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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Definitions and conceptual history</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Definitions_and_conceptual_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Definitions and conceptual history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Definitions_and_conceptual_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Approaches_to_understanding_ethnicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Approaches_to_understanding_ethnicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Approaches to understanding ethnicity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Approaches_to_understanding_ethnicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnicity_theory_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnicity_theory_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Ethnicity theory in the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnicity_theory_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnicity_and_nationality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnicity_and_nationality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Ethnicity and nationality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnicity_and_nationality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnicity_and_race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnicity_and_race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Ethnicity and race</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnicity_and_race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethno-national_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethno-national_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Ethno-national conflict</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethno-national_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_groups_by_continent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_groups_by_continent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Ethnic groups by continent</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ethnic_groups_by_continent-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ethnic groups by continent subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_groups_by_continent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>South America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Oceania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6.1</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethnicity</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%AB%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="إثنية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إثنية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etnik_m%C9%99nsubiyy%C9%99t" title="Etnik mənsubiyyət – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Etnik mənsubiyyət" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Этнас – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Этнас" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etnisidad" title="Etnisidad – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Etnisidad" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etnicita" title="Etnicita – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Etnicita" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnizit%C3%A4t" title="Ethnizität – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ethnizität" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="قومیت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قومیت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%BC%EC%A1%B1%EC%84%B1" title="민족성 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="민족성" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%98abilar" title="Ƙabilar – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ƙabilar" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelompok_etnik" title="Kelompok etnik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kelompok etnik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9" title="जातिगत समूह – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जातिगत समूह" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="जातियता – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="जातियता" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E6%80%A7" title="民族性 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="民族性" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%85" title="توکم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="توکم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etniczno%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Etniczność – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Etniczność" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etnicidade" title="Etnicidade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Etnicidade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Этничность – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Этничность" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A" title="ජනවාර්ගික කණ්ඩායම් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජනවාර්ගික කණ්ඩායම්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etnicita" title="Etnicita – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Etnicita" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8E%D8%AA%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="ئێتنیک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئێتنیک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Етницитет – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Етницитет" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nwap" title="Nwap – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Nwap" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Етнічність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Етнічність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%8F%E7%BE%A4" title="族群 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="族群" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology" title="Category:Anthropology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Queue.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/100px-Queue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/150px-Queue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/200px-Queue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:none;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology" title="Outline of anthropology">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">History</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_archaeology" title="Aviation archaeology">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anthropology" title="Molecular anthropology">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology"> Neurological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital</a></li> <li><a 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media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_anthropology" title="Public anthropology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Symbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Visual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_anthropology" title="Semiotic anthropology">Semiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology#Methods" title="Cultural anthropology">Research framework</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">Anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyber-ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber-ethnography">cyber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_cross-cultural_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard cross-cultural sample">Cross-cultural comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">Reflexivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick_description" title="Thick description">Thick description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_anthropology" title="Development anthropology">Development</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">sociocultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship and descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">Cultural materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Diffusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">Historical particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boasian_anthropology" title="Boasian anthropology">Boasian anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Interpretive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_studies" title="Performance studies">Performance studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_theory" title="Practice theory">Practice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_anthropology" title="Structural anthropology">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropologists_by_nationality" title="Category:Anthropologists by nationality">Anthropologists by nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_anthropology" title="List of years in anthropology">Anthropology by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anthropology_journals" title="List of anthropology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">List of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology_organizations" title="Category:Anthropology organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology" title="Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology" title="Template talk:Anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An <b>ethnicity</b> or <b>ethnic group</b> is a group of <a href="/wiki/People" title="People">people</a> who <a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">identify</a> with each other on the basis of perceived shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Those attributes can include a people of a common <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, common sets of <a href="/wiki/Ancestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestry">ancestry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">traditions</a>, society, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, history, or social treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term ethnicity is sometimes used interchangeably with the term <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a>, particularly in cases of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">ethnic nationalism</a>. </p><p>Ethnicity may be construed as an inherited or societally imposed construct. Ethnic membership tends to be defined by a shared <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">cultural heritage</a>, ancestry, <a href="/wiki/Origin_myth" title="Origin myth">origin myth</a>, <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeland" title="Homeland">homeland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a>, religion, <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuisine" title="Cuisine">cuisine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Folk_costume" title="Folk costume">dressing style</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Human_physical_appearance" title="Human physical appearance">physical appearance</a>. Ethnic groups may share a narrow or broad spectrum of genetic ancestry, depending on group identification, with some groups having mixed genetic ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By way of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acculturation" title="Acculturation">acculturation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_amalgamation" title="Cultural amalgamation">amalgamation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">language shift</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heterogamy#Social_science" title="Heterogamy">intermarriage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">adoption</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">religious conversion</a>, individuals or groups may over time shift from one ethnic group to another. Ethnic groups may be divided into subgroups or <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribes</a>, which over time may become separate ethnic groups themselves due to <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">physical isolation</a> from the parent group. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a <a href="/wiki/Panethnicity" title="Panethnicity">panethnicity</a> and may eventually <a href="/wiki/Melting_pot" title="Melting pot">merge into one single ethnicity</a>. Whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Ethnogenesis" title="Ethnogenesis">ethnogenesis</a>. </p><p>Although both organic and performative criteria characterise ethnic groups, debate in the past has dichotomised between primordialism and constructivism. Earlier 20th-century "Primordialists" viewed ethnic groups as real phenomena whose distinct characteristics have endured since the distant past.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perspectives that developed after the 1960s increasingly viewed ethnic groups as <i>social constructs</i>, with identity assigned by societal rules.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ethnic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ethnic">ethnic</a></i> is ultimately derived from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">ethnos</i></span>, through its adjectival form <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">ethnikos</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-perseus_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-perseus-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> loaned into <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ethnicus</i></span>. The inherited English language term for this concept is <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/folk" class="extiw" title="wikt:folk">folk</a></i>, used alongside the latinate <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/people" class="extiw" title="wikt:people">people</a></i> since the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Middle English">late Middle English</a> period. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a> and until the mid-19th century, <i>ethnic</i> was used to mean <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/heathen" class="extiw" title="wikt:heathen">heathen</a> or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pagan" class="extiw" title="wikt:pagan">pagan</a> (in the sense of disparate "nations" which did not yet participate in the Christian <a href="/wiki/Ecumene" title="Ecumene">ecumene</a>), as the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> used <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">ta ethne</i></span> 'the nations' to translate the Hebrew <i><a href="/wiki/Goyim" class="mw-redirect" title="Goyim">goyim</a></i> "the foreign nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greek term in <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">early antiquity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Homeric_Greek" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric Greek</a>) could refer to any large group, a <i>host</i> of men, a <i>band</i> of comrades as well as a <i>swarm</i> or <i>flock</i> of animals. In <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Greek">Classical Greek</a>, the word took on a meaning comparable to the concept now expressed by "ethnic group", mostly translated as "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nation" class="extiw" title="wikt:nation">nation</a>, tribe, a unique people group"; only in <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic Greek">Hellenistic Greek</a> did the term tend to become further narrowed to refer to "foreign" or "<a href="/wiki/Barbarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarians">barbarous</a>" nations in particular (whence the later meaning "heathen, pagan").<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of "peculiar to a tribe, race, people or nation", in a return to the original Greek meaning. The sense of "different cultural groups", and in American English "tribal, racial, cultural or national <a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">minority group</a>" arises in the 1930s to 1940s,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> serving as a replacement of the term race which had earlier taken this sense but was now becoming deprecated due to its association with ideological <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>. The abstract <i>ethnicity</i> had been used as a stand-in for "paganism" in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an "ethnic character" (first recorded 1953). </p><p>The term <i>ethnic group</i> was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on context, the term <a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">nationality</a> may be used either synonymously with ethnicity or synonymously with <a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizenship</a> (in a sovereign state). The process that results in emergence of an ethnicity is called <a href="/wiki/Ethnogenesis" title="Ethnogenesis">ethnogenesis</a>, a term in use in <a href="/wiki/Ethnological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnological">ethnological</a> literature since about 1950. The term may also be used with the connotation of something unique and unusually <a href="/wiki/Exoticism" title="Exoticism">exotic</a> (cf. "an ethnic restaurant", etc.), generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, who arrived after the dominant population of an area was established. </p><p>Depending on which source of <a href="/wiki/Group_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Group identity">group identity</a> is emphasized to define membership, the following types of (often mutually overlapping) groups can be identified: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistic_group" title="Ethnolinguistic group">Ethno-linguistic</a>, emphasizing shared <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a> (and possibly <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">script</a>) – example: <a href="/wiki/French_Canadians" title="French Canadians">French Canadians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnonational_group" title="Ethnonational group">Ethno-national</a>, emphasizing a shared <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polity</a> or sense of <a href="/wiki/National_identity" title="National identity">national identity</a> – example: <a href="/wiki/Austrians" title="Austrians">Austrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial group">Ethno-racial</a>, emphasizing shared physical appearance based on phenotype  – example: <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(politics)" title="Regionalism (politics)">Ethno-regional</a>, emphasizing a distinct local sense of belonging stemming from relative geographic isolation – example: <a href="/wiki/South_Island_nationalism" title="South Island nationalism">South Islanders</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethno-religious" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethno-religious">Ethno-religious</a>, emphasizing shared affiliation with a particular religion, denomination or sect – example: <a href="/wiki/Mormons" title="Mormons">Mormons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikhs" title="Sikhs">Sikhs</a></li> <li>Ethno-cultural, emphasizing shared <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">tradition</a>, often overlapping with other forms of ethnicity – example: <a href="/wiki/Itinerant_groups_in_Europe" title="Itinerant groups in Europe">Travellers</a></li></ul> <p>In many cases, more than one aspect determines membership: for instance, <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> ethnicity can be defined by <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenian</a> citizenship, having Armenian heritage, native use of the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian language</a>, or membership of the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Apostolic Church</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions_and_conceptual_history">Definitions and conceptual history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definitions and conceptual history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Watching_you_(Bangladesh).