breathing exercise).<a href="#cite_note-403">[383]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clothing">Clothing</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing in ancient Rome</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Roman hairstyles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_jewelry" title="Roman jewelry">Roman jewelry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics in ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statua_togata,_dalla_palestra_di_foruli_(civitatomassa),_et%C3%A0_claudia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Statua_togata%2C_dalla_palestra_di_foruli_%28civitatomassa%29%2C_et%C3%A0_claudia.jpg/170px-Statua_togata%2C_dalla_palestra_di_foruli_%28civitatomassa%29%2C_et%C3%A0_claudia.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="353" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Statua_togata%2C_dalla_palestra_di_foruli_%28civitatomassa%29%2C_et%C3%A0_claudia.jpg/255px-Statua_togata%2C_dalla_palestra_di_foruli_%28civitatomassa%29%2C_et%C3%A0_claudia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Statua_togata%2C_dalla_palestra_di_foruli_%28civitatomassa%29%2C_et%C3%A0_claudia.jpg/340px-Statua_togata%2C_dalla_palestra_di_foruli_%28civitatomassa%29%2C_et%C3%A0_claudia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1384" data-file-height="2872" /></a><figcaption>Togate statue in the <a href="/wiki/Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_d%27Abruzzo" title="Museo Archeologico Nazionale d'Abruzzo">Museo Archeologico Nazionale d'Abruzzo</a></figcaption></figure> In a status-conscious society like that of the Romans, clothing and personal adornment indicated the etiquette of interacting with the wearer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010230-404">[384]</a> Wearing the correct clothing reflected a society in good order.<a href="#cite_note-coon-405">[385]</a> There is little direct evidence of how Romans dressed in daily life, since portraiture may show the subject in clothing with symbolic value, and surviving textiles are rare.<a href="#cite_note-bieber-406">[386]</a><a href="#cite_note-407">[387]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">toga</a> was the distinctive national garment of the male citizen, but it was heavy and impractical, worn mainly for conducting political or court business and religious rites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVout2009216-408">[388]</a><a href="#cite_note-bieber-406">[386]</a> It was a "vast expanse" of semi-circular white wool that could not be put on and draped correctly without assistance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVout2009216-408">[388]</a> The drapery became more intricate and structured over time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMétraux2008282–283-409">[389]</a> The toga praetexta, with a <a href="/wiki/Tyrian_purple" title="Tyrian purple">purple or purplish-red</a> stripe representing inviolability, was worn by children who had not come of age, <a href="/wiki/Executive_magistrates_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire">curule magistrates</a>, and state priests. Only the emperor could wear an all-purple toga (toga picta).<a href="#cite_note-410">[390]</a> Ordinary clothing was dark or colourful. The basic garment for all Romans, regardless of gender or wealth, was the simple sleeved <a href="/wiki/Tunic" title="Tunic">tunic</a>, with length differing by wearer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010231-411">[391]</a> The tunics of poor people and labouring slaves were made from coarse wool in natural, dull shades; finer tunics were made of lightweight wool or linen. A man of the senatorial or equestrian order wore a tunic with two purple stripes (clavi) woven vertically: the wider the stripe, the higher the wearer's status.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010231-411">[391]</a> Other garments could be layered over the tunic. Common male attire also included cloaks and in some regions <a href="/wiki/Braccae" title="Braccae">trousers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVout2009218-412">[392]</a> In the 2nd century, emperors and elite men are often portrayed wearing the <a href="/wiki/Pallium_(Roman_cloak)" title="Pallium (Roman cloak)">pallium</a>, an originally Greek mantle; women are also portrayed in the pallium. <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> considered the pallium an appropriate garment both for Christians, in contrast to the toga, and for educated people.<a href="#cite_note-coon-405">[385]</a><a href="#cite_note-bieber-406">[386]</a><a href="#cite_note-413">[393]</a> Roman clothing styles changed over time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010232-414">[394]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a>, clothing worn by both soldiers and bureaucrats became highly decorated with geometrical patterns, stylized plant motifs, and in more elaborate examples, human or animal figures.<a href="#cite_note-415">[395]</a> Courtiers of the later Empire wore elaborate silk robes. The militarization of Roman society, and the waning of urban life, affected fashion: heavy military-style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as soldiers, and the toga was abandoned,<a href="#cite_note-416">[396]</a> replaced by the pallium as a garment embodying social unity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVout2009217-417">[397]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arts">Arts</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Art_collection_in_ancient_Rome" title="Art collection in ancient Rome">Art collection in ancient Rome</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Greek art</a> had a profound influence on Roman art.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKousser20084–5,_8-418">[398]</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_art" title="Public art">Public art</a>—including <a href="/wiki/Roman_sculpture" title="Roman sculpture">sculpture</a>, monuments such as <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_victory_columns" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman victory columns">victory columns</a> or <a href="/wiki/Triumphal_arch" title="Triumphal arch">triumphal arches</a>, and the iconography on <a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">coins</a>—is often analysed for historical or ideological significance.<a href="#cite_note-419">[399]</a> In the private sphere, artistic objects were made for <a href="/wiki/Votum" title="Votum">religious dedications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_funerals_and_burial" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman funerals and burial">funerary commemoration</a>, domestic use, and commerce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGazda19911–3-420">[400]</a> The wealthy advertised their appreciation of culture through artwork and <a href="/wiki/Decorative_arts" title="Decorative arts">decorative arts</a> in their homes.<a href="#cite_note-421">[401]</a> Despite the value placed on art, even famous artists were of low social status, partly as they worked with their hands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010312–313-422">[402]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portraiture">Portraiture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_portraiture" title="Roman portraiture">Roman portraiture</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:258px;max-width:258px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:127px;max-width:127px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Busto_de_Vibia_Sabina_(M._Prado)_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Busto_de_Vibia_Sabina_%28M._Prado%29_01.jpg/125px-Busto_de_Vibia_Sabina_%28M._Prado%29_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Busto_de_Vibia_Sabina_%28M._Prado%29_01.jpg/188px-Busto_de_Vibia_Sabina_%28M._Prado%29_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Busto_de_Vibia_Sabina_%28M._Prado%29_01.jpg/250px-Busto_de_Vibia_Sabina_%28M._Prado%29_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1090" data-file-height="1470" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:127px;max-width:127px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Antinous_Mandragone_profil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Antinous_Mandragone_profil.jpg/125px-Antinous_Mandragone_profil.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Antinous_Mandragone_profil.jpg/188px-Antinous_Mandragone_profil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Antinous_Mandragone_profil.jpg/250px-Antinous_Mandragone_profil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1158" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Two portraits <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 130 AD: the empress <a href="/wiki/Vibia_Sabina" title="Vibia Sabina">Vibia Sabina</a> (left); and the <a href="/wiki/Antinous_Mondragone" title="Antinous Mondragone">Antinous Mondragone</a></div></div></div></div> Portraiture, which survives mainly in sculpture, was the most copious form of imperial art. Portraits during the Augustan period utilize <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">classical proportions</a>, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism.<a href="#cite_note-423">[403]</a> Republican portraits were characterized by <a href="/wiki/Verism" title="Verism">verism</a>, but as early as the 2nd century BC, Greek <a href="/wiki/Heroic_nudity" title="Heroic nudity">heroic nudity</a> was adopted for conquering generals.<a href="#cite_note-424">[404]</a> Imperial portrait sculptures may model a mature head atop a youthful nude or semi-nude body with perfect musculature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010451-425">[405]</a> Clothed in the toga or military regalia, the body communicates rank or role, not individual characteristics.<a href="#cite_note-426">[406]</a> Portraiture in painting is represented primarily by the <a href="/wiki/Fayum_mummy_portrait" class="mw-redirect" title="Fayum mummy portrait">Fayum mummy portraits</a>, which evoke Egyptian and Roman traditions of commemorating the dead with realistic painting. Marble portrait sculpture were painted, but traces have rarely survived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010453-427">[407]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sculpture_and_sarcophagi">Sculpture and sarcophagi</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Roman_sculpture" title="Roman sculpture">Roman sculpture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_sarcophagi" title="Ancient Roman sarcophagi">Ancient Roman sarcophagi</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps,_Roma,_Lazio,_00186,_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_(Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus)_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/260px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/390px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/520px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10569" data-file-height="7000" /></a><figcaption>On the <a href="/wiki/Ludovisi_sarcophagus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludovisi sarcophagus">Ludovisi sarcophagus</a></figcaption></figure> Examples of Roman sculpture survive abundantly, though often in damaged or fragmentary condition, including freestanding statuary in marble, bronze and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_pottery#Terracotta_figurines" title="Ancient Roman pottery">terracotta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">reliefs</a> from public buildings and monuments. Niches in amphitheatres were originally filled with statues,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKousser200813-428">[408]</a><a href="#cite_note-429">[409]</a> as were <a href="/wiki/Roman_gardens" title="Roman gardens">formal gardens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010274–275-430">[410]</a> Temples housed cult images of deities, often by famed sculptors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010242-431">[411]</a> Elaborately carved marble and limestone <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus" title="Sarcophagus">sarcophagi</a> are characteristic of the 2nd to 4th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-432">[412]</a> Sarcophagus relief has been called the "richest single source of Roman iconography",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsnerHuskinson201114-433">[413]</a> depicting <a href="/wiki/Classical_mythology" title="Classical mythology">mythological scenes</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsnerHuskinson201112-434">[414]</a> or Jewish/Christian imagery<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElsnerHuskinson20111,_9-435">[415]</a> as well as the deceased's life. <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Painting">Painting</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Painting_in_ancient_Rome" title="Painting in ancient Rome">Painting in ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zeffiro-e-clori---pompeii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Zeffiro-e-clori---pompeii.jpg/220px-Zeffiro-e-clori---pompeii.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Zeffiro-e-clori---pompeii.jpg/330px-Zeffiro-e-clori---pompeii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Zeffiro-e-clori---pompeii.jpg/440px-Zeffiro-e-clori---pompeii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1097" /></a><figcaption>The Wedding of <a href="/wiki/Zephyrus" title="Zephyrus">Zephyrus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chloris" title="Chloris">Chloris</a> (54–68 AD, <a href="/wiki/Pompeian_Styles" title="Pompeian Styles">Pompeian Fourth Style</a>) within painted architectural panels from the Casa del Naviglio</figcaption></figure> Initial Roman painting drew from <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art#Wall-painting" title="Etruscan art">Etruscan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art#Painting" title="Ancient Greek art">Greek</a> models and techniques. Examples of Roman paintings can be found in <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_monuments_in_Rome#Palaces" title="List of ancient monuments in Rome">palaces</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_monuments_in_Rome#Cemeteries" title="List of ancient monuments in Rome">catacombs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">villas</a>. Much of what is known of Roman painting is from the interior decoration of private homes, particularly as preserved by the <a href="/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_AD_79" class="mw-redirect" title="Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79">eruption of Vesuvius</a>. In addition to decorative borders and panels with geometric or vegetative motifs, wall painting depicts scenes from mythology and theatre, landscapes and gardens, <a href="#Spectacles">spectacles</a>, everyday life, and <a href="/wiki/Erotic_art_in_Pompeii_and_Herculaneum" title="Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum">erotic art</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mosaic">Mosaic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_mosaic" title="Roman mosaic">Roman mosaic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neptune_Roman_mosaic_Bardo_Museum_Tunis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Neptune_Roman_mosaic_Bardo_Museum_Tunis.jpg/220px-Neptune_Roman_mosaic_Bardo_Museum_Tunis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Neptune_Roman_mosaic_Bardo_Museum_Tunis.jpg/330px-Neptune_Roman_mosaic_Bardo_Museum_Tunis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Neptune_Roman_mosaic_Bardo_Museum_Tunis.jpg/440px-Neptune_Roman_mosaic_Bardo_Museum_Tunis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1957" data-file-height="1869" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Neptune_(mythology)" title="Neptune (mythology)">The Triumph of Neptune</a> floor mosaic from <a href="/wiki/Africa_Proconsularis" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa Proconsularis">Africa Proconsularis</a> (present-day Tunisia)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010463-436">[416]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">Mosaics</a> are among the most enduring of Roman <a href="/wiki/Decorative_arts" title="Decorative arts">decorative arts</a>, and are found on floors and other architectural features. The most common is the <a href="/wiki/Opus_tessellatum" title="Opus tessellatum">tessellated mosaic</a>, formed from uniform pieces (<a href="/wiki/Tessera" title="Tessera">tesserae</a>) of materials such as stone and glass.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010459-437">[417]</a> <a href="/wiki/Opus_sectile" title="Opus sectile">Opus sectile</a> is a related technique in which flat stone, usually coloured marble, is cut precisely into shapes from which geometric or figurative patterns are formed. This more difficult technique became especially popular for luxury surfaces in the 4th century (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Junius_Bassus" title="Basilica of Junius Bassus">Basilica of Junius Bassus</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunbabin1999254ff-438">[418]</a> <a href="/wiki/Figurative_art" title="Figurative art">Figurative</a> mosaics share many themes with painting, and in some cases use almost identical <a href="/wiki/Composition_(visual_arts)" title="Composition (visual arts)">compositions</a>. Geometric patterns and mythological scenes occur throughout the Empire. In North Africa, a particularly rich source of mosaics, homeowners often chose scenes of life on their estates, hunting, agriculture, and local wildlife.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010463-436">[416]</a> Plentiful and major examples of Roman mosaics come also from present-day Turkey (particularly the (<a href="/wiki/Antioch_mosaics" title="Antioch mosaics">Antioch mosaics</a><a href="#cite_note-439">[419]</a>), Italy, southern France, Spain, and Portugal. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decorative_arts">Decorative arts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_pottery" title="Ancient Roman pottery">Ancient Roman pottery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_glass" title="Roman glass">Roman glass</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Decorative_arts" title="Decorative arts">Decorative arts</a> for luxury consumers included fine pottery, silver and bronze vessels and implements, and glassware. Pottery manufacturing was economically important, as were the glass and metalworking industries. Imports stimulated new regional centres of production. Southern Gaul became a leading producer of the finer red-gloss pottery (<a href="/wiki/Terra_sigillata" title="Terra sigillata">terra sigillata</a>) that was a major trade good in 1st-century Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010202-440">[420]</a> <a href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">Glassblowing</a> was regarded by the Romans as originating in Syria in the 1st century BC, and by the 3rd century, Egypt and the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a> had become noted for fine glass.<a href="#cite_note-441">[421]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Skyphos_Boscoreale_Louvre_Bj2367.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Silver cup, from the Boscoreale Treasure (early 1st century AD)"><img alt="Silver cup, from the Boscoreale Treasure (early 1st century AD)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Skyphos_Boscoreale_Louvre_Bj2367.jpg/270px-Skyphos_Boscoreale_Louvre_Bj2367.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Skyphos_Boscoreale_Louvre_Bj2367.jpg/405px-Skyphos_Boscoreale_Louvre_Bj2367.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Skyphos_Boscoreale_Louvre_Bj2367.jpg/540px-Skyphos_Boscoreale_Louvre_Bj2367.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2400" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Silver <a href="/wiki/Skyphos" title="Skyphos">cup</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Boscoreale_Treasure" title="Boscoreale Treasure">Boscoreale Treasure</a> (early 1st century AD)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 170px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 168px;"><a href="/wiki/File:C%C3%A9ramique_sigill%C3%A9e_Metz_100109_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Finely decorated Gallo-Roman terra sigillata bowl"><img alt="Finely decorated Gallo-Roman terra sigillata bowl" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/C%C3%A9ramique_sigill%C3%A9e_Metz_100109_2.jpg/252px-C%C3%A9ramique_sigill%C3%A9e_Metz_100109_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="168" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/C%C3%A9ramique_sigill%C3%A9e_Metz_100109_2.jpg/378px-C%C3%A9ramique_sigill%C3%A9e_Metz_100109_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/C%C3%A9ramique_sigill%C3%A9e_Metz_100109_2.jpg/504px-C%C3%A9ramique_sigill%C3%A9e_Metz_100109_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2196" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Finely decorated Gallo-Roman <a href="/wiki/Terra_sigillata" title="Terra sigillata">terra sigillata</a> bowl</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 186.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 184.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Boucles_d%27oreilles_3%C3%A8me_si%C3%A8cle_Mus%C3%A9e_de_Laon_030208.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gold earrings with gemstones, 3rd century"><img alt="Gold earrings with gemstones, 3rd century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Boucles_d%27oreilles_3%C3%A8me_si%C3%A8cle_Mus%C3%A9e_de_Laon_030208.jpg/277px-Boucles_d%27oreilles_3%C3%A8me_si%C3%A8cle_Mus%C3%A9e_de_Laon_030208.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Boucles_d%27oreilles_3%C3%A8me_si%C3%A8cle_Mus%C3%A9e_de_Laon_030208.jpg/415px-Boucles_d%27oreilles_3%C3%A8me_si%C3%A8cle_Mus%C3%A9e_de_Laon_030208.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Boucles_d%27oreilles_3%C3%A8me_si%C3%A8cle_Mus%C3%A9e_de_Laon_030208.jpg/553px-Boucles_d%27oreilles_3%C3%A8me_si%C3%A8cle_Mus%C3%A9e_de_Laon_030208.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="1855" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Gold earrings with gemstones, 3rd century</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 156px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 154px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Munich_Cup_Diatretum_22102016_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Glass cage cup from the Rhineland, 4th century"><img alt="Glass cage cup from the Rhineland, 4th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Munich_Cup_Diatretum_22102016_1.jpg/231px-Munich_Cup_Diatretum_22102016_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="154" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Munich_Cup_Diatretum_22102016_1.jpg/347px-Munich_Cup_Diatretum_22102016_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Munich_Cup_Diatretum_22102016_1.jpg/462px-Munich_Cup_Diatretum_22102016_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2126" data-file-height="1656" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Glass <a href="/wiki/Cage_cup" title="Cage cup">cage cup</a> from the Rhineland, 4th century</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Performing_arts">Performing arts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre of ancient Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music of ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg/220px-Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg/330px-Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg/440px-Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2504" data-file-height="2472" /></a><figcaption>All-male theatrical troupe preparing for a masked performance, on a mosaic from the <a href="/wiki/House_of_the_Tragic_Poet" title="House of the Tragic Poet">House of the Tragic Poet</a></figcaption></figure> In Roman tradition, borrowed from the Greeks, literary theatre was performed by all-male troupes that used face masks with exaggerated facial expressions to portray emotion. Female roles were played by men in <a href="/wiki/Drag_(clothing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Drag (clothing)">drag</a> (<a href="/wiki/Travesti_(theatre)" title="Travesti (theatre)">travesti</a>).<a href="#cite_note-442">[422]</a> Roman literary theatre tradition is represented in <a href="#Literature">Latin literature</a> by the tragedies of <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>, for example. More popular than literary theatre was the genre-defying mimus theatre, which featured scripted scenarios with free improvisation, risqué language and sex scenes, action sequences, and political satire, along with dance, juggling, acrobatics, tightrope walking, striptease, and <a href="/wiki/Dancing_bear" class="mw-redirect" title="Dancing bear">dancing bears</a>.<a href="#cite_note-443">[423]</a> Unlike literary theatre, mimus was played without masks, and encouraged stylistic realism. Female roles were performed by women.<a href="#cite_note-444">[424]</a> Mimus was related to <a href="/wiki/Pantomime#Ancient_Rome" title="Pantomime">pantomimus</a>, an early form of <a href="/wiki/Story_ballet" class="mw-redirect" title="Story ballet">story ballet</a> that contained no spoken dialogue but rather a sung <a href="/wiki/Libretto" title="Libretto">libretto</a>, often mythological, either tragic or comic.<a href="#cite_note-445">[425]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scena_di_commedia,_musici_ambulanti,_da_villa_di_cecerone_a_pompei,_9985,_03.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Scena_di_commedia%2C_musici_ambulanti%2C_da_villa_di_cecerone_a_pompei%2C_9985%2C_03.JPG/220px-Scena_di_commedia%2C_musici_ambulanti%2C_da_villa_di_cecerone_a_pompei%2C_9985%2C_03.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Scena_di_commedia%2C_musici_ambulanti%2C_da_villa_di_cecerone_a_pompei%2C_9985%2C_03.JPG/330px-Scena_di_commedia%2C_musici_ambulanti%2C_da_villa_di_cecerone_a_pompei%2C_9985%2C_03.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Scena_di_commedia%2C_musici_ambulanti%2C_da_villa_di_cecerone_a_pompei%2C_9985%2C_03.JPG/440px-Scena_di_commedia%2C_musici_ambulanti%2C_da_villa_di_cecerone_a_pompei%2C_9985%2C_03.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3364" data-file-height="2628" /></a><figcaption>Trio of musicians playing an <a href="/wiki/Aulos" title="Aulos">aulos</a>, cymbala, and <a href="/wiki/Tympanum_(hand_drum)" title="Tympanum (hand drum)">tympanum</a> (mosaic from <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>)</figcaption></figure> Although sometimes regarded as foreign, <a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">music</a> and dance existed in Rome from earliest times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaerebout2009146-446">[426]</a> Music was customary at funerals, and the <a href="/wiki/Aulos" title="Aulos">tibia</a>, a woodwind instrument, was played at sacrifices.<a href="#cite_note-klar-447">[427]</a> Song (<a href="/wiki/Carmen_(verse)" title="Carmen (verse)">carmen</a>) was integral to almost every social occasion. Music was thought to reflect the orderliness of the cosmos.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabinek200590ff-448">[428]</a> Various woodwinds and <a href="/wiki/Brass_instrument" title="Brass instrument">"brass" instruments</a> were played, as were <a href="/wiki/Stringed_instruments" class="mw-redirect" title="Stringed instruments">stringed instruments</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Cithara" class="mw-redirect" title="Cithara">cithara</a>, and percussion.<a href="#cite_note-klar-447">[427]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cornu_(horn)" title="Cornu (horn)">cornu</a>, a long tubular metal wind instrument, was used for military signals and on parade.<a href="#cite_note-klar-447">[427]</a> These instruments spread throughout the provinces and are widely depicted in Roman art.<a href="#cite_note-449">[429]</a> The hydraulic pipe organ (<a href="/wiki/Hydraulis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulis">hydraulis</a>) was "one of the most significant technical and musical achievements of antiquity", and accompanied gladiator games and events in the amphitheatre.<a href="#cite_note-klar-447">[427]</a> Although certain dances were seen at times as non-Roman or unmanly, dancing was embedded in religious rituals of archaic Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaerebout2009146ff-450">[430]</a> Ecstatic dancing was a feature of the <a href="/wiki/Mystery_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystery religions">mystery religions</a>, particularly the cults of <a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cybele</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaerebout2009154,_157-451">[431]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a>. In the secular realm, dancing girls from <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cadiz</a> were extremely popular.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaerebout2009156–157-452">[432]</a> Like <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiators</a>, entertainers were legally <a href="/wiki/Infamia" title="Infamia">infames</a>, technically free but little better than slaves. "Stars", however, could enjoy considerable wealth and celebrity, and mingled socially and often sexually with the elite.<a href="#cite_note-453">[433]</a> Performers supported each other by forming guilds, and several memorials for theatre members survive.<a href="#cite_note-454">[434]</a> Theatre and dance were often condemned by <a href="/wiki/Christian_polemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian polemic">Christian polemicists</a> in the later Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaerebout2009146-446">[426]</a><a href="#cite_note-455">[435]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literacy,_books,_and_education">Literacy, books, and education</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meister_des_Portr%C3%A4ts_des_Paquius_Proculus_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Meister_des_Portr%C3%A4ts_des_Paquius_Proculus_001.jpg/220px-Meister_des_Portr%C3%A4ts_des_Paquius_Proculus_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Meister_des_Portr%C3%A4ts_des_Paquius_Proculus_001.jpg/330px-Meister_des_Portr%C3%A4ts_des_Paquius_Proculus_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Meister_des_Portr%C3%A4ts_des_Paquius_Proculus_001.jpg/440px-Meister_des_Portr%C3%A4ts_des_Paquius_Proculus_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1256" data-file-height="1482" /></a><figcaption>Pride in literacy was displayed through emblems of reading and writing, as in this portrait of <a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_Terentius_Neo" title="Portrait of Terentius Neo">Terentius Neo and his wife</a> (c. 20 AD)</figcaption></figure> Estimates of the average <a href="/wiki/Literacy_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Literacy rate">literacy rate</a> range from 5 to over 30%.<a href="#cite_note-456">[436]</a><a href="#cite_note-kraus-457">[437]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201189,_97–98-458">[438]</a> The Roman obsession with documents and inscriptions indicates the value placed on the written word.<a href="#cite_note-459">[439]</a><a href="#cite_note-morgan-460">[440]</a><a href="#cite_note-462">[u]</a> Laws and edicts were posted as well as read out. Illiterate Roman subjects could have a government scribe (<a href="/wiki/Scriba_(ancient_Rome)" title="Scriba (ancient Rome)">scriba</a>) read or write their official documents for them.<a href="#cite_note-kraus-457">[437]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2000101-463">[442]</a> The military produced extensive written records.<a href="#cite_note-464">[443]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Talmud" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a> declared "if all seas were ink, all reeds were pen, all skies parchment, and all men scribes, they would be unable to set down the full scope of the Roman government's concerns".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo200086–87-465">[444]</a> <a href="/wiki/Numeracy" title="Numeracy">Numeracy</a> was necessary for commerce.<a href="#cite_note-morgan-460">[440]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMattern1999197-466">[445]</a> Slaves were numerate and literate in significant numbers; some were highly educated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin201019–20-467">[446]</a> Graffiti and low-quality inscriptions with misspellings and <a href="/wiki/Solecism" title="Solecism">solecisms</a> indicate casual literacy among non-elites.<a href="#cite_note-468">[447]</a><a href="#cite_note-469">[v]</a><a href="#cite_note-curchin-107">[98]</a> The Romans had an extensive <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#libri_pontificales" title="Glossary of ancient Roman religion">priestly archive</a>, and inscriptions appear throughout the Empire in connection with <a href="/wiki/Votum" title="Votum">votives</a> dedicated by ordinary people, as well as "<a href="/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world" title="Magic in the Greco-Roman world">magic spells</a>" (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Magical_Papyri" title="Greek Magical Papyri">Greek Magical Papyri</a>).<a href="#cite_note-470">[448]</a> Books were expensive, since each copy had to be written out on a papyrus roll (volumen) by scribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson201017–18-471">[449]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">codex</a>—pages bound to a spine—was still a novelty in the 1st century,<a href="#cite_note-472">[450]</a> but by the end of the 3rd century was replacing the volumen.<a href="#cite_note-473">[451]</a> Commercial book production was established by the late Republic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1976253-474">[452]</a> and by the 1st century certain neighbourhoods of Rome and Western provincial cities were known for their bookshops.<a href="#cite_note-475">[453]</a> The quality of editing varied wildly,<a href="#cite_note-476">[454]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plagiarism" title="Plagiarism">plagiarism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Literary_forgery" title="Literary forgery">forgery</a> were common, since there was no <a href="/wiki/Copyright_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law">copyright law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1976253-474">[452]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg/220px-Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg/330px-Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg/440px-Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of a <a href="/wiki/Wax_tablet" title="Wax tablet">wax writing tablet</a></figcaption></figure> Collectors amassed personal libraries,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1976252–264-477">[455]</a> and a fine library was part of the cultivated leisure (<a href="/wiki/Otium" title="Otium">otium</a>) associated with the villa lifestyle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECavalloChartier199967–68-478">[456]</a> Significant collections might attract "in-house" scholars,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1976257–260-479">[457]</a> and an individual benefactor might endow a community with a library (as <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a> did in <a href="/wiki/Comum" class="mw-redirect" title="Comum">Comum</a>).<a href="#cite_note-480">[458]</a> Imperial libraries were open to users on a limited basis, and represented a <a href="/wiki/Literary_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary canon">literary canon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-481">[459]</a> Books considered subversive might be publicly burned,<a href="#cite_note-482">[460]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a> crucified copyists for reproducing works deemed treasonous.<a href="#cite_note-483">[461]</a> Literary texts were often shared aloud at meals or with reading groups.<a href="#cite_note-484">[462]</a> Public readings (<a href="/wiki/Recitationes" title="Recitationes">recitationes</a>) expanded from the 1st through the 3rd century, giving rise to "consumer literature" for entertainment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECavalloChartier199968–69,_78–79-485">[463]</a> Illustrated books, including erotica, were popular, but are poorly represented by extant fragments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECavalloChartier199981–82-486">[464]</a> Literacy began to decline during the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris19893-487">[465]</a> The emperor Julian banned Christians from teaching the classical curriculum,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin201019-488">[466]</a> but the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> and other Christians adopted Latin and Greek literature, philosophy and science in biblical interpretation.<a href="#cite_note-489">[467]</a> As the Western Roman Empire declined, reading became rarer even for those within the Church hierarchy,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECavalloChartier199986-490">[468]</a> although it continued in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECavalloChartier199915–16-491">[469]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education in ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_school.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Roman_school.jpg/330px-Roman_school.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Roman_school.jpg/495px-Roman_school.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Roman_school.jpg/660px-Roman_school.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2805" data-file-height="1061" /></a><figcaption>A teacher with two students, as a third arrives with his loculus, a writing case<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201195-492">[470]</a></figcaption></figure> Traditional Roman education was moral and practical. Stories were meant to instil Roman values (<a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">mores maiorum</a>). Parents were expected to act as role models, and working parents passed their skills to their children, who might also enter apprenticeships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201184–85-493">[471]</a> Young children were attended by a <a href="/wiki/Paedagogus_(occupation)" title="Paedagogus (occupation)">pedagogue</a>, usually a Greek slave or former slave,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaes2011113–116-494">[472]</a> who kept the child safe, taught self-discipline and public behaviour, attended class and helped with tutoring.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201190,_92-495">[473]</a> Formal education was available only to families who could pay for it; lack of state support contributed to low literacy.<a href="#cite_note-496">[474]</a> Primary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic might take place at home if parents hired or bought a teacher.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201187–89-497">[475]</a> Other children attended "public" schools organized by a schoolmaster (<a href="/wiki/Ludi_magister" title="Ludi magister">ludimagister</a>) paid by parents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaes2011122-498">[476]</a> Vernae (homeborn slave children) might share in-home or public schooling.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201190-499">[477]</a> Boys and girls received primary education generally from ages 7 to 12, but classes were not segregated by grade or age.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaes2011107–108,_132-500">[478]</a> Most schools employed <a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">corporal punishment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201193–94-501">[479]</a> For the socially ambitious, education in Greek as well as Latin was necessary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201189-502">[480]</a> Schools became more numerous during the Empire, increasing educational opportunities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201189-502">[480]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_%28cropped%29.jpg/260px-MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_%28cropped%29.jpg/390px-MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_%28cropped%29.jpg/520px-MANNapoli_124545_plato%27s_academy_mosaic_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2163" data-file-height="2196" /></a><figcaption>Mosaic from Pompeii depicting the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Plato" class="mw-redirect" title="Academy of Plato">Academy of Plato</a></figcaption></figure> At the age of 14, upperclass males made their <a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome#Rites_of_passage" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">rite of passage</a> into adulthood, and began to learn leadership roles through mentoring from a senior family member or family friend.