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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" 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Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%83" title="نظام الإمساك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظام الإمساك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle-System" title="Handle-System – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Handle-System" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85_%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%87" title="سیستم دستگیره – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سیستم دستگیره" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B8%EB%93%A4_%EC%8B%9C%EC%8A%A4%ED%85%9C" title="핸들 시스템 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="핸들 시스템" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfumo_wa_kishiko" title="Mfumo wa kishiko – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mfumo wa kishiko" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8F%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B7%E3%82%B9%E3%83%86%E3%83%A0" title="ハンドルシステム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ハンドルシステム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_Sistemi" title="Handle Sistemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Handle Sistemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Handle System" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3126718#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> 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<p>The <b>Handle System</b> is a proprietary registry assigning <a href="/wiki/Persistent_identifier" title="Persistent identifier">persistent identifiers</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Handle_(computing)" title="Handle (computing)"><i>handles</i></a>, to information resources, and for resolving "those handles into the information necessary to locate, access, and otherwise make use of the resources".<sup id="cite_ref-rfc3650_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rfc3650-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As with handles used elsewhere in computing, Handle System handles are opaque, and encode no information about the underlying resource, being bound only to <a href="/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">metadata</a> regarding the resource. Consequently, the handles are not rendered invalid by changes to the metadata. </p><p>The system was developed by <a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Corporation_for_National_Research_Initiatives" title="Corporation for National Research Initiatives">Corporation for National Research Initiatives</a> (CNRI) as a part of the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Object_Architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Object Architecture">Digital Object Architecture</a> (DOA). The original work was funded by the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> (DARPA) between 1992 and 1996, as part of a wider framework for distributed digital object services,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was thus contemporaneous with the early deployment of the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, with similar goals. </p><p>The Handle System was first implemented in autumn 1994, and was administered and operated by CNRI until December 2015, when a new "multi-primary administrator" (MPA) mode of operation was introduced. The DONA Foundation<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> now administers the system's Global Handle Registry and accredits MPAs, including CNRI and the <a href="/wiki/International_DOI_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="International DOI Foundation">International DOI Foundation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system currently provides the underlying infrastructure for such handle-based systems as <a href="/wiki/Digital_Object_Identifiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Object Identifiers">Digital Object Identifiers</a> (DOI) and <a href="/wiki/DSpace" title="DSpace">DSpace</a>, which are mainly used to provide access to scholarly, professional and government documents and other information resources. </p><p>CNRI provides specifications and the source code for reference implementations for the servers and protocols used in the system under a royalty-free "Public License", similar to an open source license.<sup id="cite_ref-license_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-license-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thousands of handle services are currently running. Over 1000 of these are at universities and libraries, but they are also in operation at national laboratories, research groups, government agencies, and commercial enterprises, receiving over 200 million resolution requests per month.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specifications">Specifications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Handle_System&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Specifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Handle System is defined in informational <a href="/wiki/Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFCs</a> 3650,<sup id="cite_ref-rfc3650_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rfc3650-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 3651<sup id="cite_ref-rfc3651_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rfc3651-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 3652<sup id="cite_ref-rfc3652_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rfc3652-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)</a>; it includes an open set of protocols, a namespace, and a reference implementation of the protocols. Documentation, software, and related information is provided by CNRI on a dedicated website<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Handles consist of a prefix which identifies a "naming authority" and a suffix which gives the "local name" of a resource. Similar to domain names, prefixes are issued to naming authorities by one of the "multi-primary administrators" of the system upon payment of a fee, which must be renewed annually. A naming authority may create any number of handles, with unique "local names", within their assigned prefixes. Two example of handles are: </p> <ul><li><code>20.1000/100</code></li> <li><code>2381/12345</code></li></ul> <p>In the first example, which is the handle for the HANDLE.NET software license, <code>20.1000</code> is the prefix assigned to the naming authority (in this case, Handle.net itself) and <code>100</code> is the local name within that namespace. The local name may consist of any characters from the <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> UCS-2 character set. The prefix also consists of any <a