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<span>Principles</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Principles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Principles subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Properties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Reification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multistability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multistability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Multistability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multistability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invariance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invariance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Invariance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invariance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perceptual_organisation_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perceptual_organisation_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Perceptual organisation forms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Perceptual_organisation_forms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Perceptual organisation forms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Perceptual_organisation_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Perceptual_grouping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perceptual_grouping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span><i>Perceptual grouping</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perceptual_grouping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Law_of_proximity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_of_proximity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Law of proximity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_of_proximity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_of_similarity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_of_similarity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Law of similarity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_of_similarity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_of_closure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_of_closure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Law of closure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_of_closure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_of_symmetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_of_symmetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>Law of symmetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_of_symmetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_of_common_fate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_of_common_fate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.5</span> <span>Law of common fate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_of_common_fate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_of_continuity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_of_continuity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.6</span> <span>Law of continuity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_of_continuity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_of_past_experience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_of_past_experience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.7</span> <span>Law of past experience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_of_past_experience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.8</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Figure-ground_organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Figure-ground_organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Figure-ground organization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Figure-ground_organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problem_solving_and_insight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problem_solving_and_insight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Problem solving and insight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problem_solving_and_insight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Support_from_cybernetics_and_neurology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Support_from_cybernetics_and_neurology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Support from cybernetics and neurology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Support_from_cybernetics_and_neurology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_in_contemporary_social_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_in_contemporary_social_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Use in contemporary social psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_in_contemporary_social_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_cognitive_and_perceptual_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_cognitive_and_perceptual_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Contemporary cognitive and perceptual psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_cognitive_and_perceptual_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_in_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_in_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Use in design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_in_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Gestalt psychology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 64 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-64" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">64 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="علم النفس الغشتالتي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم النفس الغشتالتي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolox%C3%ADa_de_la_Gestalt" title="Psicoloxía de la Gestalt – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Psicoloxía de la Gestalt" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%C5%9Ftaltpsixologiya" title="Geştaltpsixologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Geştaltpsixologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%96%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Гештальтпсіхалогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гештальтпсіхалогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82_%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гещалт психология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Гещалт психология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia_de_la_Gestalt" title="Psicologia de la Gestalt – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Psicologia de la Gestalt" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestaltismus" title="Gestaltismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Gestaltismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestaltpsykologi" title="Gestaltpsykologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gestaltpsykologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestaltpsychologie" title="Gestaltpsychologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gestaltpsychologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%C5%A1taltps%C3%BChholoogia" title="Geštaltpsühholoogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geštaltpsühholoogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A8%CF%85%CF%87%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%84" title="Ψυχολογία Γκεστάλτ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ψυχολογία Γκεστάλτ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolog%C3%ADa_de_la_Gestalt" title="Psicología de la Gestalt – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Psicología de la Gestalt" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%C5%9Dtalt-psikologio" title="Geŝtalt-psikologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Geŝtalt-psikologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt" title="Gestalt – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gestalt" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA" title="گشتالت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گشتالت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie_de_la_forme" title="Psychologie de la forme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Psychologie de la forme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADceola%C3%ADocht_Gestalt" title="Síceolaíocht Gestalt – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Síceolaíocht Gestalt" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt" title="Gestalt – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Gestalt" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%8C%EC%8A%88%ED%83%88%ED%8A%B8_%EC%8B%AC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="게슈탈트 심리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="게슈탈트 심리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D5%B7%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%BF_%D5%B0%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գեշտալտ հոգեբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գեշտալտ հոգեբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="गेस्टाल्ट मनोविज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गेस्टाल्ट मनोविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%C5%A1taltizam" title="Geštaltizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geštaltizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt" title="Gestalt – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gestalt" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia_della_Gestalt" title="Psicologia della Gestalt – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Psicologia della Gestalt" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%92%D7%A9%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%98" title="פסיכולוגיית הגשטלט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פסיכולוגיית הגשטלט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C_%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಗೆಸ್ಟಾಲ್ಟ್‌ ಮನೋವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಗೆಸ್ಟಾಲ್ಟ್‌ ಮನೋವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="გეშტალტფსიქოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გეშტალტფსიქოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82_%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гештальт психология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гештальт психология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гештальтпсихология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гештальтпсихология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologia_gestalt" title="Psychologia gestalt – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Psychologia gestalt" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%C5%A1talts" title="Geštalts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Geštalts" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%C5%A1taltpsichologija" title="Geštaltpsichologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Geštaltpsichologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolojia_de_gestaltes" title="Psicolojia de gestaltes – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Psicolojia de gestaltes" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestaltpszichol%C3%B3gia" title="Gestaltpszichológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gestaltpszichológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF" title="ജെസ്റ്റാൾട്ട് സൈക്കോളജി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജെസ്റ്റാൾട്ട് സൈക്കോളജി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi_Gestalt" title="Psikologi Gestalt – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Psikologi Gestalt" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestaltpsychologie" title="Gestaltpsychologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gestaltpsychologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B2%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5%E3%82%BF%E3%83%AB%E3%83%88%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="ゲシュタルト心理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ゲシュタルト心理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestaltpsykologi" title="Gestaltpsykologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gestaltpsykologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geshtaltpsixologiya" title="Geshtaltpsixologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Geshtaltpsixologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%9F_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਗੇਸਟਾਲਟ ਮਨੋਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗੇਸਟਾਲਟ ਮਨੋਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%AB%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="د ګشتالت ارواپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ګشتالت ارواپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolog%C3%ACa_dla_forma" title="Psicologìa dla forma – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Psicologìa dla forma" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologia_postaci" title="Psychologia postaci – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Psychologia postaci" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia_da_forma" title="Psicologia da forma – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Psicologia da forma" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestaltism" title="Gestaltism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Gestaltism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гештальтпсихология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гештальтпсихология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Gestalt psychology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tvarov%C3%A1_psychol%C3%B3gia" title="Tvarová psychológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Tvarová psychológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psihologija" title="Gestalt psihologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Gestalt psihologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%C5%A1taltizam" title="Geštaltizam – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Geštaltizam" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%C5%A1talt_psihologija" title="Geštalt psihologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Geštalt psihologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hahmopsykologia" title="Hahmopsykologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hahmopsykologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestaltpsykologi" title="Gestaltpsykologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gestaltpsykologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikolohiyang_Gestalt" title="Sikolohiyang Gestalt – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sikolohiyang Gestalt" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="முழுநிலை கோட்பாடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="முழுநிலை கோட்பாடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%97%E0%B9%8C" title="จิตวิทยาเกสทัลท์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จิตวิทยาเกสทัลท์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гешталтпсихология – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Гешталтпсихология" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psikolojisi" title="Gestalt psikolojisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gestalt psikolojisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Гештальтпсихологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гештальтпсихологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A2m_l%C3%BD_h%E1%BB%8Dc_Gestalt" title="Tâm lý học Gestalt – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tâm lý học Gestalt" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F%E5%A1%94%E5%AD%A6%E6%B4%BE" title="格式塔学派 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="格式塔学派" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%8C%E5%BD%A2%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="完形心理學 – 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class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0;padding:0.8em;"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/100px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/150px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/200px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="94" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a 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#aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/16px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/24px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/32px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Template:Psychology_sidebar" title="Template:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Psychology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Gestalt psychology</b>, <b>gestaltism</b>, or <b>configurationism</b> is a <a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">school of psychology</a> and a theory of <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> that emphasises the processing of entire patterns and configurations, and not merely individual components. It emerged in the early twentieth century in <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> as a rejection of basic principles of <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Titchener" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Titchener">Edward Titchener</a>'s elementalist and <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(psychology)" title="Structuralism (psychology)">structuralist psychology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mather2006_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mather2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gestalt psychology is often associated with the adage, "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts". In Gestalt theory, information is perceived as wholes rather than disparate parts which are then processed summatively. As used in Gestalt psychology, the German word <i>Gestalt</i> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span>-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">gə-<span style="font-size:90%">SHTA(H)LT</span></i></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">German:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ɡəˈʃtalt]</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/4\/4f\/De-Gestalt.ogg\/De-Gestalt.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Gestalt.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4f/De-Gestalt.ogg/De-Gestalt.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:De-Gestalt.ogg" title="File:De-Gestalt.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span>; meaning "form"<sup id="cite_ref-Columbia_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Columbia-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is interpreted as "pattern" or "configuration".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It differs from <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_therapy" title="Gestalt therapy">Gestalt therapy</a>, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_history">Origin and history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin and history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology#Gestalt_psychology" title="History of psychology">History of psychology § Gestalt psychology</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Max_Wertheimer" title="Max Wertheimer">Max Wertheimer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Koffka" title="Kurt Koffka">Kurt Koffka</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler" title="Wolfgang Köhler">Wolfgang Köhler</a> founded Gestalt psychology in the early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Sternberg6e_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sternberg6e-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 113–116">: 113–116 </span></sup> The dominant view in psychology at the time was <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(psychology)" title="Structuralism (psychology)">structuralism</a>, exemplified by the work of <a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Hermann von Helmholtz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edward_B._Titchener" title="Edward B. Titchener">Edward B. Titchener</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012II-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kolers1972_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolers1972-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> Structuralism was rooted firmly in British <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a><sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012II-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kolers1972_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolers1972-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> and was based on three closely interrelated theories: </p> <ol><li>"atomism," also known as "elementalism,"<sup id="cite_ref-Kolers1972_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolers1972-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> the view that all knowledge, even complex abstract ideas, is built from simple, elementary constituents</li> <li>"sensationalism," the view that the simplest constituents—the atoms of thought—are elementary <a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">sense impressions</a></li> <li>"associationism," the view that more complex ideas arise from the association of simpler ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-Kolers1972_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolers1972-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Together, these three theories give rise to the view that the mind constructs all perceptions and abstract thoughts strictly from lower-level sensations, which are related solely by being associated closely in space and time.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012II-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Gestaltists took issue with the widespread atomistic view that the aim of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> should be to break <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> down into putative basic elements.<sup id="cite_ref-Columbia_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Columbia-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast, the Gestalt psychologists believed that breaking psychological phenomena down into smaller parts would not lead to understanding psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-Sternberg6e_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sternberg6e-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 13">: 13 </span></sup> Instead, they viewed psychological phenomena as organized, structured wholes.<sup id="cite_ref-Sternberg6e_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sternberg6e-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 13">: 13 </span></sup> They argued that the psychological "whole" has priority and that the "parts" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than the other way round.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gestalt theories of perception are based on human nature being inclined to understand objects as an entire structure rather than the sum of its parts.<sup id="cite_ref-Pohl-2016_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pohl-2016-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Christian_von_Ehrenfels" title="Christian von Ehrenfels">Christian von Ehrenfels</a>, a member of the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Brentano" title="School of Brentano">School of Brentano</a>. Von Ehrenfels introduced the concept of Gestalt to philosophy and psychology in 1890, before the advent of Gestalt psychology as such.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith1988_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith1988-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012II-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Von Ehrenfels observed that a perceptual experience, such as perceiving a melody or a shape, is more than the sum of its sensory components.