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Watching_you_%28Bangladesh%29.JPG/250px-Watching_you_%28Bangladesh%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Watching_you_%28Bangladesh%29.JPG/375px-Watching_you_%28Bangladesh%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Watching_you_%28Bangladesh%29.JPG/500px-Watching_you_%28Bangladesh%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="874" /></a><figcaption>A group of ethnic <a href="/wiki/Bengalis" title="Bengalis">Bengalis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dhaka" title="Dhaka">Dhaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>. The Bengalis form the third-largest ethnic group in the world after the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kirab_budaya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Kirab_budaya.jpg/250px-Kirab_budaya.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Kirab_budaya.jpg/375px-Kirab_budaya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Kirab_budaya.jpg/500px-Kirab_budaya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4912" data-file-height="2760" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Javanese_people" title="Javanese people">Javanese people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> are the largest <a href="/wiki/Austronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Austronesia">Austronesian</a> ethnic group.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> begins in <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>; after early authors like <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hecataeus_of_Miletus" title="Hecataeus of Miletus">Hecataeus of Miletus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> laid the foundation of both <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> and ethnography of the ancient world <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 480 BC</span>. The Greeks had developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of <a href="/wiki/Hellenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenes">Hellenes</a>. Although there were exceptions, such as Macedonia, which was ruled by nobility in a way that was not typically Greek, and Sparta, which had an unusual ruling class, the ancient Greeks generally enslaved only non-Greeks due to their strong belief in ethnonationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greeks sometimes believed that even their lowest citizens were superior to any barbarian. In his <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> 1.2–7; 3.14, Aristotle even described barbarians as natural slaves in contrast to the Greeks. Herodotus (8.144.2) gave a famous account of what defined Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day, enumerating </p> <ol><li>shared <a href="/wiki/Kinship_and_descent" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinship and descent">descent</a> (ὅμαιμον – <i>homaimon</i>, "of the same blood"),<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>shared <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> (ὁμόγλωσσον – <i>homoglōsson</i>, "speaking the same language"),<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>shared <a href="/wiki/Sanctuaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctuaries">sanctuaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sacrifices" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacrifices">sacrifices</a> (Greek: θεῶν ἱδρύματά τε κοινὰ καὶ θυσίαι – <i>theōn hidrumata te koina kai thusiai</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>shared <a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">customs</a> (Greek: ἤθεα ὁμότροπα – <i>ēthea homotropa</i>, "customs of like fashion").<sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Whether ethnicity qualifies as a <a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">cultural universal</a> is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropologists</a> <a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Barth" title="Fredrik Barth">Fredrik Barth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eric_Wolf" title="Eric Wolf">Eric Wolf</a>, do not consider ethnic identity to be universal. They regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FredrikBarth_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FredrikBarth-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="this book has only 153 pages ... and the topic is quite different. (July 2017)">irrelevant citation</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hylland_Eriksen" title="Thomas Hylland Eriksen">Thomas Hylland Eriksen</a>, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently. </p> <ul><li>One is between "<a href="/wiki/Primordialism" title="Primordialism">primordialism</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalism</a>". In the <a href="/wiki/Primordialism" title="Primordialism">primordialist</a> view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as an externally given, even coercive, social bond.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalist</a> approach, on the other hand, treats ethnicity primarily as an ad hoc element of a political strategy, used as a resource for interest groups for achieving secondary goals such as, for instance, an increase in wealth, power, or status.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This debate is still an important point of reference in <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a>, although most scholars' approaches fall between the two poles.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The second debate is between "<a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(international_relations)" title="Constructivism (international relations)">constructivism</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a>". Constructivists view national and ethnic identities as the product of historical forces, often recent, even when the identities are presented as old.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Essentialists view such identities as <a href="/wiki/Ontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological">ontological</a> categories defining social actors.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hylland_Eriksen" title="Thomas Hylland Eriksen">Eriksen</a>, these debates have been superseded, especially in <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, by scholars' attempts to respond to increasingly politicized forms of self-representation by members of different ethnic groups and nations. This is in the context of debates over <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a> in countries, such as the United States and Canada, which have large immigrant populations from many different cultures, and post-colonialism in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> maintained that ethnic groups were <i>künstlich</i> (artificial, i.e. a <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social construct</a>) because they were based on a subjective belief in shared <i><a href="/wiki/Gemeinschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Gemeinschaft">Gemeinschaft</a></i> (community). Secondly, this belief in shared Gemeinschaft did not create the group; the group created the belief. Third, group formation resulted from the drive to monopolize power and status. This was contrary to the prevailing naturalist belief of the time, which held that socio-cultural and behavioral differences between peoples stemmed from inherited traits and tendencies derived from common descent, then called "race".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another influential theoretician of ethnicity was <a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Barth" title="Fredrik Barth">Fredrik Barth</a>, whose "Ethnic Groups and Boundaries" from 1969 has been described as instrumental in spreading the usage of the term in social studies in the 1980s and 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-cohen_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Barth went further than Weber in stressing the constructed nature of ethnicity. To Barth, ethnicity was perpetually negotiated and renegotiated by both external ascription and internal self-identification. Barth's view is that ethnic groups are not discontinuous cultural isolates or logical <i>a priori</i> to which people naturally belong. He wanted to part with anthropological notions of cultures as bounded entities, and ethnicity as primordialist bonds, replacing it with a focus on the interface between groups. "Ethnic Groups and Boundaries", therefore, is a focus on the interconnectedness of ethnic identities. Barth writes: "...<span class="nowrap"> </span>categorical ethnic distinctions do not depend on an absence of mobility, contact, and information, but do entail social processes of exclusion and incorporation whereby discrete categories are maintained despite changing participation and membership in the course of individual life histories."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1978, anthropologist Ronald Cohen claimed that the identification of "ethnic groups" in the usage of social scientists often reflected inaccurate <a href="/wiki/Label_(sociology)" title="Label (sociology)">labels</a> more than indigenous realities: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... the named ethnic identities we accept, often unthinkingly, as basic givens in the literature are often arbitrarily, or even worse inaccurately, imposed.<sup id="cite_ref-cohen_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In this way, he pointed to the fact that identification of an ethnic group by outsiders, e.g. anthropologists, may not coincide with the self-identification of the members of that group. He also described that in the first decades of usage, the term ethnicity had often been used in lieu of older terms such as "cultural" or "tribal" when referring to smaller groups with shared cultural systems and shared heritage, but that "ethnicity" had the added value of being able to describe the commonalities between systems of group identity in both tribal and modern societies. Cohen also suggested that claims concerning "ethnic" identity (like earlier claims concerning "tribal" identity) are often colonialist practices and effects of the relations between colonized peoples and nation-states.<sup id="cite_ref-cohen_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Paul_James_(academic)" title="Paul James (academic)">Paul James</a>, formations of identity were often changed and distorted by colonization, but identities are not made out of nothing: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Categorizations about identity, even when codified and hardened into clear typologies by processes of colonization, state formation or general modernizing processes, are always full of tensions and contradictions. Sometimes these contradictions are destructive, but they can also be creative and positive.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Social scientists have thus focused on how, when, and why different markers of ethnic identity become salient. Thus, anthropologist Joan Vincent observed that ethnic boundaries often have a mercurial character.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ronald Cohen concluded that ethnicity is "a series of nesting dichotomizations of inclusiveness and exclusiveness".<sup id="cite_ref-cohen_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He agrees with Joan Vincent's observation that (in Cohen's paraphrase) "Ethnicity<span class="nowrap"> </span>... can be narrowed or broadened in boundary terms in relation to the specific needs of political mobilization."<sup id="cite_ref-cohen_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may be why descent is sometimes a marker of ethnicity, and sometimes not: which diacritic of ethnicity is salient depends on whether people are scaling ethnic boundaries up or down, and whether they are scaling them up or down depends generally on the political situation. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kanchan_Chandra" title="Kanchan Chandra">Kanchan Chandra</a> rejects the expansive definitions of ethnic identity (such as those that include common culture, common language, common history and common territory), choosing instead to define ethnic identity narrowly as a subset of identity categories determined by the belief of common descent.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jóhanna Birnir similarly defines ethnicity as "group self-identification around a characteristic that is very difficult or even impossible to change, such as language, race, or location."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Approaches_to_understanding_ethnicity">Approaches to understanding ethnicity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Approaches to understanding ethnicity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Different approaches to understanding ethnicity have been used by different social scientists when trying to understand the nature of ethnicity as a factor in human life and society. As <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_M._Hall" title="Jonathan M. Hall">Jonathan M. Hall</a> observes, World War II was a turning point in ethnic studies. The consequences of Nazi racism discouraged essentialist interpretations of ethnic groups and race. Ethnic groups came to be defined as social rather than biological entities. Their coherence was attributed to shared myths, descent, <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a>, a common place of origin, language, religion, customs, and national character. So, ethnic groups are conceived as mutable rather than stable, constructed in discursive practices rather than written in the genes.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examples of various approaches are primordialism, essentialism, perennialism, constructivism, modernism, and instrumentalism. </p> <ul><li>"<i>Primordialism</i>", holds that ethnicity has existed at all times of human history and that modern ethnic groups have historical continuity into the far past. For them, the idea of ethnicity is closely linked to the idea of nations and is rooted in the pre-Weber understanding of humanity as being divided into primordially existing groups rooted by kinship and biological heritage. <ul><li>"<i>Essentialist primordialism</i>" further holds that ethnicity is an <i>a priori</i> fact of human existence, that ethnicity precedes any human social interaction and that it is unchanged by it. This theory sees ethnic groups as natural, not just as historical. It also has problems dealing with the consequences of intermarriage, migration and colonization for the composition of modern-day multi-ethnic <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">societies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-smith13_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smith13-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"<i>Kinship primordialism</i>" holds that ethnic communities are extensions of kinship units, basically being derived by kinship or <a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">clan</a> ties where the choices of cultural signs (language, religion, traditions) are made exactly to show this biological affinity. In this way, the myths of common biological ancestry that are a defining feature of ethnic communities are to be understood as representing actual biological history. A problem with this view on ethnicity is that it is more often than not the case that mythic origins of specific ethnic groups directly contradict the known biological history of an ethnic community.<sup id="cite_ref-smith13_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smith13-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"<i>Geertz's primordialism</i>", notably espoused by anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Geertz" title="Clifford Geertz">Clifford Geertz</a>, argues that humans in general attribute an overwhelming power to primordial human "givens" such as blood ties, language, territory, and cultural differences. In Geertz' opinion, ethnicity is not in itself primordial but humans perceive it as such because it is embedded in their experience of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-smith13_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smith13-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>"<i>Perennialism</i>" is an approach that is primarily concerned with nationhood but tends to see nations and ethnic communities as basically the same phenomenon. It holds that the nation, as a type of social and political organization, is of an immemorial or "perennial" character.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith (1999) distinguishes two variants: "continuous perennialism", which claims that particular nations have existed for very long periods, and "recurrent perennialism", which focuses on the emergence, dissolution and reappearance of nations as a recurring aspect of human history.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>"<i>Perpetual perennialism</i>" holds that specific ethnic groups have existed continuously throughout history.</li> <li>"<i>Situational perennialism</i>" holds that nations and ethnic groups emerge, change and vanish through the course of history. This view holds that the concept of ethnicity is a tool used by political groups to manipulate resources such as wealth, power, territory or status in their particular groups' interests. Accordingly, ethnicity emerges when it is relevant as a means of furthering emergent collective interests and changes according to political changes in society. Examples of a perennialist interpretation of ethnicity are also found in Barth and Seidner who see ethnicity as ever-changing boundaries between groups of people established through ongoing social negotiation and interaction.</li> <li>"<i>Instrumentalist perennialism</i>", while seeing ethnicity primarily as a versatile tool that identified different ethnics groups and limits through time, explains ethnicity as a mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">social stratification</a>, meaning that ethnicity is the basis for a hierarchical arrangement of individuals. According to Donald Noel, a sociologist who developed a theory on the origin of ethnic stratification, ethnic stratification is a "system of stratification wherein some relatively fixed group membership (e.g., race, religion, or nationality) is used as a major criterion for assigning social positions".<sup id="cite_ref-Noel1968_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noel1968-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ethnic stratification is one of many different types of social stratification, including stratification based on <a href="/wiki/Socio-economic_status" class="mw-redirect" title="Socio-economic status">socio-economic status</a>, race, or <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>. According to Donald Noel, ethnic stratification will emerge only when specific ethnic groups are brought into contact with one another, and only when those groups are characterized by a high degree of <a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">ethnocentrism</a>, competition, and differential power. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own culture, and to downgrade all other groups outside one's own culture. Some sociologists, such as Lawrence Bobo and Vincent Hutchings, say the origin of ethnic stratification lies in individual dispositions of ethnic prejudice, which relates to the theory of ethnocentrism.<sup id="cite_ref-Bobo1996_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bobo1996-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Continuing with Noel's theory, some degree of differential power must be present for the emergence of ethnic stratification. In other words, an inequality of power among ethnic groups means "they are of such unequal power that one is able to impose its will upon another".<sup id="cite_ref-Noel1968_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noel1968-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to differential power, a degree of competition structured along ethnic lines is a prerequisite to ethnic stratification as well. The different ethnic groups must be competing for some common goal, such as power or influence, or a material interest, such as wealth or territory. Lawrence Bobo and Vincent Hutchings propose that competition is driven by self-interest and hostility, and results in inevitable stratification and <a href="/wiki/Group_conflict" title="Group conflict">conflict</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bobo1996_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bobo1996-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>"<i>Constructivism</i>" sees both primordialist and perennialist views as basically flawed,<sup id="cite_ref-Bobo1996_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bobo1996-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and rejects the notion of ethnicity as a basic human condition. It holds that ethnic groups are only products of human social interaction, maintained only in so far as they are maintained as valid social constructs in societies. <ul><li>"<i>Modernist constructivism</i>" correlates the emergence of ethnicity with the movement towards <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation states</a> beginning in the early modern period.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proponents of this theory, such as <a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Eric Hobsbawm</a>, argue that ethnicity and notions of ethnic pride, such as nationalism, are purely modern inventions, appearing only in the modern period of world history. They hold that prior to this ethnic homogeneity was not considered an ideal or necessary factor in the forging of large-scale societies.</li></ul></li></ul> <p>Ethnicity is an important means by which people may identify with a larger group. Many social scientists, such as <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropologists</a> <a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Barth" title="Fredrik Barth">Fredrik Barth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eric_Wolf" title="Eric Wolf">Eric Wolf</a>, do not consider ethnic identity to be universal. They regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FredrikBarth_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FredrikBarth-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process that results in emergence of such identification is called ethnogenesis. Members of an ethnic group, on the whole, claim cultural continuities over time, although <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">historians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropologists</a> have documented that many of the values, practices, and norms that imply continuity with the past are of relatively recent invention.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ethnic groups can form a <a href="/wiki/Cultural_mosaic" title="Cultural mosaic">cultural mosaic</a> in a society. That could be in a city like <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> or <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a>, but also the fallen monarchy of the <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a> or the United States. Current topics are in particular social and cultural differentiation, multilingualism, competing identity offers, multiple cultural identities and the formation of <a href="/wiki/Salad_bowl_(cultural_idea)" title="Salad bowl (cultural idea)">Salad bowl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melting_pot" title="Melting pot">melting pot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ethnic groups differ from other social groups, such as <a href="/wiki/Subculture" title="Subculture">subcultures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interest_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Interest group">interest groups</a> or <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social classes</a>, because they emerge and change over historical periods (centuries) in a process known as ethnogenesis, a period of several generations of <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a> resulting in common ancestry (which is then sometimes cast in terms of a <a href="/wiki/National_myth" title="National myth">mythological</a> narrative of a <a href="/wiki/Eponymous_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Eponymous ancestor">founding figure</a>); ethnic identity is reinforced by reference to "boundary markers" – characteristics said to be unique to the group which set it apart from other groups.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Anderson,_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson,-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ethnic2_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnic2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnicity_theory_in_the_United_States">Ethnicity theory in the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ethnicity theory in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Ethnicity theory</i> argues that race is a social category and is only one of several factors in determining ethnicity. Other criteria include "religion, language, 'customs', nationality, and political identification".<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory was put forward by sociologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Park" title="Robert E. Park">Robert E. Park</a> in the 1920s. It is based on the notion of "culture". </p><p>This theory was preceded by more than 100 years during which biological <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a> was the dominant paradigm on race. Biological essentialism is the belief that some races, specifically white Europeans in western versions of the paradigm, are biologically superior and other races, specifically non-white races in western debates, are inherently inferior. This view arose as a way to justify enslavement of African Americans and genocide of Native Americans in a society that was officially founded on freedom for all. This was a notion that developed slowly and came to be a preoccupation with scientists, theologians, and the public. Religious institutions asked questions about whether there had been multiple creations of races (polygenesis) and whether God had created lesser races. Many of the foremost scientists of the time took up the idea of racial difference and found that white Europeans were superior.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ethnicity theory was based on the assimilation model. Park outlined four steps to assimilation: contact, conflict, accommodation, and assimilation. Instead of attributing the marginalized status of people of color in the United States to their inherent biological inferiority, he attributed it to their failure to assimilate into American culture. They could become equal if they abandoned their inferior cultures. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Michael_Omi" title="Michael Omi">Michael Omi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Howard_Winant" title="Howard Winant">Howard Winant</a>'s theory of racial formation directly confronts both the premises and the practices of ethnicity theory. They argue in <i>Racial Formation in the United States</i> that the ethnicity theory was exclusively based on the immigration patterns of the white population and did take into account the unique experiences of non-whites in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Omi-Winant-p17_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Omi-Winant-p17-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Park's theory identified different stages in the immigration process – contact, conflict, struggle, and as the last and best response, assimilation – it did so only for white communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Omi-Winant-p17_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Omi-Winant-p17-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ethnicity paradigm neglected the ways in which race can complicate a community's interactions with social and political structures, especially upon contact. </p><p>Assimilation – shedding the particular qualities of a native culture for the purpose of blending in with a host culture – did not work for some groups as a response to racism and discrimination, though it did for others.<sup id="cite_ref-Omi-Winant-p17_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Omi-Winant-p17-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once the legal barriers to achieving equality had been dismantled, the problem of racism became the sole responsibility of already disadvantaged communities.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was assumed that if a Black or Latino community was not "making it" by the standards that had been set by whites, it was because that community did not hold the right values or beliefs, or were stubbornly resisting dominant norms because they did not want to fit in. Omi and Winant's critique of ethnicity theory explains how looking to cultural defect as the source of inequality ignores the "concrete sociopolitical dynamics within which racial phenomena operate in the U.S."<sup id="cite_ref-Omi-Winant-p21_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Omi-Winant-p21-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It prevents critical examination of the structural components of racism and encourages a "benign neglect" of social inequality.<sup id="cite_ref-Omi-Winant-p21_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Omi-Winant-p21-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethnicity_and_nationality">Ethnicity and nationality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ethnicity and nationality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">Nation state</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">minority group</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;"><i>Part of <a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">a series</a> on</i></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">legal anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Status and rank</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascribed_status" title="Ascribed status">Ascribed status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achieved_status" title="Achieved status">Achieved status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">Social status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_grade" title="Age grade">Age grade</a>/<a href="/wiki/Age_set" title="Age set">Age set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leveling_mechanism" title="Leveling mechanism">Leveling mechanism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_man_(anthropology)" title="Big man (anthropology)">Big man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Matriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_(administrative_title)" title="Elder (administrative title)">Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantribal_sodalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantribal sodalities">Pantribal sodalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">Chief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramount_chief" title="Paramount chief">Paramount chief</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Polities</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Band_society" title="Band society">Band society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmentary_lineage" title="Segmentary lineage">Segmentary lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">Tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiefdom" title="Chiefdom">Chiefdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petty_kingdom" title="Petty kingdom">Petty kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_society" title="House society">House society</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ethnic group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_state" title="Theatre state">Theatre state</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Law and custom</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customary law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_culture" title="Legal culture">Legal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_warfare" title="Ritual warfare">Ritual warfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Case studies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Acephelous</dt> <dd></dd> <dd>Societies without hierarchical leaders</dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/African_Political_Systems" title="African Political Systems">African Political Systems</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moka_exchange" title="Moka exchange">Papuan Big man system</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_Not_Being_Governed" title="The Art of Not Being Governed">The Art of Not Being Governed</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt>State</dt> <dd></dd> <dd>Non-western state systems</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negara:_The_Theatre_State_in_Nineteenth-Century_Bali" title="Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali">Negara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_(Southeast_Asian_political_model)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandala (Southeast Asian political model)">Mandala</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Technology,_Tradition,_and_the_State_in_Africa" title="Technology, Tradition, and the State in Africa">Technology, Tradition,<br /> and the State in Africa</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt>Legal systems</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapu_(Hawaiian_culture)" title="Kapu (Hawaiian culture)">Kapu</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Colonialism and resistance</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Europe_and_the_People_Without_History" title="Europe and the People Without History">Europe and the People <br />Without History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult" title="Cargo cult">Cargo cult</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/E._Adamson_Hoebel" title="E. Adamson Hoebel">E. Adamson Hoebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Balandier" title="Georges Balandier">Georges Balandier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F._G._Bailey" title="F. G. Bailey">F. G. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Barth" title="Fredrik Barth">Fredrik Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Boissevain" title="Jeremy Boissevain">Jeremy Boissevain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Carneiro" title="Robert L. Carneiro">Robert L. Carneiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_J._M._Claessen" title="Henri J. M. Claessen">Henri J. M. Claessen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Comaroff" title="Jean Comaroff">Jean Comaroff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Comaroff" title="John Comaroff">John Comaroff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Clastres" title="Pierre Clastres">Pierre Clastres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._E._Evans-Pritchard" title="E. E. Evans-Pritchard">E. E. Evans-Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Fikentscher" title="Wolfgang Fikentscher">Wolfgang Fikentscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meyer_Fortes" title="Meyer Fortes">Meyer Fortes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_Fried" title="Morton Fried">Morton Fried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numa_Denis_Fustel_de_Coulanges" title="Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges">Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gellner" title="Ernest Gellner">Ernest Gellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">David Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesley_Gill" title="Lesley Gill">Lesley Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulf_Hannerz" title="Ulf Hannerz">Ulf Hannerz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Blom_Hansen" title="Thomas Blom Hansen">Thomas Blom Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_C._Lewellen" title="Ted C. Lewellen">Ted C. Lewellen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Leach" title="Edmund Leach">Edmund Leach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Linton" title="Ralph Linton">Ralph Linton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Mertz" title="Elizabeth Mertz">Elizabeth Mertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Mintz" title="Sidney Mintz">Sidney Mintz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sally_Falk_Moore" title="Sally Falk Moore">Sally Falk Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Needham" title="Rodney Needham">Rodney Needham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Scott" title="James C. Scott">James C. Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elman_Service" title="Elman Service">Elman Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aidan_Southall" title="Aidan Southall">Aidan Southall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spencer" title="Jonathan Spencer">Jonathan Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bjorn_Thomassen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bjorn Thomassen">Bjorn Thomassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_R._White" title="Douglas R. White">Douglas R. White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Wolf" title="Eric Wolf">Eric Wolf</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumscription_theory" title="Circumscription theory">Circumscription theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left%E2%80%93right_paradigm" title="Left–right paradigm">Left–right paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_formation" title="State formation">State formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy in anthropology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Network_Analysis_and_Ethnographic_Problems" title="Network Analysis and Ethnographic Problems">Network Analysis and Ethnographic Problems</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Journals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Political_and_Legal_Anthropology_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Political and Legal Anthropology Review">Political and Legal Anthropology Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Legal_Anthropology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Legal Anthropology (page does not exist)">Journal of Legal Anthropology</a></i></li> <li><i>Journal of Law and Society</i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_anthropology" title="Template:Political anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_anthropology" title="Template talk:Political anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In some cases, especially those involving transnational migration or colonial expansion, ethnicity is linked to nationality. Anthropologists and historians, following the modernist understanding of ethnicity as proposed by Ernest Gellner<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Benedict Anderson<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> see nations and nationalism as developing with the rise of the modern state system in the 17th century. They culminated in the rise of "nation-states" in which the presumptive boundaries of the nation coincided (or ideally coincided) with state boundaries. Thus, in the West, the notion of ethnicity, like race and <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a>, developed in the context of European colonial expansion, when <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> were promoting global movements of populations at the same time that <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a> boundaries were being more clearly and rigidly defined. </p><p>In the 19th century, modern states generally sought legitimacy through their claim to represent "nations". <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">Nation-states</a>, however, invariably include populations who have been excluded from national life for one reason or another. Members of excluded groups, consequently, will either demand inclusion based on equality or seek autonomy, sometimes even to the extent of complete political separation in their nation-state.