href="/wiki/UCS-2" class="mw-redirect" title="UCS-2">UCS-2</a> characters, other than "/". The prefixes consist of one or more naming authority segments, separated by periods, representing a hierarchy of naming authorities. Thus, in the example <code>20</code> is the naming authority prefix for CNRI, while <code>1000</code> designates a subordinate naming authority within the 20 prefix. Other examples of top-level prefixes for the federated naming authorities of the DONA Foundation are <code>10</code> for DOI handles; <code>11</code> for handles assigned by the <a href="/wiki/ITU" class="mw-redirect" title="ITU">ITU</a>; <code>21</code> for handles issued by the German Gesellschaft für wissenschaftliche Datenverarbeitung mbH Göttingen (GWDG), the scientific computing center of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a>; and <code>86</code> for the Coalition of Handle Services – China. Older "legacy" prefixes issued by CNRI before the "multi-primary administrator" (MPA) structure was instituted are typically four of five digits, as in the second example above, a handle administered by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leicester" title="University of Leicester">University of Leicester</a>. All prefixes must be registered in the Global Handle Registry through an DONA Foundation approved registrar, normally for a fee. </p><p>As with other uses of <a href="/wiki/Handle_(computing)" title="Handle (computing)">handles</a> in computing, the handle is opaque; that is, it encodes no information about the underlying resource and provides only the means to retrieve metadata about the resource. </p><p>This may be contrasted with a <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Locator" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniform Resource Locator">Uniform Resource Locator</a> (URL), which may encode within the identifier such attributes of the resource as the protocol to be used to access the server holding the resource, the server host name and port number, and perhaps even location specifics such as the name of a file in the server file system containing the resource. In the Handle System, these specifics are not encoded in the handle, but are found in the metadata to which the handle is bound. </p><p>The metadata may include many attributes of the information resource, such as its locations, the forms in which it is available, the types of access (e.g. "free" versus "paid") offered, and to whom. The processing of the metadata to determine how and where the resource should be accessed, and the provision of the resource to the user, are performed in a separate step, called "resolution", using a Resolver, a server which may be different from the ones involved in exchanging the handle for the metadata. Unlike URLs, which may become invalid if the metadata embedded within them becomes invalid, handles do not become invalid and do not need to change when locations or other metadata attributes change. This helps to prevent <a href="/wiki/Link_rot" title="Link rot">link rot</a>, as changes in the information resource (such as location) need only be reflected in changes to the metadata, rather than in changes in every reference to the resource. </p><p>Each handle may have its own administrator and administration of the handles can be done in a distributed environment, similar to DNS domain names. The name-to-value bindings may also be secured, both via signatures to verify the data and via challenge response to verify the transmission of the data, allowing handles to be used in trust management applications. </p><p>It is possible for the same underlying information resource to be associated with multiple handles, as when two university libraries generate handles (and therefore possibly different sets of metadata) for the same book. </p><p>The Handle System is compatible with the <a href="/wiki/Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">Domain Name System</a> (DNS), but does not require it, unlike persistent identifiers such as <a href="/wiki/Persistent_Uniform_Resource_Locator" class="mw-redirect" title="Persistent Uniform Resource Locator">PURLs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Archival_Resource_Key" title="Archival Resource Key">ARKs</a>, which are similar to handles, but which utilise domain names. However, unlike these domain-name based approaches, handles do require a separate prefix registration process and handle servers separate from the domain name servers. </p><p><span class="anchor" id="DOIs-Handles-URIs"></span> Handles can be used natively, or expressed as <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Identifiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniform Resource Identifiers">Uniform Resource Identifiers</a> (URIs) through a namespace within the <a href="/wiki/Info_URI_scheme" title="Info URI scheme">info URI scheme</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example, <code>20.1000/100</code> may be written as the URI, <code>info:hdl/20.1000/100</code>. Some Handle System namespaces, such as Digital Object Identifiers, are "info:" URI namespaces in their own right; for example, <code>info:doi/10.1000/182</code> is another way of writing the handle for the current revision of the DOI Handbook<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a URI. </p><p>Some Handle System namespaces define special presentation rules. For example, <a href="/wiki/Digital_Object_Identifiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Object Identifiers">Digital Object Identifiers</a>, which represent a high percentage of the extant handles, are usually presented with a "doi:" prefix: <code>doi:10.1000/182</code>. </p><p>Any Handle may be expressed as a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) through the use of the generic <a href="/wiki/HTTP_proxy" class="mw-redirect" title="HTTP proxy">HTTP proxy server</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.1000/100">https://hdl.handle.net/20.1000/100</a></code></li></ul> <p>Some Handle-based systems offer an HTTP proxy server that is intended for use with their own system such as: </p> <ul><li><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1000/182">https://doi.org/10.1000/182</a></code>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementation">Implementation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Handle_System&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Implementation of the Handle System consists of Local Handle Services, each of which is made up of one or more sites that provide the servers that store specific handles. The Global Handle Registry is a unique Local Handle Service which stores information on the prefixes (also known as naming authorities) within the Handle System and can be queried to find out where specific handles are stored on other Local Handle Services within this distributed system. </p><p>The Handle System website provides a series of implementation tools, notably the HANDLE.NET Software<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and HANDLE.NET Client Libraries.