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id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Unification of Italy</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Unification_of_Italy" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Unification+of+Italy" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_unification&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</a>)</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the 19th century consolidation of Italian states into a single state. For the Roman unification of the Italian Peninsula, see <a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman expansion in Italy</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Risorgimento" redirects here. For the 2011 opera by Lorenzo Ferrero, see <a href="/wiki/Risorgimento!" title="Risorgimento!">Risorgimento!</a> For the newspaper, see <a href="/wiki/Il_Risorgimento_(newspaper)" title="Il Risorgimento (newspaper)">Il Risorgimento (newspaper)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style>The unification of Italy (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: Unità d'Italia, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>Italian: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian" title="Help:IPA/Italian">[uniˈta ddiˈtaːlja]</a>), also known as the Risorgimento (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/rɪˌsɔːrdʒɪˈmɛntoʊ/</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991">Italian: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian" title="Help:IPA/Italian">[risordʒiˈmento]</a>; <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Resurgence'), was the 19th century <a href="/wiki/Political_movement" title="Political movement">political</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">social movement</a> that in 1861 ended in the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">annexation</a> of <a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">various states</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a> and its outlying isles to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>, resulting in the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a>. Inspired by the rebellions in the 1820s and 1830s against the outcome of the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a>, the unification process was precipitated by the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a>, and reached completion in 1871 after the <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">capture of Rome</a> and its designation as the capital of the Kingdom of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Unification of Italy</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa solid 1px"><a href="/wiki/File:Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_(Baldassare_Verazzi).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg/240px-Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg/360px-Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg/480px-Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="2583"></a><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Five Days of Milan</a>, 18–22 March 1848</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Native name</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"> Risorgimento</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">1848–1871</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Participants</th><td class="infobox-data attendee" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italian society</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Provisional Government of Milan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_revolution_of_1848" title="Sicilian revolution of 1848">Kingdom of Sicily</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (19th century)">Roman Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonari" title="Carbonari">Carboneria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">French Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand#The_Red_Shirts" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Red Shirts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand#The_Red_Shirts" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Hungarian legion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand#The_Red_Shirts" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Southern Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy" title="United Provinces of Central Italy">United Provinces of Central Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data description" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> becomes the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> Individuals who played a major part in the struggle for unification and liberation from foreign domination included King <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel II of Italy">Victor Emmanuel II of Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Borrowing from the old <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> title <a href="/wiki/Pater_Patriae" title="Pater Patriae">Pater Patriae</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperors</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> gave to King Victor Emmanuel II the epithet of <a href="/wiki/Father_of_the_Fatherland" class="mw-redirect" title="Father of the Fatherland">Father of the Fatherland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: Padre della Patria).<a href="#cite_note-raicultura-4">[4]</a> Even after 1871, many ethnic Italian-speakers (<a href="/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol" title="Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol">Trentino-Alto Adigan</a> Italians, <a href="/wiki/Savoyard_Italians" class="mw-redirect" title="Savoyard Italians">Savoyard Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corfiot_Italians" title="Corfiot Italians">Corfiot Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_Italians" title="Niçard Italians">Niçard Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Italians" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss Italians">Swiss Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corsican_Italians" class="mw-redirect" title="Corsican Italians">Corsican Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maltese_Italians" class="mw-redirect" title="Maltese Italians">Maltese Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Istrian_Italians" title="Istrian Italians">Istrian Italians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_Italians" title="Dalmatian Italians">Dalmatian Italians</a>) remained outside the borders of the Kingdom of Italy, planting the seeds of <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentism</a>. Italy celebrates the <a href="/wiki/Anniversary_of_the_unification_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniversary of the unification of Italy">anniversary of the unification</a> on 17 March (the date of <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a>). Some of the states that had been envisaged as part of the unification process (terre irredente) did not join the Kingdom until after Italy defeated <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rapallo_(1920)" title="Treaty of Rapallo (1920)">Treaty of Rapallo</a> in 1920. Some historians see the Risorgimento as continuing to that time, which is the view presented at the <a href="/wiki/Central_Museum_of_the_Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Museum of the Risorgimento">Central Museum of the Risorgimento</a> at <a href="/wiki/Altare_della_Patria" class="mw-redirect" title="Altare della Patria">Altare della Patria</a> in Rome.<a href="#cite_note-Arnaldi-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-museo-6">[6]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Background">1 Background</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#From_ancient_times_to_early_modern_era">1.1 From ancient times to early modern era</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#French_Revolution_and_Napoleonic_era">1.2 French Revolution and Napoleonic era</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Reaction_(1815%E2%80%931848)">1.3 Reaction (1815–1848)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Carbonari">1.4 Carbonari</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Giuseppe_Mazzini_and_Giuseppe_Garibaldi">1.5 Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Early_revolutionary_activity">2 Early revolutionary activity</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Exiles_and_European_and_masculine_ideals">2.1 Exiles and European and masculine ideals</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Two_Sicilies_insurrection">2.2 Two Sicilies insurrection</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Piedmont_insurrection">2.3 Piedmont insurrection</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#1830_insurrections">2.4 1830 insurrections</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849_and_First_Italian_War_of_Independence">3 Revolutions of 1848–1849 and First Italian War of Independence</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Cavour_and_prospects_for_unification">3.1 Cavour and prospects for unification</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Towards_the_Kingdom_of_Italy">4 Towards the Kingdom of Italy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Pisacane_fiasco">4.1 Pisacane fiasco</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Second_Italian_Independence_War_of_1859_and_aftermath">4.2 Second Italian Independence War of 1859 and aftermath</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Expedition_of_the_Thousand">4.3 Expedition of the Thousand</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Defeat_of_the_Kingdom_of_Naples">4.4 Defeat of the Kingdom of Naples</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#The_repercussions_on_diplomatic_relations">4.5 The repercussions on diplomatic relations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Roman_Question">4.6 Roman Question</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Third_War_of_Independence_(1866)">5 Third War of Independence (1866)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Rome">6 Rome</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Mentana_and_Villa_Glori">6.1 Mentana and Villa Glori</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Memorial">6.2 Memorial</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Capture_of_Rome">6.3 Capture of Rome</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Problems">7 Problems</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Ruling_and_representing_southern_Italy">7.1 Ruling and representing southern Italy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Historiography">8 Historiography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Risorgimento_and_Italian_irredentism">9 Risorgimento and Italian irredentism</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Origins_of_Italian_irredentism">9.1 Origins of Italian irredentism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Irredentism_and_the_World_Wars">9.2 Irredentism and the World Wars</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#End_of_Italian_irredentism">9.3 End of Italian irredentism</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Anniversary_of_the_unification_of_Italy">10 Anniversary of the unification of Italy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Culture_and_Risorgimento">11 Culture and Risorgimento</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Art">11.1 Art</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Literature">11.2 Literature</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Music">11.3 Music</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><a href="#Films">11.4 Films</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#Maps_of_Italy_before_and_during_Italian_unification">12 Maps of Italy before and during Italian unification</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-40"><a href="#See_also">13 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-41"><a href="#References">14 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="#Bibliography">15 Bibliography</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-43"><a href="#Historiography_2">15.1 Historiography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-44"><a href="#Italian">15.2 Italian</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-45"><a href="#External_links">16 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_ancient_times_to_early_modern_era">From ancient times to early modern era</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: From ancient times to early modern era" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> was unified by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> in the latter part of the third century BC. For 700 years, it was a de facto territorial extension of the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a>, and for a long time experienced a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">privileged status but was not converted into a province</a>. Under <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, the previous differences in municipal and political rights were abolished and Roman Italy was subdivided into administrative regions ruled directly by the Roman Senate. After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italy</a> remained united under the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic Kingdom</a> and after 568 was disputed between the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Kingdom of the Lombards</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire</a>, losing its unity for centuries. Following conquest by the <a href="/wiki/Frankish_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Empire">Frankish Empire</a>, the title of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">King of Italy</a> merged with the office of <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a>; however, the emperor was an absentee <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>-speaking foreigner who had little interest in governing Italy and indeed never controlled the entire peninsula. As a result, Italy gradually developed into a system of <a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">city-states</a>. <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a> was governed by the long-lasting <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a>, which had been established by the Normans. Central Italy was governed by the pope as a temporal kingdom known as the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>. This situation persisted through the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> but began to deteriorate with the rise of modern <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-states</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>. Italy, including the Papal States, then became the site of <a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">proxy wars</a> between the major powers, notably the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austria</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a>. Harbingers of national unity appeared in the treaty of the <a href="/wiki/Italic_League" title="Italic League">Italic League</a>, in 1454, and the 15th century foreign policy of <a href="/wiki/Cosimo_de%27_Medici" title="Cosimo de' Medici">Cosimo de' Medici</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_de%27_Medici" title="Lorenzo de' Medici">Lorenzo de' Medici</a>. Leading Renaissance Italian writers <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Boccaccio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a> expressed opposition to foreign domination. Petrarch stated that the "ancient valour in Italian hearts is not yet dead" in Italia Mia. Machiavelli later quoted four verses from Italia Mia in <a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a>, which looked forward to a political leader who would unite Italy "to free her from the <a href="/wiki/Barbarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarians">barbarians</a>".