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201188,_106-503">[481]</a> Higher education was provided by <a href="/wiki/Grammarian_(Greco-Roman)" title="Grammarian (Greco-Roman)">grammatici</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rhetor" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhetor">rhetores</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaes2011109-504">[482]</a> The grammaticus or "grammarian" taught mainly Greek and Latin literature, with history, geography, philosophy or mathematics treated as explications of the text.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaes2011132-505">[483]</a> With the rise of Augustus, contemporary Latin authors such as Virgil and Livy also became part of the curriculum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009439,_442-506">[484]</a> The rhetor was a teacher of oratory or public speaking. The art of speaking (ars dicendi) was highly prized, and eloquentia ("speaking ability, eloquence") was considered the "glue" of civilized society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin2011102–103,_105-507">[485]</a> Rhetoric was not so much a body of knowledge (though it required a command of the <a href="/wiki/Literary_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary canon">literary canon</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin2011104–105-508">[486]</a>) as it was a mode of expression that distinguished those who held social power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin2011103,_106-509">[487]</a> The ancient model of rhetorical training—"restraint, coolness under pressure, modesty, and good humour"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin2011110-510">[488]</a>—endured into the 18th century as a Western educational ideal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin2011107-511">[489]</a> In Latin, illiteratus could mean both "unable to read and write" and "lacking in cultural awareness or sophistication".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris19895-512">[490]</a> Higher education promoted career advancement.<a href="#cite_note-513">[491]</a> Urban elites throughout the Empire shared a literary culture imbued with Greek educational ideals (<a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">paideia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009598-514">[492]</a> Hellenistic cities sponsored schools of higher learning to express cultural achievement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaes2011109–110-515">[493]</a> Young Roman men often went abroad to study rhetoric and philosophy, mostly to Athens. The curriculum in the East was more likely to include music and physical training.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201188-516">[494]</a> On the Hellenistic model, Vespasian <a href="/wiki/Endowed_chair" class="mw-redirect" title="Endowed chair">endowed chairs</a> of grammar, Latin and Greek rhetoric, and philosophy at Rome, and gave secondary teachers special exemptions from taxes and legal penalties.<a href="#cite_note-517">[495]</a> In the Eastern Empire, <a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>) was unusual in offering a Latin education, and became famous for its <a href="/wiki/Law_School_of_Beirut" class="mw-redirect" title="Law School of Beirut">school of Roman law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin201018-518">[496]</a> The cultural movement known as the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a> (1st–3rd century AD) promoted the assimilation of Greek and Roman social, educational, and esthetic values.<a href="#cite_note-519">[497]</a> Literate women ranged from cultured aristocrats to girls trained to be <a href="/wiki/Calligrapher" class="mw-redirect" title="Calligrapher">calligraphers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-h122-520">[498]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawson200380-521">[499]</a> The ideal woman in Augustan love poetry was educated and well-versed in the arts.<a href="#cite_note-522">[500]</a> Education seems to have been standard for daughters of the senatorial and equestrian orders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201190-499">[477]</a> An educated wife was an asset for the socially ambitious household.<a href="#cite_note-h122-520">[498]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Latin_poetry" title="Latin poetry">Latin poetry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ovidiu03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Ovidiu03.jpg/170px-Ovidiu03.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Ovidiu03.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>Statue in <a href="/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba" title="Constanța">Constanța</a>, Romania (the ancient colony Tomis), commemorating <a href="/wiki/Exile_of_Ovid" title="Exile of Ovid">Ovid's exile</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Augustan_literature_(ancient_Rome)" title="Augustan literature (ancient Rome)">Literature under Augustus</a>, along with that of the Republic, has been viewed as the "Golden Age" of Latin literature, embodying <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">classical ideals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts19893-523">[501]</a> The three most influential Classical Latin poets—<a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a>—belong to this period. Virgil's <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> was a national epic in the manner of the <a href="/wiki/Homeric_epics" class="mw-redirect" title="Homeric epics">Homeric epics</a> of Greece. Horace perfected the use of <a href="/wiki/Greek_lyric" title="Greek lyric">Greek lyric</a> <a href="/wiki/Metre_(poetry)" title="Metre (poetry)">metres</a> in Latin verse. Ovid's erotic poetry was enormously popular, but ran afoul of Augustan morality, contributing to his exile. Ovid's <a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a> wove together <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman mythology">Greco-Roman mythology</a>; his versions of <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek myths</a> became a primary source of later <a href="/wiki/Classical_mythology" title="Classical mythology">classical mythology</a>, and his work was hugely influential on <a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">medieval literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-524">[502]</a> The early <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> produced <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satirists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Persius" title="Persius">Persius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a>. The mid-1st through mid-2nd century has conventionally been called the "<a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin#Authors_of_the_Silver_Age" title="Classical Latin">Silver Age</a>" of Latin literature. The three leading writers—<a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a>—committed suicide after incurring <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>'s displeasure. <a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">Epigrammatist</a> and social observer <a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a> and the epic poet <a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a>, whose poetry collection <a href="/wiki/Silvae" title="Silvae">Silvae</a> influenced <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_literature" title="Renaissance literature">Renaissance literature</a>,<a href="#cite_note-525">[503]</a> wrote during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a>. Other authors of the Silver Age included <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, author of the encyclopedic <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a>; his nephew, <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a>; and the historian <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>. The principal Latin prose author of the <a href="/wiki/Augustan_literature_(ancient_Rome)" title="Augustan literature (ancient Rome)">Augustan age</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">historian</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, whose account of <a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Rome's founding</a> became the most familiar version in modern-era literature. <a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars" title="The Twelve Caesars">The Twelve Caesars</a> by <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a> is a primary source for imperial biography. Among Imperial historians who wrote in Greek are <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>. Other major Greek authors of the Empire include the biographer <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, the geographer <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, and the rhetorician and satirist <a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a>. From the 2nd to the 4th centuries, Christian authors were in active dialogue with the <a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">classical tradition</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> was one of the earliest prose authors with a distinctly Christian voice. After the <a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_Constantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Conversion of Constantine">conversion of Constantine</a>, Latin literature is dominated by the Christian perspective.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbrecht19971294-526">[504]</a> In the late 4th century, <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> produced the Latin translation of the Bible that became authoritative as the <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a>. Around that same time, <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a> wrote <a href="/wiki/The_City_of_God_against_the_Pagans" class="mw-redirect" title="The City of God against the Pagans">The City of God against the Pagans</a>, considered "a masterpiece of Western culture".<a href="#cite_note-527">[505]</a> In contrast to the unity of Classical Latin, the literary esthetic of late antiquity has a <a href="/wiki/Tessellation" title="Tessellation">tessellated</a> quality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts198970-528">[506]</a> A continuing interest in the religious traditions of Rome prior to Christian dominion is found into the 5th century, with the Saturnalia of <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a> and The Marriage of Philology and Mercury of <a href="/wiki/Martianus_Capella" title="Martianus Capella">Martianus Capella</a>. Latin poets of late antiquity include <a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prudentius" title="Prudentius">Prudentius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion in ancient Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Roman imperial cult</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Roman Empire">History of the Jews in the Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Religious persecution in the Roman Empire">Religious persecution in the Roman Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire_as_diffusion_of_innovation" title="Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation">Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:312px;max-width:312px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:145px;max-width:145px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:213px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:RMW_-_Opfernder_Togatus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/RMW_-_Opfernder_Togatus.jpg/143px-RMW_-_Opfernder_Togatus.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/RMW_-_Opfernder_Togatus.jpg/215px-RMW_-_Opfernder_Togatus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/RMW_-_Opfernder_Togatus.jpg/286px-RMW_-_Opfernder_Togatus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1712" data-file-height="2560" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">A Roman priest, his <a href="/wiki/Capite_velato" class="mw-redirect" title="Capite velato">head ritually covered</a> with a fold of his toga, extends a <a href="/wiki/Patera" title="Patera">patera</a> in a gesture of libation (2nd–3rd century)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:163px;max-width:163px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:213px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg/161px-Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg" decoding="async" width="161" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg/242px-Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg/322px-Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2181" data-file-height="2898" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The emperor <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter</div></div></div></div></div> The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, and attributed their success to their collective piety (<a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">pietas</a>) and good relations with the gods (<a href="/wiki/Pax_deorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pax deorum">pax deorum</a>). The archaic religion believed to have come from the earliest <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Rome">kings of Rome</a> was the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">mos maiorum</a>, "the way of the ancestors", central to Roman identity.<a href="#cite_note-529">[507]</a> Roman religion was practical and contractual, based on the principle of <a href="/wiki/Do_ut_des" class="mw-redirect" title="Do ut des">do ut des</a>, "I give that you might give". Religion depended on knowledge and the <a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">correct practice</a> of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERüpke20074-530">[508]</a> Each home had a household shrine to offer prayers and <a href="/wiki/Libation" title="Libation">libations</a> to the family's domestic deities. Neighbourhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Roman calendar</a> was structured around religious observances; as many as 135 days were devoted to <a href="/wiki/Roman_festivals" title="Roman festivals">religious festivals</a> and games (<a href="/wiki/Ludi" title="Ludi">ludi</a>).<a href="#cite_note-531">[509]</a> In the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Collapse_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Collapse of the Roman Republic">Republic's collapse</a>, state religion adapted to support the new regime. Augustus justified one-man rule with a vast programme of religious revivalism and reform. <a href="/wiki/Vota_pro_salute_rei_publicae" class="mw-redirect" title="Vota pro salute rei publicae">Public vows</a> now were directed at the wellbeing of the emperor. So-called "emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional <a href="/wiki/Roman_funerals_and_burial" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman funerals and burial">veneration of the ancestral dead</a> and of the <a href="/wiki/Genius_(mythology)" title="Genius (mythology)">Genius</a>, the divine <a href="/wiki/Tutelary_deity" title="Tutelary deity">tutelary</a> of every individual. Upon death, an emperor could be made a state divinity (<a href="/wiki/Divus" class="mw-redirect" title="Divus">divus</a>) by vote of the Senate. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Roman imperial cult</a>, influenced by <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_ruler_cult" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic ruler cult">Hellenistic ruler cult</a>, became one of the major ways Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity. Cultural precedent in the Eastern provinces facilitated a rapid dissemination of Imperial cult, extending as far as <a href="/wiki/Najran" title="Najran">Najran</a>, in present-day <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-533">[w]</a> Rejection of the state religion became tantamount to treason. The Romans are known for the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">great number of deities</a> they honoured. As the Romans extended their territories, their general policy was to promote stability among diverse peoples by absorbing local deities and cults rather than eradicating them,<a href="#cite_note-534">[x]</a> building temples that framed local theology within Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local gods.<a href="#cite_note-535">[511]</a> By the height of the Empire, numerous <a href="/wiki/Interpretatio_romana" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpretatio romana">syncretic or reinterpreted gods</a> were cultivated, among them cults of <a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cybele</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epona" title="Epona">Epona</a>, and of solar gods such as <a href="/wiki/Mithras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithras">Mithras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sol_Invictus" title="Sol Invictus">Sol Invictus</a>, found as far north as <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a>. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one god or cult only, <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">religious tolerance</a> was not an issue.<a href="#cite_note-536">[512]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mystery_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystery religions">Mystery religions</a>, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice, practiced in addition to one's <a href="/wiki/Sacra_gentilicia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacra gentilicia">family rites</a> and public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, which conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "<a href="/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world" title="Magic in the Greco-Roman world">magic</a>", conspiracy (coniuratio), and subversive activity. Thus, sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists. In Gaul, the power of the <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druids</a> was checked, first by forbidding Roman citizens to belong to the order, and then by banning druidism altogether. However, Celtic traditions were reinterpreted within the context of Imperial theology, and a new <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman religion</a> coalesced; its capital at the <a href="/wiki/Sanctuary_of_the_Three_Gauls" title="Sanctuary of the Three Gauls">Sanctuary of the Three Gauls</a> established precedent for Western cult as a form of Roman-provincial identity.<a href="#cite_note-537">[513]</a> The monotheistic rigour of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and granting of special exemptions. Tertullian noted that Judaism, unlike Christianity, was considered a <a href="/wiki/Religio_licita" title="Religio licita">religio licita</a>, "legitimate religion". The <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> resulted from political as well as religious conflicts; the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70)">siege of Jerusalem</a> in 70 AD led to the sacking of the temple and the dispersal of Jewish political power (see <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a>). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg/170px-Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg/255px-Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg/340px-Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1825" /></a><figcaption>A 3rd-century funerary stele is among the <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_inscriptions" title="Early Christian inscriptions">earliest Christian inscriptions</a>, written in both Greek and Latin.</figcaption></figure> Christianity emerged in <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Roman Judaea</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish religious sect</a> in the 1st century and gradually <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a> out of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Christianity" title="Jerusalem in Christianity">Jerusalem</a> throughout the Empire and beyond. Imperially authorized persecutions were limited and sporadic, with martyrdoms occurring most often under the authority of local officials.<a href="#cite_note-538">[514]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> reports that after the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome" title="Great Fire of Rome">Great Fire of Rome</a> in AD 64, the emperor attempted to deflect blame from himself onto the Christians.<a href="#cite_note-annals-xv-44-539">[515]</a> A major persecution occurred under the emperor <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a><a href="#cite_note-540">[516]</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Persecution_in_Lyon" title="Persecution in Lyon">persecution in 177</a> took place at Lugdunum, the Gallo-Roman religious capital. A letter from <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a>, governor of <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>, describes his persecution and executions of Christians.<a href="#cite_note-541">[517]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Decian_persecution" title="Decian persecution">Decian persecution</a> of 246–251 seriously threatened the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Christian Church</a>, but ultimately strengthened Christian defiance.<a href="#cite_note-542">[518]</a> <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> undertook the <a href="/wiki/Diocletianic_Persecution" title="Diocletianic Persecution">most severe persecution of Christians</a>, from 303 to 311.<a href="#cite_note-:0-18">[15]</a> From the 2nd century onward, the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> condemned the diverse religions practiced throughout the Empire as "pagan".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowersockBrownGrabar1999625-543">[519]</a> In the early 4th century, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> became the first emperor to <a href="/wiki/Convert_to_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Convert to Christianity">convert to Christianity</a>. He supported the Church financially and made laws that favored it, but the new religion was already successful, having moved from less than 50,000 to over a million adherents between 150 and 250.<a href="#cite_note-544">[520]</a> Constantine and his successors banned public sacrifice while tolerating other traditional practices. Constantine never engaged in a <a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">purge</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Leithart-545">[521]</a> there were no "pagan martyrs" during his reign,<a href="#cite_note-546">[522]</a> and people who had not converted to Christianity remained in important positions at court.<a href="#cite_note-Leithart-545">[521]</a>: 302  <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian</a> attempted to revive traditional public sacrifice and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic religion</a>, but met Christian resistance and lack of popular support.<a href="#cite_note-547">[523]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg/170px-Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg/255px-Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg/340px-Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4109" data-file-height="3034" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a> in Rome, a <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Roman temple</a> originally built under <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, later converted into a <a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Catholic church</a> in the 7th century<a href="#cite_note-548">[524]</a></figcaption></figure> Christians of the 4th century believed the conversion of Constantine showed that Christianity had triumphed over paganism (in Heaven) and little further action besides such rhetoric was necessary.<a href="#cite_note-549">[525]</a> Thus, their focus was <a href="/wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity" title="Heresy in Christianity">heresy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-550">[526]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown_1998-551">[527]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Peter_Brown_(historian)" title="Peter Brown (historian)">Peter Brown</a>, "In most areas, polytheists were not molested, and apart from a few ugly incidents of local violence, Jewish communities also enjoyed a century of stable, even privileged, existence".<a href="#cite_note-Brown_1998-551">[527]</a>: 641–643 <a href="#cite_note-552">[528]</a> There were anti-pagan laws, but they were not generally enforced; through the 6th century, centers of paganism existed in Athens, Gaza, Alexandria, and elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-553">[529]</a> According to recent Jewish scholarship, toleration of the Jews was maintained under Christian emperors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrewer2005127-554">[530]</a> This did not extend to <a href="/wiki/Christian_heresy" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian heresy">heretics</a>:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrewer2005127-554">[530]</a> Theodosius I made multiple laws and acted against alternate forms of Christianity,<a href="#cite_note-555">[531]</a> and heretics were persecuted and killed by both the government and the church throughout Late Antiquity. Non-Christians were not persecuted until the 6th century. Rome's original religious hierarchy and ritual influenced Christian forms,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERüpke2007406–426-556">[532]</a><a href="#cite_note-557">[533]</a> and many pre-Christian practices survived in Christian festivals and local traditions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy of the Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:428px;max-width:428px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:2015_Virginia_State_House_-_Richmond,_Virginia_01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/2015_Virginia_State_House_-_Richmond%2C_Virginia_01.JPG/250px-2015_Virginia_State_House_-_Richmond%2C_Virginia_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/2015_Virginia_State_House_-_Richmond%2C_Virginia_01.JPG/375px-2015_Virginia_State_House_-_Richmond%2C_Virginia_01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/2015_Virginia_State_House_-_Richmond%2C_Virginia_01.JPG/500px-2015_Virginia_State_House_-_Richmond%2C_Virginia_01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Maison_carr%C3%A9e_(3).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Maison_carr%C3%A9e_%283%29.jpg/170px-Maison_carr%C3%A9e_%283%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Maison_carr%C3%A9e_%283%29.jpg/255px-Maison_carr%C3%A9e_%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Maison_carr%C3%A9e_%283%29.jpg/340px-Maison_carr%C3%A9e_%283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2318" data-file-height="2583" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Virginia_State_Capitol" title="Virginia State Capitol">Virginia State Capitol</a> (left), completed in 1788, was modelled after the <a href="/wiki/Maison_Carr%C3%A9e" class="mw-redirect" title="Maison Carrée">Maison Carrée</a> (right), in <a href="/wiki/N%C3%AEmes" title="Nîmes">Nîmes</a>, France, a <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Gallo-Roman temple</a> built around 16 BC under Augustus.</div></div></div></div> Several states claimed to be the Roman Empire's successor. The <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> was established in 800 when <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a> crowned <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> as <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Russian Tsardom</a>, as inheritor of the Byzantine Empire's <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox Christian</a> tradition, counted itself the <a href="/wiki/Third_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Rome">Third Rome</a> (Constantinople having been the second), in accordance with the concept of <a href="/wiki/Translatio_imperii" title="Translatio imperii">translatio imperii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-558">[534]</a> The last Eastern Roman titular, <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Palaiologos" title="Andreas Palaiologos">Andreas Palaiologos</a>, sold the title of Emperor of Constantinople to <a href="/wiki/Charles_VIII_of_France" title="Charles VIII of France">Charles VIII of France</a>; upon Charles' death, Palaiologos reclaimed the title and on his death granted it to <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_and_Isabella" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand and Isabella">Ferdinand and Isabella</a> and their successors, who never used it. When the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a>, who based their state on the Byzantine model, took Constantinople in 1453, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> established his capital there and claimed to sit on the throne of the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-559">[535]</a> He even launched an <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_Otranto" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman invasion of Otranto">invasion of Otranto</a> with the purpose of re-uniting the Empire, which was aborted by his death. In the medieval West, "Roman" came to mean the church and the Catholic Pope. The Greek form <a href="/wiki/Romaioi" class="mw-redirect" title="Romaioi">Romaioi</a> remained attached to the Greek-speaking Christian population of the Byzantine Empire and is still used by <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-560">[536]</a> The Roman Empire's control of the Italian Peninsula influenced <a href="/wiki/Italian_nationalism" title="Italian nationalism">Italian nationalism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">unification of Italy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">Risorgimento</a>) in 1861.<a href="#cite_note-561">[537]</a> In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">founders</a> were educated in the <a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">classical tradition</a>,<a href="#cite_note-562">[538]</a> and used classical models for <a href="/wiki/List_of_National_Historic_Landmarks_in_Washington,_D.C." title="List of National Historic Landmarks in Washington, D.C.">landmarks in Washington, D.C.</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Meinig-563">[539]</a><a href="#cite_note-vale-564">[540]</a><a href="#cite_note-korn-565">[541]</a><a href="#cite_note-566">[542]</a> The founders saw <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian democracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman republic">Roman republicanism</a> as models for the <a href="/wiki/Mixed_constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed constitution">mixed constitution</a>, but regarded the emperor as a figure of tyranny.<a href="#cite_note-567">[543]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/28px-Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/42px-Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/56px-Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Europe" title="Portal:Europe">Europe portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline of ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_systems_in_France" title="List of political systems in France">List of political systems in France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">List of Roman dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daqin" title="Daqin">Daqin</a> ("Great <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a>"), the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire; see also <a href="/wiki/Sino-Roman_relations" title="Sino-Roman relations">Sino-Roman relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Italy_(fascist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Italy (fascist)">Imperial Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_site_of_Sanxay" title="Gallo-Roman site of Sanxay">Gallo-Roman site of Sanxay</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Modern scholars often date the end of the "classical" or "unified" Roman Empire in AD 395.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> This is a modern convention, as the Empire continued to be seen as a single state even after the supposed "split" of 395, which was in fact one of many splits since 286.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Fig. 1. Regions east of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> were held only in the years 116–117. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> In 286, Emperor Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into two administrative units–<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">West</a>–an arrangement that periodically returned until the two halves were permanently divided in 395.<a href="#cite_note-:1-6">[4]</a> Although the halves were independent in practice, the Romans continued to consider the Roman Empire to be a single undivided state with two co-equal emperors until the fall of the western half in 476/480.<a href="#cite_note-:1-6">[4]</a> Although emperors at times governed from other cities (notably <a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> in the West and <a href="/wiki/Nicomedia" title="Nicomedia">Nicomedia</a> in the East), Rome remained the <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> capital of the entire Roman Empire. In 330, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a> made Constantinople a second and new capital of the empire ("Second Rome" or "New Rome").<a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a> For a time, mostly over the course of the later decades of the fourth century, Rome continued to hold greater symbolic status on account of its greater antiquity as imperial capital.<a href="#cite_note-13">[11]</a> From at least 361 onwards, senators belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_senate" title="Byzantine senate">new senate</a> in Constantinople enjoyed the same status and privileges as senators of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>, to which the new senate was largely identical.<a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a> By 450, Constantinople was much grander in size and adornment than Rome and unquestionably senior in status.<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> In 1204, the crusaders of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> captured Constantinople and established the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a>. The city remained under foreign rule until 1261, when it was captured by the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Empire of Nicaea</a> (a Byzantine/Roman successor state). Nicaea is usually considered the "legitimate" continuation of the Roman Empire during the "interregnum" 1204–1261 (over its rivals in <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a>) since it managed to retake Constantinople.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997734-17">[14]</a> Whether there was an interregnum at all is debatable given that the crusaders envisioned the Latin Empire to be the same empire as its predecessor (and not a new state).<a href="#cite_note-:0-18">[15]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Abbreviated "HS". Prices and values are usually expressed in sesterces. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> The Ottomans sometimes called their state the "Empire of <a href="/wiki/R%C3%BBm" class="mw-redirect" title="Rûm">Rûm</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkish language">Ottoman Turkish</a>: دولت علنإه روم, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'Exalted State of Rome'). In this sense, it could be argued that a "Roman" Empire survived until the early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-25">[20]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> avoided any association with the ancient <a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">kings of Rome</a>. Augustus had replaced his first name with Imperator, a title regularly used by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, thus becoming Imperator Caesar Augustus, which further linked the title with his position. Imperator did not acquire the meaning of "ruler" until the late 1st century.<a href="#cite_note-SimonHornblower-34">[28]</a> Both <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a> evolved into formal titles, the former denoting the heir and the latter the monarch. In some languages, Caesar became the origin of the word "<a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">emperor</a>", such as in German (<a href="/wiki/Kaiser" title="Kaiser">Kaiser</a>) and some Slavic languages (<a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsar</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Prudentius" title="Prudentius">Prudentius</a> (348–413) in particular Christianizes the theme in his poetry.<a href="#cite_note-66">[59]</a> <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Augustine">St. Augustine</a>, however, distinguished between the secular and eternal "Rome" in <a href="/wiki/De_Civitate_Dei" class="mw-redirect" title="De Civitate Dei">The City of God</a>. See also <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFears1981" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/J._Rufus_Fears" title="J. Rufus Fears">Fears, J. Rufus</a> (1981), "The Cult of Jupiter and Roman Imperial Ideology", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, vol. II, p. 136</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Cult+of+Jupiter+and+Roman+Imperial+Ideology&rft.btitle=Aufstieg+und+Niedergang+der+r%C3%B6mischen+Welt&rft.pages=136&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Fears&rft.aufirst=J.+Rufus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">, on how Classical Roman ideology influenced Christian Imperial doctrine, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBang2011" class="citation cs2">Bang, Peter Fibiger (2011), "The King of Kings: Universal Hegemony, Imperial Power, and a New Comparative History of Rome", The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, John Wiley & Sons</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+King+of+Kings%3A+Universal+Hegemony%2C+Imperial+Power%2C+and+a+New+Comparative+History+of+Rome&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire+in+Context%3A+Historical+and+Comparative+Perspectives&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Bang&rft.aufirst=Peter+Fibiger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> and the Greek concept of globalism (<a href="/wiki/Ecumene" title="Ecumene">oikouménē</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-diglossia-84"><a href="#cite_ref-diglossia_84-0">^</a> It has been called a state of bilingualism but that's only true of the educated and so Bruno Rochette suggests it's more appropriate as a <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a> but concedes this still does not adequately explain it, as Greek was "high" against Latins "Super-high".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2018123-80">[72]</a> Latin experienced a period of spreading from the second century BCE, and especially in the western provinces, but not as much in the eastern provinces.<a href="#cite_note-81">[73]</a> In the east, Greek was always the dominant language, a left over influence from the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> that predates the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2018108-82">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[75]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> The civis ("citizen") stands in explicit contrast to a <a href="/wiki/Peregrinus_(Roman)" title="Peregrinus (Roman)">peregrina</a>, a foreign or non-Roman woman<a href="#cite_note-131">[122]</a> In the form of legal marriage called conubium, the father's legal status determined the child's, but conubium required that both spouses be free citizens. A soldier, for instance, was banned from marrying while in service, but if he formed a long-term union with a local woman while stationed in the provinces, he could marry her legally after he was discharged, and any children they had would be considered the offspring of citizens—in effect granting the woman retroactive citizenship. The ban was in place from the time of Augustus until it was rescinded by <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> in 197 AD.