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012II-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He claimed that, in addition to the sensory elements of the perception, there is something additional that is an element in its own right, despite in some sense being derived from the organization of the component sensory elements. He called it <i>Gestalt-qualität</i> or "form-quality." It is this <i>Gestalt-qualität</i> that, according to von Ehrenfels, allows a tune to be transposed to a new key, using completely different notes, while still retaining its identity. The idea of a <i>Gestalt-qualität</i> has roots in theories by <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hartley_(philosopher)" title="David Hartley (philosopher)">David Hartley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a>. Both von Ehrenfels and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a> seem to have been inspired by Mach's work <i>Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen</i> (Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of <i>gestalt</i> and <i>figural moment</i>, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith1988_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith1988-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1914, the first published references to Gestalt theory could be found in a footnote of <a href="/wiki/Gabriele_von_Wartensleben" title="Gabriele von Wartensleben">Gabriele von Wartensleben</a>'s application of Gestalt theory to personality. She was a student at Frankfurt Academy for Social Sciences, who interacted deeply with Wertheimer and Köhler.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through a series of experiments, Wertheimer discovered that a person observing a pair of alternating bars of light can, under the right conditions, experience the illusion of movement between one location and the other. He noted that this was a perception of motion absent any moving object. That is, it was pure phenomenal motion. He dubbed it <a href="/wiki/Phi_phenomenon" title="Phi phenomenon">phi ("phenomenal") motion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith1988_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith1988-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012I-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wertheimer's publication of these results in 1912<sup id="cite_ref-Wertheimer1912_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wertheimer1912-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> marks the beginning of Gestalt psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012I-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In comparison to von Ehrenfels and others who had used the term "gestalt" earlier in various ways, Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the "gestalt" is perceptually primary. The gestalt defines the parts from which it is composed, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012I-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wertheimer took the more radical position that one hears the melody first and only then may perceptually divide it up into notes. Similarly, in vision, one sees the form of the circle first, with its apprehension not mediated by a process of part-summation. Only after this primary apprehension might one notice that it is made up of lines or dots or stars. </p><p>The two men who served as Wertheimer's subjects in the phi experiments were Köhler and Koffka. Köhler was an expert in physical acoustics, having studied under physicist <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a>, but had taken his degree in psychology under <a href="/wiki/Carl_Stumpf" title="Carl Stumpf">Carl Stumpf</a>. Koffka was also a student of Stumpf's, having studied movement phenomena and psychological aspects of rhythm. In 1917, Köhler published the results of four years of research on learning in chimpanzees. Köhler showed, contrary to the claims of most other learning theorists, that animals can learn by "sudden insight" into the "structure" of a problem, over and above the associative and incremental manner of learning that <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Lee_Thorndike" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Lee Thorndike">Edward Lee Thorndike</a> had demonstrated with dogs and cats, respectively. </p><p>In 1921, Koffka published a Gestalt-oriented text on developmental psychology, <i>Growth of the Mind</i>. With the help of American psychologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_Ogden" title="Robert Morris Ogden">Robert Ogden</a>, Koffka introduced the Gestalt point of view to an American audience in 1922 by way of a paper in <i><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Bulletin" title="Psychological Bulletin">Psychological Bulletin</a></i>. It contains criticisms of then-current explanations of a number of problems of perception, and the alternatives offered by the Gestalt school. Koffka moved to the United States in 1924, eventually settling at <a href="/wiki/Smith_College" title="Smith College">Smith College</a> in 1927. In 1935, Koffka published his <i>Principles of Gestalt Psychology</i>. This textbook laid out the <i>Gestalt</i> vision of the scientific enterprise as a whole. Science, he said, is not the simple accumulation of facts. What makes research scientific is the incorporation of facts into a theoretical structure. The goal of the <i>Gestaltists</i> was to integrate the facts of inanimate nature, life, and mind into a single scientific structure. This meant that science would have to accommodate not only what Koffka called the quantitative facts of physical science but the facts of two other "scientific categories": questions of order and questions of <i>Sinn</i>, a German word which has been variously translated as significance, value, and meaning. Without incorporating the meaning of experience and behavior, Koffka believed that science would doom itself to trivialities in its investigation of human beings. </p><p>Having survived the Nazis up to the mid-1930s,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all the core members of the Gestalt movement were forced out of Germany to the United States by 1935.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Köhler published another book, <i>Dynamics in Psychology</i>, in 1940 but thereafter the <i>Gestalt</i> movement suffered a series of setbacks. Koffka died in 1941 and Wertheimer in 1943. Wertheimer's long-awaited book on mathematical problem-solving, <i>Productive Thinking,</i> was published posthumously in 1945, but Köhler was left to guide the movement without his two long-time colleagues.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gestalt_therapy">Gestalt therapy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Gestalt therapy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gestalt psychology differs from <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_therapy" title="Gestalt therapy">Gestalt therapy</a>, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology. The founders of Gestalt therapy, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Perls" title="Fritz Perls">Fritz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laura_Perls" title="Laura Perls">Laura Perls</a>, had worked with <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Goldstein" title="Kurt Goldstein">Kurt Goldstein</a>, a neurologist who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism. Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed. On one hand, Laura Perls preferred not to use the term "Gestalt" to name the emerging new therapy, because she thought that the Gestalt psychologists would object to it;<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on the other hand, Fritz and Laura Perls clearly adopted some of Goldstein's work.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mary_Henle" title="Mary Henle">Mary Henle</a> noted in her presidential address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Association: "What Perls has done has been to take a few terms from Gestalt psychology, stretch their meaning beyond recognition, mix them with notions—often unclear and often incompatible—from the depth psychologies, existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the whole mixture gestalt therapy. His work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. To use his own language, Fritz Perls has done 'his thing'; whatever it is, it is <i>not</i> Gestalt psychology."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One form of psychotherapy that, unlike Gestalt therapy, is actually consistently based on Gestalt psychology is <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_theoretical_psychotherapy" title="Gestalt theoretical psychotherapy">Gestalt theoretical psychotherapy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_framework_and_methodology">Theoretical framework and methodology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Theoretical framework and methodology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Gestalt psychologists practiced a set of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research. This is in contrast to investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology, which divided the object of study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the complexity of this object. </p><p>The principle of totality asserts that conscious experience must be considered globally by taking into account all the physical and mental aspects of the individual simultaneously, because the nature of the mind demands that each component be considered as part of a <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">system</a> of dynamic relationships. Thus, <a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">holism</a> as fundamental aspect of Gestalt psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012II-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the perception of the nature of a part depends upon the whole in which it is embedded.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012II-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The maxim that the whole is more than the sum of its parts is not a precise description of the Gestaltist view.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012II-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather, as Koffka writes, "The whole is something else than the sum of its parts, because summing is a meaningless procedure, whereas the whole-part relationship is meaningful."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The principle of <a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">psychophysical</a> <a href="/wiki/Isomorphism_(Gestalt_psychology)" title="Isomorphism (Gestalt psychology)">isomorphism</a> hypothesizes that there is a <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlation</a> between conscious experience and <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">cerebral</a> activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012I-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on the principles, phenomenon experimental analysis was derived, which asserts that any psychological research should take phenomena as a starting point and not be solely focused on sensory qualities. A related principle is that of the biotic experiment, which establishes the need to conduct real experiments that sharply contrasted with and opposed classic laboratory experiments. This signified experimenting in natural situations, developed in real conditions, in which it would be possible to reproduce, with higher <a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">fidelity</a>, what would be habitual for a subject.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Principles">Principles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Gestaltists were the first to document and demonstrate empirically many facts about perception—including facts about the <a href="/wiki/Motion_perception" title="Motion perception">perception of movement</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Form_perception" title="Form perception">perception of contour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subjective_constancy" title="Subjective constancy">perceptual constancy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">perceptual illusions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith1988_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith1988-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wertheimer's discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Phi_phenomenon" title="Phi phenomenon">phi phenomenon</a> is one example of such a contribution.