<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a> saw 65 years of French attacks on some of the Italian states, starting with <a href="/wiki/Charles_VIII_of_France" title="Charles VIII of France">Charles VIII's</a> invasion of Naples in 1494. However, the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Cateau-Cambr%C3%A9sis" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis">Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis</a> (1559) saw parts of Italy fall under the direct or indirect control of the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spanish Habsburgs</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> in 1648 formally ended the rule of the Holy Roman Emperors in Italy. However, the Spanish branch of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a>, which ruled the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>, continued to rule southern Italy and the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Duchy of Milan</a> until the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> (1701–14). Following this war the Austrian Habsburgs struggled for dominance with the Spanish Bourbons until the end of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a>. A sense of Italian national identity was reflected in <a href="/wiki/Gian_Rinaldo_Carli" title="Gian Rinaldo Carli">Gian Rinaldo Carli</a>'s Della Patria degli Italiani,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> written in 1764. It told how a stranger entered a café in Milan and puzzled its occupants by saying that he was neither a foreigner nor a Milanese. "'Then what are you?' they asked. 'I am an Italian', he explained."<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_Revolution_and_Napoleonic_era">French Revolution and Napoleonic era</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: French Revolution and Napoleonic era" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Repubblica_Cispadana.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flag_of_the_Repubblica_Cispadana.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Repubblica_Cispadana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1518" data-file-height="1694"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 246px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flag_of_the_Repubblica_Cispadana.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Repubblica_Cispadana.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="246" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flag_of_the_Repubblica_Cispadana.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_Repubblica_Cispadana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flag_of_the_Repubblica_Cispadana.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_Repubblica_Cispadana.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Flag of the <a href="/wiki/Cispadane_Republic" title="Cispadane Republic">Cispadane Republic</a>, which was the first <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Italy" title="Flag of Italy">Italian tricolour</a> adopted by a sovereign Italian state (1797)</figcaption></figure> The Habsburg rule in Italy came to an end with the <a href="/wiki/Italian_campaigns_of_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars">campaigns of the French Revolutionaries</a> in 1792–97 when a series of <a href="/wiki/Sister_republic" title="Sister republic">client republics</a> were set up. In 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by the last <a href="/wiki/Roman-German_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-German Emperor">Roman-German Emperor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor">Francis II</a>, after its defeat by Napoleon at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Austerlitz" title="Battle of Austerlitz">Battle of Austerlitz</a>. French rule destroyed the old structures of feudalism in Italy and introduced modern ideas and efficient legal authority; it provided much of the intellectual force and social capital that fueled unification movements for decades after the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a> collapsed in 1814.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The French Republic spread republican principles, and the institutions of republican governments promoted citizenship over the rule of the Bourbons and Habsburgs and other dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The reaction against any outside control challenged <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a>'s choice of rulers. As Napoleon's reign began to fail, the rulers he had installed tried to keep their thrones (among them <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_de_Beauharnais" title="Eugène de Beauharnais">Eugène de Beauharnais</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Viceroy of Italy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Joachim Murat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)">King of Naples</a>) further feeding nationalistic sentiments. Beauharnais tried to get <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a> approval for his succession to Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy, and on 30 March 1815, Murat issued the <a href="/wiki/Rimini_Proclamation" title="Rimini Proclamation">Rimini Proclamation</a>, which called on Italians to revolt against their Austrian occupiers. <a href="/wiki/Flags_of_Napoleonic_Italy" title="Flags of Napoleonic Italy">During the Napoleonic era</a>, in 1797, the first official adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Italy" title="Flag of Italy">Italian tricolour</a> as a national flag by a sovereign Italian state, the <a href="/wiki/Cispadane_Republic" title="Cispadane Republic">Cispadane Republic</a>, a Napoleonic <a href="/wiki/Sister_republic" title="Sister republic">sister republic</a> of <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary France">Revolutionary France</a>, took place, on the basis of the events following the French Revolution (1789–1799) which, among its ideals, advocated the national <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> This event is celebrated by the <a href="/wiki/Tricolour_Day" title="Tricolour Day">Tricolour Day</a>.<a href="#cite_note-miolegale-14">[14]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Italian_national_colours" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian national colours">Italian national colours</a> appeared for the first time on a <a href="/wiki/Cockade_of_Italy" title="Cockade of Italy">tricolour cockade</a> in 1789,<a href="#cite_note-Cita%7CFerorelli_%7Cp._662-15">[15]</a> anticipating by seven years the first green, white and red Italian military <a href="/wiki/War_flag" title="War flag">war flag</a>, which was adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Lombard_Legion" title="Lombard Legion">Lombard Legion</a> in 1796.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction_(1815–1848)">Reaction (1815–1848)</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Reaction (1815–1848)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg/220px-Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="1280"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 268px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg/220px-Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="268" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg/330px-Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg/440px-Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a>, highly influential leader of the Italian revolutionary movement</figcaption></figure> After Napoleon fell (1814), the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> (1814–15) restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments. Italy was again controlled largely by the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> as they directly controlled the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia</a> and indirectly the duchies of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Parma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Modena</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a>. With the fall of Napoleon and the restoration of the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolutist monarchical regimes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Italian_tricolour" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian tricolour">Italian tricolour</a> went underground, becoming the symbol of the patriotic ferments that began to spread in Italy<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> and the symbol which united all the efforts of the Italian people towards freedom and independence.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The Italian tricolour waved for the first time in the history of the Risorgimento on 11 March 1821 in the <a href="/wiki/Cittadella_of_Alessandria" title="Cittadella of Alessandria">Cittadella of Alessandria</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_during_the_1820s" title="Revolutions during the 1820s">revolutions of 1820s</a>, after the oblivion caused by the restoration of the absolutist monarchical regimes.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> An important figure of this period was <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Melzi_d%27Eril" title="Francesco Melzi d'Eril">Francesco Melzi d'Eril</a>, serving as vice-president of the Napoleonic <a href="/wiki/Italian_Republic_(Napoleonic)" title="Italian Republic (Napoleonic)">Italian Republic</a> (1802–1805) and consistent supporter of the Italian unification ideals that would lead to the Italian Risorgimento shortly after his death.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Meanwhile, artistic and literary sentiment also turned towards nationalism; <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Vittorio Alfieri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Lomonaco" title="Francesco Lomonaco">Francesco Lomonaco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Tommaseo" title="Niccolò Tommaseo">Niccolò Tommaseo</a> are generally considered three great literary precursors of <a href="/wiki/Italian_nationalism" title="Italian nationalism">Italian nationalism</a>, but the most famous proto-nationalist work was <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Betrothed_(Manzoni_novel)" title="The Betrothed (Manzoni novel)">I promessi sposi (The Betrothed)</a>, widely read as thinly veiled allegorical criticism of Austrian rule. Published in 1827 and extensively revised in the following years, the 1840 version of I Promessi Sposi used a standardized version of the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">Tuscan dialect</a>, a conscious effort by the author to provide a language and force people to learn it.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Three ideals of unification appeared. <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Gioberti" title="Vincenzo Gioberti">Vincenzo Gioberti</a>, a Piedmontese priest, had suggested a confederation of Italian states under the leadership of the pope in his 1842 book Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a> at first appeared interested but he turned reactionary and led the battle against liberalism and nationalism.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Carlo Cattaneo</a> wanted the unification of Italy under a <a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">federal republic</a>, which proved too extreme for most nationalists. The middle position was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Balbo" title="Cesare Balbo">Cesare Balbo</a> (1789–1853) as a confederation of separate Italian states led by <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Piedmont</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbonari">Carbonari</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Carbonari" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italian-unification.gif" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Italian-unification.gif/220px-Italian-unification.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="640"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Italian-unification.gif/220px-Italian-unification.gif" data-width="220" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Italian-unification.gif/330px-Italian-unification.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Italian-unification.gif/440px-Italian-unification.gif 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Animated map of the Italian unification from 1829 to 1871</figcaption></figure> One of the most influential revolutionary groups was the <a href="/wiki/Carbonari" title="Carbonari">Carbonari</a>, a secret political discussion group formed in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">southern Italy</a> early in the 19th century. After 1815, <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</a> in Italy was repressed and discredited due to its French connections. A void was left that the Carbonari filled with a movement that closely resembled Freemasonry but with a commitment to <a href="/wiki/Italian_nationalism" title="Italian nationalism">Italian nationalism</a> and no association with Napoleon and his government. The response came from middle-class professionals and businessmen and some intellectuals. The Carbonari disowned Napoleon but nevertheless were inspired by the principles of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> regarding liberty, equality and fraternity. They developed their own rituals and were strongly anticlerical. The Carbonari movement spread across Italy.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Conservative governments feared the Carbonari, imposing stiff penalties on men discovered to be members. Nevertheless, the movement survived and continued to be a source of political turmoil in Italy from 1820 until after unification. The Carbonari condemned <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> (who, as a young man, had fought on their side) to death for <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III#Italian_Campaign" title="Napoleon III">failing</a> to unite Italy, and the group almost succeeded in assassinating him in 1858, when <a href="/wiki/Felice_Orsini" title="Felice Orsini">Felice Orsini</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giovanni_Andrea_Pieri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giovanni Andrea Pieri (page does not exist)">Giovanni Andrea Pieri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_DeRudio" title="Charles DeRudio">Carlo Di Rudio</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andrea_Gomez_(revolutionary)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrea Gomez (revolutionary) (page does not exist)">Andrea Gomez</a> threw three bombs at him. Many leaders of the unification movement were at one time or other members of this organization. The chief purpose was to defeat tyranny and to establish constitutional government. Although contributing some service to the cause of Italian unity, historians such as Cornelia Shiver doubt that their achievements were proportional to their pretensions.