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under these conditions<span class="nowrap"> </span>when people moved from one state to another,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or one state conquered or colonized peoples beyond its national boundaries – ethnic groups were formed by people who identified with one nation but lived in another state. </p><p>In the 1920s, Estonia introduced a flexible system of ethnicity/nationality self-choice for its citizens,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which included Estonians Russians, Baltic Germans and Jews. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Multi-ethnic_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-ethnic state">Multi-ethnic states</a> can be the result of two opposite events, either the recent creation of state borders at variance with traditional tribal territories, or the recent immigration of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minority" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic minority">ethnic minorities</a> into a former nation-state. Examples for the first case are found throughout <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, where countries created during <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a> inherited arbitrary colonial borders, but also in European countries such as <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> or <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. Examples for the second case are countries such as <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, which were relatively ethnically homogeneous when they attained statehood but have received significant immigration in the 17th century and even more so in the second half of the 20th century. States such as the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> comprised distinct ethnic groups from their formation and have likewise experienced substantial immigration, resulting in what has been termed "<a href="/wiki/Multicultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicultural">multicultural</a>" societies, especially in large cities. </p><p>The states of the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> were multi-ethnic from the onset, as they were formed as colonies imposed on existing indigenous populations. </p><p>In recent decades, feminist scholars (most notably Nira Yuval-Davis)<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have drawn attention to the fundamental ways in which women participate in the creation and reproduction of ethnic and national categories. Though these categories are usually discussed as belonging to the public, political sphere, they are upheld within the private, family sphere to a great extent.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is here that women act not just as biological reproducers but also as "cultural carriers", transmitting knowledge and enforcing behaviors that belong to a specific collectivity.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women also often play a significant symbolic role in conceptions of nation or ethnicity, for example in the notion that "women and children" constitute the kernel of a nation which must be defended in times of conflict, or in iconic figures such as <a href="/wiki/Britannia" title="Britannia">Britannia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Marianne" title="Marianne">Marianne</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethnicity_and_race">Ethnicity and race</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ethnicity and race"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asiatiska_folk,_Nordisk_familjebok.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Asiatiska_folk%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.jpg/220px-Asiatiska_folk%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Asiatiska_folk%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.jpg/330px-Asiatiska_folk%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Asiatiska_folk%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.jpg/440px-Asiatiska_folk%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2917" data-file-height="2239" /></a><figcaption>The racial diversity of <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>'s ethnic groups (original caption: <i>Asiatiska folk</i>), <span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv"><a href="/wiki/Nordisk_familjebok" title="Nordisk familjebok">Nordisk familjebok</a></i></span> (1904)</figcaption></figure> <p>Ethnicity is used as a matter of cultural identity of a group, often based on shared ancestry, language, and cultural traditions, while <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a> is applied as a taxonomic grouping, based on physical similarities among groups. Race is a more controversial subject than ethnicity, due to common political use of the term.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Ramón Grosfoguel (University of California, Berkeley) argues that "racial/ethnic identity" is one concept and concepts of race and ethnicity cannot be used as separate and autonomous categories.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before Weber (1864–1920), race and ethnicity were primarily seen as two aspects of the same thing. Around 1900 and before, the primordialist understanding of ethnicity predominated: cultural differences between peoples were seen as being the result of inherited traits and tendencies.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With Weber's introduction of the idea of ethnicity as a social construct, race and ethnicity became more divided from each other. </p><p>In 1950, the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> statement "<a href="/wiki/The_Race_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="The Race Question">The Race Question</a>", signed by some of the internationally renowned scholars of the time (including <a href="/wiki/Ashley_Montagu" title="Ashley Montagu">Ashley Montagu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Gunnar Myrdal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a>, etc.), said: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>National, religious, geographic, linguistic and cultural groups do not necessarily coincide with racial groups: and the cultural traits of such groups have no demonstrated genetic connection with racial traits. Because serious errors of this kind are habitually committed when the term "race" is used in popular parlance, it would be better when speaking of human races to drop the term "race" altogether and speak of "ethnic groups".<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 1982, anthropologist David Craig Griffith summed up forty years of ethnographic research, arguing that racial and ethnic categories are symbolic markers for different ways people from different parts of the world have been incorporated into a global economy: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The opposing interests that divide the working classes are further reinforced through appeals to "racial" and "ethnic" distinctions. Such appeals serve to allocate different categories of workers to rungs on the scale of labor markets, relegating stigmatized populations to the lower levels and insulating the higher echelons from competition from below. Capitalism did not create all the distinctions of ethnicity and race that function to set off categories of workers from one another. It is, nevertheless, the process of labor mobilization under capitalism that imparts to these distinctions their effective values.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>According to Wolf, racial categories were constructed and incorporated during the period of <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">European mercantile expansion</a>, and ethnic groupings during the period of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist expansion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Writing in 1977 about the usage of the term "ethnic" in the ordinary language of <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, Wallman noted </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The term "ethnic" popularly connotes "[race]" in Britain, only less precisely, and with a lighter value load. In North America, by contrast, "[race]" most commonly means color, and "ethnics" are the descendants of relatively recent immigrants from non-English-speaking countries. "[Ethnic]" is not a noun in Britain. In effect there are no "ethnics"; there are only "ethnic relations".<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In the U.S., the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget" title="Office of Management and Budget">OMB</a> says the definition of race as used for the purposes of the US Census is not "scientific or anthropological" and takes into account "social and cultural characteristics as well as ancestry", using "appropriate scientific methodologies" that are not "primarily biological or genetic in reference".<sup id="cite_ref-AAA_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAA-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethno-national_conflict">Ethno-national conflict</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ethno-national conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></div> <p>Sometimes ethnic groups are subject to prejudicial attitudes and actions by the state or its constituents. In the 20th century, people began to argue that conflicts among ethnic groups or between members of an ethnic group and the state can and should be resolved in one of two ways. Some, like <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> and Bruce Barry, have argued that the legitimacy of modern states must be based on a notion of political rights of autonomous individual subjects. According to this view, the state should not acknowledge ethnic, national or racial identity but rather instead enforce political and legal equality of all individuals. Others, like <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Will Kymlicka</a>, argue that the notion of the autonomous individual is itself a cultural construct. According to this view, states must recognize ethnic identity and develop processes through which the particular needs of ethnic groups can be accommodated within the boundaries of the nation-state. </p><p>The 19th century saw the development of the political ideology of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">ethnic nationalism</a>, when the concept of race was tied to <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, first by German theorists including <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_von_Herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Gottfried von Herder">Johann Gottfried von Herder</a>. Instances of societies focusing on ethnic ties, arguably to the exclusion of history or historical context, have resulted in the justification of nationalist goals. Two periods frequently cited as examples of this are the 19th-century consolidation and expansion of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> and the 20th century <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. Each promoted the pan-ethnic idea that these governments were acquiring only lands that had always been inhabited by ethnic Germans. The history of late-comers to the nation-state model, such as those arising in the Near East and south-eastern Europe out of the dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires, as well as those arising out of the USSR, is marked by <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic war">inter-ethnic conflicts</a>. Such conflicts usually occur within multi-ethnic states, as opposed to between them, as in other regions of the world. Thus, the conflicts are often misleadingly labeled and characterized as <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil wars</a> when they are inter-ethnic conflicts in a multi-ethnic state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethnic_groups_by_continent">Ethnic groups by continent</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ethnic groups by continent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">List of ethnic groups of Africa</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Importance_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may contain information <b>not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Encyclopedic_content" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">important or relevant</a> to the article's subject.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit">improve this section</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Ethnic groups in Africa number in the hundreds, each generally having its own <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">language</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a> of a language) and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Asia" title="Ethnic groups in Asia">Ethnic groups in Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_people" title="East Asian people">East Asian people</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">South Asian ethnic groups</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia">Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_Middle_East" title="Ethnic groups in the Middle East">Ethnic groups in the Middle East</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Ethnicity" title="Special:EditPage/Ethnicity">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyriankhigga.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Assyriankhigga.jpg/230px-Assyriankhigga.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Assyriankhigga.jpg/345px-Assyriankhigga.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Assyriankhigga.jpg/460px-Assyriankhigga.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a> are one of the indigenous peoples of Northern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ethnic groups are abundant throughout <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, with adaptations to the climate zones of Asia, which can be the Arctic, subarctic, temperate, subtropical or tropical. The ethnic groups have adapted to mountains, deserts, grasslands, and forests. </p><p>On the coasts of Asia, the ethnic groups have adopted various methods of harvest and transport. Some groups are primarily <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a>, some practice <a href="/wiki/Transhumance" title="Transhumance">transhumance</a> (nomadic lifestyle), others have been agrarian/rural for millennia and others becoming industrial/urban. Some groups/countries of Asia are completely urban, such as those in <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>. The colonization of Asia was largely ended in the 20th century, with national drives for independence and <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> across the continent. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> alone, there are more than <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Indonesia" title="Ethnic groups in Indonesia">1,300 ethnic groups</a> recognized by the government, which are located on 17,000 islands in the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_archipelago" title="Indonesian archipelago">Indonesian archipelago</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> has more than 185 <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Russia" title="Ethnic groups in Russia">recognized ethnic groups</a> besides the eighty percent <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">ethnic Russian</a> majority. The largest group is the <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a>, 3.8 percent. Many of the smaller groups are found in the Asian part of Russia (see <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Siberia" title="Indigenous peoples of Siberia">Indigenous peoples of Siberia</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Europe" title="Ethnic groups in Europe">Ethnic groups in Europe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olentzero,_Beasain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Olentzero%2C_Beasain.jpg/220px-Olentzero%2C_Beasain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Olentzero%2C_Beasain.jpg/330px-Olentzero%2C_Beasain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Olentzero%2C_Beasain.jpg/440px-Olentzero%2C_Beasain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Basques" title="Basques">Basques</a> constitute an indigenous ethnic minority in both France and Spain.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sami_family_Finland_1936.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Sami_family_Finland_1936.jpg/220px-Sami_family_Finland_1936.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Sami_family_Finland_1936.jpg/330px-Sami_family_Finland_1936.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Sami_family_Finland_1936.jpg/440px-Sami_family_Finland_1936.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1904" data-file-height="2170" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sámi people">Sámi</a> family in <a href="/wiki/Lapland_(Finland)" title="Lapland (Finland)">Lapland</a> of Finland, 1936</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President%27s_Trip_to_Europe-_Motorcade_in_Cork._President_Kennedy,_motorcade,_spectators._Cork,_Ireland_-_NARA_-_194227.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/President%27s_Trip_to_Europe-_Motorcade_in_Cork._President_Kennedy%2C_motorcade%2C_spectators._Cork%2C_Ireland_-_NARA_-_194227.jpg/220px-President%27s_Trip_to_Europe-_Motorcade_in_Cork._President_Kennedy%2C_motorcade%2C_spectators._Cork%2C_Ireland_-_NARA_-_194227.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/President%27s_Trip_to_Europe-_Motorcade_in_Cork._President_Kennedy%2C_motorcade%2C_spectators._Cork%2C_Ireland_-_NARA_-_194227.jpg/330px-President%27s_Trip_to_Europe-_Motorcade_in_Cork._President_Kennedy%2C_motorcade%2C_spectators._Cork%2C_Ireland_-_NARA_-_194227.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/President%27s_Trip_to_Europe-_Motorcade_in_Cork._President_Kennedy%2C_motorcade%2C_spectators._Cork%2C_Ireland_-_NARA_-_194227.jpg/440px-President%27s_Trip_to_Europe-_Motorcade_in_Cork._President_Kennedy%2C_motorcade%2C_spectators._Cork%2C_Ireland_-_NARA_-_194227.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2963" data-file-height="2015" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a> are an ethnic group from <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> of which 70–80 million people worldwide claim ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> has a large number of ethnic groups; Pan and Pfeil (2004) count 87 distinct "peoples of Europe", of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minority" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic minority">ethnic minorities</a> within every state they inhabit (although they may form local regional majorities within a sub-national entity). The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people or 14% of 770 million Europeans.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of European countries, including <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, do not collect information on the ethnicity of their resident population. </p><p>An example of a largely <a href="/wiki/Nomadic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomadic">nomadic</a> ethnic group in Europe is the <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Roma</a>, pejoratively known as Gypsies. They originated from India and speak the <a href="/wiki/Romani_language" title="Romani language">Romani language</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbian</a> province of <a href="/wiki/Vojvodina" title="Vojvodina">Vojvodina</a> is recognizable for its <a href="/wiki/Multinational_state" title="Multinational state">multi-ethnic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multi-cultural</a> identity.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are some 26 ethnic groups in the province,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and six languages are in official use by the provincial administration.