<sup id="cite_ref-Gobet2017_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gobet2017-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Properties">Properties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The key principles of gestalt systems are <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">reification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multistability" title="Multistability">multistability</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/invariance" class="extiw" title="wikt:invariance">invariance.</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These principles are not necessarily separable modules to model individually, but they could be different aspects of a single unified <a href="/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamics (mechanics)">dynamic</a> mechanism.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reification">Reification</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reification.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Reification.svg/260px-Reification.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Reification.svg/390px-Reification.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Reification.svg/520px-Reification.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Reification</figcaption></figure> <p>Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception, by which the experienced object of perception contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based. For instance, a triangle is perceived in picture <b>A</b>, though no triangle is there. In pictures <b>B</b> and <b>D</b> the eye recognizes disparate shapes as "belonging" to a single shape, in <b>C</b> a complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn. </p><p>Reification can be explained by progress in the study of <a href="/wiki/Illusory_contours" title="Illusory contours">illusory contours</a>, which are treated by the visual system as "real" contours. </p> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Multistability">Multistability</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Multistability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Multistability.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Multistability.svg/260px-Multistability.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Multistability.svg/390px-Multistability.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Multistability.svg/520px-Multistability.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Necker_cube" title="Necker cube">Necker cube</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rubin_vase" title="Rubin vase">Rubin vase</a>, two examples of <a href="/wiki/Multistability" title="Multistability">multistability</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Multistability" title="Multistability">Multistability</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Multistable_perception" title="Multistable perception">multistable perception</a>) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen, for example, in the <a href="/wiki/Necker_cube" title="Necker cube">Necker cube</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rubin_vase" title="Rubin vase">Rubin's Figure/Vase illusion</a>. Other examples include the <a href="/wiki/Blivet" class="mw-redirect" title="Blivet">three-legged blivet</a>, artist <a href="/wiki/M._C._Escher" title="M. C. Escher">M. C. Escher</a>'s artwork, and the appearance of flashing <a href="/wiki/Marquee_(sign)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquee (sign)">marquee</a> lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other. </p> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Invariance">Invariance</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Invariance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Invariance.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Invariance.jpg/260px-Invariance.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Invariance.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="384" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption>Invariance</figcaption></figure><p> Invariance is the property of <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> whereby simple <a href="/wiki/Geometrical" class="mw-redirect" title="Geometrical">geometrical</a> objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale, as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. For example, the objects in <b>A</b> in the figure are all immediately recognized as the same basic shape, which is immediately distinguishable from the forms in <b>B</b>. They are even recognized despite perspective and elastic deformations as in <b>C</b>, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in <b>D</b>. Computational theories of vision, such as those by <a href="/wiki/David_Marr_(psychologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Marr (psychologist)">David Marr</a>, have provided alternate explanations of how perceived objects are classified.</p><div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Perceptual_organisation_forms">Perceptual organisation forms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Perceptual organisation forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perceptual_grouping"><i>Perceptual grouping</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Perceptual grouping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_grouping" title="Principles of grouping">Principles of grouping</a></div> <p>Like figure-ground organization, perceptual grouping (sometimes called perceptual segregation)<sup id="cite_ref-Eysenck2008_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eysenck2008-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a form of perceptual organization.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012I-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perceptual grouping is the process that determines how organisms perceive some parts of their perceptual fields as being more related than others,<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012I-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using such information for <a href="/wiki/Object_detection" title="Object detection">object detection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eysenck2008_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eysenck2008-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Gestaltists were the first psychologists to systematically study perceptual grouping.<sup id="cite_ref-Eysenck2008_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eysenck2008-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Gestalt psychologists, the fundamental principle of perceptual grouping is the law of Prägnanz,<sup id="cite_ref-Eysenck2008_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eysenck2008-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as the law of good Gestalt. <i>Prägnanz</i> is a German word that directly translates to "pithiness" and implies salience, conciseness, and orderliness.<sup id="cite_ref-todorvic_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-todorvic-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law of Prägnanz says that people tend to experience things as regular, orderly, symmetrical, and simple.<sup id="cite_ref-Koffka1935_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koffka1935-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gestalt <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a> attempted to discover refinements of the law of <i>Prägnanz</i>, which involved writing down <a href="/wiki/Law_(principle)" title="Law (principle)">laws</a> that predict the interpretation of sensation.<sup id="cite_ref-gestaltpsych_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gestaltpsych-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wertheimer defined a few principles that explain the ways humans perceive objects based on similarity, proximity, and continuity.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Law_of_proximity">Law of proximity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Law of proximity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gestalt_proximity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Gestalt_proximity.svg/220px-Gestalt_proximity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Gestalt_proximity.svg/330px-Gestalt_proximity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Gestalt_proximity.svg/440px-Gestalt_proximity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="298" /></a><figcaption>Law of proximity</figcaption></figure> <p>The law of proximity states that when an individual perceives an assortment of objects, they perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a group. For example, in the figure illustrating the law of proximity, there are 72 circles, but we perceive the collection of circles in groups. Specifically, we perceive that there is a group of 36 circles on the left side of the image and three groups of 12 circles on the right side of the image. This law is often used in advertising logos to emphasize which aspects of events are associated.<sup id="cite_ref-stevenson_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stevenson-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Soegaard_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soegaard-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Law_of_similarity">Law of similarity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Law of similarity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gestalt_similarity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Gestalt_similarity.svg/220px-Gestalt_similarity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Gestalt_similarity.svg/330px-Gestalt_similarity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Gestalt_similarity.svg/440px-Gestalt_similarity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Law of similarity</figcaption></figure> <p>The law of similarity states that elements within an assortment of objects are perceptually grouped together if they are similar to each other. This similarity can occur in the form of shape, colour, shading or other qualities. For example, the figure illustrating the law of similarity portrays 36 circles all equal distance apart from one another forming a square. In this depiction, 18 of the circles are shaded dark, and 18 of the circles are shaded light. We perceive the dark circles as grouped together and the light circles as grouped together, forming six horizontal lines within the square of circles. This perception of lines is due to the law of similarity.<sup id="cite_ref-Soegaard_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soegaard-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Law_of_closure">Law of closure</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Law of closure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gestalt_closure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Gestalt_closure.svg/220px-Gestalt_closure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Gestalt_closure.svg/330px-Gestalt_closure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Gestalt_closure.svg/440px-Gestalt_closure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="287" /></a><figcaption>Law of closure</figcaption></figure> <p>Gestalt psychologists believed that humans tend to perceive objects as complete rather than focusing on the gaps that the object might contain.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a circle has good Gestalt in terms of completeness. However, we will also perceive an incomplete circle as a complete circle.<sup id="cite_ref-Brennan_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brennan-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That tendency to complete shapes and figures is called closure.