<a href="#cite_note-132">[123]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> The others are <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">ancient Athens</a>, and in the modern era <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> That senator was Tiberius Claudius Gordianus<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000219-177">[166]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> The relation of the equestrian order to the "public horse" and Roman cavalry parades and demonstrations (such as the <a href="/wiki/Lusus_Troiae" title="Lusus Troiae">Lusus Troiae</a>) is complex, but those who participated in the latter seem, for instance, to have been the equites who were accorded the high-status (and quite limited) seating at the theatre by the <a href="/wiki/Lex_Roscia_theatralis" title="Lex Roscia theatralis">Lex Roscia theatralis</a>. Senators could not possess the "public horse".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiseman197078–79-180">[168]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Ancient Gades, in Roman Spain (now <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a>), and Patavium, in the Celtic north of Italy (now <a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Padua</a>), were atypically wealthy cities, and having 500 equestrians in one city was unusual.<a href="#cite_note-183">[170]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> This practice was established in the Republic; see for instance the case of <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Valerius_Flaccus#Contrebian_water_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaius Valerius Flaccus">Contrebian water rights</a> heard by G. Valerius Flaccus as governor of <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> in the 90s–80s BC. </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> This was the vicesima libertatis, "the twentieth for freedom"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009187-242">[227]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> The college of centonarii is an elusive topic in scholarship, since they are also widely attested as urban firefighters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVout2009212-298">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-Liu-299">[283]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Jinyu_Liu" title="Jinyu Liu">Jinyu Liu</a> sees them as "primarily tradesmen and/or manufacturers engaged in the production and distribution of low- or medium-quality woolen textiles and clothing, including felt and its products".<a href="#cite_note-Liu-299">[283]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> Julius Caesar first applied the Latin word oppidum to this type of settlement, and even called <a href="/wiki/Avaricum" title="Avaricum">Avaricum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bourges" title="Bourges">Bourges</a>, France), a center of the <a href="/wiki/Bituriges_Cubi" title="Bituriges Cubi">Bituriges</a>, an urbs, "city". Archaeology indicates that oppida were centers of religion, trade (including import/export), and industrial production, walled for the purposes of defence, but they may not have been inhabited by concentrated populations year-round.<a href="#cite_note-316">[299]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a> Such as the <a href="/wiki/Consualia" title="Consualia">Consualia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/October_Horse" title="October Horse">October Horse</a> sacrifice.<a href="#cite_note-362">[344]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-401"><a href="#cite_ref-401">^</a> Scholars are divided in their relative emphasis on the athletic and dance elements of these exercises: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee1984" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, H. (1984). "Athletics and the Bikini Girls from Piazza Armerina". Stadion. 10: 45–75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stadion&rft.atitle=Athletics+and+the+Bikini+Girls+from+Piazza+Armerina&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=45-75&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> sees them as gymnasts, while Torelli thinks they are dancers at the games.<a href="#cite_note-400">[381]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-462"><a href="#cite_ref-462">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Ando" title="Clifford Ando">Clifford Ando</a> posed the question as "what good would 'posted edicts' do in a world of low literacy?'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndo2000101see_also_p._87_on_"the_government's_obsessive_documentation"-461">[441]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-469"><a href="#cite_ref-469">^</a> Political slogans and obscenities are widely preserved as graffiti in Pompeii: Antonio Varone, Erotica Pompeiana: Love Inscriptions on the Walls of Pompeii ("L'Erma" di Bretschneider, 2002). Soldiers sometimes inscribed <a href="/wiki/Sling_bullet" class="mw-redirect" title="Sling bullet">sling bullets</a> with aggressive messages: Phang, "Military Documents, Languages, and Literacy," p. 300. </li> <li id="cite_note-533"><a href="#cite_ref-533">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Caesareum" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesareum">caesareum</a> at Najaran was possibly known later as the "Kaaba of Najran"<a href="#cite_note-532">[510]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-534"><a href="#cite_ref-534">^</a> "This mentality," notes John T. Koch, "lay at the core of the genius of cultural assimilation which made the Roman Empire possible"; entry on "Interpretatio romana," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 974. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorley2010" class="citation book cs1">Morley, Neville (2010). The Roman Empire: Roots of Imperialism. Pluto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-2870-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-2870-6"><bdi>978-0-7453-2870-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire%3A+Roots+of+Imperialism&rft.pub=Pluto+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7453-2870-6&rft.aulast=Morley&rft.aufirst=Neville&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Diamond, Jared</a> (2011). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (Revised ed.). Penguin. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1015-0200-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1015-0200-6"><bdi>978-1-1015-0200-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collapse%3A+How+Societies+Choose+to+Fail+or+Succeed&rft.pages=13&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-1015-0200-6&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Jared&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandberg2008" class="citation journal cs1">Sandberg, Kaj (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journal.fi/arctos/article/view/85853">"The So-Called Division of the Roman Empire in AD 395: Notes on a Persistent Theme in Modern Historiography"</a>. Arctos. 42: 199–213. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0570-734X">0570-734X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arctos&rft.atitle=The+So-Called+Division+of+the+Roman+Empire+in+AD+395%3A+Notes+on+a+Persistent+Theme+in+Modern+Historiography&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=199-213&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=0570-734-X&rft.aulast=Sandberg&rft.aufirst=Kaj&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournal.fi%2Farctos%2Farticle%2Fview%2F85853&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett1997-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett1997_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBennett1997">Bennett (1997)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QrKTEAAAQBAJ">Ancient Rome: The Definitive Visual History</a>. Dorling Kindersley. 2023. p. 276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2416-3575-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2416-3575-9"><bdi>978-0-2416-3575-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230622190835/https://books.google.com/books?id=QrKTEAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Rome%3A+The+Definitive+Visual+History&rft.pages=276&rft.pub=Dorling+Kindersley&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-2416-3575-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQrKTEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClassen2010" class="citation book cs1">Classen, Albrecht (2010). "The changing shape of Europe". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ez_edSWAQGAC">Handbook of Medieval Studies</a>. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-1102-1558-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-1102-1558-8"><bdi>978-3-1102-1558-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240310115424/https://books.google.com/books?id=ez_edSWAQGAC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved 26 April 2023. <q>Constantine the Great transferred the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to the newly-founded city of Constantinople</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+changing+shape+of+Europe&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Medieval+Studies&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-1102-1558-8&rft.aulast=Classen&rft.aufirst=Albrecht&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dez_edSWAQGAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPriceFinkelbergShahar2022" class="citation book cs1">Price, Jonathan J.; Finkelberg, Margalit; Shahar, Yuval (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T4lmEAAAQBAJ">Rome: An Empire of Many Nations</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-0092-5622-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-0092-5622-3"><bdi>978-1-0092-5622-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230622191212/https://books.google.com/books?id=T4lmEAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023. <q>the capital of the Empire was transferred from Rome to Constantinople in the fourth century</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%3A+An+Empire+of+Many+Nations&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-0092-5622-3&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+J.&rft.au=Finkelberg%2C+Margalit&rft.au=Shahar%2C+Yuval&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT4lmEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErdkamp2013" class="citation book cs1">Erdkamp, Paul (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yaM0AAAAQBAJ">The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-9629-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-9629-0"><bdi>978-0-5218-9629-0</bdi></a>. <q>Constantine sounded the death knell for Rome as a vital political centre with the dedication of his new imperial capital at Constantinople</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-5218-9629-0&rft.aulast=Erdkamp&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyaM0AAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBjornlie2013" class="citation book cs1">Bjornlie, M. Shane (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VI3ebybOl0oC">Politics and Tradition Between Rome, Ravenna and Constantinople: A Study of Cassiodorus and the Variae, 527–554</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-2840-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-2840-1"><bdi>978-1-1070-2840-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230622191456/https://books.google.com/books?id=VI3ebybOl0oC">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023. <q>As a new capital, Constantinople provided a stage for imperial prestige that did not depend on association with the traditions of the senatorial establishment at Rome</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+and+Tradition+Between+Rome%2C+Ravenna+and+Constantinople%3A+A+Study+of+Cassiodorus+and+the+Variae%2C+527%E2%80%93554&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-1070-2840-1&rft.aulast=Bjornlie&rft.aufirst=M.+Shane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVI3ebybOl0oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoffler2004" class="citation book cs1">Coffler, Gail H. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v_GoZpiIpAEC">Melville's Allusions to Religion: A Comprehensive Index and Glossary: A Comprehensive Index and Glossary</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3130-7270-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3130-7270-3"><bdi>978-0-3130-7270-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230622190856/https://books.google.com/books?id=v_GoZpiIpAEC">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023. <q>It became Constantinople, capital of the entire Roman Empire</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Melville%27s+Allusions+to+Religion%3A+A+Comprehensive+Index+and+Glossary%3A+A+Comprehensive+Index+and+Glossary&rft.pages=181&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-3130-7270-3&rft.aulast=Coffler&rft.aufirst=Gail+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv_GoZpiIpAEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell2016" class="citation book cs1">Maxwell, Kathleen (2016). "Art and Diplomacy in Late Thirteenth-century Constantinople: Paris 54 and the Union of Churches". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G0uoDQAAQBAJ">Between Constantinople and Rome: An Illuminated Byzantine Gospel Book (Paris gr. 54) and the Union of Churches</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3519-5584-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3519-5584-3"><bdi>978-1-3519-5584-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230622193552/https://books.google.com/books?id=G0uoDQAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023. <q>Constantine the Great, the emperor who moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Art+and+Diplomacy+in+Late+Thirteenth-century+Constantinople%3A+Paris+54+and+the+Union+of+Churches&rft.btitle=Between+Constantinople+and+Rome%3A+An+Illuminated+Byzantine+Gospel+Book+%28Paris+gr.+54%29+and+the+Union+of+Churches&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-3519-5584-3&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG0uoDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrigKelly2012" class="citation book cs1">Grig, Lucy; Kelly, Gavin (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HHlpAgAAQBAJ">Two Romes: Rome and Constantinople in Late Antiquity</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1999-2118-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1999-2118-8"><bdi>978-0-1999-2118-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240310115405/https://books.google.com/books?id=HHlpAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved 26 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+Romes%3A+Rome+and+Constantinople+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-1999-2118-8&rft.aulast=Grig&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rft.au=Kelly%2C+Gavin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHHlpAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoewenstein2012" class="citation book cs1">Loewenstein, K. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7uMRBwAAQBAJ">The Governance of ROME</a>. Springer. p. 443. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-4010-2400-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-4010-2400-6"><bdi>978-9-4010-2400-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230622190858/https://books.google.com/books?id=7uMRBwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Governance+of+ROME&rft.pages=443&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-9-4010-2400-6&rft.aulast=Loewenstein&rft.aufirst=K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7uMRBwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2009" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Jonathan (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UTjUAwAAQBAJ">Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium</a>. A&C Black. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-3086-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-3086-1"><bdi>978-0-8264-3086-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230622190857/https://books.google.com/books?id=UTjUAwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constantinople%3A+Capital+of+Byzantium&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-3086-1&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUTjUAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997734-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997734_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold (1997)</a>, p. 734. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTricht2011" class="citation book cs1">Tricht, Filip Van (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JlnPm2riK1UC&q=imperator+constantinopolitanus&pg=PA68">The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228)</a>. Brill. pp. 61–82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0042-0323-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0042-0323-5"><bdi>978-9-0042-0323-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406180853/https://books.google.com/books?id=JlnPm2riK1UC&q=imperator%20constantinopolitanus&pg=PA68">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Latin+Renovatio+of+Byzantium%3A+The+Empire+of+Constantinople+%281204%E2%80%931228%29&rft.pages=61-82&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-9-0042-0323-5&rft.aulast=Tricht&rft.aufirst=Filip+Van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJlnPm2riK1UC%26q%3Dimperator%2Bconstantinopolitanus%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-size-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-size_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-size_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-size_20-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-size_20-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaagepera1979" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rein_Taagepera" title="Rein Taagepera">Taagepera, Rein</a> (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1170959">10.2307/1170959</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0145-5532">0145-5532</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1170959">1170959</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+History&rft.atitle=Size+and+Duration+of+Empires%3A+Growth-Decline+Curves%2C+600+B.C.+to+600+A.D&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=125&rft.date=1979&rft.issn=0145-5532&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1170959%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1170959&rft.aulast=Taagepera&rft.aufirst=Rein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-East-West-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-East-West_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-East-West_21-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Turchin" title="Peter Turchin">Turchin, Peter</a>; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517210851/http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf">"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"</a> (PDF). Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World-Systems+Research&rft.atitle=East-West+Orientation+of+Historical+Empires&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=222&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Turchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Thomas+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeterturchin.com%2FPDF%2FTurchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurand1977" class="citation journal cs1">Durand, John D. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=psc_penn_papers">"Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation"</a>. Population and Development Review. 3 (3): 253–296. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1971891">10.2307/1971891</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1971891">1971891</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191016190031/http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=psc_penn_papers">Archived</a> from the original on 16 October 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Population+and+Development+Review&rft.atitle=Historical+Estimates+of+World+Population%3A+An+Evaluation&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=253-296&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1971891&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1971891%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Durand&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frepository.upenn.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1009%26context%3Dpsc_penn_papers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecollector.com/imperial-rome-versus-roman-provinces/">"Imperial Rome vs. Provincial Rome: What's The Difference?"</a>. 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Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7809-3800-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7809-3800-4"><bdi>978-1-7809-3800-4</bdi></a>. <q>After the capture of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. 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Retrieved 11 February 2020 – via Project Gutenberg. <q>The republic (they repeat that name without a blush) might safely confide in the civil and military virtues of Odoacer; and they humbly request, that the emperor would invest him with the title of Patrician, and the administration of the diocese of Italy. ...His vanity was gratified by the title of sole emperor, and by the statues erected to his honor in the several quarters of Rome; ...He entertained a friendly, though ambiguous, correspondence with the patrician Odoacer; and he gratefully accepted the Imperial ensigns.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gothic+Kingdom+of+Italy.+%E2%80%93+Part+II.&rft.btitle=The+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.date=1776&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F25717%2F25717-h%2F25717-h.htm%23Dlinknoteref-5511&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOzgen" class="citation web cs1">Ozgen, Korkut. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theottomans.org/english/family/mehmet2.asp">"Mehmet II"</a>. 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Retrieved 17 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latin+Loanwords+in+Ancient+Greek%3A+A+Lexicon+and+Analysis&rft.pages=651&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-1088-9734-1&rft.aulast=Dickey&rft.aufirst=Eleanor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuNXBEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBatstone2006" class="citation book cs1">Batstone, William W. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470996980.ch25">"Literature"</a>. In Rosenstein, Nathan; Morstein-Marx, Robert (eds.). A Companion to the Roman Republic (1 ed.). Wiley. pp. 543–564. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470996980.ch25">10.1002/9780470996980.ch25</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0217-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0217-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-0217-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230718183126/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470996980.ch25">Archived</a> from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Literature&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Roman+Republic&rft.pages=543-564&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470996980.ch25&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-0217-9&rft.aulast=Batstone&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470996980.ch25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreeman2000438-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeman2000438_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFreeman2000">Freeman (2000)</a>, p. 438. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCicero" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>. <a href="/wiki/In_Catilinam" class="mw-redirect" title="In Catilinam">In Catilinam</a>. Vol. I 61 "<a href="/wiki/Recto" class="mw-redirect" title="Recto">recto</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Rylands_Papyri" title="Rylands Papyri">Rylands Papyri</a> ed.). p. 2.15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Catilinam&rft.pages=2.15&rft.edition=Rylands+Papyri&rft.au=Cicero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2003">Adams 2003</a>, pp. 188, 197; <a href="#CITEREFFreeman2000">Freeman 2000</a>, p. 394; <a href="#CITEREFRochette2012">Rochette 2012</a>, p. 549 </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloomer1997" class="citation book cs1">Bloomer, W. Martin (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7PmACgAAQBAJ">Latinity and Literary Society at Rome</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3390-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3390-2"><bdi>978-0-8122-3390-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231004102055/https://books.google.com/books?id=7PmACgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latinity+and+Literary+Society+at+Rome&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-3390-2&rft.aulast=Bloomer&rft.aufirst=W.+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7PmACgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2018122-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochette2018122_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRochette2018">Rochette (2018)</a>, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLa_Bua2019" class="citation book cs1">La Bua, Giuseppe (2019). Cicero and Roman education: the reception of the speeches and ancient scholarship. Cambridge (GB): Cambridge University Press. pp. 329ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-6858-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-6858-2"><bdi>978-1-1070-6858-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero+and+Roman+education%3A+the+reception+of+the+speeches+and+ancient+scholarship&rft.place=Cambridge+%28GB%29&rft.pages=329ff&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-1070-6858-2&rft.aulast=La+Bua&rft.aufirst=Giuseppe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2003205-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams2003205_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2003">Adams (2003)</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2023263,_268Rochette2018114–115,_118-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochette2023263,_268Rochette2018114–115,_118_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRochette2023">Rochette 2023</a>, p. 263, 268; <a href="#CITEREFRochette2018">Rochette 2018</a>, pp. 114–115, 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2018-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochette2018_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRochette2018">Rochette (2018)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2003185–186,_205-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams2003185–186,_205_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2003">Adams (2003)</a>, pp. 185–186, 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold19975–7-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold19975–7_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold19975–7_102-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold (1997)</a>, pp. 5–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2018108–109-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochette2018108–109_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRochette2018">Rochette (2018)</a>, pp. 108–109. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlton1973" class="citation book cs1">Carlton, Charles Merritt (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783111636221">A linguistic analysis of a collection of late Latin documents composed in Ravenna between A.D. 445–700</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783111636221">10.1515/9783111636221</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-1116-3622-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-1116-3622-1"><bdi>978-3-1116-3622-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240310115400/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783111636221/html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved 17 August 2023. <q>"page 37. According to Pei & Gaeng (1976: 76–81), the decisive moment came with the Islamic conquest of North Africa and Iberia, which was followed by numerous raids on land and by sea. All this had the effect of disrupting connections between the western Romance-speaking regions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+linguistic+analysis+of+a+collection+of+late+Latin+documents+composed+in+Ravenna+between+A.D.+445%E2%80%93700&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783111636221&rft.isbn=978-3-1116-3622-1&rft.aulast=Carlton&rft.aufirst=Charles+Merritt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1515%2F9783111636221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-miles-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-miles_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-miles_105-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-miles_105-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiles2000" class="citation book cs1">Miles, Richard (2000). "Communicating Culture, Identity, and Power". Experiencing Power: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire. Routledge. pp. 58–60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-4152-1285-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-4152-1285-5"><bdi>0-4152-1285-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Communicating+Culture%2C+Identity%2C+and+Power&rft.btitle=Experiencing+Power%3A+Culture%2C+Identity+and+Power+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=58-60&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-4152-1285-5&rft.aulast=Miles&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRochette2012">Rochette (2012)</a>, p. 550; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmer2006" class="citation book cs1">Zimmer, Stefan (2006). "Indo-European". Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-Clio. p. 961.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Indo-European&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=961&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Zimmer&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-curchin-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-curchin_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-curchin_107-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurchin1995" class="citation journal cs1">Curchin, Leonard A. (1995). "Literacy in the Roman Provinces: Qualitative and Quantitative Data from Central Spain". The American Journal of Philology. 116 (3): 461–476 (464). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F295333">10.2307/295333</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/295333">295333</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Philology&rft.atitle=Literacy+in+the+Roman+Provinces%3A+Qualitative+and+Quantitative+Data+from+Central+Spain&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=461-476+%28464%29&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F295333&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F295333%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Curchin&rft.aufirst=Leonard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERochette2012558–559-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochette2012558–559_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRochette2012">Rochette (2012)</a>, pp. 558–559. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2003199-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams2003199_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2003">Adams (2003)</a>, p. 199. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Hist. Franc., book I, 32 Veniens vero Arvernos, delubrum illud, quod Gallica lingua Vasso Galatæ vocant, incendit, diruit, atque subvertit. And coming to Clermont [to the <a href="/wiki/Arverni" title="Arverni">Arverni</a>] he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galatæ in the Gallic tongue, </li> <li id="cite_note-Helix-111"><a href="#cite_ref-Helix_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHélix2011" class="citation book cs1">Hélix, Laurence (2011). Histoire de la langue française. Ellipses Edition Marketing S.A. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7298-6470-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7298-6470-5"><bdi>978-2-7298-6470-5</bdi></a>. <q>Le déclin du Gaulois et sa disparition ne s'expliquent pas seulement par des pratiques culturelles spécifiques: Lorsque les Romains conduits par César envahirent la Gaule, au 1er siecle avant J.-C., celle-ci romanisa de manière progressive et profonde. Pendant près de 500 ans, la fameuse période gallo-romaine, le gaulois et le latin parlé coexistèrent; au VIe siècle encore; le temoignage de Grégoire de Tours atteste la survivance de la langue gauloise.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+la+langue+fran%C3%A7aise&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Ellipses+Edition+Marketing+S.A.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-2-7298-6470-5&rft.aulast=H%C3%A9lix&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuiter1995" class="citation book cs1">Guiter, Henri (1995). "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania". In Bochnakowa, Anna; Widlak, Stanislan (eds.). Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii. Krakow.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sur+le+substrat+gaulois+dans+la+Romania&rft.btitle=Munus+amicitae.+Studia+linguistica+in+honorem+Witoldi+Manczak+septuagenarii&rft.pub=Krakow&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Guiter&rft.aufirst=Henri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoegiest2006" class="citation book cs1">Roegiest, Eugeen (2006). Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania. Acco. p. 83.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vers+les+sources+des+langues+romanes%3A+Un+itin%C3%A9raire+linguistique+%C3%A0+travers+la+Romania&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Acco&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Roegiest&rft.aufirst=Eugeen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavignac2004" class="citation book cs1">Savignac, Jean-Paul (2004). Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois. La Différence. p. 26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+Fran%C3%A7ais-Gaulois&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=La+Diff%C3%A9rence&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Savignac&rft.aufirst=Jean-Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatasovic2007" class="citation journal cs1">Matasovic, Ranko (2007). "Insular Celtic as a Language Area". Papers from the Workshop within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies. The Celtic Languages in Contact: 106.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Papers+from+the+Workshop+within+the+Framework+of+the+XIII+International+Congress+of+Celtic+Studies&rft.atitle=Insular+Celtic+as+a+Language+Area&rft.pages=106&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Matasovic&rft.aufirst=Ranko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2007" class="citation book cs1">Adams, J. N. (2007). "V – Regionalisms in provincial texts: Gaul". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/regionaldiversif600adam">The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC – AD 600</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/regionaldiversif600adam/page/n300">279</a>–289. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511482977">10.1017/CBO9780511482977</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5114-8297-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5114-8297-7"><bdi>978-0-5114-8297-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=V+%E2%80%93+Regionalisms+in+provincial+texts%3A+Gaul&rft.btitle=The+Regional+Diversification+of+Latin+200+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+600&rft.pages=279-289&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511482977&rft.isbn=978-0-5114-8297-7&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=J.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fregionaldiversif600adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrask1997" class="citation book cs1">Trask, R. L. (1997). The history of Basque. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-4151-3116-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-4151-3116-2"><bdi>0-4151-3116-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34514667">34514667</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+Basque&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34514667&rft.isbn=0-4151-3116-2&rft.aulast=Trask&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBard2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kathryn_A._Bard" title="Kathryn A. 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University of Chicago Press. p. 305.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Incomplete+Feminism+of+Musonius+Rufus%2C+Platonist%2C+Stoic%2C+and+Roman&rft.btitle=The+Sleep+of+Reason%3A+Erotic+Experience+and+Sexual+Ethics+in+Ancient+Greece+and+Rome&rft.pages=305&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Mussbaum&rft.aufirst=Martha+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">, noting that custom "allowed much latitude for personal negotiation and gradual social change"; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFantham2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Fantham" title="Elaine Fantham">Fantham, Elaine</a> (2011). "Stuprum: Public Attitudes and Penalties for Sexual Offences in Republican Rome". Roman Readings: Roman Response to Greek Literature from Plautus to Statius and Quintilian. Walter de Gruyter. p. 124.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stuprum%3A+Public+Attitudes+and+Penalties+for+Sexual+Offences+in+Republican+Rome&rft.btitle=Roman+Readings%3A+Roman+Response+to+Greek+Literature+from+Plautus+to+Statius+and+Quintilian&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Fantham&rft.aufirst=Elaine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">, citing <a href="/wiki/Papinian" title="Papinian">Papinian</a>, De adulteriis I and <a href="/wiki/Modestinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Modestinus">Modestinus</a>, Liber Regularum I. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCantarella2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eva_Cantarella" title="Eva Cantarella">Cantarella, Eva</a> (2002) [1988 (Italian), 1992]. Bisexuality in the Ancient World. Yale University Press. p. 104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bisexuality+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Cantarella&rft.aufirst=Eva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <a href="#CITEREFEdwards2007">Edwards (2007)</a>, pp. 34–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrace2015" class="citation journal cs1">Grace, Angela (28 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yorkspace.library.yorku.ca/items/11ea9842-ee50-4950-ab9f-0ec10232d16f">"Fecunditas, Sterilitas, and the Politics of Reproduction at Rome"</a>. York Space.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=York+Space&rft.atitle=Fecunditas%2C+Sterilitas%2C+and+the+Politics+of+Reproduction+at+Rome&rft.date=2015-08-28&rft.aulast=Grace&rft.aufirst=Angela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyorkspace.library.yorku.ca%2Fitems%2F11ea9842-ee50-4950-ab9f-0ec10232d16f&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley199412-147">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley199412_147-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley199412_147-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBradley1994">Bradley (1994)</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley199415-149"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley199415_149-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBradley1994">Bradley (1994)</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1999">Harris (1999)</a>, pp. 62–75; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2010" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Timothy (2010). "Believing the ancients: Quantitative and qualitative dimensions of slavery and the slave trade in later prehistoric Eurasia". World Archaeology. 33 (1): 27–43. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0706.4406">0706.4406</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438240120047618">10.1080/00438240120047618</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162250553">162250553</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Believing+the+ancients%3A+Quantitative+and+qualitative+dimensions+of+slavery+and+the+slave+trade+in+later+prehistoric+Eurasia&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27-43&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0706.4406&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162250553%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00438240120047618&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper2011" class="citation book cs1">Harper, Kyle (2011). 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Oxford University Press. p. 314. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1951-6132-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-1951-6132-7"><bdi>0-1951-6132-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prostitution%2C+Sexuality+and+the+Law+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=314&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-1951-6132-7&rft.aulast=McGinn&rft.aufirst=Thomas+A.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner1991" class="citation book cs1">Gardner, Jane F. (1991). Women in Roman Law and Society. Indiana University Press. p. 119.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+Roman+Law+and+Society&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Jane+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrierMcGinn200431–33-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrierMcGinn200431–33_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrierMcGinn2004">Frier & McGinn (2004)</a>, pp. 31–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrierMcGinn200421-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrierMcGinn200421_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrierMcGinn2004">Frier & McGinn (2004)</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGamauf2009" class="citation journal cs1">Gamauf, Richard (2009). "Slaves doing business: The role of Roman law in the economy of a Roman household". European Review of History. 16 (3): 331–346. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13507480902916837">10.1080/13507480902916837</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145609520">145609520</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Review+of+History&rft.atitle=Slaves+doing+business%3A+The+role+of+Roman+law+in+the+economy+of+a+Roman+household&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=331-346&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13507480902916837&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145609520%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gamauf&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley19942–3-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley19942–3_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBradley1994">Bradley (1994)</a>, pp. 2–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley199410-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley199410_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBradley1994">Bradley (1994)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuhrmann2012" class="citation book cs1">Fuhrmann, C. J. (2012). Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order. Oxford University Press. pp. 21–41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1997-3784-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1997-3784-0"><bdi>978-0-1997-3784-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Policing+the+Roman+Empire%3A+Soldiers%2C+Administration%2C+and+Public+Order&rft.pages=21-41&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-1997-3784-0&rft.aulast=Fuhrmann&rft.aufirst=C.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinn1998288ff-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGinn1998288ff_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcGinn1998">McGinn (1998)</a>, pp. 288ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbusch2003" class="citation book cs1">Abusch, Ra'anan (2003). "Circumcision and Castration under Roman Law in the Early Empire". The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite. Brandeis University Press. pp. 77–78.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Circumcision+and+Castration+under+Roman+Law+in+the+Early+Empire&rft.btitle=The+Covenant+of+Circumcision%3A+New+Perspectives+on+an+Ancient+Jewish+Rite&rft.pages=77-78&rft.pub=Brandeis+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Abusch&rft.aufirst=Ra%27anan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchäfer2003" class="citation book cs1">Schäfer, Peter (2003) [1983]. The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Routledge. p. 150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Jews+in+the+Greco-Roman+World&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%A4fer&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrierMcGinn2004">Frier & McGinn (2004)</a>, p. 15; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodwin2009" class="citation book cs1">Goodwin, Stefan (2009). Africa in Europe: Antiquity into the Age of Global Expansion. Vol. 1. Lexington Books. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1726-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1726-2"><bdi>978-0-7391-1726-2</bdi></a>. <q>Roman slavery was a nonracist and fluid system</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa+in+Europe%3A+Antiquity+into+the+Age+of+Global+Expansion&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-1726-2&rft.aulast=Goodwin&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantosuosso2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Santosuosso" title="Antonio Santosuosso">Santosuosso, Antonio</a> (2001). Storming the Heavens: Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire. Westview Press. pp. 43–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-3523-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8133-3523-X"><bdi>0-8133-3523-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storming+the+Heavens%3A+Soldiers%2C+Emperors+and+Civilians+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=43-44&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8133-3523-X&rft.aulast=Santosuosso&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoy2000" class="citation book cs1">Noy, David (2000). Foreigners at Rome: Citizens and Strangers. Duckworth with the Classical Press of Wales. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7156-2952-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7156-2952-9"><bdi>978-0-7156-2952-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foreigners+at+Rome%3A+Citizens+and+Strangers&rft.pub=Duckworth+with+the+Classical+Press+of+Wales&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7156-2952-9&rft.aulast=Noy&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper1972" class="citation journal cs1">Harper, James (1972). "Slaves and Freedmen in Imperial Rome". 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The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic. University of Michigan. pp. 23, 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-4720-8878-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-4720-8878-5"><bdi>0-4720-8878-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crowd+in+Rome+in+the+Late+Republic&rft.pages=23%2C+209&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-4720-8878-5&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=Fergus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMouritsen2011" class="citation book cs1">Mouritsen, Henrik (2011). The Freedman in the Roman World. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-757390-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-757390-7"><bdi>978-0-19-757390-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+and+Local+Citizenship+in+the+Long+Second+Century+CE&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-757390-7&rft.aulast=Lavan&rft.aufirst=Myles&rft.au=Ando%2C+Clifford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPbNLEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/decurio">"Decurio | Military Officer, Legionary & Centurion | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. Retrieved 4 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Decurio+%7C+Military+Officer%2C+Legionary+%26+Centurion+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fdecurio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman2000">Boardman (2000)</a>, pp. 217–218; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSyme1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Syme" title="Ronald Syme">Syme, Ronald</a> (1999). Provincial at Rome: and Rome and the Balkans 80 BC – AD 14. University of Exeter Press. pp. 12–13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8598-9632-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8598-9632-3"><bdi>0-8598-9632-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Provincial+at+Rome%3A+and+Rome+and+the+Balkans+80+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+14&rft.pages=12-13&rft.pub=University+of+Exeter+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-8598-9632-3&rft.aulast=Syme&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman2000">Boardman (2000)</a>, pp. 215, 221–222; <a href="#CITEREFMillar2012">Millar (2012)</a>, p. 88, The standard complement of 600 was flexible; twenty <a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">quaestors</a>, for instance, held office each year and were thus admitted to the Senate regardless of whether there were "open" seats </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar201288-175">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar201288_175-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar201288_175-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMillar2012">Millar (2012)</a>, p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000218–219-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000218–219_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman2000">Boardman (2000)</a>, pp. 218–219. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000219-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000219_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman2000">Boardman (2000)</a>, p. 219. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacMullen1966" class="citation journal cs1">MacMullen, Ramsay (1966). 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The American Journal of Philology. 87 (1): 1–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F292973">10.2307/292973</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/292973">292973</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Philology&rft.atitle=Provincial+Languages+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-17&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F292973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F292973%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=MacMullen&rft.aufirst=Ramsay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiseman197078–79-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiseman197078–79_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWiseman1970">Wiseman (1970)</a>, pp. 78–79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiseman197071–72,_76-182"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiseman197071–72,_76_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWiseman1970">Wiseman (1970)</a>, pp. 71–72, 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> 3.169, 5.213 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiseman197075–76,_78-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiseman197075–76,_78_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWiseman1970">Wiseman (1970)</a>, pp. 75–76, 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFear2007" class="citation book cs1">Fear, Andrew (2007). 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 214–215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5217-8274-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5217-8274-6"><bdi>978-0-5217-8274-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=War+and+Society&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Greek+and+Roman+Warfare%3A+Rome+from+the+Late+Republic+to+the+Late+Empire&rft.pages=214-215&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-5217-8274-6&rft.aulast=Fear&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <a href="#CITEREFBennett1997">Bennett (1997)</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorrisScheidel2009">Morris & Scheidel (2009)</a>, p. 188; <a href="#CITEREFMillar2012">Millar (2012)</a>, pp. 87–88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar201296-188"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar201296_188-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMillar2012">Millar (2012)</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiebeschuetz2001" class="citation book cs1">Liebeschuetz, Wolfgang (2001). 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Athenaeum. 95: 870–872. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1854%2FLU-395187">1854/LU-395187</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181103090625/https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/395187/file/6799583">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Athenaeum&rft.atitle=The+Associative+Order%3A+Status+and+Ethos+among+Roman+Businessmen+in+Late+Republic+and+Early+Empire&rft.volume=95&rft.pages=870-872&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1854%2FLU-395187&rft.aulast=Verboven&rft.aufirst=Koenraad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiblio.ugent.be%2Fpublication%2F395187%2Ffile%2F6799583&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <a href="#CITEREFPeachin2011">Peachin (2011)</a>, pp. 153–154. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeachin2011">Peachin (2011)</a>, pp. 153–154; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2009" class="citation book cs1">Perkins, Judith (2009). Early Christian and Judicial Bodies. 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Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-2158-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-2158-4"><bdi>0-8018-2158-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grand+Strategy+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-8018-2158-4&rft.aulast=Luttwak&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009184-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2009184_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2009">Potter (2009)</a>, p. 184. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009181-203"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2009181_203-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2009">Potter (2009)</a>, p. 181. </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1875" class="citation book cs1">Smith, William (1875). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Apotheosis.html">A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</a>. John Murray. pp. 105–106. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210713102925/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA%2A/Apotheosis.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Antiquities&rft.pages=105-106&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2Fsecondary%2FSMIGRA%2A%2FApotheosis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1901354-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1901354_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbbott1901">Abbott (1901)</a>, p. 354. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1901345-206"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1901345_206-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbbott1901">Abbott (1901)</a>, p. 345. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1901341-207"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1901341_207-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbbott1901">Abbott (1901)</a>, p. 341. </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillar2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fergus_Millar" title="Fergus Millar">Millar, Fergus</a> (2004). "Emperors at Work". Rome, the Greek World, and the East: Government, Society, and Culture in the Roman Empire. Vol. 2. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 3–22, especially 4, 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-5520-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-5520-0"><bdi>0-8078-5520-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Emperors+at+Work&rft.btitle=Rome%2C+the+Greek+World%2C+and+the+East%3A+Government%2C+Society%2C+and+Culture+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=3-22%2C+especially+4%2C+20&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8078-5520-0&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=Fergus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000195ff-209"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000195ff_209-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman2000">Boardman (2000)</a>, pp. 195ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000205–209-210"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000205–209_210-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman2000">Boardman (2000)</a>, pp. 205–209. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000202–203,_205,_210-211"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000202–203,_205,_210_211-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman2000">Boardman (2000)</a>, pp. 202–203, 205, 210. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000211-212"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000211_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman2000">Boardman (2000)</a>, p. 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000212-213"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000212_213-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman2000">Boardman (2000)</a>, p. 212. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar201276-214">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar201276_214-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar201276_214-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMillar2012">Millar (2012)</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000215-215"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000215_215-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman2000">Boardman (2000)</a>, p. 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman2000">Boardman (2000)</a>, p. 721; <a href="#CITEREFWinterling2009">Winterling (2009)</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200380-217"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200380_217-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2003">Goldsworthy (2003)</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinterling200916-218"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinterling200916_218-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinterling2009">Winterling (2009)</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTignorAdelman2011" class="citation book cs1">Tignor, Robert; et al. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldstogetherwo03alti">Worlds Together, Worlds Apart: The History of the World</a> (3rd ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldstogetherwo03alti/page/n313">262</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3939-3492-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3939-3492-2"><bdi>978-0-3939-3492-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worlds+Together%2C+Worlds+Apart%3A+The+History+of+the+World&rft.pages=262&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-3939-3492-2&rft.aulast=Tignor&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Adelman%2C+Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldstogetherwo03alti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdmondson1996111–112-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdmondson1996111–112_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdmondson1996">Edmondson (1996)</a>, pp. 111–112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBohec20009-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBohec20009_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBohec2000">Bohec (2000)</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHekster2007" class="citation book cs1">Hekster, Olivier J. (2007). "Fighting for Rome: The Emperor as a Military Leader". Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC–AD 476). Brill. p. 96.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fighting+for+Rome%3A+The+Emperor+as+a+Military+Leader&rft.btitle=Impact+of+the+Roman+Army+%28200+BC%E2%80%93AD+476%29&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Hekster&rft.aufirst=Olivier+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoth1994" class="citation journal cs1">Roth, J. (1994). "The Size and Organization of the Roman Imperial Legion". Historia. 43 (3): 346–362.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia&rft.atitle=The+Size+and+Organization+of+the+Roman+Imperial+Legion&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=346-362&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2003183-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2003183_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2003">Goldsworthy (2003)</a>, p. 183. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009196-225">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009196_225-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009196_225-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorrisScheidel2009">Morris & Scheidel (2009)</a>, p. 196. </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenrose2005" class="citation book cs1">Penrose, Jane (2005). "9: The Romans". Rome and Her Enemies: An Empire Created and Destroyed by War. Bloomsbury US. p. 183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8417-6932-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8417-6932-5"><bdi>978-1-8417-6932-5</bdi></a>. <q>Section 3: Early Empire 27 BC–AD 235</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=9%3A+The+Romans&rft.btitle=Rome+and+Her+Enemies%3A+An+Empire+Created+and+Destroyed+by+War&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+US&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-8417-6932-5&rft.aulast=Penrose&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> <a href="/wiki/Annals_(Tacitus)" title="Annals (Tacitus)">Annales</a> IV.5 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200351-228"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200351_228-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2003">Goldsworthy (2003)</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnolly1986" class="citation journal cs1">Connolly, Peter (1986). "A Reconstruction of a Roman Saddle". Britannia. 17: 353–355. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F526559">10.2307/526559</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/526559">526559</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164155025">164155025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Britannia&rft.atitle=A+Reconstruction+of+a+Roman+Saddle&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=353-355&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164155025%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F526559%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F526559&rft.aulast=Connolly&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnollyVan_Driel-Murray1991" class="citation journal cs1">Connolly, Peter; Van Driel-Murray, Carol (1991). "The Roman Cavalry Saddle". Britannia. 22: 33–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F526629">10.2307/526629</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/526629">526629</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161535316">161535316</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Britannia&rft.atitle=The+Roman+Cavalry+Saddle&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=33-50&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161535316%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F526629%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F526629&rft.aulast=Connolly&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Van+Driel-Murray%2C+Carol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2003114-230"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2003114_230-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2003">Goldsworthy (2003)</a>, p. 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009183-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2009183_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2009">Potter (2009)</a>, p. 183. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009177–179Most_government_records_that_are_preserved_come_from_Roman_Egypt,_where_the_climate_preserved_the_papyri.-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2009177–179Most_government_records_that_are_preserved_come_from_Roman_Egypt,_where_the_climate_preserved_the_papyri._232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2009">Potter (2009)</a>, pp. 177–179, Most government records that are preserved come from Roman Egypt, where the climate preserved the papyri.. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009179The_exclusion_of_Egypt_from_the_senatorial_provinces_dates_to_the_rise_of_Octavian_before_he_became_Augustus:_Egypt_had_been_the_stronghold_of_his_last_opposition,_[[Mark_Antony]]_and_his_ally_[[Cleopatra]].-233"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2009179The_exclusion_of_Egypt_from_the_senatorial_provinces_dates_to_the_rise_of_Octavian_before_he_became_Augustus:_Egypt_had_been_the_stronghold_of_his_last_opposition,_[[Mark_Antony]]_and_his_ally_[[Cleopatra]]._233-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2009">Potter (2009)</a>, p. 179, The exclusion of Egypt from the senatorial provinces dates to the rise of Octavian before he became Augustus: Egypt had been the stronghold of his last opposition, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a> and his ally <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a>.. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009180-234">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2009180_234-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2009180_234-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2009180_234-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2009">Potter (2009)</a>, p. 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009179,_187-235"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2009179,_187_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2009">Potter (2009)</a>, pp. 179, 187. </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2009">Potter (2009)</a>, p. 180; <a href="#CITEREFFuhrmann2012">Fuhrmann (2012)</a>, pp. 197, 214, 224 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009184–185-237">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2009184–185_237-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2009184–185_237-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2009">Potter (2009)</a>, pp. 184–185. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBozeman2010" class="citation book cs1">Bozeman, Adda B. 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A Revision of the Estimates"</a>. Rivista di Storia Economica. 25 (3): 391–420 (391–401). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170116145520/http://econpapers.repec.org/article/muljrkmxm/doi_3a10.1410_2f30919_3ay_3a2009_3ai_3a3_3ap_3a391-420.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2017. 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The Journal of Roman Studies. 79: 84–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F301182">10.2307/301182</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0075-4358">0075-4358</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/301182">301182</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161980467">161980467</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Mining+in+the+Later+Roman+Empire+and+beyond%3A+Continuity+or+Disruption%3F&rft.volume=79&rft.pages=84-102&rft.date=1989&rft.issn=0075-4358&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161980467%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F301182%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F301182&rft.aulast=Edmondson&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F301182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirt2020" class="citation book cs1">Hirt, Alfred M. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-0054-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-0054-9"><bdi>978-0-5218-0054-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Natural+History+of+Pompeii&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-5218-0054-9&rft.aulast=Jashemski&rft.aufirst=Wilhelmina+Feemster&rft.au=Meyer%2C+Frederick+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191-332">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191_332-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191_332-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191_332-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191_332-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191_332-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191_332-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorrisScheidel2009">Morris & Scheidel (2009)</a>, p. 191. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000679-333"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000679_333-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman2000">Boardman (2000)</a>, p. 679. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009195–196-334"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009195–196_334-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorrisScheidel2009">Morris & Scheidel (2009)</a>, pp. 195–196. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191reckoning_that_the_surplus_of_wheat_from_the_province_of_Egypt_alone_could_meet_and_exceed_the_needs_of_the_city_of_Rome_and_the_provincial_armies-335"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrisScheidel2009191reckoning_that_the_surplus_of_wheat_from_the_province_of_Egypt_alone_could_meet_and_exceed_the_needs_of_the_city_of_Rome_and_the_provincial_armies_335-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorrisScheidel2009">Morris & Scheidel (2009)</a>, p. 191, reckoning that the surplus of wheat from the province of Egypt alone could meet and exceed the needs of the city of Rome and the provincial armies. </li> <li id="cite_note-336"><a href="#cite_ref-336">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiseman2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/T._P._Wiseman" title="T. P. Wiseman">Wiseman, T. P.</a> (2012). "The Census in the First Century B.C". Journal of Roman Studies. 59 (1/2): 59–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F299848">10.2307/299848</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/299848">299848</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163672978">163672978</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Census+in+the+First+Century+B.C&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=59-75&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163672978%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F299848%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F299848&rft.aulast=Wiseman&rft.aufirst=T.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-337"><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeane2006" class="citation book cs1">Keane, Catherine (2006). 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University of California Press. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bread+and+Circuses%3A+The+Politics+of+Entertainment&rft.btitle=Gladiators+and+Caesars%3A+The+Power+of+Spectacle+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=K%C3%B6hne&rft.aufirst=Eckhart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuvenal" class="citation book cs1">Juvenal. Satire. pp. 10.77–81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Satire&rft.pages=10.77-81&rft.au=Juvenal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harper-339"><a href="#cite_ref-Harper_339-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper2017" class="citation book cs1">Harper, Kyle (2017). The Fate of Rome. Princeton University Press. pp. 10, 30–31, 67–91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6911-6683-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6911-6683-4"><bdi>978-0-6911-6683-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fate+of+Rome&rft.pages=10%2C+30-31%2C+67-91&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-6911-6683-4&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Kyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2000" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Mark (2000). Galen on Food and Diet. Routledge. pp. 7, 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galen+on+Food+and+Diet&rft.pages=7%2C+11&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-341"><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarper2017">Harper (2017)</a>, pp. 75–79; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoepkeBaten2005" class="citation journal cs1">Koepke, Nikola; Baten, Joerg (1 April 2005). "The biological standard of living in Europe during the last two millennia". European Review of Economic History. 9 (1): 61–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1361491604001388">10.1017/S1361491604001388</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10419%2F47594">10419/47594</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Review+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+biological+standard+of+living+in+Europe+during+the+last+two+millennia&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=61-95&rft.date=2005-04-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10419%2F47594&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1361491604001388&rft.aulast=Koepke&rft.aufirst=Nikola&rft.au=Baten%2C+Joerg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-342"><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStambaugh1988">Stambaugh (1988)</a>, pp. 144, 178; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinds2010" class="citation book cs1">Hinds, Kathryn (2010). Everyday Life in the Roman Empire. Marshall Cavendish. p. 90.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Everyday+Life+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Hinds&rft.aufirst=Kathryn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolleran2012136ff-343"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolleran2012136ff_343-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolleran2012">Holleran (2012)</a>, p. 136ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010299-344"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010299_344-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGagarin2010">Gagarin (2010)</a>, p. 299. </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaas2005" class="citation book cs1">Faas, Patrick (2005) [1994]. Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome. University of Chicago Press. p. 29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Around+the+Roman+Table%3A+Food+and+Feasting+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Faas&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000681-346">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000681_346-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoardman2000681_346-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoardman2000">Boardman (2000)</a>, p. 681. </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny_the_Elder" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, Natural History, p. 19.83–84</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rft.pages=19.83-84&rft.au=Pliny+the+Elder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGowers2003" class="citation book cs1">Gowers, Emily (2003) [1993]. The Loaded Table: Representation of Food in Roman Literature. 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Greenwood Press. p. 184.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Alcock&rft.aufirst=Joan+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-354"><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuetonius" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vitellius*.html#13.2">Life of Vitellius</a>. p. 13.2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+of+Vitellius&rft.pages=13.2&rft.au=Suetonius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FSuetonius%2F12Caesars%2FVitellius%2A.html%2313.2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <a href="#CITEREFGowers2003">Gowers (2003)</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-355"><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufman" class="citation book cs1">Kaufman, Cathy K. "Remembrance of Meals Past: Cooking by Apicius' Book". Food and the Memory: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cooker. pp. 125ff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Remembrance+of+Meals+Past%3A+Cooking+by+Apicius%27+Book&rft.btitle=Food+and+the+Memory%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Oxford+Symposium+on+Food+and+Cooker&rft.pages=125ff&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=Cathy+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010201-356"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010201_356-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGagarin2010">Gagarin (2010)</a>, p. 201. </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlandrinMontanari1999" class="citation book cs1">Flandrin, Jean Louis; <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Montanari" title="Massimo Montanari">Montanari, Massimo</a> (1999). 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G. (1934). "Roman Board Games. I". Greece and Rome. 4 (10): 24–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0017383500002941">10.1017/s0017383500002941</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162861940">162861940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greece+and+Rome&rft.atitle=Roman+Board+Games.+I&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=24-34&rft.date=1934&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0017383500002941&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162861940%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=R.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-games-397"><a href="#cite_ref-games_397-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Austin, R. G. (2009). "Roman Board Games. II". Greece and Rome. 4 (11): 76–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017383500003119">10.1017/S0017383500003119</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248520932">248520932</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greece+and+Rome&rft.atitle=Roman+Board+Games.+II&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=76-82&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0017383500003119&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248520932%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=R.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-398"><a href="#cite_ref-398">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoritz2015" class="citation cs2">Moritz, Ludwig Alfred (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-2149">"dicing"</a>, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.2149">10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.2149</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5"><bdi>978-0-19-938113-5</bdi></a>, retrieved 4 August 2024</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=dicing&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Classics&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.2149&rft.isbn=978-0-19-938113-5&rft.aulast=Moritz&rft.aufirst=Ludwig+Alfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fclassics%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199381135-e-2149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-399"><a href="#cite_ref-399">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEyben1977" class="citation book cs1">Eyben, Emiel (1977). Restless Youth in Ancient Rome. Routledge. pp. 79–82, 110.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Restless+Youth+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=79-82%2C+110&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Eyben&rft.aufirst=Emiel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-400"><a href="#cite_ref-400">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorelli1988" class="citation book cs1">Torelli, M. (1988). "Piazza Armerina: Note di iconologia". In Rizza, G. (ed.). La Villa romana del Casale di Piazza Armerina. Catania. p. 152.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Piazza+Armerina%3A+Note+di+iconologia&rft.btitle=La+Villa+romana+del+Casale+di+Piazza+Armerina&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=Catania&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Torelli&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-402"><a href="#cite_ref-402">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunbabin1999" class="citation book cs1">Dunbabin, Katherine (1999). Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World. Cambridge University Press. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-5210-0230-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-5210-0230-3"><bdi>0-5210-0230-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mosaics+of+the+Greek+and+Roman+World&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-5210-0230-3&rft.aulast=Dunbabin&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-403"><a href="#cite_ref-403">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson1991" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Ann Ellis (1991). "The Restructuring of Female Physiology at Rome". Les écoles médicales à Rome. Université de Nantes. pp. 260, 264.