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_origins_of_people_in_Canada" title="Ethnic origins of people in Canada">Ethnic origins of people in Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Central_America" title="Ethnic groups in Central America">Ethnic groups in Central America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Greenland" title="Demographics of Greenland">Demographics of Greenland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Mexico" title="Demographics of Mexico">Demographics of Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups in the United States">Ethnic groups in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#North_America" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas § North America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Indigenous peoples in Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Mexico" title="Indigenous peoples of Mexico">Indigenous peoples of Mexico</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_people" title="Caribbean people">Caribbean people</a></div> <p>The indigenous people in North America are <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a>. During European colonization, Europeans arrived in North America. Most Native Americans died due to Spanish diseases and other European diseases such as smallpox during the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a>. The largest pan-ethnic group in the United States is <a href="/wiki/White_Americans" title="White Americans">White Americans</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" title="Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino Americans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mexican_Americans" title="Mexican Americans">Mexican Americans</a> in particular) and <a href="/wiki/Asian_Americans" title="Asian Americans">Asian Americans</a> have immigrated to the United States recently. In Mexico, most Mexicans are <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">mestizo</a>, a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Spaniards" title="Spaniards">Spanish</a> and Native American ancestry. Some Hispanic and Latino Americans living in the United States are not mestizos.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Enslaved Africans were brought to North America from the 16th to 19th centuries during the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>. Many of them were sent to the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>. Ethnic groups that live in the Caribbean are: indigenous peoples, Africans, Indians, white Europeans, Chinese and Portuguese. The first white Europeans to arrive in the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> were the Spanish in 1492. The Caribbean was also colonized and discovered by the Portuguese, English, Dutch and French.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A sizeable number of people in the United States have mixed-race identities. In 2021, the number of Americans who identified as non-Hispanic and more than one race was 13.5 million. The number of Hispanic Americans who identified as multiracial was 20.3 million.<sup id="cite_ref-ny_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ny-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the course of the 2010s decade, there was a 127% increase in non-Hispanic Americans who identified as multiracial.<sup id="cite_ref-ny_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ny-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The largest ethnic groups in the United States are <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a>, African Americans, <a href="/wiki/Mexicans" title="Mexicans">Mexicans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans" title="Irish Americans">Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_Americans" title="English Americans">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_ancestry" title="American ancestry">Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scottish</a>, Native Americans, <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans" title="Puerto Ricans">Puerto Ricans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegians" title="Norwegians">Norwegians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_people" title="Dutch people">Dutch people</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish people">Swedish people</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese people</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Filipinos" title="Filipinos">Filipinos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Canada, <a href="/wiki/European_Canadians" title="European Canadians">European Canadians</a> are the largest ethnic group. In Canada, the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">indigenous</a> population is growing faster than the non-indigenous population. Most immigrants in Canada come from Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: South America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups in South America">Ethnic groups in South America</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o_da_P%C3%A1tria_Brasileira_(Eduardo_S%C3%A1,_1899).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/A_Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o_da_P%C3%A1tria_Brasileira_%28Eduardo_S%C3%A1%2C_1899%29.jpg/220px-A_Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o_da_P%C3%A1tria_Brasileira_%28Eduardo_S%C3%A1%2C_1899%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/A_Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o_da_P%C3%A1tria_Brasileira_%28Eduardo_S%C3%A1%2C_1899%29.jpg/330px-A_Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o_da_P%C3%A1tria_Brasileira_%28Eduardo_S%C3%A1%2C_1899%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/A_Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o_da_P%C3%A1tria_Brasileira_%28Eduardo_S%C3%A1%2C_1899%29.jpg/440px-A_Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o_da_P%C3%A1tria_Brasileira_%28Eduardo_S%C3%A1%2C_1899%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1368" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><i>The Founding of the Brazilian Fatherland</i>, an 1899 allegorical painting depicting Brazilian statesman <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Bonif%C3%A1cio_de_Andrada_e_Silva" title="José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva">José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva</a>, one of the founding fathers of the country, with the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Brazil#Empire_of_Brazil_(1822–1889)" title="Flag of Brazil">flag of the Empire of Brazil</a> and the three major ethnic groups in Brazil</figcaption></figure> <p>In South America, although highly varying between regions, people are commonly mixed-race, indigenous, European, black African, and to a lesser extent also Asian. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania">Oceania</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Oceania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Indigenous peoples of Oceania">Indigenous peoples of Oceania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Oceania" title="Europeans in Oceania">Europeans in Oceania</a></div> <p>Nearly all states in Oceania have majority indigenous populations, with notable exceptions being Australia, New Zealand and <a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island" title="Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a>, who have majority European populations.<sup id="cite_ref-francepacific_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-francepacific-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> States with smaller European populations include <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> (whose Europeans are known as <a href="/wiki/Caldoche" title="Caldoche">Caldoche</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Indigenous peoples of Oceania">Indigenous peoples of Oceania</a> are <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Australian Aboriginals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people_of_New_Guinea" title="Indigenous people of New Guinea">Papuans</a>, and they originated from Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Austronesians of Oceania are further broken up into three distinct groups; <a href="/wiki/Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesians</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Island#Oceanic_islands" title="Island">Oceanic</a> South Pacific islands nearing <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans in the 16th century, with nothing to indicate prehistoric human activity by Indigenous peoples of the Americas or Oceania.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-asianpacific_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asianpacific-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-press_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-press-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemporary residents are mainly mestizos and Europeans from the Latin American countries whom administer them,<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although none of these islands have extensive populations.<sup id="cite_ref-ling_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ling-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a> are the only oceanic island politically associated with Latin America to have an indigenous population, the Polynesian <a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_people" title="Rapa Nui people">Rapa Nui people</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-realm_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-realm-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their current inhabitants include indigenous Polynesians and mestizo settlers from political administrators <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, in addition to mixed-race individuals with Polynesian and mestizo/European ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-realm_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-realm-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British overseas territory of <a href="/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a>, to the west of Easter Island, have a population of approximately 50 people. They are mixed-race <a href="/wiki/Euronesian" title="Euronesian">Euronesians</a> who descended from an initial group of British and <a href="/wiki/Tahitians" title="Tahitians">Tahitian</a> settlers in the 18th century. The islands were previously inhabited by Polynesians; they had long abandoned Pitcairn by the time the settlers had arrived.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Norfolk Island, now an <a href="/wiki/States_and_territories_of_Australia" title="States and territories of Australia">external territory</a> of Australia, is also believed to have been inhabited by Polynesians prior to its initial European discovery in the 18th century. Some of their residents are descended from mixed-race Pitcairn Islanders that were relocated onto Norfolk due to overpopulation in 1856.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The once uninhabited <a href="/wiki/Bonin_Islands" title="Bonin Islands">Bonin Islands</a>, later politically integrated into <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, have a small population consisting of Japanese mainlanders and descendants of early European settlers.<sup id="cite_ref-realm_101-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-realm-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archeological findings from the 1990s suggested there was possible prehistoric human activity by Micronesians prior to European discovery in the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several political entities associated with Oceania are still uninhabited, including <a href="/wiki/Baker_Island" title="Baker Island">Baker Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clipperton_Island" title="Clipperton Island">Clipperton Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howland_Island" title="Howland Island">Howland Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jarvis_Island" title="Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were brief attempts to settle Clipperton with <a href="/wiki/Mexicans" title="Mexicans">Mexicans</a> and Jarvis with <a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Native Hawaiians</a> in the early 20th century. The Jarvis settlers were relocated from the island due to Japanese advancements during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, while most of the settlers on Clipperton ended up dying from starvation and murdering one and other.<sup id="cite_ref-oceanex_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oceanex-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australia">Australia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Indigenous Australians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Native_white_Australians" class="mw-redirect" title="Native white Australians">Native white Australians</a></div> <p>The first evident ethnic group to live in Australia were the Australian Aboriginals, a group considered related to the Melanesian Torres Strait Islander people. Europeans, primarily from England arrived first in 1770. </p><p>The 2016 Census shows England and New Zealand are the next most common countries of birth after Australia, the proportion of people born in China and India has increased since 2011 (from 6.0 per cent to 8.3 per cent, and 5.6 per cent to 7.4 per cent, respectively). </p><p>The proportion of people identifying as being of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander origin increased from 2.5 per cent of the Australian population in 2011 to 2.8 per cent in 2016. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestor" title="Ancestor">Ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_interest_group" title="Ethnic interest group">Ethnic interest group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_flag" title="Ethnic flag">Ethnic flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocultural_empathy" title="Ethnocultural empathy">Ethnocultural empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_group" title="Ethnographic group">Ethnographic group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Diversity_Project" title="Human Genome Diversity Project">Human Genome Diversity Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">Identity politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingroups_and_outgroups" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingroups and outgroups">Ingroups and outgroups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_contemporary_ethnic_groups" title="List of contemporary ethnic groups">List of contemporary ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_ethnic_groups" title="List of countries by ethnic groups">List of countries by ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="List of Indigenous peoples">List of Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethnicity" title="Meta-ethnicity">Meta-ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minzu_(anthropology)" title="Minzu (anthropology)">Minzu (anthropology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbol" title="National symbol">National symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_(sociology)" title="Passing (sociology)">Passing (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyethnicity" title="Polyethnicity">Polyethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_censuses" title="Race and ethnicity in censuses">Race and ethnicity in censuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the United States census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stateless_nation" title="Stateless nation">Stateless nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y-chromosome_haplogroups_in_populations_of_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world">Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChandra2012" class="citation book cs1">Chandra, Kanchan (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/829678440"><i>Constructivist theories of ethnic politics</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 69–70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199893157" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199893157"><bdi>978-0199893157</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/829678440">829678440</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730072314/https://www.worldcat.org/title/constructivist-theories-of-ethnic-politics/oclc/829678440">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-07-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constructivist+theories+of+ethnic+politics&rft.pages=69-70&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F829678440&rft.isbn=978-0199893157&rft.aulast=Chandra&rft.aufirst=Kanchan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F829678440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeopleBailey2010" class="citation book cs1">People, James; Bailey, Garrick (2010). <i>Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology</i> (9th ed.). Wadsworth Cengage learning. p. 389. <q>In essence, an ethnic group is a named social category of people based on perceptions of shared social experience or one's <a href="/wiki/Ancestor" title="Ancestor">ancestors</a>' experiences. Members of the ethnic group see themselves as sharing cultural traditions and history that distinguish them from other groups. Ethnic group identity has a strong psychological or emotional component that divides the people of the world into opposing categories of 'us' and 'them'. In contrast to social stratification, which divides and unifies people along a series of horizontal axes based on socioeconomic factors, ethnic identities divide and unify people along a series of vertical axes. Thus, ethnic groups, at least theoretically, cut across socioeconomic class differences, drawing members from all strata of the population.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Humanity%3A+An+Introduction+to+Cultural+Anthropology&rft.pages=389&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Wadsworth+Cengage+learning&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=People&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Bailey%2C+Garrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/insight-into-ethnic-differences">"Insight into Ethnic Differences"</a>. <i>National Institutes of Health (NIH)</i>. 2015-05-25. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210802034224/https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/insight-into-ethnic-differences">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-08-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-08-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Institutes+of+Health+%28NIH%29&rft.atitle=Insight+into+Ethnic+Differences&rft.date=2015-05-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nih.gov%2Fnews-events%2Fnih-research-matters%2Finsight-into-ethnic-differences&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBandaKvaleHoffmannHesselson2015" class="citation journal cs1">Banda, Yambazi; Kvale, Mark N.; Hoffmann, Thomas J.; Hesselson, Stephanie E.; Ranatunga, Dilrini; Tang, Hua; <a href="/wiki/Chiara_Sabatti" title="Chiara Sabatti">Sabatti, Chiara</a>; Croen, Lisa A.; Dispensa, Brad P.; Henderson, Mary; Iribarren, Carlos (2015-08-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genetics.org/content/200/4/1285">"Characterizing Race/Ethnicity and Genetic Ancestry for 100,000 Subjects in the Genetic Epidemiology Research on Adult Health and Aging (GERA) Cohort"</a>. <i>Genetics</i>. <b>200</b> (4): 1285–1295. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1534%2Fgenetics.115.178616">10.1534/genetics.115.178616</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-6731">0016-6731</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4574246">4574246</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26092716">26092716</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210802034231/https://www.genetics.org/content/200/4/1285">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-08-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-08-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genetics&rft.atitle=Characterizing+Race%2FEthnicity+and+Genetic+Ancestry+for+100%2C000+Subjects+in+the+Genetic+Epidemiology+Research+on+Adult+Health+and+Aging+%28GERA%29+Cohort&rft.volume=200&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1285-1295&rft.date=2015-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4574246%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0016-6731&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26092716&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1534%2Fgenetics.115.178616&rft.aulast=Banda&rft.aufirst=Yambazi&rft.au=Kvale%2C+Mark+N.