<sup id="cite_ref-Brennan_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brennan-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law of closure states that individuals perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as being whole when they are not complete. Specifically, when parts of a whole picture are missing, our perception fills in the visual gap. Research shows that the reason the mind completes a regular figure that is not perceived through sensation is to increase the regularity of surrounding stimuli. For example, the figure that depicts the law of closure portrays what we perceive as a circle on the left side of the image and a rectangle on the right side of the image. However, gaps are present in the shapes. If the law of closure did not exist, the image would depict an assortment of different lines with different lengths, rotations, and curvatures—but with the law of closure, we perceptually combine the lines into whole shapes.<sup id="cite_ref-stevenson_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stevenson-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Soegaard_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soegaard-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Law_of_symmetry">Law of symmetry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Law of symmetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Law_of_Symmetry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1c/Law_of_Symmetry.jpg/220px-Law_of_Symmetry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1c/Law_of_Symmetry.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="118" /></a><figcaption>Law of symmetry</figcaption></figure> <p>The law of symmetry states that the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point. It is perceptually pleasing to divide objects into an even number of symmetrical parts. Therefore, when two symmetrical elements are unconnected the mind perceptually connects them to form a coherent shape. Similarities between symmetrical objects increase the likelihood that objects are grouped to form a combined symmetrical object. For example, the figure depicting the law of symmetry shows a configuration of square and curled brackets. When the image is perceived, we tend to observe three pairs of symmetrical brackets rather than six individual brackets.<sup id="cite_ref-stevenson_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stevenson-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Soegaard_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soegaard-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Law_of_common_fate">Law of common fate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Law of common fate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The law of common fate states that objects are perceived as lines that move along the smoothest path. Experiments using the visual sensory modality found that the movement of elements of an object produces paths that individuals perceive that the objects are on. We perceive elements of objects to have trends of motion, which indicate the path that the object is on. The law of continuity implies the grouping together of objects that have the same trend of motion and are therefore on the same path. For example, if there is an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units.<sup id="cite_ref-todorvic_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-todorvic-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Law_of_continuity">Law of continuity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Law of continuity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CrossKeys.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/CrossKeys.png/220px-CrossKeys.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/CrossKeys.png/330px-CrossKeys.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/CrossKeys.png/440px-CrossKeys.png 2x" data-file-width="880" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption>Law of continuity</figcaption></figure> <p>The law of continuity (also known as the law of good continuation) states that elements of objects tend to be grouped together, and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an object. In cases where there is an intersection between objects, individuals tend to perceive the two objects as two single uninterrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with overlap. We are less likely to group elements with sharp abrupt directional changes as being one object. For example, the figure depicting the law of continuity shows a configuration of two crossed keys. When the image is perceived, we tend to perceive the key in the background as a single uninterrupted key instead of two separate halves of a key.<sup id="cite_ref-stevenson_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stevenson-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Law_of_past_experience">Law of past experience</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Law of past experience"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example, the English language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters "L" and "I" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U.<sup id="cite_ref-todorvic_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-todorvic-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Music">Music</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An example of the Gestalt movement in effect, as it is both a process and result, is a music sequence. People are able to recognise a sequence of perhaps six or seven notes, despite them being transposed into a different tuning or key.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An early theory of gestalt grouping principles in music was composer-theorist <a href="/wiki/James_Tenney" title="James Tenney">James Tenney</a>'s <i>Meta+Hodos</i> (1961).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Auditory_scene_analysis" title="Auditory scene analysis">Auditory Scene Analysis</a> as developed by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Bregman" title="Albert Bregman">Albert Bregman</a> further extends a gestalt approach to the analysis of sound perception. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Figure-ground_organization">Figure-ground organization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Figure-ground organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Figure-ground organization is a form of perceptual organization, which interprets perceptual elements in terms of their shapes and relative locations in the layout of surfaces in the 3-D world.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012I-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Figure-ground organization structures the perceptual field into a figure (standing out at the front of the perceptual field) and a background (receding behind the figure).<sup id="cite_ref-Brennan_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brennan-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pioneering work on figure-ground organization was carried out by the Danish psychologist <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Rubin" title="Edgar Rubin">Edgar Rubin</a>. The Gestalt psychologists demonstrated that people tend to perceive as figures those parts of our perceptual fields that are convex, symmetric, small, and enclosed.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012I-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Problem_solving_and_insight">Problem solving and insight</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Problem solving and insight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gestalt psychology contributed to the scientific study of problem solving.<sup id="cite_ref-Gobet2017_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gobet2017-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, the early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> marks the beginning of the scientific study of problem solving. Later this experimental work continued through the 1960s and early 1970s with research conducted on relatively simple laboratory tasks of problem solving.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Max Wertheimer distinguished two kinds of thinking: productive thinking and reproductive thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-Sternberg6e_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sternberg6e-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 456">: 456 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kellogg2003_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kellogg2003-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 361">: 361 </span></sup> <i>Productive thinking</i> is solving a problem based on insight—a quick, creative, unplanned response to situations and environmental interaction. <i>Reproductive thinking</i> is solving a problem deliberately based on previous experience and knowledge. Reproductive thinking proceeds <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithmically</a>—a problem solver reproduces a series of steps from memory, knowing that they will lead to a solution—or by <a href="/wiki/Trial_and_error" title="Trial and error">trial and error</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kellogg2003_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kellogg2003-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 361">: 361 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Duncker" title="Karl Duncker">Karl Duncker</a>, another Gestalt psychologist who studied problem solving,<sup id="cite_ref-Kellogg2003_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kellogg2003-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 370">: 370 </span></sup> coined the term <a href="/wiki/Functional_fixedness" title="Functional fixedness">functional fixedness</a> for describing the difficulties in both visual perception and problem solving that arise from the fact that one element of a whole situation already has a (fixed) function that has to be changed in order to perceive something or find the solution to a problem.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gestalt psychology struggled to precisely define terms like Prägnanz, to make specific behavioural predictions, and to articulate testable models of underlying neural mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012II-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was criticized as being merely descriptive.<sup id="cite_ref-BruceEtAl_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BruceEtAl-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These shortcomings led, by the mid-20th century, to growing dissatisfaction with Gestaltism and a subsequent decline in its impact on psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagemans2012II-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this decline, Gestalt psychology has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and of research into behaviour, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Support_from_cybernetics_and_neurology">Support from cybernetics and neurology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Support from cybernetics and neurology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1940s and 1950s, <a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">laboratory</a> research in <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurology</a> and what became known as <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a> on the mechanism of frogs' eyes indicate that <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> of 'gestalts' (in particular gestalts <i>in motion</i>) is perhaps more primitive and fundamental than 'seeing' as such: </p> <dl><dd>A frog hunts on land by vision... He has no fovea, or region of greatest acuity in vision, upon which he must centre a part of the image... The frog does not seem to see or, at any rate, is not concerned with the detail of stationary parts of the world around him. He will starve to death surrounded by food if it is not moving. His choice of food is determined only by size and movement. He will leap to capture any object the size of an insect or worm, providing it moves like one. He can be fooled easily not only by a piece of dangled meat but by any moving small object... He does remember a moving thing provided it stays within his field of vision and he is not distracted.