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Handle clients can be embedded in end user software (e.g., a web browser) or in server software (e.g., a web server) and extensions are already available for <a href="/wiki/Adobe_Acrobat" title="Adobe Acrobat">Adobe Acrobat</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Handle client software libraries are available in both C and Java. Some applications have developed specific add-on tools, e.g., for the DOI System.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The interoperable network of distributed handle resolver servers (also known as the Proxy Server System) are linked through a Global Resolver (which is one logical entity though physically decentralised and mirrored). Users of Handle System technology obtain a handle prefix created in the Global Handle Registry. The Global Handle Registry maintains and resolves the prefixes of locally maintained handle services. Any local handle service can, therefore, resolve any handle through the Global Resolver. </p><p>Handles (identifiers) are passed by a client, as a query of the naming authority/prefix, to the Handle System's Global Handle Registry (GHR). The GHR responds by sending the client the location information for the relevant Local Handle Service (which may consist of multiple servers in multiple sites); a query is then sent to the relevant server within the Local Handle Service. The Local Handle Service returns the information needed to acquire the resource, e.g., a URL which can then be turned into an HTTP redirect. (Note: if the client already has information on the appropriate LHS to query, the initial query to GHR is omitted) </p><p>Though the original model from which the Handle System derives dealt with management of digital objects, the Handle System does not mandate any particular model of relationships between the identified entities, nor is it limited to identifying only digital objects: non-digital entities may be represented as a corresponding digital object for the purposes of digital object management. Some care is needed in the definition of such objects and how they relate to non-digital entities; there are established models that can aid in such definitions e.g., <a href="/wiki/Functional_Requirements_for_Bibliographic_Records" title="Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records">Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR)</a>, <a href="/wiki/CIDOC_CRM" class="mw-redirect" title="CIDOC CRM">CIDOC CRM</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indecs_Content_Model" title="Indecs Content Model">indecs content model</a>. Some applications have found it helpful to marry such a framework to the handle application: for example, the Advanced Distributed Learning (ADL) Initiative<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> brings together Handle System application with existing standards for distributed learning content, using a Shareable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM),<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Object_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Object Identifier">Digital Object Identifier (DOI) system</a> implementation of the Handle System has adopted it together with the <a href="/wiki/Indecs_Content_Model" title="Indecs Content Model">indecs</a> framework to deal with <a href="/wiki/Semantic_interoperability" title="Semantic interoperability">semantic interoperability</a>. </p><p>The Handle System also makes explicit the importance of organizational commitment to a persistent identifier scheme, but does not mandate one model for ensuring such commitment. Individual applications may choose to establish their own sets of rules and social infrastructure to ensure persistence (e.g., when used in the <a href="/wiki/DSpace" title="DSpace">DSpace</a> application, and the DOI application).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design_principles">Design principles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Handle_System&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Design principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Handle system is designed to meet the following requirements to contribute to persistence<sup id="cite_ref-ref3_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref3-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The identifier string: </p> <ul><li>is not based on any changeable attributes of the entity (location, ownership, or any other attribute that may change without changing the referent's identity);</li> <li>is opaque (preferably a 'dumb number': a well known pattern invites assumptions that may be misleading, and meaningful semantics may not translate across languages and may cause trademark conflicts);</li> <li>is unique within the system (to avoid collisions and referential uncertainty);</li> <li>has optional, but nice to have, features that should be supported (human-readable, cut-and-paste-able, embeddable; fits common systems, e.g., URI specification).</li></ul> <p>The identifier resolution mechanism: </p> <ul><li>is reliable (using redundancy, no single points of failure, and fast enough to not appear broken);</li> <li>is scalable (higher loads simply managed with more computers);</li> <li>is flexible (can adapt to changing computing environments; useful to new applications):</li> <li>is trusted (both resolution and administration have technical trust methods; an operating organization is committed to the long term);</li> <li>builds on <a href="/wiki/Open_architecture" title="Open architecture">open architecture</a> (encouraging the leverage efforts of a community in building applications on the infrastructure);</li> <li>is transparent (users need not know the infrastructure details).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Handle_System&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among the objects that are currently identified by handles are journal articles, technical reports, books, theses and dissertations, government documents, metadata, distributed learning content, and data sets. Handles are being used in <a href="/wiki/Digital_watermarking" title="Digital watermarking">digital watermarking</a> applications, <a href="/wiki/Global_Research_Identifier_Database" title="Global Research Identifier Database">GRID</a> applications, repositories, and more. Although individual users may download and use the HANDLE.NET software independently, many users have found it beneficial to collaborate in developing applications in a federation, using common policy or additional technology to provide shared services. As one of the first persistent identifier schemes, the Handle System has been widely adopted by public and private institutions and proven over several years. (See Paradigm, Persistent identifiers.)