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Restructuring+of+Female+Physiology+at+Rome&rft.btitle=Les+%C3%A9coles+m%C3%A9dicales+%C3%A0+Rome&rft.pages=260%2C+264&rft.pub=Universit%C3%A9+de+Nantes&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Ann+Ellis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">, particularly citing the Gynecology of <a href="/wiki/Soranus_of_Ephesus" title="Soranus of Ephesus">Soranus</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010230-404"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010230_404-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGagarin2010">Gagarin (2010)</a>, p. 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-coon-405">^ <a href="#cite_ref-coon_405-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-coon_405-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoon1997" class="citation book cs1">Coon, Lynda L. (1997). Sacred Fictions: Holy Women and Hagiography in Late Antiquity. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 57–58.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+Fictions%3A+Holy+Women+and+Hagiography+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.pages=57-58&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Coon&rft.aufirst=Lynda+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bieber-406">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bieber_406-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bieber_406-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bieber_406-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBieber1959" class="citation journal cs1">Bieber, Margarete (1959). "Roman Men in Greek Himation (Romani Palliati) a Contribution to the History of Copying". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 103 (3): 374–417.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Roman+Men+in+Greek+Himation+%28Romani+Palliati%29+a+Contribution+to+the+History+of+Copying&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=374-417&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Bieber&rft.aufirst=Margarete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-407"><a href="#cite_ref-407">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVout2009">Vout (2009)</a>, pp. 204–220, especially 206, 211; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMétraux2008" class="citation book cs1">Métraux, Guy P.R. (2008). "Prudery and Chic in Late Antique Clothing". Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture. University of Toronto Press. p. 286.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prudery+and+Chic+in+Late+Antique+Clothing&rft.btitle=Roman+Dress+and+the+Fabrics+of+Roman+Culture&rft.pages=286&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=M%C3%A9traux&rft.aufirst=Guy+P.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVout2009216-408">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVout2009216_408-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVout2009216_408-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFVout2009">Vout (2009)</a>, p. 216. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMétraux2008282–283-409"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMétraux2008282–283_409-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMétraux2008">Métraux (2008)</a>, pp. 282–283. </li> <li id="cite_note-410"><a href="#cite_ref-410">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCleland2007" class="citation book cs1">Cleland, Liza (2007). 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Routledge. p. 194.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+and+Roman+Dress+from+A+to+Z&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Cleland&rft.aufirst=Liza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010231-411">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010231_411-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010231_411-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGagarin2010">Gagarin (2010)</a>, p. 231. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVout2009218-412"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVout2009218_412-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVout2009">Vout (2009)</a>, p. 218. </li> <li id="cite_note-413"><a href="#cite_ref-413">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>, De Pallio 5.2 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010232-414"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGagarin2010232_414-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGagarin2010">Gagarin (2010)</a>, p. 232. </li> <li id="cite_note-415"><a href="#cite_ref-415">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'Amato2005" class="citation book cs1">D'Amato, Raffaele (2005). Roman Military Clothing (3): AD 400–640. Osprey. pp. 7–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-8417-6843-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-8417-6843-X"><bdi>1-8417-6843-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Military+Clothing+%283%29%3A+AD+400%E2%80%93640&rft.pages=7-9&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-8417-6843-X&rft.aulast=D%27Amato&rft.aufirst=Raffaele&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-416"><a href="#cite_ref-416">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWickham2009" class="citation book cs1">Wickham, Chris (2009). The Inheritance of Rome. 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Journal of Roman Studies. 70: 44–63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F299555">10.2307/299555</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/299555">299555</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163530509">163530509</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Promotion+and+Patronage+in+Equestrian+Careers&rft.volume=70&rft.pages=44-63&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163530509%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F299555%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F299555&rft.aulast=Saller&rft.aufirst=R.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2009598-514"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter2009598_514-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPotter2009">Potter (2009)</a>, p. 598. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaes2011109–110-515"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaes2011109–110_515-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaes2011">Laes (2011)</a>, pp. 109–110. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeachin201188-516"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeachin201188_516-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeachin2011">Peachin (2011)</a>, p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-517"><a href="#cite_ref-517">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaes2011">Laes (2011)</a>, p. 110; <a href="#CITEREFGagarin2010">Gagarin (2010)</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarin201018-518"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGagarin201018_518-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGagarin2010">Gagarin (2010)</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-519"><a href="#cite_ref-519">^</a> The wide-ranging 21st-century scholarship on the Second Sophistic includes <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldhill2001" class="citation book cs1">Goldhill, Simon (2001). Being Greek under Rome: Cultural Identity, the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Being+Greek+under+Rome%3A+Cultural+Identity%2C+the+Second+Sophistic+and+the+Development+of+Empire&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Goldhill&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorg2004" class="citation book cs1">Borg, Barbara E., ed. (2004). Paideia: The World of the Second Sophistic. De Gruyter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paideia%3A+The+World+of+the+Second+Sophistic&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitmarsh2005" class="citation book cs1">Whitmarsh, Tim (2005). The Second Sophistic. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+Sophistic&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Whitmarsh&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-h122-520">^ <a href="#cite_ref-h122_520-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-h122_520-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHabinek1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Habinek" title="Thomas Habinek">Habinek, Thomas N.</a> (1998). The Politics of Latin Literature: Writing, Identity, and Empire in Ancient Rome. Princeton University Press. pp. 122–123.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Latin+Literature%3A+Writing%2C+Identity%2C+and+Empire+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=122-123&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Habinek&rft.aufirst=Thomas+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawson200380-521"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawson200380_521-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRawson2003">Rawson (2003)</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-522"><a href="#cite_ref-522">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2003" class="citation book cs1">James, Sharon L. (2003). Learned Girls and Male Persuasion: Gender and Reading in Roman Love Elegy. University of California Press. pp. 21–25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Learned+Girls+and+Male+Persuasion%3A+Gender+and+Reading+in+Roman+Love+Elegy&rft.pages=21-25&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Sharon+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2012" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, W.R. (2012). "Propertius". A Companion to Roman Love Elegy. Blackwell. pp. 42–43.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Propertius&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Roman+Love+Elegy&rft.pages=42-43&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=W.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2012" class="citation book cs1">James, Sharon L. (2012). "Elegy and New Comedy". A Companion to Roman Love Elegy. Blackwell. p. 262.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Elegy+and+New+Comedy&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Roman+Love+Elegy&rft.pages=262&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Sharon+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts19893-523"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts19893_523-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts1989">Roberts (1989)</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-524"><a href="#cite_ref-524">^</a> Aetas Ovidiana; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNelis2007" class="citation book cs1">McNelis, Charles (2007). "Ovidian Strategies in Early Imperial Literature". A Companion to Ovid. Blackwell. p. 397.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ovidian+Strategies+in+Early+Imperial+Literature&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ovid&rft.pages=397&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=McNelis&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-525"><a href="#cite_ref-525">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Dam2008" class="citation book cs1">van Dam, Harm-Jan (2008). "Wandering Woods Again: From Poliziano to Grotius". The Poetry of Statius. Brill. pp. 45ff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wandering+Woods+Again%3A+From+Poliziano+to+Grotius&rft.btitle=The+Poetry+of+Statius&rft.pages=45ff&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=van+Dam&rft.aufirst=Harm-Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbrecht19971294-526"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlbrecht19971294_526-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlbrecht1997">Albrecht (1997)</a>, p. 1294. </li> <li id="cite_note-527"><a href="#cite_ref-527">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-City-of-God">"The City of God | Summary, Significance, & Facts | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. Retrieved 4 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=The+City+of+God+%7C+Summary%2C+Significance%2C+%26+Facts+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FThe-City-of-God&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts198970-528"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts198970_528-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts1989">Roberts (1989)</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-529"><a href="#cite_ref-529">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEiland2023" class="citation book cs1">Eiland, Murray (2023). Picturing Roman Belief Systems: The iconography of coins in the Republic and Empire. British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Limited. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30861%2F9781407360713">10.30861/9781407360713</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-6071-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-6071-3"><bdi>978-1-4073-6071-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Picturing+Roman+Belief+Systems%3A+The+iconography+of+coins+in+the+Republic+and+Empire&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=British+Archaeological+Reports+%28Oxford%29+Limited&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.30861%2F9781407360713&rft.isbn=978-1-4073-6071-3&rft.aulast=Eiland&rft.aufirst=Murray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERüpke20074-530"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERüpke20074_530-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRüpke2007">Rüpke (2007)</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-531"><a href="#cite_ref-531">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunson1995" class="citation book cs1">Bunson, Matthew (1995). A Dictionary of the Roman Empire. Oxford University Press. p. 246.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=246&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Bunson&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-532"><a href="#cite_ref-532">^</a> جواد علي, المفصل في تاريخ العرب قبل الإسلام (Jawad Ali, Al-Mufassal fi Tarikh Al-'Arab Qabl Al-Islam; "Commentary on the History of the Arabs Before Islam"), Baghdad, 1955–1983; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarland2003" class="citation book cs1">Harland, P. (2003). "Imperial Cults within Local Cultural Life: Associations in Roman Asia". (originally published in) Ancient History Bulletin / Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte). Vol. 17. pp. 91–103.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imperial+Cults+within+Local+Cultural+Life%3A+Associations+in+Roman+Asia&rft.btitle=%28originally+published+in%29+Ancient+History+Bulletin+%2F+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Alte+Geschichte%29&rft.pages=91-103&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Harland&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-535"><a href="#cite_ref-535">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRüpke2007">Rüpke (2007)</a>, p. 4; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsaac2004" class="citation book cs1">Isaac, Benjamin H. (2004). The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton University Press. p. 449.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invention+of+Racism+in+Classical+Antiquity&rft.pages=449&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Isaac&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrend1967" class="citation book cs1">Frend, W.H.C. (1967). Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church: A Study of Conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus. Doubleday. p. 106.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Martyrdom+and+Persecution+in+the+Early+Church%3A+A+Study+of+Conflict+from+the+Maccabees+to+Donatus&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Frend&rft.aufirst=W.H.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuskinson2000" class="citation book cs1">Huskinson, Janet (2000). Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire. Routledge. p. 261.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Experiencing+Rome%3A+Culture%2C+Identity+and+Power+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=261&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Huskinson&rft.aufirst=Janet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">. See, for instance, the altar dedicated by a Roman citizen and depicting a sacrifice conducted in the Roman manner for the Germanic goddess <a href="/wiki/Vagdavercustis" title="Vagdavercustis">Vagdavercustis</a> in the 2nd century AD. </li> <li id="cite_note-536"><a href="#cite_ref-536">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMomigliano1986" class="citation journal cs1">Momigliano, Arnaldo (1986). "The Disadvantages of Monotheism for a Universal State". Classical Philology. 81 (4): 285–297. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F367003">10.1086/367003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161203730">161203730</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+Philology&rft.atitle=The+Disadvantages+of+Monotheism+for+a+Universal+State&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=285-297&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F367003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161203730%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Momigliano&rft.aufirst=Arnaldo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-537"><a href="#cite_ref-537">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFishwick1991" class="citation book cs1">Fishwick, Duncan (1991). The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire. Vol. 1. Brill. pp. 97–149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-0040-7179-2" title="Special:BookSources/9-0040-7179-2"><bdi>9-0040-7179-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Cult+in+the+Latin+West%3A+Studies+in+the+Ruler+Cult+of+the+Western+Provinces+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=97-149&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9-0040-7179-2&rft.aulast=Fishwick&rft.aufirst=Duncan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-538"><a href="#cite_ref-538">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowmanGarnseyCameron2005">Bowman, Garnsey & Cameron (2005)</a>, p. 616; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrend2006" class="citation book cs1">Frend, W.H.C. (2006). "Persecutions: Genesis and Legacy". Cambridge History of Christianity: Origins to Constantine. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 510. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-5218-1239-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-5218-1239-9"><bdi>0-5218-1239-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Persecutions%3A+Genesis+and+Legacy&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+Christianity%3A+Origins+to+Constantine&rft.pages=510&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-5218-1239-9&rft.aulast=Frend&rft.aufirst=W.H.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2012" class="citation journal cs1">Barnes, T. D. (2012). "Legislation against the Christians". Journal of Roman Studies. 58 (1–2): 32–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F299693">10.2307/299693</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/299693">299693</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161858491">161858491</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Legislation+against+the+Christians&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=32-50&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161858491%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F299693%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F299693&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=T.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSainte-Croix,_G.E.M_de1963" class="citation journal cs1">Sainte-Croix, G.E.M de (1963). "Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted?". Past & Present (26): 6–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F26.1.6">10.1093/past/26.1.6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Why+Were+the+Early+Christians+Persecuted%3F&rft.issue=26&rft.pages=6-38&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F26.1.6&rft.au=Sainte-Croix%2C+G.E.M+de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusurillo1972" class="citation book cs1">Musurillo, Herbert (1972). The Acts of the Christian Martyrs. Clarendon Press. pp. lviii–lxii.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Acts+of+the+Christian+Martyrs&rft.pages=lviii-lxii&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Musurillo&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherwin-White1952" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/A.N._Sherwin-White" class="mw-redirect" title="A.N. Sherwin-White">Sherwin-White, A. N.</a> (1952). "The Early Persecutions and Roman Law Again". The Journal of Theological Studies. 3 (2): 199–213. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjts%2FIII.2.199">10.1093/jts/III.2.199</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Theological+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Early+Persecutions+and+Roman+Law+Again&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=199-213&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjts%2FIII.2.199&rft.aulast=Sherwin-White&rft.aufirst=A.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-annals-xv-44-539"><a href="#cite_ref-annals-xv-44_539-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTacitus" class="citation book cs1">Tacitus. Annals. p. <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_15#44">XV.44 </a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annals&rft.pages=XV.44&rft.au=Tacitus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-540"><a href="#cite_ref-540">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEusebius_of_Caesarea425" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusebius of Caesarea">Eusebius of Caesarea</a> (425). 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Classical Philology. 51: 1–13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F363978">10.1086/363978</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161356789">161356789</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+Philology&rft.atitle=%27Domitian%27s+attitude+towards+the+Jews+and+Judaism&rft.volume=51&rft.pages=1-13&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F363978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161356789%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Smallwood&rft.aufirst=E.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-541"><a href="#cite_ref-541">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny" class="citation web cs1">Pliny. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811045206/http://www.mesacc.edu/~tomshoemaker/handouts/pliny.html">"Epistle to Trajan on the Christians"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mesacc.edu/~tomshoemaker/handouts/pliny.html">the original</a> on 11 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Epistle+to+Trajan+on+the+Christians&rft.au=Pliny&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mesacc.edu%2F~tomshoemaker%2Fhandouts%2Fpliny.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-542"><a href="#cite_ref-542">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrend1959" class="citation journal cs1">Frend, W. H. C. (1959). "The Failure of the Persecutions in the Roman Empire". 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InterVarsity Press. p. 304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-2722-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-2722-0"><bdi>978-0-8308-2722-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defending+Constantine+The+Twilight+of+an+Empire+and+the+Dawn+of+Christendom&rft.pages=304&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-2722-0&rft.aulast=Leithart&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-546"><a href="#cite_ref-546">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Brown_(historian)" title="Peter Brown (historian)">Brown, Peter</a> (2003). 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MacDonald">MacDonald, William L.</a> (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pantheondesignme0000macd">The Pantheon: Design, Meaning, and Progeny</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-6740-1019-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-6740-1019-1"><bdi>0-6740-1019-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pantheon%3A+Design%2C+Meaning%2C+and+Progeny&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-6740-1019-1&rft.aulast=MacDonald&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpantheondesignme0000macd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-549"><a href="#cite_ref-549">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1993" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Brown_(historian)" title="Peter Brown (historian)">Brown, Peter</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220303104208/http://publications.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/pubs/proc/files/82p089.pdf">"The Problem of Christianization"</a> (PDF). Proceedings of the British Academy. 84. Oxford University Press: 90. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publications.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/pubs/proc/files/82p089.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 3 March 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+British+Academy&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Christianization&rft.volume=84&rft.pages=90&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublications.thebritishacademy.ac.uk%2Fpubs%2Fproc%2Ffiles%2F82p089.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-550"><a href="#cite_ref-550">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalzman1993" class="citation journal cs1">Salzman, Michele Renee (1993). "The Evidence for the Conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity in Book 16 of the 'Theodosian Code". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 42 (3). Franz Steiner Verlag: 362–378.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Alte+Geschichte&rft.atitle=The+Evidence+for+the+Conversion+of+the+Roman+Empire+to+Christianity+in+Book+16+of+the+%27Theodosian+Code&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=362-378&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Salzman&rft.aufirst=Michele+Renee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown_1998-551">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brown_1998_551-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brown_1998_551-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Brown_(historian)" title="Peter Brown (historian)">Brown, Peter</a> (1998). "Christianization and religious conflict". In <a href="/wiki/Averil_Cameron" title="Averil Cameron">Cameron, Averil</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peter_Garnsey" title="Peter Garnsey">Garnsey, Peter</a> (eds.). <a href="//archive.org/details/iB_Ca/013" class="extiw" title="iarchive:iB Ca/013">The Cambridge Ancient History</a>. Vol. XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge University Press. pp. 634, 640, 651. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-0200-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-0200-5"><bdi>978-0-5213-0200-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Christianization+and+religious+conflict&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.pages=634%2C+640%2C+651&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-5213-0200-5&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-552"><a href="#cite_ref-552">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemarsin2011" class="citation book cs1">Demarsin, Koen (2011). "'Paganism' in Late Antiquity: Thematic studies Introduction". In Lavan, Luke; Mulryan, Michael (eds.). The Archaeology of Late Antique 'Paganism' (volume 7; illustrated ed.). Brill. p. liv–lv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0041-9237-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0041-9237-9"><bdi>978-9-0041-9237-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Paganism%27+in+Late+Antiquity%3A+Thematic+studies+Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Late+Antique+%27Paganism%27&rft.pages=liv-lv&rft.edition=volume+7%3B+illustrated&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-9-0041-9237-9&rft.aulast=Demarsin&rft.aufirst=Koen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-553"><a href="#cite_ref-553">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstantelos1964" class="citation journal cs1">Constantelos, Demetrios J. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/25017472">"Paganism and the State in the Age of Justinian"</a>. The Catholic Historical Review. 50 (3): 372–380. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25017472">25017472</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220531174806/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25017472">Archived</a> from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Catholic+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Paganism+and+the+State+in+the+Age+of+Justinian&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=372-380&rft.date=1964&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25017472%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Constantelos&rft.aufirst=Demetrios+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25017472&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrewer2005127-554">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrewer2005127_554-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrewer2005127_554-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrewer2005">Brewer (2005)</a>, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-555"><a href="#cite_ref-555">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSáry2019" class="citation book cs1">Sáry, Pál (2019). "Remarks on the Edict of Thessalonica of 380". In Vojtech Vladár (ed.). Perpauca Terrena Blande Honori dedicata pocta Petrovi Blahovi K Nedožitým 80. Narodeninám. Trnavská univerzity. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-0568-0313-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-8-0568-0313-4"><bdi>978-8-0568-0313-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Remarks+on+the+Edict+of+Thessalonica+of+380&rft.btitle=Perpauca+Terrena+Blande+Honori+dedicata+pocta+Petrovi+Blahovi+K+Nedo%C5%BEit%C3%BDm+80.+Narodenin%C3%A1m&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Trnavsk%C3%A1+univerzity&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-8-0568-0313-4&rft.aulast=S%C3%A1ry&rft.aufirst=P%C3%A1l&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrewer2005" class="citation journal cs1">Brewer, Catherine (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41443760">"The Status of the Jews in Roman Legislation: The Reign of Justinian 527-565 Ce"</a>. European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe. 38 (2): 127–139. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41443760">41443760</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220528194215/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41443760">Archived</a> from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Judaism%3A+A+Journal+for+the+New+Europe&rft.atitle=The+Status+of+the+Jews+in+Roman+Legislation%3A+The+Reign+of+Justinian+527-565+Ce&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=127-139&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41443760%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Brewer&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41443760&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERüpke2007406–426-556"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERüpke2007406–426_556-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRüpke2007">Rüpke (2007)</a>, pp. 406–426. </li> <li id="cite_note-557"><a href="#cite_ref-557">^</a> On vocabulary, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchilling1992" class="citation book cs1">Schilling, Robert (1992). "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion". Roman and European Mythologies. University of Chicago Press. p. 110.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Decline+and+Survival+of+Roman+Religion&rft.btitle=Roman+and+European+Mythologies&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Schilling&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-558"><a href="#cite_ref-558">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurgan2009" class="citation book cs1">Burgan, Michael (2009). Empire of Ancient Rome. Infobase Publishing. pp. 113–114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-2659-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-2659-3"><bdi>978-1-4381-2659-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=113-114&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-2659-3&rft.aulast=Burgan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-559"><a href="#cite_ref-559">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNobleStraussOsheimNeuschel2010" class="citation book cs1">Noble, Thomas F. X.; Strauss, Barry; Osheim, Duane J.; Neuschel, Kristen B.; Accampo, Elinor Ann (2010). Western Civilization: Beyond Boundaries, 1300–1815. Cengage Learning. p. 352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4240-6959-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4240-6959-0"><bdi>978-1-4240-6959-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+Beyond+Boundaries%2C+1300%E2%80%931815&rft.pages=352&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4240-6959-0&rft.aulast=Noble&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.+X.&rft.au=Strauss%2C+Barry&rft.au=Osheim%2C+Duane+J.&rft.au=Neuschel%2C+Kristen+B.&rft.au=Accampo%2C+Elinor+Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-560"><a href="#cite_ref-560">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Encyclopædia Britannica, History of Europe, The Romans. 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+History+of+Europe%2C+The+Romans&rft.date=2008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-561"><a href="#cite_ref-561">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollier2003" class="citation book cs1">Collier, Martin (2003). Italian Unification, 1820–71. Heinemann. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4353-2754-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4353-2754-5"><bdi>978-0-4353-2754-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italian+Unification%2C+1820%E2%80%9371&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Heinemann&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-4353-2754-5&rft.aulast=Collier&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-562"><a href="#cite_ref-562">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriggs2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ward_W._Briggs" title="Ward W. Briggs">Briggs, Ward</a> (2010). "United States". A Companion to the Classical Tradition. Blackwell. pp. 279ff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=United+States&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Classical+Tradition&rft.pages=279ff&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Briggs&rft.aufirst=Ward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meinig-563"><a href="#cite_ref-Meinig_563-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeinig1986" class="citation book cs1">Meinig, D.W. (1986). The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History. Atlantic America, 1492–1800. Vol. 1. Yale University Press. pp. 432–435. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3000-3882-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-3000-3882-8"><bdi>0-3000-3882-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shaping+of+America%3A+A+Geographical+Perspective+on+500+Years+of+History.+Atlantic+America%2C+1492%E2%80%931800&rft.pages=432-435&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-3000-3882-8&rft.aulast=Meinig&rft.aufirst=D.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vale-564"><a href="#cite_ref-vale_564-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVale1992" class="citation book cs1">Vale, Lawrence J. (1992). Architecture, Power, and National Identity. Yale University Press. pp. 11, 66–67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architecture%2C+Power%2C+and+National+Identity&rft.pages=11%2C+66-67&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Vale&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-korn-565"><a href="#cite_ref-korn_565-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKornwall2011" class="citation book cs1">Kornwall, James D. (2011). Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial North America. Vol. 3. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 1246, 1405–1408. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5986-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5986-1"><bdi>978-0-8018-5986-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architecture+and+Town+Planning+in+Colonial+North+America&rft.pages=1246%2C+1405-1408&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-5986-1&rft.aulast=Kornwall&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-566"><a href="#cite_ref-566">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMallgrave2005" class="citation book cs1">Mallgrave, Harry Francis (2005). Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical Survey, 1673–1968. Cambridge University Press. pp. 144–145.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Architectural+Theory%3A+A+Historical+Survey%2C+1673%E2%80%931968&rft.pages=144-145&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Mallgrave&rft.aufirst=Harry+Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <a href="#CITEREFWood2011">Wood (2011)</a>, pp. 73–74; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOnufCole" class="citation book cs1">Onuf, Peter S.; Cole, Nicholas P. "Introduction". Thomas Jefferson, the Classical World, and Early America. 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University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5202-6551-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5202-6551-6"><bdi>978-0-5202-6551-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeologies+of+Colonialism%3A+Consumption%2C+Entanglement%2C+and+Violence+in+Ancient+Mediterranean+France&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-5202-6551-6&rft.aulast=Dietler&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-567"><a href="#cite_ref-567">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriggs2010">Briggs (2010)</a>, pp. 282–286; <a href="#CITEREFWood2011">Wood (2011)</a>, pp. 60, 66, 73–74, 239 </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbbott1901" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Frost_Abbott" title="Frank Frost Abbott">Abbott, Frank Frost</a> (1901). 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Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5202-2067-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5202-2067-6"><bdi>978-0-5202-2067-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Ideology+and+Provincial+Loyalty+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-5202-2067-6&rft.aulast=Ando&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAuguet2012" class="citation book cs1">Auguet, Roland (2012). Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4151-6524-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4151-6524-2"><bdi>978-0-4151-6524-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trajan%3A+Optimus+Princeps%3A+a+Life+and+Times&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-4151-6524-2&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoardman2000" class="citation book cs1">Boardman, John, ed. (2000). The Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192. Vol. 11. 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Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-2295-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4152-2295-2"><bdi>978-0-4152-2295-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Roman+Army&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-4152-2295-2&rft.aulast=Bohec&rft.aufirst=Yann+Le&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowersockBrownGrabar1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Glen_Bowersock" title="Glen Bowersock">Bowersock, Glen Warren</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peter_Brown_(historian)" title="Peter Brown (historian)">Brown, Peter</a>; Grabar, Oleg (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lateantiquitygui00bowe">Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World</a>. 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A History of Reading in the West. Polity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-1936-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-1936-1"><bdi>978-0-7456-1936-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Reading+in+the+West&rft.pub=Polity+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-1936-1&rft.aulast=Cavallo&rft.aufirst=Guglielmo&rft.au=Chartier%2C+Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_R._Clarke_(historian)" title="John R. Clarke (historian)">Clarke, John R.