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dd>The lowest-level concepts related to visual perception for a human being probably differ little from the concepts of a frog. In any case, the structure of the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Human_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Human being">human beings</a> is the same as in amphibians. The phenomenon of distortion of perception of an image stabilised on the retina gives some idea of the concepts of the subsequent levels of the hierarchy. This is a very interesting phenomenon. When a person looks at an immobile object, "fixes" it with his eyes, the eyeballs do not remain absolutely immobile; they make small involuntary movements. As a result, the image of the object on the retina is constantly in motion, slowly drifting and jumping back to the point of maximum sensitivity. The image "marks time" in the vicinity of this point.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_in_contemporary_social_psychology">Use in contemporary social psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Use in contemporary social psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Halo_effect" title="Halo effect">halo effect</a> can be explained through the application of Gestalt theories to social information processing.<sup id="cite_ref-Nauts-2014_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nauts-2014-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pohl-2016_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pohl-2016-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The constructive theories of social cognition are applied to the expectations of individuals. They have been perceived in this manner and the person judging the individual is continuing to view them in this positive manner.<sup id="cite_ref-Pohl-2016_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pohl-2016-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gestalt's theories of perception enforces that individual's tendency to perceive actions and characteristics as a whole rather than isolated parts,<sup id="cite_ref-Pohl-2016_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pohl-2016-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> therefore humans are inclined to build a coherent and consistent impression of objects and behaviors in order to achieve an acceptable shape and form. The halo effect is what forms patterns for individuals,<sup id="cite_ref-Pohl-2016_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pohl-2016-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the halo effect being classified as a cognitive bias which occurs during impression formation.<sup id="cite_ref-Nauts-2014_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nauts-2014-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The halo effect can also be altered by physical characteristics, social status and many other characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As well, the halo effect can have real repercussions on the individual's perception of reality, either negatively or positively, meaning to construct negative or positive images about other individuals or situations, something that could lead to <a href="/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy" title="Self-fulfilling prophecy">self-fulfilling prophesies</a>, stereotyping, or even discrimination.<sup id="cite_ref-Pohl-2016_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pohl-2016-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_cognitive_and_perceptual_psychology">Contemporary cognitive and perceptual psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Contemporary cognitive and perceptual psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the central criticisms of Gestaltism are based on the preference Gestaltists are deemed to have for theory over data, and a lack of quantitative research supporting Gestalt ideas. This is not necessarily a fair criticism as highlighted by a recent collection of quantitative research on Gestalt perception.<sup id="cite_ref-Jakel2016_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jakel2016-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers continue to test hypotheses about the mechanisms underlying Gestalt principles such as the principle of similarity.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other important criticisms concern the lack of definition and support for the many <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiological</a> assumptions made by gestaltists<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz2013_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz2013-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and lack of theoretical coherence in modern Gestalt psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-Jakel2016_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jakel2016-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some scholarly communities, such as <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">computational neuroscience</a>, gestalt theories of perception are criticized for being <i>descriptive</i> rather than <i>explanatory</i> in nature. For this reason, they are viewed by some as redundant or uninformative. For example, a textbook on visual perception states that, "The physiological theory of the gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some of their 'laws' of perceptual organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a 'good' or 'simple' shape, for example?"<sup id="cite_ref-BruceEtAl_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BruceEtAl-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One historian of psychology, David J. Murray, has argued that Gestalt psychologists first discovered many principles later championed by cognitive psychology, including <a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">schemas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prototype_theory" title="Prototype theory">prototypes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another psychologist has argued that the Gestalt psychologists made a lasting contribution by showing how the study of <a href="/wiki/Illusions" class="mw-redirect" title="Illusions">illusions</a> can help scientists understand essential aspects of how the visual system <i>normally</i> functions, not merely how it breaks down.<sup id="cite_ref-Kolers1972_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kolers1972-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 16">: 16 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_in_design">Use in design</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Use in design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mississippiriver-new-01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Mississippiriver-new-01.png/220px-Mississippiriver-new-01.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Mississippiriver-new-01.png/330px-Mississippiriver-new-01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Mississippiriver-new-01.png/440px-Mississippiriver-new-01.png 2x" data-file-width="4167" data-file-height="3819" /></a><figcaption>Several grouping principles are employed in this map: similarity allows the reader to selectively isolate cities, rivers, or state boundaries; closure allows the dashed boundary lines to be perceived as continuous borders; proximity makes the collection of river segments appear as a single watershed; and continuity helps the reader "see" whole states even when boundaries are obscured under rivers.</figcaption></figure> <p>The gestalt laws are used in several visual design fields, such as <a href="/wiki/User_interface_design" title="User interface design">user interface design</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used as guides for placing <a href="/wiki/Radio_button" title="Radio button">radio buttons</a>. They may also be used in designing computers and software for more intuitive human use. Examples include the design and layout of a desktop's shortcuts in rows and columns.<sup id="cite_ref-Soegaard_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soegaard-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In map design, principles of Prägnanz or grouping are crucial for implying a conceptual order to the portrayed geographic features, thus facilitating the intended use of the map.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Law of Similarity is employed by selecting similar <a href="/wiki/Map_symbol" title="Map symbol">map symbols</a> for similar kinds of features or features with similar properties; the Law of Proximity is crucial to identifying geographic patterns and regions; and the Laws of Closure and Continuity allow users to recognize features that may be obscured by other features (such as when a road goes over a river). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augusto_Garau" title="Augusto Garau">Augusto Garau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amodal_perception" title="Amodal perception">Amodal perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egregore" title="Egregore">Egregore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestaltzerfall" title="Gestaltzerfall">Gestaltzerfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graz_School" title="Graz School">Graz School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Wallach" title="Hans Wallach">Hans Wallach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Friedmann" title="Hermann Friedmann">Hermann Friedmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_J._Gibson" title="James J. Gibson">James J. Gibson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Tenney" title="James Tenney">James Tenney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_association" title="Laws of association">Laws of association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_illusion" title="Optical illusion">Optical illusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1l_Schiller_Harkai" class="mw-redirect" title="Pál Schiller Harkai">Pál Schiller Harkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition" title="Pattern recognition">Pattern recognition (machine learning)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition_(psychology)" title="Pattern recognition (psychology)">Pattern recognition (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(psychology)" title="Phenomenology (psychology)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_grouping" title="Principles of grouping">Principles of grouping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Arnheim" title="Rudolf Arnheim">Rudolf Arnheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Asch" title="Solomon Asch">Solomon Asch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_information_theory" title="Structural information theory">Structural information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topological_data_analysis" title="Topological data analysis">Topological data analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Metzger" title="Wolfgang Metzger">Wolfgang Metzger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vera_Felicidade_de_Almeida_Campos" title="Vera Felicidade de Almeida Campos">Vera Felicidade de Almeida Campos</a></li></ul></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For more on the history of Gestalt psychology, see <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAsh1995" class="citation book cs1">Ash, M. G. (1995). <i>Gestalt psychology in German culture, 1890–1967: Holism and the quest for objectivity</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gestalt+psychology+in+German+culture%2C+1890%E2%80%931967%3A+Holism+and+the+quest+for+objectivity&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Ash&rft.aufirst=M.