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Giuseppe_Mazzini_and_Giuseppe_Garibaldi">Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_meeting_between_Giuseppe_Garibaldi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/First_meeting_between_Giuseppe_Garibaldi.jpg/200px-First_meeting_between_Giuseppe_Garibaldi.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="262" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="576"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 262px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/First_meeting_between_Giuseppe_Garibaldi.jpg/200px-First_meeting_between_Giuseppe_Garibaldi.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="262" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/First_meeting_between_Giuseppe_Garibaldi.jpg/300px-First_meeting_between_Giuseppe_Garibaldi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/First_meeting_between_Giuseppe_Garibaldi.jpg/400px-First_meeting_between_Giuseppe_Garibaldi.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The first meeting between <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Garibaldi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a> at the headquarters of <a href="/wiki/Young_Italy" title="Young Italy">Young Italy</a> in 1833</figcaption></figure> Many leading Carbonari revolutionaries wanted a republic,<a href="#cite_note-Galt_1994_785%E2%80%93807-29">[29]</a> two of the most prominent being <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>. Mazzini's activity in revolutionary movements caused him to be imprisoned soon after he joined. While in prison, he concluded that Italy could − and therefore should − be unified, and he formulated a program for establishing a free, independent, and republican nation with <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> as its capital. Following his release in 1831, he went to <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a> in France, where he organized a new political society called <a href="/wiki/Young_Italy" title="Young Italy">La Giovine Italia (Young Italy)</a>, whose mottos were "Dio e Popolo" ('God and People') and "Unione, Forza e Libertà" ('Union, Strength and Freedom"),<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> which sought the unification of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Garibaldi, a native of <a href="/wiki/Nice" title="Nice">Nice</a> (then part of <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a>), participated in an uprising in Piedmont in 1834 and was sentenced to death. He escaped to South America, although, spending fourteen years in exile, taking part in several wars, and learning the art of guerrilla warfare before his return to Italy in 1848.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Early_revolutionary_activity">Early revolutionary activity</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early revolutionary activity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exiles_and_European_and_masculine_ideals">Exiles and European and masculine ideals</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Exiles and European and masculine ideals" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Many of the key intellectual and political leaders operated from exile; most Risorgimento patriots lived and published their work abroad after successive failed revolutions. Exile became a central theme of the foundational legacy of the Risorgimento as the narrative of the Italian nation fighting for independence.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The exiles were deeply immersed in European ideas, and often hammered away at what Europeans saw as Italian vices, especially effeminacy and indolence. These negative stereotypes emerged from <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> notions of national character that stressed the influence of the environment and history on a people's moral predisposition. Italian exiles both challenged and embraced the stereotypes and typically presented gendered interpretations of Italy's political "degeneration". They called for a masculine response to feminine weaknesses as the basis of national regeneration and fashioned their image of the future Italian nation firmly in the standards of European nationalism.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Two_Sicilies_insurrection">Two Sicilies insurrection</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Two Sicilies insurrection" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg/170px-Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1375"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 216px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg/170px-Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="216" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg/255px-Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg/340px-Guglielmo_Pepe_Illustration.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Pepe" title="Guglielmo Pepe">Guglielmo Pepe</a></figcaption></figure> In 1820, liberal Spaniards successfully <a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">revolted</a>, demanding a Constitution, which influenced the development of a similar movement in Italy. Inspired by the Spaniards, a regiment in the army of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Two_Sicilies" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Two Sicilies">Kingdom of Two Sicilies</a>, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Pepe" title="Guglielmo Pepe">Guglielmo Pepe</a>, a Carbonaro (member of the secret republican organization),<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> mutinied, conquering the peninsular part of Two Sicilies. The king, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies">Ferdinand I</a>, agreed to enact a new constitution. The revolutionaries, although, failed to court popular support and fell to Austrian troops of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a>. Ferdinand abolished the constitution and began systematically persecuting known revolutionaries. Many supporters of revolution in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, including the scholar <a href="/wiki/Michele_Amari" title="Michele Amari">Michele Amari</a>, were forced into exile during the decades that followed.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Piedmont_insurrection">Piedmont insurrection</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Piedmont insurrection" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arresto_di_Silvio_Pellico_e_Piero_Maroncelli_-_Carlo_Felice_Biscarra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Arresto_di_Silvio_Pellico_e_Piero_Maroncelli_-_Carlo_Felice_Biscarra.jpg/220px-Arresto_di_Silvio_Pellico_e_Piero_Maroncelli_-_Carlo_Felice_Biscarra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="451"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 170px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Arresto_di_Silvio_Pellico_e_Piero_Maroncelli_-_Carlo_Felice_Biscarra.jpg/220px-Arresto_di_Silvio_Pellico_e_Piero_Maroncelli_-_Carlo_Felice_Biscarra.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="170" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Arresto_di_Silvio_Pellico_e_Piero_Maroncelli_-_Carlo_Felice_Biscarra.jpg/330px-Arresto_di_Silvio_Pellico_e_Piero_Maroncelli_-_Carlo_Felice_Biscarra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Arresto_di_Silvio_Pellico_e_Piero_Maroncelli_-_Carlo_Felice_Biscarra.jpg/440px-Arresto_di_Silvio_Pellico_e_Piero_Maroncelli_-_Carlo_Felice_Biscarra.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Arrest of Silvio Pellico and Piero Maroncelli, <a href="/wiki/Saluzzo" title="Saluzzo">Saluzzo</a>, civic museum</figcaption></figure> The leader of the 1821 revolutionary movement in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Piedmont</a> was <a href="/wiki/Santorre_di_Santarosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Santorre di Santarosa">Santorre di Santarosa</a>, who wanted to remove the Austrians and unify Italy under the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a>. The Piedmont revolt started in <a href="/wiki/Alessandria" title="Alessandria">Alessandria</a>, where troops adopted the green, white, and red <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Italy" title="Flag of Italy">tricolore</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Republic" title="Cisalpine Republic">Cisalpine Republic</a>. King <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_I" title="Victor Emmanuel I">Victor Emmanuel I</a> abdicated in response, and the regent for the new king, Prince <a href="/wiki/Charles_Albert_of_Sardinia" title="Charles Albert of Sardinia">Charles Albert</a>, approved a new <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitution</a> to appease the revolutionaries, but when King <a href="/wiki/Charles_Felix_of_Sardinia" title="Charles Felix of Sardinia">Charles Felix</a> returned he disavowed the constitution and requested assistance from the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a>. Di Santarosa's troops were defeated, and the would-be Piedmontese revolutionary fled to <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Pellico" title="Silvio Pellico">Silvio Pellico</a> and Pietro Maroncelli organized several attempts to weaken the hold of the Austrian despotism by indirect educational means. In October 1820, Pellico and Maroncelli were arrested on the charge of carbonarism and imprisoned.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1830_insurrections">1830 insurrections</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 1830 insurrections" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1830" title="Revolutions of 1830">Revolutions of 1830</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Denis_Mack_Smith" title="Denis Mack Smith">Denis Mack Smith</a> argues: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Few people in 1830 believed that an Italian nation might exist. There were eight states in the peninsula, each with distinct laws and traditions. No one had had the desire or the resources to revive Napoleon's partial experiment in unification. The settlement of 1814–15 had merely restored regional divisions, with the added disadvantage that the decisive victory of Austria over France temporarily hindered Italians in playing off their former oppressors against each other. ... Italians who, like <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Ugo Foscolo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gabriele_Rossetti" title="Gabriele Rossetti">Gabriele Rossetti</a>, harboured patriotic sentiments, were driven into exile. The largest Italian state, the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with its 8 million inhabitants, seemed aloof and indifferent: Sicily and Naples had once been ruled by Spain, and it had always been foreign to the rest of Italy. The common people in each region, and even the intellectual elite, spoke their mutually unintelligible dialects, and lacked the least vestiges of national consciousness. They wanted good government, not self-government, and had welcomed Napoleon and the French as more equitable and efficient than their native dynasties,<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> many of which had died out in the 18th century.</blockquote><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assalto_alla_casa_di_Ciro_Menotti_e_arresto_del_Grande_Patriotta_e_dei_suoi_compagni.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Assalto_alla_casa_di_Ciro_Menotti_e_arresto_del_Grande_Patriotta_e_dei_suoi_compagni.jpg/220px-Assalto_alla_casa_di_Ciro_Menotti_e_arresto_del_Grande_Patriotta_e_dei_suoi_compagni.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="730" data-file-height="1061"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 320px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Assalto_alla_casa_di_Ciro_Menotti_e_arresto_del_Grande_Patriotta_e_dei_suoi_compagni.jpg/220px-Assalto_alla_casa_di_Ciro_Menotti_e_arresto_del_Grande_Patriotta_e_dei_suoi_compagni.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="320" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Assalto_alla_casa_di_Ciro_Menotti_e_arresto_del_Grande_Patriotta_e_dei_suoi_compagni.jpg/330px-Assalto_alla_casa_di_Ciro_Menotti_e_arresto_del_Grande_Patriotta_e_dei_suoi_compagni.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Assalto_alla_casa_di_Ciro_Menotti_e_arresto_del_Grande_Patriotta_e_dei_suoi_compagni.jpg/440px-Assalto_alla_casa_di_Ciro_Menotti_e_arresto_del_Grande_Patriotta_e_dei_suoi_compagni.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ciro Menotti and his compatriots clashed with the army.</figcaption></figure> After 1830, revolutionary sentiment in favour of a unified Italy began to experience a resurgence, and a series of insurrections laid the groundwork for the creation of one nation along the Italian peninsula. The <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duke of Modena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_IV_of_Modena" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis IV of Modena">Francis IV</a>, was an ambitious man, and he hoped to become king of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">northern Italy</a> by increasing his territory. In 1826, Francis made it clear that he would not act against those who subverted opposition toward the unification of Italy. Encouraged by the declaration, revolutionaries in the region began to organize. During the <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a> of 1830 in France, revolutionaries forced King <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a> to abdicate and created the <a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a> with encouragement from the new French king, <a href="/wiki/Louis-Philippe_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis-Philippe I">Louis-Philippe I</a>. Louis-Philippe had promised revolutionaries such as <a href="/wiki/Ciro_Menotti" title="Ciro Menotti">Ciro Menotti</a> that he would intervene if Austria tried to interfere in Italy with troops. Fearing he would lose his throne, Louis-Philippe did not, however, intervene in Menotti's planned uprising. The Duke of Modena abandoned his Carbonari supporters, arrested Menotti and other conspirators in 1831, and once again conquered his duchy with help from the Austrian troops. Menotti was executed, and the idea of a revolution centred in Modena faded. At the same time, other insurrections arose in the <a href="/wiki/Papal_Legations" class="mw-redirect" title="Papal Legations">Papal Legations</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferrara" title="Ferrara">Ferrara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forl%C3%AC" title="Forlì">Forlì</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancona" title="Ancona">Ancona</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perugia" title="Perugia">Perugia</a>. These successful revolutions, which adopted the tricolore in place of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_Papacy" title="List of flags of the Papacy">Papal flag</a>, quickly spread to cover all the Papal Legations, and their newly installed local governments proclaimed the creation of a united Italian nation. The revolts in Modena and the Papal Legations inspired similar activity in the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Parma">Duchy of Parma</a>, where the tricolore flag was adopted. The Parmese duchess <a href="/wiki/Marie_Louise_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Louise of Austria">Marie Louise</a> left the city during the political upheaval. Insurrection provinces planned to unite as the <a href="/wiki/Italian_United_Provinces" title="Italian United Provinces">Italian United Provinces</a>, which prompted <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XVI" title="Pope Gregory XVI">Pope Gregory XVI</a> to ask for Austrian help against the rebels. Austrian Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a> warned Louis-Philippe that Austria had no intention of letting Italian matters be and that French intervention would not be tolerated. Louis-Philippe sent a naval expedition to Ancona, which restored Papal authority there and even arrested Italian patriots living in France. In early 1831, the Austrian army began its march across the Italian peninsula, slowly crushing resistance in each province that had revolted. This military action suppressed much of the fledgling revolutionary movement. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Revolutions_of_1848–1849_and_First_Italian_War_of_Independence">Revolutions of 1848–1849 and First Italian War of Independence</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Revolutions of 1848–1849 and First Italian War of Independence" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="First Italian War of Independence">First Italian War of Independence</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fratelli_Bandiera.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Fratelli_Bandiera.jpg/220px-Fratelli_Bandiera.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="345" data-file-height="428"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 273px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Fratelli_Bandiera.jpg/220px-Fratelli_Bandiera.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="273" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Fratelli_Bandiera.jpg/330px-Fratelli_Bandiera.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Fratelli_Bandiera.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Execution of the <a href="/wiki/Bandiera_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandiera Brothers">Bandiera Brothers</a></figcaption></figure> In 1844, two brothers from <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bandiera_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandiera Brothers">Attilio and Emilio Bandiera</a>, members of <a href="/wiki/Young_Italy" title="Young Italy">Young Italy</a>, planned to make a raid on the <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabrian</a> coast against the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Two_Sicilies" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Two Sicilies">Kingdom of Two Sicilies</a> in support of Italian unification. They assembled a band of about twenty men ready to sacrifice their lives and set sail on their venture on 12 June 1844. Four days later they landed near <a href="/wiki/Crotone" title="Crotone">Crotone</a>, intending to go to <a href="/wiki/Cosenza" title="Cosenza">Cosenza</a>, liberate the political prisoners, and issue their proclamations. Tragically for the Bandiera brothers, they did not find the insurgent band they were told awaited them, so they moved towards <a href="/wiki/La_Sila" title="La Sila">La Sila</a>. They were ultimately betrayed by one of their party, the <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsican</a> Pietro Boccheciampe, and by some peasants who believed them to be Turkish pirates. A detachment of <a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">gendarmes</a> and volunteers were sent against them, and after a short fight, the whole band was taken prisoner and escorted to Cosenza, where a number of Calabrians who had taken part in a previous rising were also under arrest. The Bandiera brothers and their nine companions were executed by firing squad; some accounts state they cried "Viva l'Italia!" ('Long live Italy!') as they fell. The moral effect was enormous throughout Italy, the action of the authorities was universally condemned, and the martyrdom of the Bandiera brothers bore fruit in the subsequent revolutions.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg/170px-Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="126" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="445"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 126px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg/170px-Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="126" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg/255px-Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg/340px-Image-Inno_di_Mameli_2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Holograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Holograph">Holographic</a> copy of 1847 of <a href="/wiki/Il_Canto_degli_Italiani" title="Il Canto degli Italiani">Il Canto degli Italiani</a>, the Italian <a href="/wiki/National_anthem" title="National anthem">national anthem</a> since 1946</figcaption></figure> In this context, in 1847, the first public performance of the song <a href="/wiki/Il_Canto_degli_Italiani" title="Il Canto degli Italiani">Il Canto degli Italiani</a>, the Italian <a href="/wiki/National_anthem" title="National anthem">national anthem</a> since 1946, took place.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Il Canto degli Italiani, written by <a href="/wiki/Goffredo_Mameli" title="Goffredo Mameli">Goffredo Mameli</a> set to music by <a href="/wiki/Michele_Novaro" title="Michele Novaro">Michele Novaro</a>, is also known as the Inno di Mameli, after the author of the lyrics, or Fratelli d'Italia, from its <a href="/wiki/Incipit" title="Incipit">opening line</a>. On 5 January 1848, the revolutionary disturbances began with a civil disobedience strike in <a href="/wiki/Lombardy" title="Lombardy">Lombardy</a>, as citizens stopped smoking cigars and playing the <a href="/wiki/Lottery" title="Lottery">lottery</a>, which denied Austria the associated tax revenue. Shortly after this, revolts began on the island of <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>. In Sicily the revolt resulted in the proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_revolution_of_1848" title="Sicilian revolution of 1848">Kingdom of Sicily</a> with <a href="/wiki/Ruggero_Settimo" title="Ruggero Settimo">Ruggero Settimo</a> as chairman of the independent state until 1849, when the Bourbon army took back full control of the island on 15 May 1849 by force.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruggero_Settimo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Ruggero_Settimo.jpg/170px-Ruggero_Settimo.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="442" data-file-height="632"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 243px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Ruggero_Settimo.jpg/170px-Ruggero_Settimo.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="243" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Ruggero_Settimo.jpg/255px-Ruggero_Settimo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Ruggero_Settimo.jpg/340px-Ruggero_Settimo.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ruggero_Settimo" title="Ruggero Settimo">Ruggero Settimo</a></figcaption></figure> In February 1848, there were revolts in <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a> that were relatively nonviolent, after which Grand Duke <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany" title="Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany">Leopold II</a> granted the Tuscans a constitution. A breakaway republican provisional government formed in Tuscany during February shortly after this concession. On 21 February, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a> granted a constitution to the Papal States, which was both unexpected and surprising considering the historical recalcitrance of the Papacy. On 23 February 1848, King Louis Philippe of France was forced to flee <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Second French Republic">Second French Republic</a> was proclaimed. By the time the revolution in Paris occurred, three states of Italy had constitutions—four if one considers Sicily to be a separate state. Meanwhile, in Lombardy, tensions increased until the Milanese and Venetians rose in revolt on 18 March 1848. The insurrection in Milan succeeded in expelling the Austrian garrison after five days of street fights—18–22 March (<a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Cinque giornate di Milano</a>). An Austrian army under Marshal <a href="/wiki/Josef_Radetzky" class="mw-redirect" title="Josef Radetzky">Josef Radetzky</a> besieged Milan, but due to the defection of many of his troops and the support of the Milanese for the revolt, they were forced to retreat to the <a href="/wiki/Quadrilatero" title="Quadrilatero">Quadrilatero</a> fortresses. Soon, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Albert_of_Sardinia" title="Charles Albert of Sardinia">Charles Albert</a>, the King of Sardinia (who ruled Piedmont and <a href="/wiki/Savoy" title="Savoy">Savoy</a>), urged by the Venetians and Milanese to aid their cause, decided this was the moment to unify Italy and declared war on Austria (<a href="/wiki/First_Italian_Independence_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Italian Independence War">First Italian Independence War</a>). After initial successes at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goito" title="Battle of Goito">Goito</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peschiera_del_Garda" title="Peschiera del Garda">Peschiera</a>, he was decisively defeated by Radetzky at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Custoza_(1848)" title="Battle of Custoza (1848)">Battle of Custoza</a> on 24 July. An armistice was agreed to, and Radetzky regained control of all of <a href="/wiki/Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lombardy–Venetia">Lombardy–Venetia</a> save <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> itself, where the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a> was proclaimed under <a href="/wiki/Daniele_Manin" title="Daniele Manin">Daniele Manin</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg/220px-Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="571"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 170px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg/220px-Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="170" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg/330px-Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg/440px-Daniele_Manin_Repubblica_di_Venezia.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Daniele_Manin" title="Daniele Manin">Daniele Manin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Tommaseo" title="Niccolò Tommaseo">Niccolò Tommaseo</a> after the proclamation of the Republic of San Marco</figcaption></figure> While Radetzky consolidated control of Lombardy–Venetia and Charles Albert licked his wounds, matters took a more serious turn in other parts of Italy. The monarchs who had reluctantly agreed to constitutions in March came into conflict with their constitutional ministers. At first, the republics had the upper hand, forcing the monarchs to flee their capitals, including Pope Pius IX. Initially, Pius IX had been something of a reformer, but conflicts with the revolutionaries soured him on the idea of constitutional government. In November 1848, following the assassination of his Minister <a href="/wiki/Pellegrino_Rossi" title="Pellegrino Rossi">Pellegrino Rossi</a>, Pius IX fled just before <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a> and other patriots arrived in Rome. In early 1849, elections were held for a Constituent Assembly, which proclaimed a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (19th century)">Roman Republic</a> on 9 February. On 2 February 1849, at a political rally held in the Apollo Theater, a young Roman priest, the Abbé <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carlo_Arduini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carlo Arduini (page does not exist)">Carlo Arduini</a>, had made a speech in which he had declared that the <a href="/wiki/Temporal_power_of_the_Holy_See" title="Temporal power of the Holy See">Temporal power of the Holy See</a> was a "historical lie, a political imposture, and a religious immorality".<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In early March 1849, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a> arrived in Rome and was appointed Chief Minister. In the Constitution of the Roman Republic,<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> religious freedom was guaranteed by article 7, the independence of the pope as head of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> was guaranteed by article 8 of the Principi fondamentali, while the death penalty was abolished by article 5, and free public education was provided by article 8 of the Titolo I. Before the powers could respond to the founding of the Roman Republic, Charles Albert, whose army had been trained by the exiled Polish general <a href="/wiki/Albert_Chrzanowski" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Chrzanowski">Albert Chrzanowski</a>, renewed the war with Austria. He was quickly defeated by Radetzky at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Novara_(1849)" title="Battle of Novara (1849)">Novara</a> on 23 March 1849. Charles Albert abdicated in favour of his son, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel II</a>, and Piedmontese ambitions to unite Italy or conquer Lombardy were, for the moment, brought to an end. The war ended with a treaty signed on 9 August. A popular revolt broke out in <a href="/wiki/Ten_Days_of_Brescia" title="Ten Days of Brescia">Brescia</a> on the same day as the defeat at Novara, but was suppressed by the Austrians ten days later. There remained the Roman and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Venetian</a> Republics. In April, a French force under <a href="/wiki/Charles_Oudinot" title="Charles Oudinot">Charles Oudinot</a> was sent to Rome. Apparently, the French first wished to mediate between the pope and his subjects, but soon the French were determined to restore the pope. After a two-month siege, Rome capitulated on 29 June 1849 and the pope was restored. Garibaldi and Mazzini once again fled into exile—in 1850 Garibaldi went to <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>. Meanwhile, the Austrians besieged Venice, which was defended by a volunteer army led by <a href="/wiki/Daniele_Manin" title="Daniele Manin">Daniele Manin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Pepe" title="Guglielmo Pepe">Guglielmo Pepe</a>, who were forced to surrender on 24 August. Pro-independence fighters were <a href="/wiki/Belfiore_martyrs" title="Belfiore martyrs">hanged en masse in Belfiore</a>, while the Austrians moved to restore order in central Italy, restoring the princes who had been expelled and re-establishing Papal control over the Legations. The revolutions were thus completely crushed.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cavour_and_prospects_for_unification">Cavour and prospects for unification</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cavour and prospects for unification" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Garibaldiecavour.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Garibaldiecavour.JPG/170px-Garibaldiecavour.