<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Handle System applications may use handles as simple persistent identifiers (as most commonly used, to resolve to the current URL of an object), or may choose to take advantage of other features. Its support for the simultaneous return as output of multiple pieces of current information related to the object, in defined data structures, enables priorities to be established for the order in which the multiple resolutions will be used. Handles can, therefore, resolve to different digital versions of the same content, to mirror sites, or to different business models (pay vs. free, secure vs. open, public vs. private). They can also resolve to different digital versions of differing content, such as a mix of objects required for a distance-learning course. </p><p>There are thousands of handle services running today, located in 71 countries, on 6 continents; over 1000 of them run at universities and libraries. Handle services are being run by user federations, national laboratories, universities, computing centers, libraries (national and local), government agencies, contractors, corporations, and research groups. Major publishers use the Handle System for persistent identification of commercially traded and Open Access content through its implementation with the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Object_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Object Identifier">Digital Object Identifier (DOI) system</a>. </p><p>The number of prefixes, which allow users to assign handles, is growing and stands at over 12,000 as of early 2014. There are six top-level Global Handle Registry servers that receive (on average) 68 million resolution requests per month. Proxy servers known to CNRI, passing requests to the system on the Web, receive (on average) 200 million resolution requests per month. (Statistics from Handle Quick Facts.) </p><p>In 2010, CNRI and <a href="/wiki/ITU" class="mw-redirect" title="ITU">ITU</a> (International Telecommunication Union) entered into an agreement to collaborate on use of the Handle System (and the Digital Object Architecture more generally) and are working on the specific details of that collaboration; in April 2009 ITU listed the Handle System as an "emerging trend".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Licences_and_use_policy">Licences and use policy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Handle_System&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Licences and use policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Handle System, HANDLE.NET and Global Handle Registry are trademarks of the <a href="/wiki/Corporation_for_National_Research_Initiatives" title="Corporation for National Research Initiatives">Corporation for National Research Initiatives</a> (CNRI), a non-profit research and development corporation in the US. The Handle System is the subject of patents by CNRI, which licenses its Handle System technology through a public license,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> similar to an open source license, in order to enable broader use of the technology. Handle System infrastructure is supported by prefix registration and service fees, with the majority coming from single prefix holders. The largest current single contributor is the <a href="/wiki/International_DOI_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="International DOI Foundation">International DOI Foundation</a>. The Public License allows commercial and non-commercial use at low cost of both its patented technology and the reference implementation of the software, and allows the software to be freely embedded in other systems and products. A Service Agreement<sup id="cite_ref-license_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-license-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is also available for users who intend to provide identifier or resolution services using the Handle System technology under the Handle System public license. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_technologies">Related technologies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Handle_System&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Related technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Handle System represents several components of a long-term digital object architecture. In January 2010 CNRI released its general-purpose Digital Object Repository software,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> another major component of this architecture. More information<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about the release, including protocol specification, source code and ready-to-use system, clients and utilities, is available.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Handle_System&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archival_Resource_Key" title="Archival Resource Key">Archival Resource Key</a> (ARK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Library">Digital Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic Publishing">Electronic Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertext" title="Hypertext">Hypertext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_Repository" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional Repository">Institutional Repository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linked_Data" class="mw-redirect" title="Linked Data">Linked Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenURL" title="OpenURL">OpenURL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permalink" title="Permalink">Permalink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_URL" class="mw-redirect" title="Persistent URL">Persistent URL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_Description_Framework" title="Resource Description Framework">Resource Description Framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Name" title="Uniform Resource Name">Uniform Resource Name</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Handle_System&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rfc3650_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rfc3650_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output 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typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg/4px-Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="4" height="4" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg/6px-Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="460" /></span></span> <b><i><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Property_talk:P1184" class="extiw" title="d:Property talk:P1184">Handle ID (P1184)</a></i></b> (see <span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" 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