&rft.au=Hoffmann%2C+Thomas+J.&rft.au=Hesselson%2C+Stephanie+E.&rft.au=Ranatunga%2C+Dilrini&rft.au=Tang%2C+Hua&rft.au=Sabatti%2C+Chiara&rft.au=Croen%2C+Lisa+A.&rft.au=Dispensa%2C+Brad+P.&rft.au=Henderson%2C+Mary&rft.au=Iribarren%2C+Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.genetics.org%2Fcontent%2F200%2F4%2F1285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalterHarpending2013" class="citation journal cs1">Salter, Frank; Harpending, Henry (2013-07-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886912005569">"J.P. Rushton's theory of ethnic nepotism"</a>. <i>Personality and Individual Differences</i>. <b>55</b> (3): 256–260. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.paid.2012.11.014">10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.014</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0191-8869">0191-8869</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210802034224/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886912005569">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-08-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-08-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Personality+and+Individual+Differences&rft.atitle=J.P.+Rushton%27s+theory+of+ethnic+nepotism&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=256-260&rft.date=2013-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.paid.2012.11.014&rft.issn=0191-8869&rft.aulast=Salter&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft.au=Harpending%2C+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0191886912005569&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayar2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bayar, Murat (2009-10-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01419870902763878">"Reconsidering primordialism: an alternative approach to the study of ethnicity"</a>. <i>Ethnic and Racial Studies</i>. <b>32</b> (9): 1639–1657. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01419870902763878">10.1080/01419870902763878</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143391013">143391013</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220303074807/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01419870902763878">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-03-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-01-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnic+and+Racial+Studies&rft.atitle=Reconsidering+primordialism%3A+an+alternative+approach+to+the+study+of+ethnicity&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1639-1657&rft.date=2009-10-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01419870902763878&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143391013%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bayar&rft.aufirst=Murat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F01419870902763878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandra_FordNina_T_Harawa2010" class="citation journal cs1">Chandra Ford; Nina T Harawa (29 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2908006">"A new conceptualization of ethnicity for social epidemiologic and health equity research"</a>. <i>Soc Sci Med</i>. <b>71</b> (2): 251–258. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.socscimed.2010.04.008">10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.04.008</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2908006">2908006</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20488602">20488602</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soc+Sci+Med&rft.atitle=A+new+conceptualization+of+ethnicity+for+social+epidemiologic+and+health+equity+research&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=251-258&rft.date=2010-04-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2908006%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20488602&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.socscimed.2010.04.008&rft.au=Chandra+Ford&rft.au=Nina+T+Harawa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2908006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-perseus-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-perseus_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3De%29qniko%2Fs">ἐθνικός</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225035201/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3De)qniko%2Fs">Archived</a> 2021-02-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, <i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>, on Perseus</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ThiE. Tonkin, M. McDonald and M. Chapman, <i>History and Ethnicity</i> (London 1989), pp. 11–17 (quoted in J. Hutchinson & A.D. Smith (eds.), <i>Oxford readers: Ethnicity</i> (Oxford 1996), pp. 18–24)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3De%29%2Fqnos">ἔθνος</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224153805/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3De)%2Fqnos">Archived</a> 2021-02-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, <i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>, on Perseus</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i> Oxford English Dictionary</i> Second edition, online version as of 2008-01-12, "ethnic, a. and n.". Cites Sir <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Wilson_(academic)" title="Daniel Wilson (academic)">Daniel Wilson</a>, <i>The archæology and prehistoric annals of Scotland 1851</i> (1863) and <a href="/wiki/Julian_Sorell_Huxley" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian Sorell Huxley">Huxley</a> & <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Cort_Haddon" title="Alfred Cort Haddon">Haddon</a> (1935), <i>We Europeans</i>, pp. 136,181</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cohen, Ronald. (1978) "Ethnicity: Problem and Focus in Anthropology", <i>Annu. Rev. Anthropol</i>. 1978. 7:379–403; Glazer, Nathan and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_P._Moynihan" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel P. Moynihan">Daniel P. Moynihan</a> (1975) <i>Ethnicity – Theory and Experience</i>, Cambridge, Massachusetts <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. The modern usage definition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> is: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>a[djective]</i> </p><dl><dd>...</dd> <dd>2.a. About race; peculiar to a specific tribe, race or nation; ethnological. Also, about or having common tribal, racial, cultural, religious, or linguistic characteristics, esp. designating a racial or other group within a larger system; hence (U.S. colloq.), foreign, exotic.</dd> <dd>b <i>ethnic minority (group)</i>, a group of people differentiated from the majority of the community by racial origin or cultural background, and usu. claiming or enjoying official recognition of their group identity. Also <i>attrib</i>.</dd></dl> <p><i>n[oun]</i> </p> <dl><dd>...</dd> <dd>3 A member of an ethnic group or minority. <i>Equatorians</i></dd></dl></blockquote> <p>(Oxford English Dictionary Second edition, online version as of 2008-01-12, s.v. "ethnic, a. and n.") </p> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">roughly 300 million worldwide (<a href="/wiki/CIA_Factbook" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA Factbook">CIA Factbook</a> 2014 estimates, numbers subject to rapid population growth).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosivach1999" class="citation journal cs1">Rosivach, Vincent J. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4436537">"Enslaving "Barbaroi" and the Athenian Ideology of Slavery"</a>. <i>Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte</i>. <b>48</b> (2): 129–157. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2311">0018-2311</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4436537">4436537</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Alte+Geschichte&rft.atitle=Enslaving+%22Barbaroi%22+and+the+Athenian+Ideology+of+Slavery&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=129-157&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4436537%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0018-2311&rft.aulast=Rosivach&rft.aufirst=Vincent+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4436537&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemosthenesKennedy1878" class="citation book cs1">Demosthenes; Kennedy, Charles Rann (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWTTh_h-DC8C"><i>The Orations of Demosthenes: Translated with Notes</i></a>. G. Bell and sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Orations+of+Demosthenes%3A+Translated+with+Notes&rft.pub=G.+Bell+and+sons&rft.date=1878&rft.au=Demosthenes&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+Charles+Rann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZWTTh_h-DC8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do%28%2Fmaimos">ὅμαιμος</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225070512/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do(%2Fmaimos">Archived</a> 2021-02-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, <i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>, on Perseus</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPapillon2004" class="citation web cs1">Papillon, Terry L (2004-12-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://utpress.utexas.edu/9780292702462/">"Isocrates II"</a>. <i>University of Texas Press</i>. p. 40<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-10-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.atitle=Isocrates+II&rft.pages=40&rft.date=2004-12-31&rft.aulast=Papillon&rft.aufirst=Terry+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Futpress.utexas.edu%2F9780292702462%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126:book=8:chapter=144:section=2">"Herodotus, The Histories, Book 8, chapter 144, section 2"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-10-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Herodotus%2C+The+Histories%2C+Book+8%2C+chapter+144%2C+section+2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D144%3Asection%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do%28mo%2Fglwssos">ὁμόγλωσσος</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225073414/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do(mo%2Fglwssos">Archived</a> 2021-02-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, <i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>, on Perseus</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. Polinskaya, "Shared sanctuaries and the gods of others: On the meaning Of 'common' in Herodotus 8.144", in R. Rosen & I. Sluiter (eds.), <i>Valuing others in Classical Antiquity</i> (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 43–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do%28mo%2Ftropos">ὁμότροπος</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225222702/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do(mo%2Ftropos">Archived</a> 2021-02-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, <i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>, on Perseus)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus, 8.144.2: <i>"The kinship of all Greeks in blood and speech, and the shrines of gods and the sacrifices that we have in common, and the likeness of our way of life."</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Athena S. Leoussi, Steven Grosby, <i>Nationalism and Ethnosymbolism: History, Culture, and Ethnicity in the Formation of Nations</i>, Edinburgh University Press, 2006, p. 115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/81217/publication.html">"Challenges of measuring an ethnic world"</a>. <i>Publications.gc.ca</i>. The Government of Canada. April 1, 1992. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160920133111/http://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/81217/publication.html">Archived</a> from the original on September 20, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 28,</span> 2016</span>. <q>Ethnicity is a fundamental factor in human life: it is a phenomenon inherent in human experience.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Publications.gc.ca&rft.atitle=Challenges+of+measuring+an+ethnic+world&rft.date=1992-04-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublications.gc.ca%2Fsite%2Feng%2F81217%2Fpublication.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FredrikBarth-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FredrikBarth_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FredrikBarth_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fredrik Barth, ed. 1969 <i>Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Difference</i>; Eric Wolf 1982 <i>Europe and the People Without History</i> p. 381</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geertz, Clifford, ed. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nature+of+Ethnicity&rft.pub=Palomar+College&rft.aulast=O%27Neil&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanthro.palomar.edu%2Fethnicity%2Fethnic_2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seidner, (1982), <i>Ethnicity, Language, and Power from a Psycholinguistic Perspective</i>, pp. 2–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smith_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith 1987 pp. 21–22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOmiWinant1986">Omi & Winant 1986</a>, p. 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOmiWinant1986">Omi & Winant 1986</a>, p. 58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Omi-Winant-p17-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Omi-Winant-p17_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Omi-Winant-p17_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Omi-Winant-p17_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOmiWinant1986">Omi & Winant 1986</a>, p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOmiWinant1986">Omi & Winant 1986</a>, p. 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Omi-Winant-p21-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Omi-Winant-p21_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Omi-Winant-p21_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOmiWinant1986">Omi & Winant 1986</a>, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gellner 2006 <i>Nations and Nationalism</i> Blackwell Publishing</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson 2006 <i>Imagined Communities</i> Version</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter Pohl, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kroraina.com/bulgar/pohl_etnicity.html">"Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies"</a>, <i>Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings</i>, ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, (Blackwell), 1998, pp 13–24, notes that historians have projected the 19th-century conceptions of the nation-state backward in time, employing biological metaphors of birth and growth: "that the peoples in the <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a> had little to do with those heroic (or sometimes brutish) clichés is now generally accepted among historians", he remarked. Early medieval peoples were far less homogeneous than often thought, and Pohl follows Reinhard Wenskus, <i>Stammesbildung und Verfassung</i>. (Cologne and Graz) 1961, whose research into the "ethnogenesis" of the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic people">German</a> peoples convinced him that the idea of common origin, as expressed by <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a> <i>Gens est multitudo ab uno principio orta</i> ("a people is a multitude stemming from one origin") which continues in the original <i>Etymologiae</i> IX.2.i) <i>"sive ab Alia national Secundum program collection distinct</i> ("or distinguished from another people by its properties") was a myth. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150423094927/http://kroraina.com/bulgar/pohl_etnicity.html">Archived</a> 2015-04-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aihway Ong 1996 "Cultural Citizenship in the Making" in <i>Current Anthropology</i> 37(5)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCouncil_of_Europe2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a> (1 January 2011). "The revival of cultural autonomy in certain countries of eastern Europe". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FYYma6IM7B8C"><i>The Participation of Minorities in Public Life</i></a>. Science and technique of democracy - issue 45. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789287169402" title="Special:BookSources/9789287169402"><bdi>9789287169402</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 March</span> 2024</span>. <q>Under the terms of the [1920] Estonian Constitution [which stipulated that each citizen was free to choose and change his/her nationality] and the 1925 law, a national minority was defined as a community of language and culture to which anyone could adhere, regardless of ethnic origin.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+revival+of+cultural+autonomy+in+certain+countries+of+eastern+Europe&rft.btitle=The+Participation+of+Minorities+in+Public+Life&rft.place=Strasbourg&rft.series=Science+and+technique+of+democracy+-+issue+45&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Council+of+Europe+Publishing&rft.date=2011-01-01&rft.isbn=9789287169402&rft.au=Council+of+Europe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFYYma6IM7B8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nira Yuval-Davis, <i>Gender & Nation</i> (London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 1997)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nira Yuval-Davis, <i>Gender & Nation</i> (London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 1997) pp. 12–13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Floya Anthias and Nira Yuval-Davis "Woman–Nation-State" (London: Macmillan, 1989), p.<span class="nowrap"> </span>9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrosfoguel2004" class="citation journal cs1">Grosfoguel, Ramán (September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etn.sagepub.com/content/4/3/315.short">"Race and Ethnicity or Racialized Ethnicities? 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www2.gov.scot&rft.atitle=The+Scottish+Diaspora+and+Diaspora+Strategy%3A+Insights+and+Lessons+from+Ireland&rft.date=2009-05-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.gov.scot%2FPublications%2F2009%2F05%2F28141101%2F6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christoph Pan, Beate Sibylle Pfeil, <i>Minderheitenrechte in Europa. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=serbia.gov.rs&rft.atitle=Serbian+Government+%E2%80%93+Official+Presentation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arhiva.serbia.gov.rs%2Fcms%2Fview.php%2F1045.print.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bgcentar.org.rs/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=22:podzakonska-akta&download=250:statut-autonomne-pokrajine-vojvodine&Itemid=54">"Beogradski centar za ljudska prava – Belgrade Centre for Human Rights"</a>. <i>bgcentar.org.rs</i>. 