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="866" data-file-height="1058"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 208px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Garibaldiecavour.JPG/170px-Garibaldiecavour.JPG" data-width="170" data-height="208" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Garibaldiecavour.JPG/255px-Garibaldiecavour.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Garibaldiecavour.JPG/340px-Garibaldiecavour.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Garibaldi and Cavour making Italy in a satirical cartoon of 1861</figcaption></figure> Morale was of course badly weakened, but the dream of Risorgimento did not die. Instead, the Italian patriots learned some lessons that made them much more effective at the next opportunity in 1860. Military weakness was glaring, as the small Italian states were completely outmatched by France and Austria. France was a potential ally, and the patriots realized they had to focus all their attention on expelling Austria first, with a willingness to give the French whatever they wanted in return for essential military intervention. As a result of this France received Nice and Savoy in 1860. Secondly, the patriots realized that the pope was an enemy, and could never be the leader of a united Italy. Thirdly, they realized that republicanism was too weak a force. Unification had to be based on a strong monarchy, and in practice that meant reliance on Piedmont (the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>) under King <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel II</a> (1820–1878) of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour</a> (1810–1861) provided critical leadership. He was a modernizer interested in agrarian improvements, banks, railways and free trade. He opened a newspaper as soon as censorship allowed it: <a href="/wiki/Il_Risorgimento_(newspaper)" title="Il Risorgimento (newspaper)">Il Risorgimento</a> called for the independence of Italy, a league of Italian princes, and moderate reforms. He had the ear of the king and in 1852 became prime minister. He ran an efficient active government, promoting rapid economic modernization while upgrading the administration of the army and the financial and legal systems. He sought out support from patriots across Italy. In 1855, the kingdom became an ally of <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Britain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">France</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>, which gave Cavour's diplomacy legitimacy in the eyes of the great powers.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Towards_the_Kingdom_of_Italy">Towards the Kingdom of Italy</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Towards the Kingdom of Italy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:305px;max-width:305px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:141px;max-width:141px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:VictorEmmanuel2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/VictorEmmanuel2.jpg/139px-VictorEmmanuel2.jpg" decoding="async" width="139" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="908"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 139px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/VictorEmmanuel2.jpg/139px-VictorEmmanuel2.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="139" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/VictorEmmanuel2.jpg/209px-VictorEmmanuel2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/VictorEmmanuel2.jpg/278px-VictorEmmanuel2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:160px;max-width:160px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Tuminello,_Lodovico_(1824-1907)_-_Cavour_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Tuminello%2C_Lodovico_%281824-1907%29_-_Cavour_cropped.jpg/158px-Tuminello%2C_Lodovico_%281824-1907%29_-_Cavour_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="211" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="201" data-file-height="268"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 158px;height: 211px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Tuminello%2C_Lodovico_%281824-1907%29_-_Cavour_cropped.jpg/158px-Tuminello%2C_Lodovico_%281824-1907%29_-_Cavour_cropped.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="158" data-height="211" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Tuminello%2C_Lodovico_%281824-1907%29_-_Cavour_cropped.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel II of Italy">Victor Emmanuel II</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour</a> (right), leading figures in the Italian unification, became respectively the first king and first Prime Minister of unified Italy.</div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pisacane_fiasco">Pisacane fiasco</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Pisacane fiasco" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In 1857, <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Pisacane" title="Carlo Pisacane">Carlo Pisacane</a>, an aristocrat from Naples who had embraced Mazzini's ideas, decided to provoke a rising in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a>. His small force landed on the island of <a href="/wiki/Ponza" title="Ponza">Ponza</a>. It overpowered guards and liberated hundreds of prisoners. In sharp contrast to his hypothetical expectations, there was no local uprising and the invaders were quickly overpowered. Pisacane was killed by angry locals who suspected he was leading a <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romani</a> band trying to steal their food.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Italian_Independence_War_of_1859_and_aftermath">Second Italian Independence War of 1859 and aftermath</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Second Italian Independence War of 1859 and aftermath" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second Italian War of Independence</a></div> The Second War of Italian Independence began in April 1859 when the Sardinian Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Count Cavour</a> found an ally in <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a>. Napoleon III signed a secret alliance and Cavour provoked Austria with military maneuvers and eventually led to the war in April 1859. Cavour called for volunteers to enlist in the Italian liberation. The Austrians planned to use their army to beat the Sardinians before the French could come to their aid. Austria had an army of 140,000 men, while the Sardinians had a mere 70,000 men by comparison. However, the Austrians' numerical strength was outweighed by an ineffectual leadership appointed by the Emperor on the basis of noble lineage, rather than military competency. Their army was slow to enter Piedmont, taking almost ten days to travel the 80 kilometres (50 mi) to <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>. By this time, the French had reinforced the Sardinians, so the Austrians retreated. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:San_Fermo_1859_Gaildrau.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/San_Fermo_1859_Gaildrau.jpg/220px-San_Fermo_1859_Gaildrau.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="587"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 134px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/San_Fermo_1859_Gaildrau.jpg/220px-San_Fermo_1859_Gaildrau.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="134" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/San_Fermo_1859_Gaildrau.jpg/330px-San_Fermo_1859_Gaildrau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/San_Fermo_1859_Gaildrau.jpg/440px-San_Fermo_1859_Gaildrau.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Fermo" title="Battle of San Fermo">Battle of San Fermo</a></figcaption></figure> The Austrians were defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magenta" title="Battle of Magenta">Battle of Magenta</a> on 4 June and pushed back to <a href="/wiki/Lombardy" title="Lombardy">Lombardy</a>. Napoleon III's plans worked and at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Solferino" title="Battle of Solferino">Battle of Solferino</a>, France and Sardinia defeated Austria and forced negotiations; at the same time, in the northern part of Lombardy, the Italian volunteers known as the <a href="/wiki/Hunters_of_the_Alps" title="Hunters of the Alps">Hunters of the Alps</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>, defeated the Austrians at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Varese" title="Battle of Varese">Varese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Fermo" title="Battle of San Fermo">Como</a>. On 12 July, the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Villafranca" title="Armistice of Villafranca">Armistice of Villafranca</a> was signed. The settlement, by which Lombardy was annexed to Sardinia, left Austria in control of the Veneto and <a href="/wiki/Mantua" title="Mantua">Mantua</a>. The final arrangement was ironed out by "back-room" deals. This was because neither France, Austria, nor Sardinia wanted to risk another battle and could not handle further fighting. All of the sides were eventually unhappy with the outcome of the Second War of Italian Unification and expected another conflict in the future.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> In fact, Napoleon III and Cavour were mutually indebted: the first because he had withdrawn from the Second Italian War of Independence before the expected conquest of <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, the second because he had allowed the uprisings to spread to the territories of central-northern Italy, thus going beyond what was agreed with the <a href="/wiki/Plombi%C3%A8res_Agreement" title="Plombières Agreement">Plombières Agreement</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_manifestations_pro-italiennes_%C3%A0_Nice_du_1871.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Les_manifestations_pro-italiennes_%C3%A0_Nice_du_1871.jpg/220px-Les_manifestations_pro-italiennes_%C3%A0_Nice_du_1871.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="545"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 175px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Les_manifestations_pro-italiennes_%C3%A0_Nice_du_1871.jpg/220px-Les_manifestations_pro-italiennes_%C3%A0_Nice_du_1871.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="175" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Les_manifestations_pro-italiennes_%C3%A0_Nice_du_1871.jpg/330px-Les_manifestations_pro-italiennes_%C3%A0_Nice_du_1871.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Les_manifestations_pro-italiennes_%C3%A0_Nice_du_1871.jpg/440px-Les_manifestations_pro-italiennes_%C3%A0_Nice_du_1871.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Pro-Italian protests in Nice, 1871, during the <a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_Vespers" title="Niçard Vespers">Niçard Vespers</a></figcaption></figure> Sardinia annexed Lombardy from Austria; it later occupied and annexed the <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy" title="United Provinces of Central Italy">United Provinces of Central Italy</a>, consisting of the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Parma">Duchy of Parma</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a> and the Papal Legations on 22 March 1860. Sardinia handed Savoy and Nice over to France at the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Turin_(1860)" title="Treaty of Turin (1860)">Treaty of Turin</a>, a decision that was the consequence of the Plombières Agreement, on 24 March 1860, an event that caused the <a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_exodus" title="Niçard exodus">Niçard exodus</a>, which was the emigration of a quarter of the <a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_Italians" title="Niçard Italians">Niçard Italians</a> to Italy.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a> was elected in 1871 in Nice at the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(France)" title="National Assembly (France)">National Assembly</a> where he tried to promote the annexation of his hometown to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">newborn Italian unitary state</a>, but he was prevented from speaking.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Because of this denial, between 1871 and 1872 there were riots in Nice, promoted by the Garibaldini and called "<a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_Vespers" title="Niçard Vespers">Niçard Vespers</a>",<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> which demanded the annexation of the city and its area to Italy.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Fifteen Nice people who participated in the rebellion were tried and sentenced.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expedition_of_the_Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Expedition of the Thousand" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg/220px-Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="340" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1624" data-file-height="2509"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 340px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg/220px-Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="340" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg/330px-Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg/440px-Giuseppe_Garibaldi_1861.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>, celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times<a href="#cite_note-scholar_and_patriot-57">[57]</a> and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe,<a href="#cite_note-Garibaldi_on_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica-58">[58]</a> who commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led to the unification of Italy</figcaption></figure> Thus, by early 1860, only five states remained in Italy—the Austrians in Venetia, the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> (now minus the Legations), the new expanded Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/San_Marino" title="San Marino">San Marino</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_II_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Francis II of the Two Sicilies">Francis II of the Two Sicilies</a>, the son and successor of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies">Ferdinand II</a> (the infamous "King Bomba"), had a well-organized army of 150,000 men. But his father's tyranny had inspired many secret societies, and the kingdom's <a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a> were unexpectedly recalled home under the terms of a new Swiss law that forbade Swiss citizens to serve as mercenaries. This left Francis with only his mostly unreliable native troops. It was a critical opportunity for the unification movement. In April 1860, separate insurrections began in <a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a> in Sicily, both of which had demonstrated a history of opposing Neapolitan rule. These rebellions were easily suppressed by loyal troops. In the meantime, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>, a native of Nice, was deeply resentful of the French annexation of his home city. He hoped to use his supporters to regain the territory. Cavour, terrified of Garibaldi provoking a war with France, persuaded Garibaldi to instead use his forces in the Sicilian rebellions. On 6 May 1860, Garibaldi and his cadre of about a thousand Italian volunteers (called <a href="/wiki/Redshirts_(Italy)" title="Redshirts (Italy)">I Mille</a>), steamed from <a href="/wiki/Quarto_dei_Mille" title="Quarto dei Mille">Quarto</a> near <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>, and, after a stop in <a href="/wiki/Talamone" title="Talamone">Talamone</a> on 11 May, landed near <a href="/wiki/Marsala" title="Marsala">Marsala</a> on the west coast of Sicily. Near <a href="/wiki/Salemi" title="Salemi">Salemi</a>, Garibaldi's army attracted scattered bands of rebels, and the combined forces defeated the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Army of the Two Sicilies">Army of the Two Sicilies</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calatafimi" title="Battle of Calatafimi">Battle of Calatafimi</a> on 13 May. Within three days, the invading force had swelled to 4,000 men. On 14 May Garibaldi proclaimed himself <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_Garibaldi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictatorship of Garibaldi">dictator of Sicily</a>, in the name of Victor Emmanuel. After waging various successful but hard-fought battles, Garibaldi advanced upon the Sicilian capital of Palermo, announcing his arrival by beacon-fires kindled at night. On 27 May the force began the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Palermo" title="Siege of Palermo">Siege of Palermo</a>, while a mass uprising of street and barricade fighting broke out within the city. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Calatafimi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Battle_of_Calatafimi.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Calatafimi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Battle_of_Calatafimi.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Calatafimi.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Battle_of_Calatafimi.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Calatafimi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Battle_of_Calatafimi.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Calatafimi.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calatafimi" title="Battle of Calatafimi">Battle of Calatafimi</a></figcaption></figure> With Palermo deemed insurgent, Neapolitan general <a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Lanza" title="Ferdinando Lanza">Ferdinando Lanza</a>, arriving in Sicily with some 25,000 troops, furiously bombarded Palermo nearly to ruins. With the intervention of a British admiral, an armistice was declared, leading to the Neapolitan troops' departure and surrender of the town to Garibaldi and his much smaller army. This resounding success demonstrated the weakness of the Neapolitan government. Garibaldi's fame spread and many Italians began to consider him a national hero. Doubt, confusion, and dismay overtook the Neapolitan court—the king hastily summoned his ministry and offered to restore an earlier constitution, but these efforts failed to rebuild the people's trust in <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon-Two_Sicilies" title="House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies">Bourbon</a> governance. Six weeks after the surrender of Palermo, Garibaldi attacked Messina. Within a week, its citadel surrendered. Having conquered Sicily, Garibaldi proceeded to the mainland, crossing the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Messina" title="Strait of Messina">Strait of Messina</a> with the Neapolitan fleet at hand. The garrison at <a href="/wiki/Reggio_Calabria" title="Reggio Calabria">Reggio Calabria</a> promptly surrendered. As he marched northward, the populace everywhere hailed him, and military resistance faded: on 18 and 21 August, the people of <a href="/wiki/Basilicata" title="Basilicata">Basilicata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Apulia</a>, two regions of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, independently declared their annexation to the Kingdom of Italy. At the end of August, Garibaldi was at <a href="/wiki/Cosenza" title="Cosenza">Cosenza</a>, and, on 5 September, at <a href="/wiki/Eboli" title="Eboli">Eboli</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a>. Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> had declared a state of siege, and on 6 September the king gathered the 4,000 troops still faithful to him and retreated over the <a href="/wiki/Volturno" title="Volturno">River Volturno</a>. The next day, Garibaldi, with a few followers, entered by train into Naples, where the people openly welcomed him.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defeat_of_the_Kingdom_of_Naples">Defeat of the Kingdom of Naples</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Defeat of the Kingdom of Naples" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoli_Castel_Nuovo_museo_civico_-_ingresso_di_Garibaldi_a_Napoli_-_Wenzel_bis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Napoli_Castel_Nuovo_museo_civico_-_ingresso_di_Garibaldi_a_Napoli_-_Wenzel_bis.jpg/220px-Napoli_Castel_Nuovo_museo_civico_-_ingresso_di_Garibaldi_a_Napoli_-_Wenzel_bis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2396" data-file-height="1760"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 162px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Napoli_Castel_Nuovo_museo_civico_-_ingresso_di_Garibaldi_a_Napoli_-_Wenzel_bis.jpg/220px-Napoli_Castel_Nuovo_museo_civico_-_ingresso_di_Garibaldi_a_Napoli_-_Wenzel_bis.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="162" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Napoli_Castel_Nuovo_museo_civico_-_ingresso_di_Garibaldi_a_Napoli_-_Wenzel_bis.jpg/330px-Napoli_Castel_Nuovo_museo_civico_-_ingresso_di_Garibaldi_a_Napoli_-_Wenzel_bis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Napoli_Castel_Nuovo_museo_civico_-_ingresso_di_Garibaldi_a_Napoli_-_Wenzel_bis.jpg/440px-Napoli_Castel_Nuovo_museo_civico_-_ingresso_di_Garibaldi_a_Napoli_-_Wenzel_bis.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>People cheering as Garibaldi enters Naples</figcaption></figure> Although Garibaldi had easily taken the capital, the Neapolitan army had not joined the rebellion en masse, holding firm along the River Volturno. Garibaldi's irregular bands of about 25,000 men could not drive away the king or take the fortresses of <a href="/wiki/Capua" title="Capua">Capua</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaeta" title="Gaeta">Gaeta</a> without the help of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Sardinian_Army" title="Royal Sardinian Army">Royal Sardinian Army</a>. The Sardinian army, however, could only arrive by traversing the Papal States, which extended across the entire center of the peninsula. Ignoring the political will of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a>, Garibaldi announced his intent to proclaim a "Kingdom of Italy" from <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, the capital city of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a>. Seeing this as a threat to the domain of the Catholic Church, Pius threatened <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunication</a> for those who supported such an effort. Afraid that Garibaldi would attack Rome, Catholics worldwide sent money and volunteers for the Papal Army, which was commanded by General <a href="/wiki/Christophe_L%C3%A9on_Louis_Juchault_de_Lamorici%C3%A8re" class="mw-redirect" title="Christophe Léon Louis Juchault de Lamoricière">Louis Lamoricière</a>, a French exile. The settling of the peninsular standoff now rested with Napoleon III. If he let Garibaldi have his way, Garibaldi would probably end the temporal sovereignty of the pope and make Rome the capital of Italy. Napoleon, however, may have arranged with Cavour to let the King of Sardinia free to take possession of Naples, <a href="/wiki/Umbria" title="Umbria">Umbria</a> and the other provinces, provided that Rome and the "<a href="/wiki/Patrimony_of_Saint_Peter" title="Patrimony of Saint Peter">Patrimony of Saint Peter</a>" were left intact.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> It was in this situation that a Sardinian force of two army corps, under generals <a href="/wiki/Manfredo_Fanti" title="Manfredo Fanti">Manfredo Fanti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Cialdini" title="Enrico Cialdini">Enrico Cialdini</a>, marched to the frontier of the Papal States, its objective being not Rome but Naples. The Papal troops under Lamoricière advanced against Cialdini, but were quickly defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Castelfidardo" title="Battle of Castelfidardo">Battle of Castelfidardo</a> and besieged in the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Ancona" title="Ancona">Ancona</a>, finally surrendering on 29 September. On 9 October, Victor Emmanuel arrived and took command. There was no longer a Papal army to oppose him, and the march southward proceeded unopposed. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:With_Victor_Emmanuel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/With_Victor_Emmanuel.jpg/220px-With_Victor_Emmanuel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="423"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 138px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/With_Victor_Emmanuel.jpg/220px-With_Victor_Emmanuel.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="138" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/With_Victor_Emmanuel.jpg/330px-With_Victor_Emmanuel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/With_Victor_Emmanuel.jpg/440px-With_Victor_Emmanuel.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel II of Italy">Victor Emmanuel</a> meets Garibaldi near <a href="/wiki/Teano" title="Teano">Teano</a>.</figcaption></figure> Garibaldi distrusted the pragmatic Cavour since Cavour was the man ultimately responsible for orchestrating the French annexation of the city of Nice, which was his birthplace. Nevertheless, he accepted the command of Victor Emmanuel. When the king entered <a href="/wiki/Sessa_Aurunca" title="Sessa Aurunca">Sessa Aurunca</a> at the head of his army, Garibaldi willingly handed over his dictatorial power. After greeting Victor Emmanuel in <a href="/wiki/Teano" title="Teano">Teano</a> with the title of <a href="/wiki/King_of_Italy" title="King of Italy">King of Italy</a>, Garibaldi entered Naples riding beside the king. Garibaldi then retired to the island of <a href="/wiki/Caprera" title="Caprera">Caprera</a>, while the remaining work of unifying the peninsula was left to Victor Emmanuel. The progress of the Sardinian army compelled Francis II to give up his line along the river, and he eventually took refuge with his best troops in the fortress of Gaeta. His courage boosted by his resolute young wife, Queen <a href="/wiki/Marie_Sophie_of_Bavaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Sophie of Bavaria">Marie Sophie</a>, Francis mounted a stubborn defence that lasted three months. But European allies refused to provide him with aid, food and munitions became scarce, and disease set in, so the garrison was forced to surrender. Nonetheless, ragtag groups of Neapolitans loyal to Francis fought on against the Italian government for years to come. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Corteo_Reale_all%27_Apertura_del_Parlamento_del_Regno_d%27_Italia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Corteo_Reale_all%27_Apertura_del_Parlamento_del_Regno_d%27_Italia.jpg/220px-Corteo_Reale_all%27_Apertura_del_Parlamento_del_Regno_d%27_Italia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="391"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 143px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Corteo_Reale_all%27_Apertura_del_Parlamento_del_Regno_d%27_Italia.jpg/220px-Corteo_Reale_all%27_Apertura_del_Parlamento_del_Regno_d%27_Italia.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="143" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Corteo_Reale_all%27_Apertura_del_Parlamento_del_Regno_d%27_Italia.jpg/330px-Corteo_Reale_all%27_Apertura_del_Parlamento_del_Regno_d%27_Italia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Corteo_Reale_all%27_Apertura_del_Parlamento_del_Regno_d%27_Italia.jpg/440px-Corteo_Reale_all%27_Apertura_del_Parlamento_del_Regno_d%27_Italia.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Bossoli" title="Carlo Bossoli">Carlo Bossoli</a>: the royal procession at the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Parliament of the Kingdom of Italy">Parliament of the Kingdom of Italy</a></figcaption></figure> The fall of Gaeta brought the unification movement to the brink of fruition—only <a href="/wiki/Lazio" title="Lazio">Lazio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venetia_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Venetia (region)">Venetia</a> remained to be added. On 18 February 1861, Victor Emmanuel assembled the deputies of the first <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Parliament of the Kingdom of Italy">Italian Parliament</a> in Turin. On 17 March 1861, the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Parliament proclaimed Victor Emmanuel King of Italy</a>, and on 27 March 1861 Rome was declared capital of Italy, although it was not yet in the new kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Borrowing from the old <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> title <a href="/wiki/Pater_Patriae" title="Pater Patriae">Pater Patriae</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperors</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> gave to King Victor Emmanuel II the epithet of <a href="/wiki/Father_of_the_Fatherland" class="mw-redirect" title="Father of the Fatherland">Father of the Fatherland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: Padre della Patria).<a href="#cite_note-raicultura-4">[4]</a> Three months later Cavour died, having seen his life's work nearly completed. When he was given the last rites, Cavour purportedly said: "Italy is made. All is safe."<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_repercussions_on_diplomatic_relations">The repercussions on diplomatic relations</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The repercussions on diplomatic relations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The disapproval of the various European states culminated in the direct participation of the Sardinian army in the <a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gnosis-66">[66]</a> In reaction, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> interrupted diplomatic relations with the Kingdom of Sardinia, while the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a>, which had not maintained relations with this country since 1859, after the Second Italian War of Independence,<a href="#cite_note-gnosis-66">[66]</a> sent its troops to the <a href="/wiki/Mincio" title="Mincio">Mincio</a> border. <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> made no hostile statements, but recalled its ambassador. <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> and her prime minister <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">John Russell</a> convinced the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> not to hinder the ongoing process of Italian unification.<a href="#cite_note-cr-67">[67]</a> On 26 October 1860, the same day as the meeting in Teano between the king and Garibaldi, Austria organized a congress in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> to apply measures against the Kingdom of Sardinia, without success; held back by this crisis, Cavour was unable to be present at Teano.