</a> (1991). The Houses of Roman Italy, 100 B.C.-A.D. 250: Ritual, Space, and Decoration. 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Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-1102-0213-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-1102-0213-7"><bdi>978-3-1102-0213-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life%2C+Death+and+Representation%3A+Some+New+Work+on+Roman+Sarcophagi&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-1102-0213-7&rft.aulast=Elsner&rft.aufirst=Ja%C5%9B&rft.au=Huskinson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2000" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Charles (2000) [1999]. The Greek achievement: the Foundation of the Western World. New York: Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6708-8515-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6708-8515-2"><bdi>978-0-6708-8515-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+achievement%3A+the+Foundation+of+the+Western+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-6708-8515-2&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrierMcGinn2004" class="citation book cs1">Frier, Bruce W.; McGinn, Thomas A. (2004). A Casebook on Roman Family Law. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-6185-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-6185-4"><bdi>978-0-1951-6185-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Casebook+on+Roman+Family+Law&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-1951-6185-4&rft.aulast=Frier&rft.aufirst=Bruce+W.&rft.au=McGinn%2C+Thomas+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGagarin2010" class="citation book cs1">Gagarin, Michael, ed. (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-7072-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-7072-6"><bdi>978-0-1951-7072-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+Greece+and+Rome&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-1951-7072-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith</a> (2003). The Complete Roman Army. Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5000-5124-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5000-5124-5"><bdi>978-0-5000-5124-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Roman+Army&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-5000-5124-5&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howromefelldeath0000gold">How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-3719-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-3719-4"><bdi>978-0-3001-3719-4</bdi></a>. <q>Commodus Gibbon</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Rome+Fell%3A+Death+of+a+Superpower&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-3001-3719-4&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian+Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhowromefelldeath0000gold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHabinek2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Habinek" title="Thomas Habinek">Habinek, Thomas N.</a> (2005). The World of Roman Song: From Ritualized Speech to Social Order. Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8105-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8105-3"><bdi>978-0-8018-8105-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Roman+Song%3A+From+Ritualized+Speech+to+Social+Order&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-8105-3&rft.aulast=Habinek&rft.aufirst=Thomas+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_V._Harris" title="William V. Harris">Harris, W. V.</a> (1989). Ancient Literacy. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-3381-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-3381-8"><bdi>978-0-6740-3381-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Literacy&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-6740-3381-8&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=W.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1999" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_V._Harris" title="William V. Harris">Harris, W. V.</a> (1999). "Demography, Geography and the Sources of Roman Slaves". The Journal of Roman Studies. 89: 62–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F300734">10.2307/300734</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/300734">300734</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162766304">162766304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Demography%2C+Geography+and+the+Sources+of+Roman+Slaves&rft.volume=89&rft.pages=62-75&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162766304%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F300734%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F300734&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=W.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_V._Harris" title="William V. Harris">Harris, W. V.</a> (2010). "The Nature of Roman Money". The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1995-8671-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1995-8671-4"><bdi>978-0-1995-8671-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+Roman+Money&rft.btitle=The+Monetary+Systems+of+the+Greeks+and+Romans&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-1995-8671-4&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=W.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolleran2012" class="citation book cs1">Holleran, Claire (2012). Shopping in Ancient Rome: The Retail Trade in the Late Republic and the Principate. Oxford Universwity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1996-9821-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1996-9821-9"><bdi>978-0-1996-9821-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shopping+in+Ancient+Rome%3A+The+Retail+Trade+in+the+Late+Republic+and+the+Principate&rft.pub=Oxford+Universwity+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-1996-9821-9&rft.aulast=Holleran&rft.aufirst=Claire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHumphrey1986" class="citation book cs1">Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5200-4921-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5200-4921-5"><bdi>978-0-5200-4921-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Circuses%3A+Arenas+for+Chariot+Racing&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-5200-4921-5&rft.aulast=Humphrey&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonParker2009" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, William A.; Parker, Holt N. (2009). Ancient Literacies: The Culture of Reading in Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1997-1286-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1997-1286-1"><bdi>978-0-1997-1286-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Literacies%3A+The+Culture+of+Reading+in+Greece+and+Rome&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-1997-1286-1&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rft.au=Parker%2C+Holt+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2010" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, William A. (2010). Readers and Reading Culture in the High Roman Empire: A Study of Elite Communities. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1997-2105-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1997-2105-4"><bdi>978-0-1997-2105-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readers+and+Reading+Culture+in+the+High+Roman+Empire%3A+A+Study+of+Elite+Communities&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-1997-2105-4&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1960" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._H._M._Jones" title="A. H. M. Jones">Jones, A. H. M.</a> (1960). "The Cloth Industry Under the Roman Empire". Economic History Review. 13 (2): 183–192. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2591177">2591177</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+Cloth+Industry+Under+the+Roman+Empire&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=183-192&rft.date=1960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2591177%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=A.+H.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Wilson_Jones" title="Mark Wilson Jones">Jones, Mark Wilson</a> (2003) [2000]. Principles of Roman Architecture. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-0202-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-0202-4"><bdi>978-0-3001-0202-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Roman+Architecture&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-3001-0202-4&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Mark+Wilson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesBird2012" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, R. F. J.; Bird, D. G. (2012). "Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna". Journal of Roman Studies. 62: 59–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F298927">10.2307/298927</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/298927">298927</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162096359">162096359</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Roman+Gold-Mining+in+North-West+Spain%2C+II%3A+Workings+on+the+Rio+Duerna&rft.volume=62&rft.pages=59-74&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162096359%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F298927%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F298927&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=R.+F.+J.&rft.au=Bird%2C+D.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Kelly_(historian)" title="Christopher Kelly (historian)">Kelly, Christopher</a> (2007). The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-0391-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1928-0391-7"><bdi>978-0-1928-0391-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-1928-0391-7&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKousser2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Meredith_Kousser" title="Rachel Meredith Kousser">Kousser, Rachel Meredith</a> (2008). Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture: The Allure of the Classical. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-7782-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-7782-4"><bdi>978-0-5218-7782-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hellenistic+and+Roman+Ideal+Sculpture%3A+The+Allure+of+the+Classical&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-5218-7782-4&rft.aulast=Kousser&rft.aufirst=Rachel+Meredith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaes2011" class="citation book cs1">Laes, Christian (2011). Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders Within. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-9746-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-9746-4"><bdi>978-0-5218-9746-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Children+in+the+Roman+Empire%3A+Outsiders+Within&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-5218-9746-4&rft.aulast=Laes&rft.aufirst=Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall1976" class="citation journal cs1">Marshall, Anthony J. (1976). "Library Resources and Creative Writing at Rome". Phoenix. 30 (3): 252–264. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1087296">10.2307/1087296</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1087296">1087296</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phoenix&rft.atitle=Library+Resources+and+Creative+Writing+at+Rome&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=252-264&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1087296&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1087296%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=Anthony+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillar2012" class="citation journal cs1">Millar, Fergus (2012). "Empire and City, Augustus to Julian: Obligations, Excuses and Status". Journal of Roman Studies. 73: 76–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F300073">10.2307/300073</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/300073">300073</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159799017">159799017</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Empire+and+City%2C+Augustus+to+Julian%3A+Obligations%2C+Excuses+and+Status&rft.volume=73&rft.pages=76-96&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159799017%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F300073%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F300073&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=Fergus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrisScheidel2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Morris_(historian)" title="Ian Morris (historian)">Morris, Ian</a>; <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scheidel" title="Walter Scheidel">Scheidel, Walter</a> (2009). The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1997-0761-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1997-0761-4"><bdi>978-0-1997-0761-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dynamics+of+Ancient+Empires%3A+State+Power+from+Assyria+to+Byzantium&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-1997-0761-4&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Scheidel%2C+Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaerebout2009" class="citation conference cs1">Naerebout, Frederick G. (2009). "Dance in the Roman Empire and Its Discontents". Ritual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire. Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (5–7 July 2007). Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0041-7481-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0041-7481-8"><bdi>978-9-0041-7481-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Dance+in+the+Roman+Empire+and+Its+Discontents&rft.btitle=Ritual+Dynamics+and+Religious+Change+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9-0041-7481-8&rft.aulast=Naerebout&rft.aufirst=Frederick+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolet1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Claude_Nicolet" title="Claude Nicolet">Nicolet, Claude</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spacegeographypo00nico">Space, Geography, and Politics in the Early Roman Empire</a>. University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4721-0096-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4721-0096-5"><bdi>978-0-4721-0096-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space%2C+Geography%2C+and+Politics+in+the+Early+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-4721-0096-5&rft.aulast=Nicolet&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspacegeographypo00nico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolle2000" class="citation book cs1">Nicolle, David (2000). Constantinople 1453: The End of Byzantium. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84176-091-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-84176-091-9"><bdi>1-84176-091-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constantinople+1453%3A+The+End+of+Byzantium&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-84176-091-9&rft.aulast=Nicolle&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeachin2011" class="citation book cs1">Peachin, Michael, ed. (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-8800-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1951-8800-4"><bdi>978-0-1951-8800-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Social+Relations+in+the+Roman+World&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-1951-8800-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotterMattingly1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Stone_Potter" title="David Stone Potter">Potter, David Stone</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Mattingly_(archaeologist)" title="David Mattingly (archaeologist)">Mattingly, D. J.</a> (1999). Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire. University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4720-8568-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4720-8568-2"><bdi>978-0-4720-8568-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life%2C+Death%2C+and+Entertainment+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-4720-8568-2&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=David+Stone&rft.au=Mattingly%2C+D.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Stone_Potter" title="David Stone Potter">Potter, David S.</a>, ed. (2009). A Companion to the Roman Empire. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9918-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9918-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-9918-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9918-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRochette2012" class="citation book cs1">Rochette, Bruno (2012). "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/handle/2268/35932">A Companion to the Latin Language</a>. pp. 549–563. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444343397.ch30">10.1002/9781444343397.ch30</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2268%2F35932">2268/35932</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-4339-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-4339-7"><bdi>978-1-4443-4339-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141009084751/http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/handle/2268/35932">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 13 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+Policies+in+the+Roman+Republic+and+Empire&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Latin+Language&rft.pages=549-563&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2268%2F35932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444343397.ch30&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-4339-7&rft.aulast=Rochette&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Forbi.ulg.ac.be%2Fhandle%2F2268%2F35932&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRochette2018" class="citation journal cs1">Rochette, Bruno (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rivisteweb.it/doi/10.1418/90426">"Was there a Roman linguistic imperialism during the Republic and the early Principate?"</a>. Lingue e Linguaggio (1/2018): 107–128. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1418%2F90426">10.1418/90426</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1720-9331">1720-9331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231004101938/https://www.rivisteweb.it/doi/10.1418/90426">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lingue+e+Linguaggio&rft.atitle=Was+there+a+Roman+linguistic+imperialism+during+the+Republic+and+the+early+Principate%3F&rft.issue=1%2F2018&rft.pages=107-128&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1418%2F90426&rft.issn=1720-9331&rft.aulast=Rochette&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rivisteweb.it%2Fdoi%2F10.1418%2F90426&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRochette2023" class="citation journal cs1">Rochette, Bruno (2023). Mullen, Alex (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/55330/chapter/428805545">"The Attitude of the Roman Emperors towards Language Practices"</a>. Social Factors in the Latinization of the Roman West (1 ed.). Oxford: Oxford Academic: 258–285. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198887294.003.0012">10.1093/oso/9780198887294.003.0012</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1988-8729-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1988-8729-4"><bdi>978-0-1988-8729-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231222124718/https://academic.oup.com/book/55330/chapter/428805545">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Factors+in+the+Latinization+of+the+Roman+West&rft.atitle=The+Attitude+of+the+Roman+Emperors+towards+Language+Practices&rft.pages=258-285&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198887294.003.0012&rft.isbn=978-0-1988-8729-4&rft.aulast=Rochette&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F55330%2Fchapter%2F428805545&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawson1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Beryl_Rawson" title="Beryl Rawson">Rawson, Beryl</a> (1987). The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9460-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9460-4"><bdi>978-0-8014-9460-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Family+in+Ancient+Rome%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-9460-4&rft.aulast=Rawson&rft.aufirst=Beryl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawson2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Beryl_Rawson" title="Beryl Rawson">Rawson, Beryl</a> (2003). Children and Childhood in Roman Italy. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1915-1423-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1915-1423-4"><bdi>978-0-1915-1423-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Children+and+Childhood+in+Roman+Italy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-1915-1423-4&rft.aulast=Rawson&rft.aufirst=Beryl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1989" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Michael John (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jeweledstylepoet00robe">The Jeweled Style: Poetry and Poetics in Late Antiquity</a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-2265-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-2265-2"><bdi>978-0-8014-2265-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jeweled+Style%3A+Poetry+and+Poetics+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-2265-2&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Michael+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjeweledstylepoet00robe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRüpke2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_R%C3%BCpke" title="Jörg Rüpke">Rüpke, Jörg</a> (2007). A Companion to Roman Religion. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4707-6645-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4707-6645-3"><bdi>978-0-4707-6645-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Roman+Religion&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-4707-6645-3&rft.aulast=R%C3%BCpke&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B6rg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStambaugh1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_E._Stambaugh" title="John E. Stambaugh">Stambaugh, John E.</a> (1988). The Ancient Roman City. Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-3692-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-3692-3"><bdi>978-0-8018-3692-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Roman+City&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-3692-3&rft.aulast=Stambaugh&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTreadgold1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Warren_Treadgold" title="Warren Treadgold">Treadgold, Warren</a> (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2630-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2630-2"><bdi>0-8047-2630-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Byzantine+State+and+Society&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8047-2630-2&rft.aulast=Treadgold&rft.aufirst=Warren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVirgil" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>. <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a>.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVout2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Vout" title="Caroline Vout">Vout, Caroline</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgr%2F43.2.204">"The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress"</a>. Greece and Rome. 43 (2): 204–220. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgr%2F43.2.204">10.1093/gr/43.2.204</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greece+and+Rome&rft.atitle=The+Myth+of+the+Toga%3A+Understanding+the+History+of+Roman+Dress&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=204-220&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgr%2F43.2.204&rft.aulast=Vout&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fgr%252F43.2.204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinterling2009" class="citation book cs1">Winterling, Aloys (2009). Politics and Society in Imperial Rome. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7969-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7969-0"><bdi>978-1-4051-7969-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+and+Society+in+Imperial+Rome&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7969-0&rft.aulast=Winterling&rft.aufirst=Aloys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiseman1970" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/T._P._Wiseman" title="T. P. Wiseman">Wiseman, T.P.</a> (1970). "The Definition of Eques Romanus". Historia. 19 (1): 67–83.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia&rft.atitle=The+Definition+of+Eques+Romanus&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=67-83&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Wiseman&rft.aufirst=T.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood" title="Gordon S. Wood">Wood, Gordon S.</a> (2011). The Idea of America: Reflections on the Birth of the United States. Penguin Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1015-1514-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1015-1514-3"><bdi>978-1-1015-1514-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Idea+of+America%3A+Reflections+on+the+Birth+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=Penguin+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-1015-1514-3&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Gordon+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Roman Empire at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Roman_Empire" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Roman Empire">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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title="s:Special:Search/Roman Empire">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Roman_Empire" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Roman Empire">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Roman_Empire" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Roman Empire">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Roman_Empire" class="extiw" title="voy:Roman Empire">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Roman Empire <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Roman+Empire&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Roman+Empire">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Roman+Empire&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00ktd1m">BBC: What the Romans Did for Us</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.topworldimages.com/images_of_Roman-Archaeological-Sites.html">Roman Archaeological Sites</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://roman-empire.net">Roman-Empire.net</a>, learning resources and re-enactments</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11745">The Historical Theater in the Year 400 AD, in Which Both Romans and Barbarians Resided Side by Side in the Eastern Part of the Roman Empire</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists and other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related 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href="/wiki/Albania_under_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Albania under the Byzantine Empire">Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Caesariensis" title="Mauretania Caesariensis">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andorra#Iberian_and_Roman_Andorra" title="Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Armenia (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Armenia" title="Byzantine Armenia">Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_influence_in_Caucasian_Albania" title="Roman influence in Caucasian Albania">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria#Roman_era" title="History of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Balkans#Roman_period" title="History of the Balkans">Balkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina#Roman_period" title="Early history of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Bulgaria">Bulgaria (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_(theme)" title="Bulgaria (theme)">High Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britain (England)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Crimea">Crimea (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Cherson_(theme)" title="Cherson (theme)">Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Croatia#Roman_provinces_of_Pannonia_and_Dalmatia" title="History of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Cyprus" title="Roman Cyprus">Cyprus (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Cyprus_in_the_Middle_Ages#Byzantine_period" title="Cyprus in the Middle Ages">Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Egypt (Classical ~ Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">France</a> (<a href="/wiki/Corsica_and_Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Corsica and Sardinia">Corsica (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Corsica#Eastern_Imperial_suzerainty" title="Medieval Corsica">Early Medieval)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Greece">Greece (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Medieval)</a> (<a href="/wiki/Crete_and_Cyrenaica" title="Crete and Cyrenaica">Crete (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Crete" title="Byzantine Crete">Medieval)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guernsey#Prehistory" title="History of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hungary_before_the_Hungarian_Conquest#Roman_era" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hungary before the Hungarian Conquest">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq#History" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">(Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(theme)" title="Mesopotamia (theme)">Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iudaea_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Iudaea Province">Israel (Classical ~ Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italy (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Medieval)</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Sicily">Sicily (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Sicily_(theme)" title="Sicily (theme)">Medieval)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corsica_and_Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Corsica and Sardinia">Sardinia (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sardinia" title="Byzantine Sardinia">Early Medieval)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jersey#Early_history" title="History of Jersey">Jersey</a> <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Lugdunensis" title="Gallia Lugdunensis">(Classical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan#Classical_period" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">(Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Late Antique/Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo#Roman_period" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_heritage_in_Kosovo" title="Roman heritage in Kosovo">(Classical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Roman_rule" title="Phoenicia under Roman rule">Lebanon (Classical ~ Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Libya" title="Roman Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein#Antiquity" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Luxembourg#Early_history" title="History of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malta#Roman_rule" title="History of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moesian_Limes#Expansion_beyond" title="Moesian Limes">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Monaco#Roman_rule" title="History of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praevalitana" title="Praevalitana">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco#Roman,_and_sub-Roman_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in the Netherlands">The Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_classical_antiquity#Roman_era" title="North Africa during classical antiquity">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Palestine" title="Roman Palestine">Palestine (Classical ~ Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal#Romanization" title="History of Portugal">Portugal</a> <a href="/wiki/Lusitania" title="Lusitania">(Classical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dacia" title="Roman Dacia">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Marino#The_Foundation_Myth" title="History of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Romans_in_Arabia" title="History of the Romans in Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> <a href="/wiki/Limes_Arabicus" title="Limes Arabicus">(Classical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_during_the_Roman_Empire" title="Scotland during the Roman Empire">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovakia#Iron_Age_and_the_Roman_era" title="History of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovenia#Ancient_Romans" title="History of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Spain (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Spain">Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria (Classical ~ Late Antique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City#Early_history" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a> <a href="/wiki/Ager_Vaticanus" title="Ager Vaticanus">(Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Rome" title="Duchy of Rome">Early Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moesian_Limes#Expansion_beyond" title="Moesian Limes">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman-era_Tunisia" title="History of Roman-era Tunisia">Tunisia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Carthage" title="Roman Carthage">Roman Carthage</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Anatolia">Turkey (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Byzantine Anatolia">Medieval)</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Thrace">Thrace (Classical</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Thrace">Medieval)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Wales">Wales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Territories_with_limited_Roman_Empire_occupation_and_contact" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Territories_with_limited_Roman_Empire_occupation_and_contact" title="Template:Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Territories_with_limited_Roman_Empire_occupation_and_contact" title="Template talk:Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Territories_with_limited_Roman_Empire_occupation_and_contact" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Territories_with_limited_Roman_Empire_occupation_and_contact" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Territories with limited <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman Empire</a> occupation and contact</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupied partially or temporarily</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in Arabia">Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_influence_in_Caucasian_Albania" title="Roman influence in Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Roman Armenia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Armenia" title="Byzantine Armenia">Byzantine Armenia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria_(Roman_province)" title="Assyria (Roman province)">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Crimea">Roman Crimea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherson_(theme)" title="Cherson (theme)">Cherson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dacia" title="Roman Dacia">Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_Persia" title="Romans in Persia">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_during_the_Roman_Empire" title="Scotland during the Roman Empire">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Nubian_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Nubian relations">Sudan</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_SPQR_banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/100px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/150px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/200px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="229" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contacts & explorations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands_in_pre-colonial_times#Historical_background" title="Canary Islands in pre-colonial times">Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Roman_relations" title="Sino-Roman relations">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo%E2%80%93Roman_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo–Roman relations">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Roman_relations" title="Hiberno-Roman relations">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic-Roman_contacts" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic-Roman contacts">Scandinavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nero%27s_exploration_of_the_Nile_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Nero's exploration of the Nile river">Equatorial Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders of the Roman Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magadhan_Empire" title="Magadhan Empire">Magadha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Perm" title="Great Perm">Permian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Kyivan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Template:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Template talk:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">List of historic states of Italy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Pre-Roman period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan civilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osci" title="Osci">Osci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Veneti" title="Adriatic Veneti">Veneti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbri" title="Umbri">Umbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iapygians" title="Iapygians">Iapygians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picentes" title="Picentes">Picentes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a> (753 BC–509 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> (509 BC–27 BC)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman Empire</a> (27 BC–395 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> (395–476 AD)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Medieval and Early Modern states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Barbarian kingdoms (476–774)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(476%E2%80%93493)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy (476–493)">Odoacer's rule</a> (476–493)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic rule</a> (493–553)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal rule</a> (435–534)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombard rule</a> (568–774) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Duchy of Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Friuli" title="Duchy of Friuli">Duchy of Friuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ivrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Ivrea">Duchy of Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Spoleto" title="Duchy of Spoleto">Duchy of Spoleto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Tridentum" title="Duchy of Tridentum">Duchy of Tridentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Tuscia" title="Duchy of Tuscia">Duchy of Tuscia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> (584–751)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Exarchate of Ravenna</a> (584–751) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Rome" title="Duchy of Rome">Duchy of Rome</a> (533–751)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Perugia" title="Duchy of Perugia">Duchy of Perugia</a> (554–752)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_the_Pentapolis" title="Duchy of the Pentapolis">Duchy of the Pentapolis</a> (554–752)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a> (585–698)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> (754–1870)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrimony_of_Saint_Peter" title="Patrimony of Saint Peter">Patrimony of Saint Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campagna_e_Marittima_Province" title="Campagna e Marittima Province">Campagna e Marittima Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Castro" title="Duchy of Castro">Duchy of Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ferrara" title="Duchy of Ferrara">Duchy of Ferrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Duchy of Parma and Piacenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Urbino" title="Duchy of Urbino">Duchy of Urbino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> and other independent states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Brixen" title="Prince-Bishopric of Brixen">Bishopric of Bressanone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsican_Republic" title="Corsican Republic">Corsican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_separatum_(Fiume)" title="Corpus separatum (Fiume)">City of Fiume and its District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Gorizia" title="County of Gorizia">County of Gorizia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_County_of_Gorizia_and_Gradisca" title="Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca">Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Guastalla" title="County of Guastalla">County of Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Santa_Fiora" title="County of Santa Fiora">County of Santa Fiora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Guastalla" title="Duchy of Guastalla">Duchy of Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">Kingdom of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Ancona" title="March of Ancona">Ancona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Ceva" title="Marquisate of Ceva">Ceva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Finale" title="Marquisate of Finale">Finale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Friuli" title="March of Friuli">March of Friuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patria_del_Friuli" title="Patria del Friuli">Patria del Friuli (Patriarchate of Aquileia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Ivrea" title="March of Ivrea">Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Istria" title="March of Istria">Istria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margraviate_of_Mantua" class="mw-redirect" title="Margraviate of Mantua">Mantua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Milan" title="Lordship of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Montferrat" title="March of Montferrat">March of Montferrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Montferrat" title="Duchy of Montferrat">Duchy of Montferrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Free_City_of_Trieste" title="Imperial Free City of Trieste">Trieste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Turin" title="March of Turin">Turin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Tuscany" title="March of Tuscany">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Verona" title="March of Verona">Verona</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ivrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Ivrea">Duchy of Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Duchy of Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mantua" title="Duchy of Mantua">Duchy of Mantua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Duchy of Massa and Carrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Merania" title="Duchy of Merania">Duchy of Merania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mirandola" title="Duchy of Mirandola">Duchy of Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Piombino" title="Principality of Piombino">Principality of Piombino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Reggio" title="Duchy of Reggio">Duchy of Reggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Saluzzo" title="Marquisate of Saluzzo">Marquisate of Saluzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Spoleto" title="Duchy of Spoleto">Duchy of Spoleto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Diocese_of_Tarentaise" title="Ancient Diocese of Tarentaise">Bishopric of Tarantasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Trent" title="Prince-Bishopric of Trent">Prince-Bishopric of Trento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savoyard_state" title="Savoyard state">Savoyard state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Savoy" title="County of Savoy">County of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Piedmont" title="Prince of Piedmont">Piedmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Aosta" title="Duchy of Aosta">Duchy of Aosta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Nice" title="County of Nice">County of Nice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tende" title="Tende">County of Tenda</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a> (697–1797)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dogado" title="Dogado">Dogado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domini_di_Terraferma" title="Domini di Terraferma">Domini di Terraferma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stato_da_M%C3%A0r" title="Stato da Màr">Stato da Màr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other Republics (c. 1000–1797)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Cospaia" title="Republic of Cospaia">Republic of Cospaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lucca" title="Republic of Lucca">Republic of Lucca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Massa" title="Republic of Massa">Republic of Massa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Siena" title="Republic of Siena">Republic of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Noli" title="Republic of Noli">Republic of Noli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Republic of Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ancona" title="Republic of Ancona">Republic of Ancona</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_south_Italian_principalities" title="List of south Italian principalities">Southern Italy</a> (774–1139)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Byzantine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Duchy of Amalfi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Gaeta" title="Duchy of Gaeta">Duchy of Gaeta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catepanate_of_Italy" title="Catepanate of Italy">Catepanate of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longobardia" title="Longobardia">Longobardia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucania_(theme)" title="Lucania (theme)">Theme of Lucania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Naples" title="Duchy of Naples">Duchy of Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicily_(theme)" title="Sicily (theme)">Theme of Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Sicily">Byzantine Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Sorrento" title="Duchy of Sorrento">Duchy of Sorrento</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Arab</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bari" title="Emirate of Bari">Emirate of Bari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Sicily" title="Muslim Sicily">Muslim Sicily</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Lombard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Principality of Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Salerno" title="Principality of Salerno">Principality of Salerno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Capua" title="Principality of Capua">Principality of Capua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Norman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" title="County of Apulia and Calabria">County of Apulia and Calabria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Aversa" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Aversa">County of Aversa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Sicily" title="County of Sicily">County of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Taranto" title="Principality of Taranto">Principality of Taranto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> (from the 9th century)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_medieval_kingdoms" title="Sardinian medieval kingdoms">Judicates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agugliastra" title="Agugliastra">Agugliastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Arborea" title="Judicate of Arborea">Arborea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Cagliari" title="Judicate of Cagliari">Cagliari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Gallura" title="Judicate of Gallura">Gallura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Logudoro" title="Judicate of Logudoro">Logudoro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Oristano" title="Marquisate of Oristano">Oristano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Sassari" title="Republic of Sassari">Republic of Sassari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1324%E2%80%931720)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1720)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (1324–1861)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> (1130–1816) and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a> (1282–1816)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Presidi" title="State of the Presidi">State of the Presidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_San_Donato" title="Duke of San Donato">Duke of San Donato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Sora" title="Duchy of Sora">Duchy of Sora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Bari" title="Duchy of Bari">Duchy of Bari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Taranto" title="Principality of Taranto">Principality of Taranto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Sancti_Benedicti" title="Terra Sancti Benedicti">Terra Sancti Benedicti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_Republic_(1647%E2%80%931648)" title="Neapolitan Republic (1647–1648)">Neapolitan Republic</a> (1647–1648)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospitaller_Malta" title="Hospitaller Malta">Hospitaller Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_(1798%E2%80%931800)" title="Gozo (1798–1800)">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Protectorate" title="Malta Protectorate">Malta Protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Malta" title="Crown Colony of Malta">Crown Colony of Malta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French Revolutionary</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">Napoleonic</a> eras (1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Republics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Republic" title="Cisalpine Republic">Cisalpinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cispadane_Republic" title="Cispadane Republic">Cispadania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Republic_(Napoleonic)" title="Italian Republic (Napoleonic)">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligurian_Republic" title="Ligurian Republic">Liguria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lucca" title="Republic of Lucca">Lucca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenopean_Republic" title="Parthenopean Republic">Parthenopea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_Republic" title="Piedmontese Republic">Piedmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(1798%E2%80%931799)" title="Roman Republic (1798–1799)">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subalpine_Republic" title="Subalpine Republic">Subalpinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpadane_Republic" title="Transpadane Republic">Transpadania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Monarchies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Etruria" title="Kingdom of Etruria">Etruria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Guastalla" title="Duchy of Guastalla">Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Lucca_and_Piombino" title="Principality of Lucca and Piombino">Lucca and Piombino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Massa and Carrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)">Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Pontecorvo" title="Principality of Pontecorvo">Pontecorvo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Benevento" title="Principality of Benevento">Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Elba" title="Principality of Elba">Elba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Corsican_Kingdom" title="Anglo-Corsican Kingdom">Corsica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Post-Napoleonic states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Genoa" title="Duchy of Genoa">Duchy of Genoa</a> (1815–1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lucca" title="Duchy of Lucca">Duchy of Lucca</a> (1815–1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Duchy of Massa and Carrara</a> (1814–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a> (1814–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Duchy of Parma and Piacenza</a> (1814–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a> (1815–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_United_Provinces" title="Italian United Provinces">Italian United Provinces</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Provisional Government of Milan</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a> (1848–1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(1849%E2%80%931850)" title="Roman Republic (1849–1850)">Roman Republic</a> (1849–1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy" title="United Provinces of Central Italy">United Provinces of Central Italy</a> (1859–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (1814–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a> (1816–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia</a> (1815–1866)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States#Italian_unification" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> (1814–1870)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Post-unification" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-<a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">unification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> (1861–1946) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a> (1882–1960)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Fiume" title="Free State of Fiume">Free State of Fiume</a> (1920–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a> (1943–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Territory_of_Trieste" title="Free Territory of Trieste">Free Territory of Trieste</a> (1947–1954)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" style="display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template talk:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"> <table style="width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;"> </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Northwestern Mesopotamia </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Northern Mesopotamia </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Southern Mesopotamia </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 3500–2350 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:white">Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD380"><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic period</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2350–2200 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFB080"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2200–2100 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#F8F3C6"><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutians</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2100–2000 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFA380"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2000–1800 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD0BD"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> city-states </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFFF80"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyrian period</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:palegoldenrod"><a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> city-states </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1800–1600 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F7C1F7"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Old Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td colspan="7" style="background:#B2CAF6"><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian Empire</a> (Southern Akkadians) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1600–1400 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:#E6C29F"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a>) </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" style="background:#88D0CC"><a href="/wiki/Kardunia%C5%A1" title="Karduniaš">Karduniaš</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1400–1200 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FFB4DA"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Middle Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td style="background:#FFEB80"> </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#FFEB80"><a href="/wiki/Assyria#Middle_Assyrian_Empire_—_Assyrian_resurgence" title="Assyria">Middle Assyria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1200–1150 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF8080"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Collapse">Bronze Age Collapse</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a>") </td> <td style="background:moccasin"><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1150–911 BCE </th> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#C590C5"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#FF8CB9"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Neo-Hittite</a> <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">city-states</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:peachpuff"><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-</a> <a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Damascus</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:moccasin"><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="background:#A0B4F0"><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Middle Babylonia</a> </td> <td rowspan="3" style="background:lightblue"><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chal-</a> <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">de-</a> <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">ans</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">911–729 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">729–609 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">626–539 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#8EC8FF"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">539–331 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:mediumspringgreen"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">336–301 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#BEFD80"><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Ancient Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">311–129 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">129–63 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td> <td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="background:#80C0C0"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">63 BCE–224 CE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="4" style="background:#D29595"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Syria</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">224–mid 7C </th> <td colspan="6" rowspan="3" style="background:#90D9D5"><a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Italy_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Italy_topics" title="Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Italy_topics" title="Template talk:Italy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Italy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Italy_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Italy" title="Outline of Italy">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Italian_history" title="Timeline of Italian history">Timeline of Italian history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_citizenship" title="History of Italian citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">Currency and coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Italy" title="Economic history of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_fashion" title="History of Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_flags" title="List of Italian flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">Historic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Italy" title="LGBT history in Italy">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy" title="Military history of Italy">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_Italy" title="Music history of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Italy" title="Name of Italy">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Italy" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Italy">Postage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Italy" title="History of rail transport in Italy">Railways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Italy" title="Prehistoric Italy">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Italy" title="Neolithic Italy">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinaldone_culture" title="Rinaldone culture">Rinaldone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_culture" title="Apennine culture">Apennine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golasecca_culture" title="Golasecca culture">Golasecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canegrate_culture" title="Canegrate culture">Canegrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latial_culture" title="Latial culture">Latial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Italy" title="List of ancient peoples of Italy">Ancient peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osci" title="Osci">Osci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picentes" title="Picentes">Picentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbri" title="Umbri">Umbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Veneti" title="Adriatic Veneti">Veneti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapians" title="Messapians">Messapians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Roman Italy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li>Italy under <a href="/wiki/Odoacer#King_of_Italy" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Byzantium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">the Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_medieval_kingdoms" title="Sardinian medieval kingdoms">the Sardinian Judicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Normans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guelphs_and_Ghibellines" title="Guelphs and Ghibellines">Guelphs and Ghibellines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_League" title="Lombard League">Lombard League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sicilian_Vespers" title="War of the Sicilian Vespers">War of the Sicilian Vespers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Siena" title="Republic of Siena">Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Duchy of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_early_modern_Italy" title="History of early modern Italy">Early Modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Napoleonic Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Austrian occupation and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Late modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="First Italian War of Independence">First War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_exodus" title="Niçard exodus">Niçard exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" title="History of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)">Monarchy and the World Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Colonial Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Fall of the Fascist regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Social Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">Civil War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="History of the Italian Republic">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">Institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istrian%E2%80%93Dalmatian_exodus" title="Istrian–Dalmatian exodus">Istrian–Dalmatian exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_economic_miracle" title="Italian economic miracle">Economic Boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxi_Trial" title="Maxi Trial">Maxi Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mani_pulite" title="Mani pulite">Mani pulite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Italy">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Italy" title="Geography of Italy">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_(geographical_region)" title="Italy (geographical region)">Italian geographical region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Italy" title="Climate of Italy">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Italy" title="Climate change in Italy">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Italy" title="Geology of Italy">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Italy" title="Fauna of Italy">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Italy" title="Flora of Italy">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Italy" title="List of mountains in Italy">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_foothills" title="Alpine foothills">Prealps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_of_Italy" title="Volcanism of Italy">Volcanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Italy" title="List of volcanoes in Italy">Volcanoes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Italy" title="List of beaches in Italy">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_Italy" title="List of canals in Italy">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_caves_in_Italy" title="List of caves in Italy">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Italy" title="List of earthquakes in Italy">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Italy" title="List of islands of Italy">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Italy" title="List of lakes of Italy">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Marine_Protected_Areas_of_Italy" title="List of Marine Protected Areas of Italy">Marine protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Italy" title="List of national parks of Italy">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regional_parks_of_Italy" title="List of regional parks of Italy">Regional parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Italy" title="List of rivers of Italy">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_of_Italy" title="List of valleys of Italy">Valleys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Italy" title="Politics of Italy">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Italy" title="Elections in Italy">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Italy" title="Foreign relations of Italy">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Italy" title="Government of Italy">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Italy" title="Human rights in Italy">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Italy">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Italy" title="Judiciary of Italy">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Italy" title="Law of Italy">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Italy" title="Law enforcement in Italy">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Armed_Forces" title="Italian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationality_law" title="Italian nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Parliament" title="Italian Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Italy" title="List of political parties in Italy">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Italy" title="President of Italy">President</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Italy" title="List of presidents of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy" title="List of prime ministers of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Italy)" title="Council of Ministers (Italy)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Italy" title="Regions of Italy">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Italy" title="Provinces of Italy">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_cities_of_Italy" title="Metropolitan cities of Italy">Metropolitan cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Italy" title="List of cities in Italy">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comune" title="Comune">Comune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_of_Italy" title="List of municipalities of Italy">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_intelligence_agencies" title="Italian intelligence agencies">Security and intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP" title="List of Italian regions by GDP">Italian regions by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Italy" title="Agriculture in Italy">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Italy" title="Automotive industry in Italy">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Italy" title="Banking in Italy">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Italy" title="List of banks in Italy">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Italy" title="Bank of Italy">Central Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_brands" title="List of Italian brands">Brands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Italy" title="List of companies of Italy">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Italy" title="Energy in Italy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Italy" title="List of exports of Italy">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Italy" title="Science and technology in Italy">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borsa_Italiana" title="Borsa Italiana">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Italy" title="Taxation in Italy">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Italy" title="Tourism in Italy">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Italy" title="List of trade unions in Italy">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Italy" title="Transport in Italy">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Italy" title="List of airports in Italy">air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Italy" title="Rail transport in Italy">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Italy" title="Roads in Italy">road</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_welfare_state" title="Italian welfare state">Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_wine" title="Italian wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Italy" title="Category:Society of Italy">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobility of Italy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Italy" title="Censorship in Italy">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Italy" title="Corruption in Italy">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Italy" title="Crime in Italy">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Italy" title="Demographics of Italy">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">Emigration and diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Italy" title="Gambling in Italy">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Italy" title="Health in Italy">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Italy" title="Healthcare in Italy">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Italy" title="Immigration to Italy">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Italian inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Italy" title="List of people from Italy">People</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Italian" title="Regional Italian">Regional</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Italian provinces by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Italy" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Italy">Orders, decorations, and medals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Italy" title="Poverty in Italy">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Italy" title="Prostitution in Italy">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_public_administration" title="Italian public administration">Public administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Italy" title="Racism in Italy">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Italy" title="Terrorism in Italy">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Italy" title="Water supply and sanitation in Italy">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Italy" title="Women in Italy">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Italy" title="Culture of Italy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duecento" title="Duecento">Duecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trecento" title="Trecento">Trecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">Quattrocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinquecento" title="Cinquecento">Cinquecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seicento" title="Seicento">Seicento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_culture_(1700s)" title="History of Italian culture (1700s)">Settecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Neoclassical_and_19th-century_art" title="Italian Neoclassical and 19th-century art">Ottocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Il_Canto_degli_Italiani" title="Il Canto degli Italiani">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Italy">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_art" title="Italian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_Italy" title="List of castles in Italy">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cathedrals_in_Italy" title="List of cathedrals in Italy">Cathedrals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Italy" title="Cinema of Italy">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Italy" title="Emblem of Italy">Coat of arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_cuisine" title="Italian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_design" title="Italian design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_fashion" title="Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Italy" title="Flag of Italy">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Italy" title="Folklore of Italy">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gardens_in_Italy" title="List of gardens in Italy">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Italy" title="Internet in Italy">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italophilia" title="Italophilia">Italophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_libraries_in_Italy" title="List of libraries in Italy">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_literature" title="Italian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Italy" title="Mass media in Italy">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Italy" title="List of museums in Italy">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Italy" title="Music of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Italy" title="Mythology of Italy">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Italy" title="National symbols of Italy">National symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_palaces_in_Italy" title="List of palaces in Italy">Palaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Italy" title="Public holidays in Italy">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Italy" title="Sport in Italy">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Italy" title="Television in Italy">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Italy" title="Theatre of Italy">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditions_of_Italy" title="Traditions of Italy">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Italy" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Italy">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/16px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/24px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Italy" title="Category:Italy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_seafaring" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template talk:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_seafaring" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_seafaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient seafaring">Ancient seafaring</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Vessels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Vessels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Balangay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_(boat)" title="Bangka (boat)">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracle" title="Coracle">Coracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_boat" title="Dragon boat">Dragon boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_canoe" title="Dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penteconter" title="Penteconter">Penteconter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27unlun_po" class="mw-redirect" title="K'unlun po">Kunlun ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburna" title="Liburna">Liburna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multihull" title="Multihull">Multihull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria" title="Navis lusoria">Navis lusoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_ship" title="Obelisk ship">Obelisk ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">Outriggers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single-outrigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-outrigger">Single-outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">Catamaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimaran" title="Trimaran">Trimaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Polyremes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Bireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">Oared warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">Trireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrireme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrireme">Quadrireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">Quinquereme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexareme" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexareme">Hexareme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessarakonteres" title="Tessarakonteres">Tessarakonteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raft" title="Raft">Raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">Reed boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">Sailing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81kitimu" title="Tākitimu">Tākitimu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Propulsion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paddling" title="Paddling">Paddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towpath" title="Towpath">Towing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poling (watercraft)">Poling </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabin_(ship)" title="Cabin (ship)">Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deck_(ship)" title="Deck (ship)">Deck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">Figurehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building#Construction_materials_and_methods" title="Boat building">Planking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">Mast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle" title="Paddle">Paddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#History_of_the_rudder" title="Rudder">Steering oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail_components" title="Sail components">Sail components</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(ship)" title="Stem (ship)">Stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternpost" title="Sternpost">Sternpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake" title="Strake">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_boat#Boat_design_/_steering" title="Nile boat">Tiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Boat building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careening" title="Careening">Careening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">Carvel built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">Clinker built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">Mortise and tenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat" title="Lashed-lug boat">Lashed-lug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewn_boat" title="Sewn