29 March 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180807220627/http://www.bgcentar.org.rs/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=22:podzakonska-akta&download=250:statut-autonomne-pokrajine-vojvodine&Itemid=54">Archived</a> from the original on 7 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bgcentar.org.rs&rft.atitle=Beogradski+centar+za+ljudska+prava+%E2%80%93+Belgrade+Centre+for+Human+Rights&rft.date=2015-03-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bgcentar.org.rs%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_phocadownload%26view%3Dcategory%26id%3D22%3Apodzakonska-akta%26download%3D250%3Astatut-autonomne-pokrajine-vojvodine%26Itemid%3D54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Native_Peoples_of_North_America/">"Native Peoples of North America"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Native+Peoples+of+North+America&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FNative_Peoples_of_North_America%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://caricom.org/our-community/who-we-are/our-people/">"Our People"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210329182551/https://caricom.org/our-community/who-we-are/our-people/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-03-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Our+People&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcaricom.org%2Four-community%2Fwho-we-are%2Four-people%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ny-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ny_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ny_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTavernise2021" class="citation news cs1">Tavernise, Sabrina (13 August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/13/us/census-multiracial-identity.html">"Behind the Surprising Jump in Multiracial Americans, Several Theories"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220326091316/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/13/us/census-multiracial-identity.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Behind+the+Surprising+Jump+in+Multiracial+Americans%2C+Several+Theories&rft.date=2021-08-13&rft.aulast=Tavernise&rft.aufirst=Sabrina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2021%2F08%2F13%2Fus%2Fcensus-multiracial-identity.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldatlas.com/amp/articles/largest-ethnic-groups-and-nationalities-in-the-united-states.html">"Largest Ethnic Groups And Nationalities In The United States"</a>. 18 July 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220509184258/https://www.worldatlas.com/amp/articles/largest-ethnic-groups-and-nationalities-in-the-united-states.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Largest+Ethnic+Groups+And+Nationalities+In+The+United+States&rft.date=2019-07-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldatlas.com%2Famp%2Farticles%2Flargest-ethnic-groups-and-nationalities-in-the-united-states.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/amp/1.4368970">"21.9% of Canadians are immigrants, the highest share in 85 years: StatsCan"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220530002145/https://www.cbc.ca/amp/1.4368970">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=21.9%25+of+Canadians+are+immigrants%2C+the+highest+share+in+85+years%3A+StatsCan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Famp%2F1.4368970&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-francepacific-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-francepacific_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAldrich1993" class="citation book cs1">Aldrich, Robert (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tLTDYaHhrZgC&dq=%22with+the+ending+of+the+trust+territory%22&pg=PA347"><i>France and the South Pacific Since 1940</i></a>. University of Hawaii Press. p. 347. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0824815585" title="Special:BookSources/978-0824815585"><bdi>978-0824815585</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730064637/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/France_and_the_South_Pacific_since_1940/tLTDYaHhrZgC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22with+the+ending+of+the+trust+territory%22&pg=PA347&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 February</span> 2022</span>. <q>Britain's high commissioner in New Zealand continues to administer Pitcairn, and the other former British colonies remain members of the Commonwealth of Nations, recognizing the British Queen as their titular head of state and vesting certain residual powers in the British government or the Queen's representative in the islands. Australia did not cede control of the Torres Strait Islands, inhabited by a Melanesian population, or Lord Howe and Norfolk Island, whose residents are of European ancestry. New Zealand retains indirect rule over Niue and Tokelau and has kept close relations with another former possession, the Cook Islands, through a compact of free association. Chile rules Easter Island (Rapa Nui) and Ecuador rules the Galapagos Islands. The Aboriginals of Australia, the Maoris of New Zealand and the native Polynesians of Hawaii, despite movements demanding more cultural recognition, greater economic and political considerations or even outright sovereignty, have remained minorities in countries where massive waves of migration have completely changed society. In short, Oceania has remained one of the least completely decolonized regions on the globe.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+and+the+South+Pacific+Since+1940&rft.pages=347&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0824815585&rft.aulast=Aldrich&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtLTDYaHhrZgC%26dq%3D%2522with%2Bthe%2Bending%2Bof%2Bthe%2Btrust%2Bterritory%2522%26pg%3DPA347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181225164238/http://www.isee.nc/tec/popsociete/telechargements/4-population.pdf%20">"ISEE – Salaires"</a>. <i>Isee.nc</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isee.nc/tec/popsociete/telechargements/4-population.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 25 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Isee.nc&rft.atitle=ISEE+%E2%80%93+Salaires&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isee.nc%2Ftec%2Fpopsociete%2Ftelechargements%2F4-population.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starbulletin.com/2007/08/09/news/story06.html">Census shows Hawaii is becoming whiter</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080829214703/http://starbulletin.com/2007/08/09/news/story06.html">Archived</a> 2008-08-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, starbulletin.com</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Australian-Aboriginal">"Australian Aboriginal peoples | History, Facts, & Culture | Britannica"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220326035744/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Australian-Aboriginal">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-03-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Australian+Aboriginal+peoples+%26%23124%3B+History%2C+Facts%2C+%26+Culture+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FAustralian-Aboriginal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTerrell1988" class="citation book cs1">Terrell, John E. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4SM5rK0hM4C&dq=%22eastern+pacific%22+%22uninhabited&pg=PA91"><i>Prehistory in the Pacific Islands</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521369565" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521369565"><bdi>978-0521369565</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730072313/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Prehistory_in_the_Pacific_Islands/Y4SM5rK0hM4C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22eastern+pacific%22+%22uninhabited&pg=PA91&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prehistory+in+the+Pacific+Islands&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0521369565&rft.aulast=Terrell&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY4SM5rK0hM4C%26dq%3D%2522eastern%2Bpacific%2522%2B%2522uninhabited%26pg%3DPA91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-asianpacific-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-asianpacific_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrocombe2007" class="citation book cs1">Crocombe, R. G. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iDg9oAkwsXAC&dq=%22included+in+cultural+definitions+of+oceania%22&pg=PR13"><i>Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West</i></a>. University of the South Pacific. Institute of Pacific Studies. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9820203884" title="Special:BookSources/978-9820203884"><bdi>978-9820203884</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220209001401/https://books.google.com/books?id=iDg9oAkwsXAC&dq=%22included+in+cultural+definitions+of+oceania%22&pg=PR13">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia+in+the+Pacific+Islands%3A+Replacing+the+West&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=University+of+the+South+Pacific.+Institute+of+Pacific+Studies&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-9820203884&rft.aulast=Crocombe&rft.aufirst=R.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiDg9oAkwsXAC%26dq%3D%2522included%2Bin%2Bcultural%2Bdefinitions%2Bof%2Boceania%2522%26pg%3DPR13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-press-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-press_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlettHaberle2008" class="citation book cs1">Flett, Iona; Haberle, Simon (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p26551/pdf/ch181.pdf">"East of Easter: Traces of human impact in the far-eastern Pacific"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Clark, Geoffrey; Leach, Foss; O'Connor, Sue (eds.). <i>Islands of Inquiry</i>. ANU Press. pp. 281–300. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.593.8988">10.1.1.593.8988</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1885%2F38139">1885/38139</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1921313899" title="Special:BookSources/978-1921313899"><bdi>978-1921313899</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt24h8gp.20">j.ctt24h8gp.20</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211231001343/http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p26551/pdf/ch181.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2021-12-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=East+of+Easter%3A+Traces+of+human+impact+in+the+far-eastern+Pacific&rft.btitle=Islands+of+Inquiry&rft.pages=281-300&rft.pub=ANU+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1885%2F38139&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt24h8gp.20%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.593.8988%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft.isbn=978-1921313899&rft.aulast=Flett&rft.aufirst=Iona&rft.au=Haberle%2C+Simon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress-files.anu.edu.au%2Fdownloads%2Fpress%2Fp26551%2Fpdf%2Fch181.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMountfordVillanuevaFernándezJara2020" class="citation journal cs1">Mountford, H. S.; Villanueva, P.; Fernández, M. A.; Jara, L.; De Barbieri, Z.; Carvajal-Carmona, L. G.; Cazier, J. B.; Newbury, D. F. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7333314">"Frontiers | The Genetic Population Structure of Robinson Crusoe Island, Chile | Genetics"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Genetics</i>. <b>11</b>. Frontiersin.org: 669. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffgene.2020.00669">10.3389/fgene.2020.00669</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7333314">7333314</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32676101">32676101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Genetics&rft.atitle=Frontiers+%26%23124%3B+The+Genetic+Population+Structure+of+Robinson+Crusoe+Island%2C+Chile+%26%23124%3B+Genetics&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=669&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7333314%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32676101&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffgene.2020.00669&rft.aulast=Mountford&rft.aufirst=H.+S.&rft.au=Villanueva%2C+P.&rft.au=Fern%C3%A1ndez%2C+M.+A.&rft.au=Jara%2C+L.&rft.au=De+Barbieri%2C+Z.&rft.au=Carvajal-Carmona%2C+L.+G.&rft.au=Cazier%2C+J.+B.&rft.au=Newbury%2C+D.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7333314&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ling-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ling_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebeok1971" class="citation book cs1">Sebeok, Thomas Albert (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lYouAAAAMAAJ&q=%22multitude%22+oceania+%22linguistics%22"><i>Current Trends in Linguistics: Linguistics in Oceania</i></a>. the University of Michigan. p. 950. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730065403/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Current_Trends_in_Linguistics_Linguistic/lYouAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22multitude%22+oceania+%22linguistics%22&dq=%22multitude%22+oceania+%22linguistics%22&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2022</span>. <q>Most of this account of the influence of the Hispanic languages in Oceania has dealt with the Western Pacific, but the Eastern Pacific has not been without some share of the presence of the Portuguese and Spanish. The Eastern Pacific does not have the multitude of islands so characteristic of the Western regions of this great ocean, but there are some: Easter Island, 2000 miles off the Chilean coast, where a Polynesian tongue, Rapanui, is still spoken; the Juan Fernandez group, 400 miles west of Valparaiso; the Galapagos archipelago, 650 miles west of Ecuador; Malpelo and Cocos, 300 miles off the Colombian and Costa Rican coasts respectively; and others. Not many of these islands have extensive populations – some have been used effectively as prisons – but the official language on each is Spanish.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Current+Trends+in+Linguistics%3A+Linguistics+in+Oceania&rft.pages=950&rft.pub=the+University+of+Michigan&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Sebeok&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlYouAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522multitude%2522%2Boceania%2B%2522linguistics%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-realm-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-realm_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-realm_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-realm_101-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTodd1974" class="citation book cs1">Todd, Ian (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gcEJAQAAIAAJ&q=%22French+language+cultures%22+1974+pacific"><i>Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama</i></a>. Angus & Robertson. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0207127618" title="Special:BookSources/978-0207127618"><bdi>978-0207127618</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220618161036/https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Island_Realm/gcEJAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22French+language+cultures%22+1974+pacific&dq=%22French+language+cultures%22+1974+pacific&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> from the original on 18 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2022</span>. <q>[we] can further define the word <i>culture</i> to mean <i>language</i>. Thus we have the French language part of Oceania, the Spanish part and the Japanese part. The Japanese culture groups of Oceania are the Bonin Islands, the Marcus Islands and the Volcano Islands. These three clusters, lying south and south-east of Japan, are inhabited either by Japanese or by people who have now completely fused with the Japanese race. Therefore they will not be taken into account in the proposed comparison of the policies of non-Oceanic cultures towards Oceanic peoples. On the eastern side of the Pacific are a number of Spanish language culture groups of islands. Two of them, the Galapagos and Easter Island, have been dealt with as separate chapters in this volume. Only one of the dozen or so Spanish culture island groups of Oceania has an Oceanic population – the Polynesians of Easter Island. The rest are either uninhabited or have a Spanish – Latin – American population consisting of people who migrated from the mainland. Therefore, the comparisons which follow refer almost exclusively to the English and French language cultures.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Island+Realm%3A+A+Pacific+Panorama&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=Angus+%26+Robertson&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0207127618&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgcEJAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522French%2Blanguage%2Bcultures%2522%2B1974%2Bpacific&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.immigration.gov.pn/history/index.html">"History of Pitcairn Island | Pitcairn Island Immigration"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220422004641/http://www.immigration.gov.pn/history/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-04-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Pitcairn+Island+%26%23124%3B+Pitcairn+Island+Immigration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.immigration.gov.pn%2Fhistory%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Norfolk-Island">"Norfolk Island | History, Population, Map, & Facts | Britannica"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201117020248/https://www.britannica.com/place/Norfolk-Island">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-11-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Norfolk+Island+%26%23124%3B+History%2C+Population%2C+Map%2C+%26+Facts+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FNorfolk-Island&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iwojima.jp/ogasa2.html">"小笠原諸島の歴史"</a> (in Japanese). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190909214123/http://www.iwojima.jp/ogasa2.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-09-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%B0%8F%E7%AC%A0%E5%8E%9F%E8%AB%B8%E5%B3%B6%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iwojima.jp%2Fogasa2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pacioos.hawaii.edu/education/region-jarvis/">"Education Resources: Regional Information, Jarvis Island | PacIOOS"</a>. <i>Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System (PacIOOS)</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220510100232/https://www.pacioos.hawaii.edu/education/region-jarvis/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pacific+Islands+Ocean+Observing+System+%28PacIOOS%29&rft.atitle=Education+Resources%3A+Regional+Information%2C+Jarvis+Island+%26%23124%3B+PacIOOS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pacioos.hawaii.edu%2Feducation%2Fregion-jarvis%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oceanex-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-oceanex_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUS_Department_of_Commerce" class="citation web cs1">US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/ex1705/background/jarvis/welcome.html">"Discovering the Deep: Exploring Remote Pacific MPAs: Background: The Hui Panalāʻau Story of the Equatorial Pacific Islands of Howland, Baker, and Jarvis: 1935–1942: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research"</a>. <i>oceanexplorer.noaa.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220601150253/https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/ex1705/background/jarvis/welcome.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oceanexplorer.noaa.gov&rft.atitle=Discovering+the+Deep%3A+Exploring+Remote+Pacific+MPAs%3A+Background%3A+The+Hui+Panal%C4%81%CA%BBau+Story+of+the+Equatorial+Pacific+Islands+of+Howland%2C+Baker%2C+and+Jarvis%3A+1935%E2%80%931942%3A+NOAA+Office+of+Ocean+Exploration+and+Research&rft.aulast=US+Department+of+Commerce&rft.aufirst=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foceanexplorer.noaa.gov%2Fokeanos%2Fexplorations%2Fex1705%2Fbackground%2Fjarvis%2Fwelcome.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmiWinant1986" class="citation book cs1">Omi, Michael; Winant, Howard (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/racialformationi00omim"><i>Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s</i></a></span>. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Racial+Formation+in+the+United+States+from+the+1960s+to+the+1980s&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge+and+Kegan+Paul%2C+Inc&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Omi&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Winant%2C+Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fracialformationi00omim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1999" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_D._Smith" title="Anthony D. Smith">Smith, Anthony D.</a> (1999). <i>Myths and memories of the Nation</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Myths+and+memories+of+the+Nation&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Anthony+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li>Barth, Fredrik (ed). <i>Ethnic groups and boundaries. The social organization of culture difference</i>, Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1969</li> <li>Billinger, Michael S. (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coa.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/27/1/5">"Another Look at Ethnicity as a Biological Concept: Moving Anthropology Beyond the Race Concept"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090709224852/http://coa.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/27/1/5">Archived</a> 2009-07-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Critique of Anthropology</i> <b>27</b>, 1:5–35.</li> <li>Craig, Gary, et al., eds. <i>Understanding 'race' and ethnicity: theory, history, policy, practice</i> (Policy Press, 2012)</li> <li>Danver, Steven L. <i>Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues</i> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hylland_Eriksen" title="Thomas Hylland Eriksen">Eriksen, Thomas Hylland</a> (1993) <i>Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological Perspectives</i>, London: Pluto Press</li> <li>Eysenck, H.J., <i>Race, Education and Intelligence</i> (London: Temple Smith, 1971) (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0851170099" title="Special:BookSources/0851170099">0851170099</a>)</li> <li>Healey, Joseph F., and Eileen O'Brien. <i>Race, ethnicity, gender, and class: The sociology of group conflict and change</i> (Sage Publications, 2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Hobsbawm, Eric</a>, and Terence Ranger, editors, <i>The Invention of Tradition</i>. (Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1983).</li> <li>Kappeler, Andreas. <i>The Russian empire: A multi-ethnic history</i> (Routledge, 2014)</li> <li>Levinson, David, <i>Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A Ready Reference Handbook</i>, Greenwood Publishing Group (1998), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1573560191" title="Special:BookSources/978-1573560191">978-1573560191</a>.</li> <li>Magocsi, Paul Robert, ed. <i>Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples</i> (1999)</li> <li>Morales-Díaz, Enrique; Gabriel Aquino; & Michael Sletcher, "Ethnicity", in Michael Sletcher, ed., <i>New England</i>, (Westport, CT, 2004)</li> <li>Seeger, A. 1987. <i>Why Suyá Sing: A Musical Anthropology of an Amazonian People</i>, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Sider, Gerald, <i>Lumbee Indian Histories</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1993).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1987" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_D._Smith" title="Anthony D. Smith">Smith, Anthony D.</a> (1987). <i>The Ethnic Origins of Nations</i>. Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ethnic+Origins+of+Nations&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Anthony+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthnicity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Smith, Anthony D. (1998). <i>Nationalism and modernism. A Critical Survey of Recent Theories of Nations and Nationalism</i>. Routledge.</li> <li>Steele, Liza G.; Bostic, Amie; Lynch, Scott M.; Abdelaaty, Lamis (2022). "Measuring Ethnic Diversity". <i>Annual Review of Sociology</i>. 48 (1).</li> <li>Thernstrom, Stephan A. ed. <i>Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups</i> (1981)</li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_census"><b><a href="#ref_census">^</a></b></span> <a href="/wiki/U.S._Census_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Census Bureau">U.S. Census Bureau</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060207222529/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_68178.htm">State & County QuickFacts: Race</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnicity&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ethnicity" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:ethnicity">ethnicity</a></b></i>, <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ethnic" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:ethnic">ethnic</a></b></i>, <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nationality" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:nationality">nationality</a></b></i>, or <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nation" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:nation">nation</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ethnic groups">Ethnic groups</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Ethnicity</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ethnicity">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://escholarship.org/uc/item/32r9x0jr">Ethnicity</a> at EScholarship.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apa.org/pi/oema/index.aspx">Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs</a> – American Psychological Association</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://growup.ethz.ch/">Ethnic Power Relations (EPR) Atlas</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.infoplease.com/world/countries/ethnicity-and-race-by-countries">List of ethnic groups by country</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethnicity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethnicity" title="Template:Ethnicity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethnicity" title="Template talk:Ethnicity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnicity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnicity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethnicity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ethnicity</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">Clan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">Ethnic group</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_group" title="Ethnographic group">Ethnographic group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistic_group" title="Ethnolinguistic group">Ethnolinguistic group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnonational_group" title="Ethnonational group">Ethnonational group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoreligious_group" title="Ethnoreligious group">Ethnoreligious group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_realism" title="Ethnographic realism">Ethnographic realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">Diaspora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyphenated_ethnicity" title="Hyphenated ethnicity">Hyphenated ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_and_out-group" title="In-group and out-group">In-group and out-groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethnicity" title="Meta-ethnicity">Meta-ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metroethnicity" title="Metroethnicity">Metroethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">Minority group</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minority_influence" title="Minority influence">Influence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoethnicity" title="Monoethnicity">Monoethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panethnicity" title="Panethnicity">Panethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyethnicity" title="Polyethnicity">Polyethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supraethnicity" title="Supraethnicity">Supraethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_ethnicity" title="Symbolic ethnicity">Symbolic ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">Tribe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_studies" title="Ethnic studies">Ethnic studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobiology" title="Ethnobiology">Ethnobiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoecology" title="Ethnoecology">Ethnoecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomycology" title="Ethnomycology">Ethnomycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnozoology" title="Ethnozoology">Ethnozoology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocinema" title="Ethnocinema">Ethnocinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnogeology" title="Ethnogeology">Ethnogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoethnography" title="Autoethnography">Autoethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_ethnography" title="Clinical ethnography">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_ethnography" title="Critical ethnography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_ethnography" title="Institutional ethnography">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netnography" title="Netnography">Netnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_ethnography" title="Online ethnography">Online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Person-centered_ethnography" title="Person-centered ethnography">Person-centered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvage_ethnography" title="Salvage ethnography">Salvage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transidioethnography" title="Transidioethnography">Transidioethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_ethnography" title="Video ethnography">Video</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Ethnohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomathematics" title="Ethnomathematics">Ethnomathematics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnostatistics" title="Ethnostatistics">Ethnostatistics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomedicine" title="Ethnomedicine">Ethnomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Ethnomuseology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Ethnomusicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnophilosophy" title="Ethnophilosophy">Ethnophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopsychopharmacology" title="Ethnopsychopharmacology">Ethnopsychopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoscience" title="Ethnoscience">Ethnoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnosemiotics" title="Ethnosemiotics">Ethnosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnotaxonomy" title="Ethnotaxonomy">Ethnotaxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_contemporary_ethnic_groups" title="List of contemporary ethnic groups">Groups by region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>World</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_contemporary_ethnic_groups" title="List of contemporary ethnic groups">Contemporary ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_ethnic_groups" title="List of countries by ethnic groups">Countries by ethnic groups</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Africa</a></b></li> <li><b>Americas</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_origins_of_people_in_Canada" title="Ethnic origins of people in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Greenland#Ethnic_groups" title="Demographics of Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Mexico#Ethnic_groups" title="Demographics of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Caribbean" title="Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Central_America" title="Ethnic groups in Central America">Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups in South America">South America</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Asia" title="Ethnic groups in Asia">Asia</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of Central Asia">Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_East_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Siberia" title="Indigenous peoples of Siberia">Northern Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_Asia" title="Ethnic groups in South Asia">South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Ethnic groups in Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_Middle_East" title="Ethnic groups in the Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups in Australia">Australia</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_Aboriginal_group_names" title="List of Australian Aboriginal group names">Aboriginal groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Europe" title="Ethnic groups in Europe">Europe</a></b></li> <li><b>Oceania</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Indigenous peoples of Oceania">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Oceania" title="Europeans in Oceania">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/Ethnogenesis" title="Ethnogenesis">ethnogenesis</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-race_effect" title="Cross-race effect">Cross-race effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">Cultural identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_identity_development" title="Ethnic identity development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endonym_and_exonym" title="Endonym and exonym">Endonym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnarch" title="Ethnarch">Ethnarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_flag" title="Ethnic flag">Ethnic flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_option" title="Ethnic option">Ethnic option</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic origin">Ethnic origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_censuses" title="Race and ethnicity in censuses">Ethnicity in censuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnofiction" title="Ethnofiction">Ethnofiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnonym" title="Ethnonym">Ethnonym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_race_concepts" title="Historical race concepts">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_community" title="Imagined community">Imagined community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legendary_progenitor" title="Legendary progenitor">Legendary progenitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_homeland" title="Linguistic homeland">Linguistic homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythomoteur" title="Mythomoteur">Mythomoteur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation-building" title="Nation-building">Nation-building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">Nation state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_language" title="National language">National language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_myth" title="National myth">National myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_myth" title="Origin myth">Origin myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantribal_sodality" title="Pantribal sodality">Pantribal sodality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistext" title="Statistext">Statistext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_name" title="Tribal name">Tribal name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribalism" title="Tribalism">Tribalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Detribalization" title="Detribalization">Detribalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotribalism" title="Neotribalism">Neotribalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_ethnic" title="White ethnic">White ethnic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multinational_state" title="Multinational state">Multiethnic society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consociationalism" title="Consociationalism">Consociationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">Cultural appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaspora_politics" title="Diaspora politics">Diaspora politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_minority" title="Dominant minority">Dominant minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_democracy" title="Ethnic democracy">Ethnic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_enclave" title="Ethnic enclave">Ethnic enclave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_interest_group" title="Ethnic interest group">Ethnic interest group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_majority" title="Ethnic majority">Ethnic majority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_media" title="Ethnic media">Ethnic media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_pornography" title="Ethnic pornography">Ethnic pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_theme_park" title="Ethnic theme park">Ethnic theme park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoburb" title="Ethnoburb">Ethnoburb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocracy" title="Ethnocracy">Ethnocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_film" title="Ethnographic film">Ethnographic film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_village" title="Ethnographic village">Ethnographic village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopluralism" title="Ethnopluralism">Ethnopluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">Indigenous rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middleman_minority" title="Middleman minority">Middleman minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_rights" title="Minority rights">Minority rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_minority" title="Model minority">Model minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_minority_myth" title="Model minority myth">Model minority myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinational_state" title="Multinational state">Multinational state</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Ideology and<br /><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">ethnic conflict</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_bioweapon" title="Ethnic bioweapon">Ethnic bioweapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_party" title="Ethnic party">Ethnic party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_slurs" title="List of ethnic slurs">Ethnic slurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype" title="Ethnic stereotype">Ethnic stereotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">Ethnic violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_riots" title="List of ethnic riots">Ethnic riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnofuturism" title="Ethnofuturism">Ethnofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnosymbolism" title="Ethnosymbolism">Ethnosymbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenism" title="Indigenism">Indigenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenization" title="Indigenization">Indigenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">Nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_active_separatist_movements" title="Lists of active separatist movements">Separatist movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocentrism" title="Xenocentrism">Xenocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophilia" title="Xenophilia">Xenophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minzu_(anthropology)" title="Minzu (anthropology)">Minzu (anthropology)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5404323#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4220764-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Ethnicity"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85045187">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00567705">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="etnicita"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph120007&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000060934&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007555583605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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