<a href="#cite_note-gnosis-66">[66]</a> After the creation of the Kingdom of Italy, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Confederation" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss Confederation">Swiss Confederation</a> were the first to recognize the new state (30 March 1861), followed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> on 13 April.<a href="#cite_note-gnosis-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-a150-68">[68]</a> France negotiated the presence of French troops in Rome and recognized the Kingdom of Italy on 15 June, shortly after Cavour's death. It will then be <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>'s turn on 27 June, followed by <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> countries. The recognition of the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> occurred in two phases: they recognized the new title of Victor Emmanuel II in July, then the kingdom in November, after a long clash between conservatives and liberals in the Belgian parliament over the latter.<a href="#cite_note-a150-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Question">Roman Question</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Roman Question" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Question">Roman Question</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/33/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy.jpg/220px-Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="647" data-file-height="425"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 145px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/33/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy.jpg/220px-Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="145" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/33/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy.jpg/330px-Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/33/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy.jpg/440px-Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a></figcaption></figure> Mazzini was discontented with the perpetuation of monarchical government and continued to agitate for a republic. With the motto "Free from the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic</a>", the unification movement set its gaze on Rome and Venice. There were obstacles, however. A challenge against the pope's temporal dominion was viewed with profound distrust by Catholics around the world, and there were French troops stationed in Rome. Victor Emmanuel was wary of the international repercussions of attacking the Papal States, and discouraged his subjects from participating in revolutionary ventures with such intentions.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Nonetheless, Garibaldi believed that the government would support him if he attacked Rome. Frustrated at inaction by the king, and bristling over perceived snubs, he came out of retirement to organize a new venture. In June 1862, he sailed from Genoa and landed again at Palermo, where he gathered volunteers for the campaign, under the slogan o Roma o Morte ('either Rome or Death'). The garrison of Messina, loyal to the king's instructions, barred their passage to the mainland. Garibaldi's force, now numbering two thousand, turned south and set sail from <a href="/wiki/Catania" title="Catania">Catania</a>. Garibaldi declared that he would enter Rome as a victor or perish beneath its walls. He landed at <a href="/wiki/Melito_di_Porto_Salvo" title="Melito di Porto Salvo">Melito</a> on 14 August and marched at once into the <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabrian</a> mountains. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Injured_Garibaldi_in_the_Aspromonte_Mountains_(oil_on_canvas).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_Injured_Garibaldi_in_the_Aspromonte_Mountains_%28oil_on_canvas%29.jpg/220px-The_Injured_Garibaldi_in_the_Aspromonte_Mountains_%28oil_on_canvas%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="713"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 153px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_Injured_Garibaldi_in_the_Aspromonte_Mountains_%28oil_on_canvas%29.jpg/220px-The_Injured_Garibaldi_in_the_Aspromonte_Mountains_%28oil_on_canvas%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="153" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_Injured_Garibaldi_in_the_Aspromonte_Mountains_%28oil_on_canvas%29.jpg/330px-The_Injured_Garibaldi_in_the_Aspromonte_Mountains_%28oil_on_canvas%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_Injured_Garibaldi_in_the_Aspromonte_Mountains_%28oil_on_canvas%29.jpg/440px-The_Injured_Garibaldi_in_the_Aspromonte_Mountains_%28oil_on_canvas%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Injured Garibaldi in the <a href="/wiki/Aspromonte" title="Aspromonte">Aspromonte Mountains</a> (oil on canvas), credited to <a href="/wiki/Gerolamo_Induno" title="Gerolamo Induno">Gerolamo Induno</a></figcaption></figure> Far from supporting this endeavour, the Italian government was quite disapproving. General Cialdini dispatched a division of the regular army, under Colonel Pallavicino, against the volunteer bands. On 28 August the two forces met at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aspromonte" title="Battle of Aspromonte">Aspromonte</a>. One of the regulars fired a chance shot, and several volleys followed, but Garibaldi forbade his men to return fire on fellow subjects of the Kingdom of Italy. The volunteers suffered several casualties, and Garibaldi himself was wounded; many were taken prisoner. Garibaldi was taken by steamer to <a href="/wiki/Varignano,_La_Spezia" class="mw-redirect" title="Varignano, La Spezia">Varignano</a>, where he was honorably imprisoned for a time, but finally released.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Meanwhile, Victor Emmanuel sought a safer means to the acquisition of the remaining Papal territory. He negotiated with the Emperor Napoleon for the removal of the French troops from Rome through a treaty. They agreed to the <a href="/wiki/September_Convention" title="September Convention">September Convention</a> in September 1864, by which Napoleon agreed to withdraw the troops within two years. The pope was to expand his own army during that time so as to be self-sufficient. In December 1866, the last of the French troops departed from Rome, in spite of the efforts of the pope to retain them. By their withdrawal, Italy (excluding Venetia and Savoy) was freed from the presence of foreign soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> The seat of government was moved in 1865 from <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>, the old Sardinian capital, to <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>. This arrangement created such disturbances in Turin that the king was forced to leave that city hastily for his new capital.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Third_War_of_Independence_(1866)">Third War of Independence (1866)</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Third War of Independence (1866)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third Italian War of Independence</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Plebiscite_of_Veneto_of_1866" title="Plebiscite of Veneto of 1866">Plebiscite of Veneto of 1866</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustrated_London_News_-_11_agosto_1866._Combattimento_fra_garibaldini_e_austriaci_a_Bezzecca.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Illustrated_London_News_-_11_agosto_1866._Combattimento_fra_garibaldini_e_austriaci_a_Bezzecca.jpg/220px-Illustrated_London_News_-_11_agosto_1866._Combattimento_fra_garibaldini_e_austriaci_a_Bezzecca.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="291"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Illustrated_London_News_-_11_agosto_1866._Combattimento_fra_garibaldini_e_austriaci_a_Bezzecca.jpg/220px-Illustrated_London_News_-_11_agosto_1866._Combattimento_fra_garibaldini_e_austriaci_a_Bezzecca.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Illustrated_London_News_-_11_agosto_1866._Combattimento_fra_garibaldini_e_austriaci_a_Bezzecca.jpg/330px-Illustrated_London_News_-_11_agosto_1866._Combattimento_fra_garibaldini_e_austriaci_a_Bezzecca.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Illustrated_London_News_-_11_agosto_1866._Combattimento_fra_garibaldini_e_austriaci_a_Bezzecca.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bezzecca" title="Battle of Bezzecca">Battle of Bezzecca</a></figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a> of 1866, Austria contested with <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> the position of leadership among the German states. The Kingdom of Italy seized the opportunity to capture <a href="/wiki/Venetia_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Venetia (region)">Venetia</a> from Austrian rule and allied itself with Prussia.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Austria tried to persuade the Italian government to accept Venetia in exchange for non-intervention. However, on 8 April, Italy and Prussia signed an agreement that supported Italy's acquisition of Venetia, and on 20 June Italy issued a declaration of war on Austria. Within the context of Italian unification, the Austro-Prussian war is called the Third Independence War, after the First (1848) and the Second (1859).<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Victor Emmanuel hastened to lead an army across the <a href="/wiki/Mincio" title="Mincio">Mincio</a> to the invasion of Venetia, while Garibaldi was to <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Trentino_(1866)" title="Invasion of Trentino (1866)">invade the Tyrol</a> with his <a href="/wiki/Hunters_of_the_Alps" title="Hunters of the Alps">Hunters of the Alps</a>. The Italian army encountered the Austrians at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Custoza_(1866)" title="Battle of Custoza (1866)">Custoza</a> on 24 June and suffered a defeat. On 20 July the <a href="/wiki/Regia_Marina" title="Regia Marina">Regia Marina</a> was defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lissa_(1866)" title="Battle of Lissa (1866)">Battle of Lissa</a>. The following day, Garibaldi's volunteers defeated an Austrian force in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bezzecca" title="Battle of Bezzecca">Battle of Bezzecca</a>, and moved toward <a href="/wiki/Trento" title="Trento">Trento</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Minister_President_of_Prussia" title="Minister President of Prussia">Prussian Minister President</a> <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> saw that his own ends in the war had been achieved, and signed an armistice with Austria on 27 July. Italy followed, officially <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cormons" title="Armistice of Cormons">laying down its arms</a> on 12 August. Garibaldi was recalled from his successful march and resigned with a brief telegram reading only "Obbedisco" ('I obey'). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einzug_Vittorio_Emanuels_in_Venedig_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Einzug_Vittorio_Emanuels_in_Venedig_1.jpg/220px-Einzug_Vittorio_Emanuels_in_Venedig_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1849" data-file-height="1288"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 153px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Einzug_Vittorio_Emanuels_in_Venedig_1.jpg/220px-Einzug_Vittorio_Emanuels_in_Venedig_1.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="153" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Einzug_Vittorio_Emanuels_in_Venedig_1.jpg/330px-Einzug_Vittorio_Emanuels_in_Venedig_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Einzug_Vittorio_Emanuels_in_Venedig_1.jpg/440px-Einzug_Vittorio_Emanuels_in_Venedig_1.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel II</a> in Venice</figcaption></figure> Prussia's success on the northern front obliged Austria to cede Venetia (present-day <a href="/wiki/Veneto" title="Veneto">Veneto</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Friuli" title="Friuli">Friuli</a>) and the city of <a href="/wiki/Mantua" title="Mantua">Mantua</a> (the last remnant of the <a href="/wiki/Quadrilatero" title="Quadrilatero">Quadrilatero</a>). Under the terms of a peace treaty signed in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> on 12 October, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph" class="mw-redirect" title="Franz Joseph">Franz Joseph</a> had already agreed to cede Venetia to Napoleon III in exchange for non-intervention in the Austro-Prussian War, and thus Napoleon ceded Venetia to Italy on 19 October, in exchange for the earlier Italian acquiescence to the <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Savoy" title="Annexation of Savoy">French annexation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Savoy" title="Savoy">Savoy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nice" title="Nice">Nice</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Vienna_(1866)" title="Treaty of Vienna (1866)">Treaty of Vienna</a>, it was written that the annexation of Venetia would have become effective only after a <a href="/wiki/Plebiscite_of_Veneto_of_1866" title="Plebiscite of Veneto of 1866">referendum</a>—taken on 21 and 22 October—to let the Venetian people express their will about being annexed or not to the Kingdom of Italy. Historians suggest that the referendum in Venetia was held under military pressure,<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> as a mere 0.01% of voters (69 out of more than 642,000 ballots) voted against the annexation.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Austrian forces put up some opposition to the invading Italians, to little effect. Victor Emmanuel entered Venice and Venetian land, and performed an act of homage in the <a href="/wiki/Piazza_San_Marco" title="Piazza San Marco">Piazza San Marco</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Rome">Rome</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Rome" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mentana_and_Villa_Glori">Mentana and Villa Glori</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Mentana and Villa Glori" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Garibaldi_at_Mentana,_3rd_November_1867.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Garibaldi_at_Mentana%2C_3rd_November_1867.jpg/220px-Garibaldi_at_Mentana%2C_3rd_November_1867.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1749" data-file-height="963"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 121px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Garibaldi_at_Mentana%2C_3rd_November_1867.jpg/220px-Garibaldi_at_Mentana%2C_3rd_November_1867.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="121" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Garibaldi_at_Mentana%2C_3rd_November_1867.jpg/330px-Garibaldi_at_Mentana%2C_3rd_November_1867.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Garibaldi_at_Mentana%2C_3rd_November_1867.jpg/440px-Garibaldi_at_Mentana%2C_3rd_November_1867.