boat">Sewn-plank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology#Navigation_and_ship_building" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egypt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigging" title="Rigging">Rigging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_claw_sail" title="Crab claw sail">Crab claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Fore-and-aft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settee_(sail)" title="Settee (sail)">Settee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanja_sail" title="Tanja sail">Tanja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangular_sail_rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangular sail rig (page does not exist)">Triangular sail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_rig" title="Junk rig">Junk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast-aft_rig" title="Mast-aft rig">Mast-aft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">Square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_(weapon)" title="Dolphin (weapon)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpax" title="Harpax">Harpax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Navigation,_and_ports_and_harbors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Navigation, and ports and harbors</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portolan_chart" title="Portolan chart">Portolan chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutter_(nautical)" title="Rutter (nautical)">Rutter (nautical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal navigation">Coastal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piloting" title="Piloting">Piloting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_boat" title="Pilot boat">Pilot boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Maritime pilot</a></li></ul></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_navigation" title="Inuit navigation">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Port#Historical_ports" title="Port">Ports</a> and harbors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a> (Podouke)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbarikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Giao Chỉ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godavaya" title="Godavaya">Godavaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Guangzhou" title="Port of Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (Canton)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Jambukola" title="Port of Jambukola">Jambukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhar,_Mayiladuthurai" title="Puhar, Mayiladuthurai">Kaveri Poompattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> (Kadaram)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal#Dockyard" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manthai" title="Manthai">Manthai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonburi_province" title="Chonburi province">Mueang Phra Rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93c_Eo" title="Óc Eo">Óc Eo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piraeus#Ancient_and_medieval_times" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosphorion_Harbour" title="Prosphorion Harbour">Prosphorion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qandala" title="Qandala">Qandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district" title="Sathing Phra district">Satingpra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonargaon" title="Sonargaon">Sounagoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maritime_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime prehistory">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline#Prehistory" title="Maritime timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania#Prehistory_of_Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom" title="Sunda Kingdom">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian civilization">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Migration and exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Australia">Peopling of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Micronesia">Peopling of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Migration_from_Taiwan" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_maritime_expansion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician maritime expansion (page does not exist)">Phoenician maritime expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II#Phoenician_expedition" title="Necho II">Circumnavigation of Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas#Voyage_to_Britain" title="Pytheas">Pytheas' voyage to Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Roman circumnavigation of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mariners and explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henenu_(high_steward)" title="Henenu (high steward)">Henenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthymenes" title="Euthymenes">Euthymenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sataspes" title="Sataspes">Sataspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Thasos" title="Androsthenes of Thasos">Androsthenes of Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archias_of_Pella" title="Archias of Pella">Archias of Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fu" title="Xu Fu">Xu Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Navies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles" title="List of naval battles">Battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Mediterranean:   <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Alashiya" title="Battles of Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Delta" title="Battle of the Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition" title="Sicilian Expedition">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Echinades_(322_BC)" title="Battle of the Echinades (322 BC)">Echinades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Salamis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecnomus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ecnomus">Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" title="Battle of Myonessus">Myonessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" title="Battle of Naulochus">Naulochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">Grappling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">Oared vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship_tactics" title="Sailing ship tactics">Sailing ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">Ramming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha" title="Maritime history of Odisha">Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Japan" title="Naval history of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_history_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime history of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Rafts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Economy_and_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy and <a href="/wiki/Trade#Ancient_history" title="Trade">trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">Whaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fishing" title="History of fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus–Mesopotamia relations">Indus–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Maritime Jade Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times#Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age#Economy_of_Iron_Age_Britain" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Huynh-Kalanay_Interaction_Sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere">Sa Huynh-Kalanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece#Trade" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_shipping" title="Greek shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Indo-Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Piracy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy#History" title="Piracy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Mediterranean piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_the_Phocian" title="Ameinias the Phocian">Ameinias the Phocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates#Piracy_in_the_ancient_world:_pirates_of_Joppa" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar#Kidnapping_by_pirates" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Kidnapping of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_campaign_against_the_pirates" title="Pompey's campaign against the pirates">Pompey's campaign against the pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Research_and_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research and education</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Blackman" title="David Blackman">David Blackman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Lionel Casson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fik_Meijer" title="Fik Meijer">Fik Meijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sinclair_Morrison" title="John Sinclair Morrison">John Sinclair Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William L. Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_G._Starr" title="Chester G. Starr">Chester G. Starr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Yves_Empereur" title="Jean-Yves Empereur">Jean-Yves Empereur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rankov" title="Boris Rankov">Boris Rankov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Steffy" title="J. Richard Steffy">J. Richard Steffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Wachsmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelley Wachsmann (page does not exist)">Shelley Wachsmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_art" title="Marine art">Marine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Marine navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare#Mediterranean_Sea" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li> <li>Maritime temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isthmia" title="Temple of Isthmia">Temple of Isthmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Poseidon,_Sounion" title="Temple of Poseidon, Sounion">Temple of Poseidon, Sounion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantao_Maritime_Trading_and_Communication_Network" title="Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network">Nusantao network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Phoenician discovery of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">Shell middens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">Ship burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Wrecks and relics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_before_Anno_Domini" title="List of shipwrecks before Anno Domini">Earliest</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_Sand_site" title="Moor Sand site">Moor Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck" title="Dokos shipwreck">Dokos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat" title="Dover Bronze Age Boat">Dover Bronze Age Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck" title="Uluburun shipwreck">Uluburun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shipwreck" title="Canaanite shipwreck">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya#Bronze_Age_shipwreck" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Gelidonya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_of_Rochelongue" title="Wreck of Rochelongue">Rochelongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjortspring_boat" title="Hjortspring boat">Hjortspring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontian_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pontian boat (page does not exist)">Pontian boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Butuan_boats" title="Balangay">Butuan boats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Black_Sea_shipwrecks" title="Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks">Black Sea‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinop_D" title="Sinop D">Sinop D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala</a></li> <li>Greek: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkelon_shipwrecks" title="Ashkelon shipwrecks">Ashkelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leontophoros" title="Leontophoros">Leontophoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syracusia" title="Syracusia">Syracusia</a></li></ul></li> <li>Phoenician: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajo_de_la_Campana_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Bajo de la Campana Phoenician shipwreck">Bajo de la Campana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Punic: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala Punic shipwreck</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkedo" title="Alkedo">Alkedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_Rh%C3%B4ne_3" title="Arles Rhône 3">Arles Rhône 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_shipwrecks" title="Blackfriars shipwrecks">Blackfriars I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula%27s_Giant_Ship" title="Caligula's Giant Ship">Caligula's Giant Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ships_of_De_Meern" title="The Ships of De Meern">De Meern ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isis_(ship)" title="Isis (ship)">Isis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrague_de_Giens_(shipwreck)" title="Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)">Madrague de Giens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_ship_of_Marausa" title="Roman ship of Marausa">Marausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassi_Ada" title="Yassi Ada">Yassi Ada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lists: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_surviving_ships" title="List of oldest surviving ships">Oldest surviving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museum_ships" title="List of museum ships">Museum ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surviving_ancient_ships" title="List of surviving ancient ships">Surviving ancient ships</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H3_(Kuwait)" title="H3 (Kuwait)">H3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl expeditions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl#Boats_Ra_and_Ra_II" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Ra and Ra II</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_vessels" title="Austronesian vessels">Austronesian replicas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarimanok_(vinta)" title="Sarimanok (vinta)">Sarimanok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Au_o_Tonga" title="Te Au o Tonga">Te Au o Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBiloa" title="Hawaiʻiloa">Hawaiʻiloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samudra_Raksa" title="Samudra Raksa">Samudra Raksa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Saina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Balangay_Voyage" title="Balangay">Balangay Voyage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafaite" title="Faʻafaite">Faʻafaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaualofa" title="Gaualofa">Gaualofa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marumaru_Atua" title="Marumaru Atua">Marumaru Atua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Maritime_Museum#Seaworthy_ships" title="New Zealand Maritime Museum">Aotearoa One</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mediterranean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria#Other_reconstructions" title="Navis lusoria">Regina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_Ship_Expedition" title="Phoenician Ship Expedition">Phoenician Ship Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking replicas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_Alsar_Pacific_raft_expeditions" title="Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions">Vital Alsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivlia_(ship)" title="Ivlia (ship)">Ivlia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abora_(expeditions)" title="Abora (expeditions)">Abora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viracocha_expedition" title="Viracocha expedition">Viracocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangaroa_Expedition" title="Tangaroa Expedition">Tangaroa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_on_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology">Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Archaeologists" title="European Association of Archaeologists">European Association of Archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Institute of Nautical Archaeology">Institute of Nautical Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Maritime_Museums" title="International Congress of Maritime Museums">International Congress of Maritime Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPM_Nautical_Foundation" title="RPM Nautical Foundation">RPM Nautical Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums and memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodrum_Castle#Museum_of_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Bodrum Castle">Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_Solar_boat_museum" title="Giza Solar boat museum">Giza Solar boat museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_Castle#Shipwreck_museum" title="Kyrenia Castle">Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Seafaring" title="Museum of Ancient Seafaring">Museum of Ancient Seafaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Ships,_Pisa" title="Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa">Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Subaquatic_Archaeology" title="National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology">National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology</a></li> <li>Viking ship museums: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Oslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Roskilde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Legend_and_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Legend and literature</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">Legend</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ark_of_bulrushes" title="Ark of bulrushes">Ark of bulrushes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flood_myths" title="List of flood myths">Flood myths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative" title="Genesis flood narrative">Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh_flood_myth" title="Gilgamesh flood myth">Gilgamesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_flood_myths" title="Ancient Greek flood myths">Greek</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">The Histories (Herodotus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Ocean_(Pytheas)" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Ocean (Pytheas)">On the Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argonautica" title="Argonautica">Argonautica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)">The Histories (Polybius)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a 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Template:Cite_journal"," 4.56% 199.463 2 Template:Legend"," 3.10% 135.685 24 Template:Efn"," 2.95% 129.182 20 Template:Navbox"," 2.86% 125.262 1 Template:Navboxes"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"3.069","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21531645,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFA._FearP._Liddel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbbott1901\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbusch2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdams2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdams2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlbrecht1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlcock2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndo2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndreau1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAuguet2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustin1934\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBang2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBard2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBard2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarnes2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBatstone2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeard1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeardNorthPrice1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBennett1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerger1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBieber1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBillanovich2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBjornlie2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBleicken2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloomer1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoardman2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoatwright2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBohec2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorg2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBouché-Leclercq1886\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowersock1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowersockBrownGrabar1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowmanGarnseyCameron2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBozeman2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradley1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrennan2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrewer2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBriggs2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBunson1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurgan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBury1923\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButcher2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalcaniAbdulkarim2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCantarella1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCantarella2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarlton1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarroll2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCartwright2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavalloChartier1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandler2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCicero\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarke1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClassen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCleland2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoffler2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColeman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollier2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollis2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnolly1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnollyVan_Driel-Murray1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConstantelos1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConte1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoon1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraddock2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrow2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCsapoSlater1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurchin1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD\u0026#039;Amato2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD\u0026#039;Ambra2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Callataÿ2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDemarsin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiamond2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDickey2023\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDickie2001\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDietler2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDigeser,_Elizabeth_DePalma2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDio_Cassius\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunbabin1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuncan-Jones1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuncan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurand1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyson1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEckTakács2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEder1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdmondson1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdmondson1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEiland2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElsnerHuskinson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErdkamp2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEusebius_of_Caesarea425\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEyben1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaas2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFagan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFantham1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFantham2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFear2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFears1981\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFFeeney2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFejfer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFields2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFishwick1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlandrinMontanari1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForman1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeman2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrend1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrend1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrend2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrierMcGinn2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuhrmann2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGagarin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGamauf2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardner1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarnseySaller\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaughan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGazda1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbon1776\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFGinsberg-Klar2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldhill2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsmith2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodwin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGowers2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrace2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreene1990\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGrigKelly2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuiter1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHabinek1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHabinek2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanson1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansonOrtman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarding2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarl1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarland2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarnett2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarper1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarper2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarper2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealy1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHekster2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeksterKaizer2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHildebrandt2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHinds2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirt2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolleran2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHongCandelonePattersonBoutron1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHongCandelonePattersonBoutron1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHornblowerSpawforthEidinow2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuber-Rebenich1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumphrey1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuskinson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHélix2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsaac2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJashemskiMeyer2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonParker2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnston1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesBird2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuvenal\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaufman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeane2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeaveney1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKesslerTemin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoepkeBaten2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKornwall2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKousser2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKraus2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKyle1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKöhne2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLa_Bua2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaes2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLavanAndo2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLechtmanHobbs1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeithart2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiebeschuetz2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLintott1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiu2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLlewelynNobbs2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLo_CascioMalanima2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoewenstein2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLongfellow2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuttwak1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacDonald1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacDonald1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacMullen1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacMullen1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddison2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallgrave2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartial\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMastrangelo2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatasovic2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMattern1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMattingly2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcClelland2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDaniel1906\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDonaldWalton2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGinn1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGinn1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNelis2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeinig1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiles2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillar2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillar2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillar2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillar2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMomigliano1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorcillo2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoretti1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoritz2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorley2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorrisScheidel2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMosley2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMouritsen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMussbaum2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMusurillo1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMétraux2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaerebout2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewby2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicolet1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicolle2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNobleStraussOsheimNeuschel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoreña2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoy2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNumbers2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnufCole\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOpper2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOzgen\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPacker\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatterson1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeachin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPenrose2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerkins2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhang2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhang2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlautus2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPliny\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPliny_the_Elder\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPotter2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotter2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotterMattingly1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPriceFinkelbergShahar2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuintilian\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaja2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawson1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRehak2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReinhold2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichardson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichlin1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRittiGreweKessener2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRochette2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRochette2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRochette2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoegiest2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoller2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoth1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoy2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRüpke2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSainte-Croix,_G.E.M_de1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaller2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaller2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalzman1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandberg2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSantosuosso2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarton1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSavignac2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScheidel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScheidel2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScheidelFriesen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScheidelMorrisSaller2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchilling1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchnitter1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScholl2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchäfer2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSettlePatterson1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSevery2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSherwin-White1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSherwin-White1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilva-SánchezArmada2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimRidge2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlater2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmallwood1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1875\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSonia_Mucznik\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthern2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthern2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSperber1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStambaugh1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStarks2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStarr1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrong1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuetonius\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFSullivan1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSyme1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSyme1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSáry2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaagepera1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTacitus\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTemin2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTertullian\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTignorAdelman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorelli1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToynbee1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrask1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTreadgold1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTreggiari1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTricht2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUlrich2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVale1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Tilburg2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerboven2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVersnel1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVirgil\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVout2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWallace-Hadrill2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitmarsh2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWickham2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiedemann1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinterling2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiseman1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiseman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodhull2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolf2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYanCeccarelli2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZanker1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZanker1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Dam2008\"] = 1,\n [\"spectacle\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 6,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Rome topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient seafaring\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 3,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 9,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 294,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 76,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 13,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 24,\n [\"Empires\"] = 1,\n [\"Endplainlist\"] = 3,\n [\"For timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Former monarchies Italian peninsula\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 8,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 121,\n [\"History of Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"Indented plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox country\"] = 1,\n [\"Italy topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 9,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 2,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Line-height\"] = 1,\n [\"Literal translation\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 27,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 7,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Nobold\"] = 3,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 6,\n [\"Nwr\"] = 4,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 2,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"R.\"] = 8,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Reign\"] = 5,\n [\"Roman history by territory\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 2,\n [\"See also\"] = 11,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnm\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 278,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 3,\n 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