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuncker1935" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Duncker, Karl (1935). <i>Zur Psychologie des produktiven Denkens</i> [<i>The psychology of productive thinking</i>] (in German). Berlin: Julius Springer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zur+Psychologie+des+produktiven+Denkens&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Julius+Springer&rft.date=1935&rft.aulast=Duncker&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example Duncker's "X-ray" problem; Ewert & Lambert's "disk" problem in 1932, later known as <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Hanoi" title="Tower of Hanoi">Tower of Hanoi</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gestalt_psychology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Mather2006-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mather2006_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMather2006" class="citation book cs1">Mather, George (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oUNfSjS11ggC&pg=PA32"><i>Foundations of Perception</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86377-834-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86377-834-6"><bdi>978-0-86377-834-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Perception&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-86377-834-6&rft.aulast=Mather&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoUNfSjS11ggC%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Gestalt-psychology">"Gestalt psychology"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Gestalt+psychology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2FGestalt-psychology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker2012" class="citation book cs1">Baker, David B., ed. (13 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9uRnGeBAaRMC&pg=PA576"><i>The Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology: Global Perspectives</i></a>. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 576. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536655-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536655-6"><bdi>978-0-19-536655-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+History+of+Psychology%3A+Global+Perspectives&rft.pages=576&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=2012-01-13&rft.isbn=978-0-19-536655-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9uRnGeBAaRMC%26pg%3DPA576&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">Wells, John</a> (3 April 2008). <i>Longman Pronunciation Dictionary</i> (3rd ed.). Pearson Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-8118-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-8118-0"><bdi>978-1-4058-8118-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+Pronunciation+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Pearson+Longman&rft.date=2008-04-03&rft.isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/gestalt">"Definition of gestalt | Dictionary.com"</a>. <i>www.dictionary.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dictionary.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+gestalt+%26%23124%3B+Dictionary.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Fgestalt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Columbia-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Columbia_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Columbia_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.credoreference.com/content/topic/gestalt">"Gestalt"</a>. <i>The Columbia Encyclopedia</i>. Columbia University Press. 2018. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781786848468" title="Special:BookSources/9781786848468"><bdi>9781786848468</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190722194245/https://search.credoreference.com/content/topic/gestalt">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gestalt&rft.btitle=The+Columbia+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781786848468&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.credoreference.com%2Fcontent%2Ftopic%2Fgestalt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Gestalt psychology". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ea-bAAAAQBAJ&q=%22Gestalt%22"><i>Britannica Concise Encyclopedia</i></a>. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 1 May 2008. p. 756. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781593394929" title="Special:BookSources/9781593394929"><bdi>9781593394929</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415212934/https://books.google.com/books?id=ea-bAAAAQBAJ&q=%22Gestalt%22">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gestalt+psychology&rft.btitle=Britannica+Concise+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=756&rft.pub=Encyclopaedia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2008-05-01&rft.isbn=9781593394929&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dea-bAAAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522Gestalt%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sternberg6e-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sternberg6e_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sternberg6e_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sternberg6e_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sternberg6e_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternbergSternberg2012" class="citation book cs1">Sternberg, Robert J.; Sternberg, Karin (2012). <i>Cognitive Psychology</i> (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-133-31391-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-133-31391-5"><bdi>978-1-133-31391-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Psychology&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-133-31391-5&rft.aulast=Sternberg&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft.au=Sternberg%2C+Karin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wagemans2012II-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012II_9-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagemansFeldmanGepshteinKimchi2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wagemans, Johan; Feldman, Jacob; Gepshtein, Sergei; Kimchi, Ruth; Pomerantz, James R.; van der Helm, Peter A.; van Leeuwen, Cees (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3728284">"A century of Gestalt psychology in visual perception: II. Conceptual and theoretical foundations"</a>. <i>Psychological Bulletin</i>. <b>138</b> (6): 1218–1252. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0029334">10.1037/a0029334</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-1455">1939-1455</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3728284">3728284</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22845750">22845750</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=A+century+of+Gestalt+psychology+in+visual+perception%3A+II.+Conceptual+and+theoretical+foundations&rft.volume=138&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1218-1252&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3728284%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1939-1455&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22845750&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0029334&rft.aulast=Wagemans&rft.aufirst=Johan&rft.au=Feldman%2C+Jacob&rft.au=Gepshtein%2C+Sergei&rft.au=Kimchi%2C+Ruth&rft.au=Pomerantz%2C+James+R.&rft.au=van+der+Helm%2C+Peter+A.&rft.au=van+Leeuwen%2C+Cees&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3728284&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kolers1972-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kolers1972_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kolers1972_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kolers1972_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kolers1972_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kolers1972_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolers1972" class="citation book cs1">Kolers, Paul A. (1972). <i>Aspects of Motion Perception: International Series of Monographs in Experimental Psychology</i>. New York: Pergamon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4831-7113-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4831-7113-5"><bdi>978-1-4831-7113-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+Motion+Perception%3A+International+Series+of+Monographs+in+Experimental+Psychology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pergamon&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-1-4831-7113-5&rft.aulast=Kolers&rft.aufirst=Paul+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamlyn1957" class="citation book cs1">Hamlyn, D. W. (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315473291"><i>The Psychology of Perception: A Philosophical Examination of Gestalt Theory and Derivative Theories of Perception</i></a> (eBook ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 88–89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-47329-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-47329-1"><bdi>978-1-315-47329-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201021195348/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315473291">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Psychology+of+Perception%3A+A+Philosophical+Examination+of+Gestalt+Theory+and+Derivative+Theories+of+Perception&rft.place=London&rft.pages=88-89&rft.edition=eBook&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-1-315-47329-1&rft.aulast=Hamlyn&rft.aufirst=D.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2F9781315473291&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerstegen2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Verstegen, Ian (2010). "Gestalt Psychology". <i>The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology</i>. pp. 1–3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470479216.corpsy0386">10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0386</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470479216" title="Special:BookSources/9780470479216"><bdi>9780470479216</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gestalt+Psychology&rft.btitle=The+Corsini+Encyclopedia+of+Psychology&rft.pages=1-3&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470479216.corpsy0386&rft.isbn=9780470479216&rft.aulast=Verstegen&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pohl-2016-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pohl-2016_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pohl-2016_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pohl-2016_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pohl-2016_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pohl-2016_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pohl-2016_13-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPohl2016" class="citation book cs1">Pohl, Rüdiger F. (22 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xUVnDwAAQBAJ&q=gestalt&pg=PT311"><i>Cognitive Illusions: Intriguing Phenomena in Judgement, Thinking and Memory</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317448280" title="Special:BookSources/9781317448280"><bdi>9781317448280</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415223551/https://books.google.com/books?id=xUVnDwAAQBAJ&q=gestalt&pg=PT311">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Illusions%3A+Intriguing+Phenomena+in+Judgement%2C+Thinking+and+Memory&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2016-07-22&rft.isbn=9781317448280&rft.aulast=Pohl&rft.aufirst=R%C3%BCdiger+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxUVnDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dgestalt%26pg%3DPT311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith1988-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith1988_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith1988_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith1988_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith1988_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1988" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Barry (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120222044129/https://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/book/FoGT/Contents.htm">"Gestalt Theory: An Essay in Philosophy"</a>. In Smith, Barry (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/book/FoGT/Contents.htm"><i>Foundations of Gestalt Theory</i></a>. Vienna: Philosophia Verlag. pp. 11–81. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120222044129/https://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/articles/gestalt.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 22 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gestalt+Theory%3A+An+Essay+in+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Gestalt+Theory&rft.place=Vienna&rft.pages=11-81&rft.pub=Philosophia+Verlag&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120222044129%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fontology.buffalo.edu%2Fsmith%2Farticles%2Fgestalt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingWertheimer2005" class="citation book cs1">King, D. Brett; Wertheimer, Michael (1 January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=44JwxvHnL40C&q=Gabriele+von+Wartensleben&pg=PA105"><i>Max Wertheimer and Gestalt Theory</i></a>. Transaction Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-2826-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-2826-0"><bdi>978-1-4128-2826-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220226164555/https://books.google.com/books?id=44JwxvHnL40C&q=Gabriele+von+Wartensleben&pg=PA105">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Max+Wertheimer+and+Gestalt+Theory&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2005-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-4128-2826-0&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=D.+Brett&rft.au=Wertheimer%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D44JwxvHnL40C%26q%3DGabriele%2Bvon%2BWartensleben%26pg%3DPA105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wagemans2012I-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagemans2012I_16-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagemansElderKubovyPalmer2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wagemans, Johan; Elder, James H.; Kubovy, Michael; Palmer, Stephen E.; Peterson, Mary A.; Singh, Manish; von der Heydt, Rüdiger (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3482144">"A century of Gestalt psychology in visual perception: I. Perceptual grouping and figure-ground organization"</a>. <i>Psychological Bulletin</i>. <b>138</b> (6): 1172–1217. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0029333">10.1037/a0029333</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-1455">1939-1455</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3482144">3482144</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22845751">22845751</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=A+century+of+Gestalt+psychology+in+visual+perception%3A+I.+Perceptual+grouping+and+figure-ground+organization&rft.volume=138&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1172-1217&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3482144%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1939-1455&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22845751&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0029333&rft.aulast=Wagemans&rft.aufirst=Johan&rft.au=Elder%2C+James+H.&rft.au=Kubovy%2C+Michael&rft.au=Palmer%2C+Stephen+E.&rft.au=Peterson%2C+Mary+A.&rft.au=Singh%2C+Manish&rft.au=von+der+Heydt%2C+R%C3%BCdiger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3482144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wertheimer1912-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wertheimer1912_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWertheimer1912" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wertheimer, Max (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gestalttheory.net/download/Wertheimer1912_Sehen_von_Bewegung.pdf">"Experimentelle Studien über das Sehen von Bewegung"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Zeitschrift für Psychologie</i> (in German). <b>61</b>: 161–265. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181123195512/https://gestalttheory.net/download/Wertheimer1912_Sehen_von_Bewegung.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 23 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Psychologie&rft.atitle=Experimentelle+Studien+%C3%BCber+das+Sehen+von+Bewegung&rft.volume=61&rft.pages=161-265&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Wertheimer&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgestalttheory.net%2Fdownload%2FWertheimer1912_Sehen_von_Bewegung.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span> Available in translation as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWertheimer2012" class="citation book cs1">Wertheimer, Max (2012). "Experimental Studies on Seeing Motion". In Spillman, Lothar (ed.). <i>On Perceived Motion and Figural Organization</i>. Michael Wertheimer, K. W. Watkins (trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Experimental+Studies+on+Seeing+Motion&rft.btitle=On+Perceived+Motion+and+Figural+Organization&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Wertheimer&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenle1978" class="citation journal cs1">Henle, M (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.mpg.de/pubman/item/item_2347175_3/component/file_2347173/Henle_1978_One_man..pdf">"One man against the Nazis: Wolfgang Köhler"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>American Psychologist</i>. <b>33</b> (10): 939–944. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066x.33.10.939">10.1037/0003-066x.33.10.939</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-002B-9E5F-5">11858/00-001M-0000-002B-9E5F-5</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220226164550/https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_2347175_3/component/file_2347173/content">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=One+man+against+the+Nazis%3A+Wolfgang+K%C3%B6hler&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=939-944&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-002B-9E5F-5&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066x.33.10.939&rft.aulast=Henle&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.mpg.de%2Fpubman%2Fitem%2Fitem_2347175_3%2Fcomponent%2Ffile_2347173%2FHenle_1978_One_man..pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenle1984" class="citation journal cs1">Henle, M (1984). "Robert M. Ogden and gestalt psychology in America". <i>Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 9–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F1520-6696%28198401%2920%3A1%3C9%3A%3Aaid-jhbs2300200103%3E3.0.co%3B2-u">10.1002/1520-6696(198401)20:1<9::aid-jhbs2300200103>3.0.co;2-u</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11608590">11608590</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+the+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.atitle=Robert+M.+Ogden+and+gestalt+psychology+in+America&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=9-19&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F1520-6696%28198401%2920%3A1%3C9%3A%3Aaid-jhbs2300200103%3E3.0.co%3B2-u&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11608590&rft.aulast=Henle&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBocian2010" class="citation book cs1">Bocian, B. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Gestalt+Journal&rft.atitle=Gestalt%E2%80%94Antecedent+Influence+or+Historical+Accident&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Barlow&rft.aufirst=Allen+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gestalt.org%2Fbarlow.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Henle 1975: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gestalttheory.net/archive/henle.html"><i>Gestalt Psychology and Gestalt Therapy</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120205051647/https://www.gestalttheory.net/archive/henle.html">Archived</a> 5 February 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; Presidential Address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, September 1975. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 14, pp 23–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWertheimer1938" class="citation book cs1">Wertheimer, Max (1938) [Original work published 1924]. "Gestalt theory". In Ellis, Willis D. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.198039"><i>A Source Book of Gestalt Psychology</i></a>. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.198039/page/n14">2</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.7888"><i>Principles of Gestalt Psychology</i></a>. New York: Harcourt, Brace. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.7888/page/n191">176</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Gestalt+Psychology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=176&rft.pub=Harcourt%2C+Brace&rft.date=1935&rft.aulast=Koffka&rft.aufirst=K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.7888&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGestalt+psychology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Ray Woodward, Robert Sonné Cohen – World views and scientific discipline formation: science studies in the German Democratic Republic: papers from a German-American summer institute, 1988</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gobet2017-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gobet2017_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gobet2017_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGobet2017" class="citation cs2">Gobet, Fernand (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322617323">"Entrenchment, Gestalt formation, and chunking"</a>, in Schmid, H. 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li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Gestalt psychology</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Gestalt+psychology">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Gestalt-psychology">Gestalt psychology</a> on <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150314032745/https://gth.krammerbuch.at/">Journal "Gestalt Theory – An International Multidisciplinary Journal" in full text (open source)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gestalttheory.net/">International Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications – GTA</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interviews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_psychological_research" title="Qualitative psychological research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychological_research" title="Quantitative psychological research">Quantitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-report_inventory" title="Self-report inventory">Self-report inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Statistical surveys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_L._Hull" title="Clark L. Hull">Clark L. Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Gordon Allport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">J. P. Guilford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hilgard" title="Ernest Hilgard">Ernest Hilgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry Harlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Cattell" title="Raymond Cattell">Raymond Cattell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal E. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_T._Campbell" title="Donald T. Campbell">Donald T. Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_McClelland" title="David McClelland">David McClelland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Festinger" title="Leon Festinger">Leon Festinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lazarus" title="Richard Lazarus">Richard Lazarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Schachter" title="Stanley Schachter">Stanley Schachter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Zajonc" title="Robert Zajonc">Robert Zajonc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Brown_(psychologist)" title="Roger Brown (psychologist)">Roger Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulric_Neisser" title="Ulric Neisser">Ulric Neisser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Kagan" title="Jerome Kagan">Jerome Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Mischel" title="Walter Mischel">Walter Mischel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Aronson" title="Elliot Aronson">Elliot Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Tversky" title="Amos Tversky">Amos Tversky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_McEwen" title="Bruce McEwen">Bruce McEwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. 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