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Garibaldi at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mentana" title="Battle of Mentana">Mentana</a>, 3 November 1867</figcaption></figure> The national party, with Garibaldi at its head, still aimed at the possession of Rome, as the historic capital of the peninsula. In 1867 Garibaldi made a second attempt to capture Rome, but the Papal army, strengthened with a new French auxiliary force, defeated his poorly armed volunteers at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mentana" title="Battle of Mentana">Mentana</a>. Subsequently, a French garrison remained in <a href="/wiki/Civitavecchia" title="Civitavecchia">Civitavecchia</a> until August 1870, when it was recalled following the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>. Before the defeat at Mentana on 3 November 1867,<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Enrico Cairoli, his brother Giovanni, and 70 companions had made a daring attempt to take Rome. The group had embarked in <a href="/wiki/Terni" title="Terni">Terni</a> and floated down the <a href="/wiki/Tiber" title="Tiber">Tiber</a>. Their arrival in Rome was to coincide with an uprising inside the city. On 22 October 1867, the revolutionaries inside Rome seized control of the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">Capitoline Hill</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Piazza_Colonna" title="Piazza Colonna">Piazza Colonna</a>. Unfortunately for the Cairoli and their companions, by the time they arrived at Villa Glori, on the northern outskirts of Rome, the uprising had already been suppressed. During the night of 22 October 1867, the group was surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Papal_Zouaves" title="Papal Zouaves">Papal Zouaves</a>, and Giovanni was severely wounded. Enrico was mortally wounded and bled to death in Giovanni's arms. With Cairoli dead, command was assumed by Giovanni Tabacchi who had retreated with the remaining volunteers into the villa, where they continued to fire at the papal soldiers. These also retreated in the evening to Rome. The survivors retreated to the positions of those led by Garibaldi on the Italian border. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memorial">Memorial</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Memorial" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> At the summit of Villa Glori, near the spot where Enrico died, there is a plain white column dedicated to the Cairoli brothers and their 70 companions. About 200 meters to the right from the Terrazza del Pincio, there is a bronze monument of Giovanni holding the dying Enrico in his arm. A plaque lists the names of their companions. Giovanni never recovered from his wounds and from the tragic events of 1867. According to an eyewitness,<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> when Giovanni died on 11 September 1869: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">In the last moments, he had a vision of Garibaldi and seemed to greet him with enthusiasm. I heard (so says a friend who was present) him say three times: "The union of the French to the papal political supporters was the terrible fact!", he was thinking about Mentana. He called Enrico many times, that he might help him, then he said: "but we will certainly win; we will go to Rome!"</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capture_of_Rome">Capture of Rome</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Capture of Rome" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Porta_Pia_Pagliari_Vizzotto.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Porta_Pia_Pagliari_Vizzotto.JPG/220px-Porta_Pia_Pagliari_Vizzotto.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2472"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 140px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Porta_Pia_Pagliari_Vizzotto.JPG/220px-Porta_Pia_Pagliari_Vizzotto.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="140" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Porta_Pia_Pagliari_Vizzotto.JPG/330px-Porta_Pia_Pagliari_Vizzotto.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Porta_Pia_Pagliari_Vizzotto.JPG/440px-Porta_Pia_Pagliari_Vizzotto.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></figcaption></figure> In July 1870, the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> began. In early August, the French Emperor <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> recalled his garrison from Rome, thus no longer providing protection to the Papal State. Widespread public demonstrations illustrated the demand that the Italian government take Rome. The Italian government took no direct action until the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan" title="Battle of Sedan">Battle of Sedan</a>. King Victor Emmanuel II sent Count <a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Ponza_di_San_Martino" title="Gustavo Ponza di San Martino">Gustavo Ponza di San Martino</a> to Pius IX with a personal letter offering a face-saving proposal that would have allowed the peaceful entry of the Italian Army into Rome, under the guise of offering protection to the pope. The Papacy, however, exhibited something less than enthusiasm for the plan: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The pope's reception of San Martino (10 September 1870) was unfriendly. Pius IX allowed violent outbursts to escape him. Throwing the King's letter upon the table he exclaimed, "Fine loyalty! You are all a set of vipers, of whited sepulchres, and wanting in faith." He was perhaps alluding to other letters received from the King. After, growing calmer, he exclaimed: "I am no prophet, nor son of a prophet, but I tell you, you will never enter Rome!". San Martino was so mortified that he left the next day.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></blockquote> The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Italian_Army" title="Royal Italian Army">Royal Italian Army</a>, commanded by General <a href="/wiki/Raffaele_Cadorna" title="Raffaele Cadorna">Raffaele Cadorna</a>, crossed the Papal frontier on 11 September and advanced slowly toward Rome, hoping that a peaceful entry could be negotiated. The Italian Army reached the <a href="/wiki/Aurelian_Walls" title="Aurelian Walls">Aurelian Walls</a> on 19 September and placed Rome under a state of siege. Although now convinced of his unavoidable defeat, Pius IX remained intransigent to the bitter end and forced his troops to put up a token resistance. On 20 September, after a cannonade of three hours had breached the Aurelian Walls at <a href="/wiki/Porta_Pia" title="Porta Pia">Porta Pia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bersaglieri" title="Bersaglieri">Bersaglieri</a> entered Rome and marched down Via Pia, which was subsequently renamed Via XX Settembre. Forty-nine Italian soldiers and four officers, and nineteen papal troops, died. Rome and <a href="/wiki/Latium" title="Latium">Latium</a> were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy after a plebiscite held on 2 October. The results of this plebiscite were accepted by decree of 9 October. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quirinale_palazzo_e_obelisco_con_dioscuri_Roma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Quirinale_palazzo_e_obelisco_con_dioscuri_Roma.jpg/220px-Quirinale_palazzo_e_obelisco_con_dioscuri_Roma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6965" data-file-height="4912"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 155px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Quirinale_palazzo_e_obelisco_con_dioscuri_Roma.jpg/220px-Quirinale_palazzo_e_obelisco_con_dioscuri_Roma.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="155" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Quirinale_palazzo_e_obelisco_con_dioscuri_Roma.jpg/330px-Quirinale_palazzo_e_obelisco_con_dioscuri_Roma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Quirinale_palazzo_e_obelisco_con_dioscuri_Roma.jpg/440px-Quirinale_palazzo_e_obelisco_con_dioscuri_Roma.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Quirinal_Palace" title="Quirinal Palace">Quirinal Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> became the official residence (royal residence of the <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Italy">Kings of Italy</a> and after the <a href="/wiki/Italian_constitutional_referendum,_1946" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian constitutional referendum, 1946">Italian constitutional referendum, 1946</a> residence and workplace for the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Italy" title="President of Italy">Presidents of the Italian Republic</a>).</figcaption></figure> Initially the Italian government had offered to let the pope keep the <a href="/wiki/Leonine_City" title="Leonine City">Leonine City</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Guarantees" title="Law of Guarantees">Law of Guarantees</a>, but the pope rejected the offer because acceptance would have been an implied endorsement of the legitimacy of the Italian kingdom's rule over his former domain. Pius IX declared himself a <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_in_the_Vatican" title="Prisoner in the Vatican">prisoner in the Vatican</a>, although he was not actually restrained from coming and going. Rather, being deposed and stripped of much of his former power also removed a measure of personal protection—if he had walked the streets of Rome, he might have been in danger from political opponents who had formerly kept their views private. Officially, the capital was not moved from Florence to Rome until July 1871.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Historian Raffaele de Cesare made the following observations about Italian unification: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The Roman question was the stone tied to Napoleon's feet – that dragged him into the abyss. He never forgot, even in August 1870, a month before Sedan, that he was a sovereign of a Catholic country, that he had been made Emperor, and was supported by the votes of the Conservatives and the influence of the clergy; and that it was his supreme duty not to abandon the <a href="/wiki/Pontiff" title="Pontiff">Pontiff</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">For twenty years Napoleon III had been the true sovereign of Rome, where he had many friends and relations…. Without him the temporal power would never have been reconstituted, nor, being reconstituted, would have endured.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></blockquote> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Problems">Problems</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Problems" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> Unification was achieved entirely in terms of Piedmont's interests. Martin Clark says, "It was Piedmontization all around."<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Cavour died unexpectedly in June 1861, at 50, and most of the many promises that he made to regional authorities to induce them to join the newly unified Italian kingdom were ignored. The new Kingdom of Italy was structured by renaming the old Kingdom of Sardinia and annexing all the new provinces into its structures. The first king was Victor Emmanuel II, who kept his old title. National and regional officials were all appointed by Piedmont. A few regional leaders succeeded to high positions in the new national government, but the top bureaucratic and military officials were mostly Piedmontese. The national capital was briefly moved to Florence and finally to Rome, one of the cases of Piedmont losing out. However, Piedmontese tax rates and regulations, diplomats and officials were imposed on all of Italy. The constitution was Piedmont's <a href="/wiki/Statuto_Albertino" title="Statuto Albertino">old constitution</a>. The document was generally liberal and was welcomed by liberal elements. However, its anticlerical provisions were resented in the pro-clerical regions in places such as around Venice, Rome, and Naples—as well as the island of Sicily. Cavour had promised there would be regional and municipal, local governments, but all the promises were broken in 1861. The first decade of the kingdom saw <a href="/wiki/Brigandage_in_Southern_Italy_after_1861" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861">savage insurrections</a> in Sicily and in the Naples region. Hearder claimed that failed efforts to protest unification involved "a mixture of spontaneous peasant movement and a Bourbon-clerical reaction directed by the old authorities".<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The pope lost Rome in 1870 and ordered the Catholic Church not to co-operate with the new government, <a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">a decision fully reversed only in 1929</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Most people for Risorgimento had wanted strong provinces, but they got a strong central state instead. The inevitable long-run results were a severe weakness of national unity and a politicized system based on mutually hostile regional violence. Such factors remain in the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ruling_and_representing_southern_Italy">Ruling and representing southern Italy</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Ruling and representing southern Italy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> From the spring of 1860 to the summer of 1861, a major challenge that the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Parliament of the Kingdom of Sardinia">Piedmontese parliament</a> faced on national unification was how they should govern and control the southern regions of the country that were frequently represented and described by northern Italian correspondents as "corrupt", "barbaric", and "uncivilized".<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> In response to the depictions of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">southern Italy</a>, the Piedmontese parliament had to decide whether it should investigate the southern regions to better understand the social and political situations there or it should establish jurisdiction and order by using mostly force.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> The dominance of letters sent from the northern Italian correspondents that deemed southern Italy to be "so far from the ideas of progress and civilization" ultimately induced the Piedmontese parliament to choose the latter course of action, which effectively illustrated the intimate connection between representation and rule.<a href="#cite_note-:0-91">[91]</a> In essence, the northern Italians' "representation of the south as a land of barbarism (variously qualified as indecent, lacking in 'public conscience', ignorant, superstitious, etc.)" provided the Piedmontese with the justification to rule the southern regions on the pretext of implementing a superior, more civilized, "Piedmontese morality".<a href="#cite_note-:0-91">[91]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Historiography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Brigantaggio" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigantaggio">Brigantaggio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Massimo_d%E2%80%99Azeglio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Massimo_d%E2%80%99Azeglio.jpg/220px-Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Massimo_d%E2%80%99Azeglio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2572"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 283px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Massimo_d%E2%80%99Azeglio.jpg/220px-Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Massimo_d%E2%80%99Azeglio.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="283" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Massimo_d%E2%80%99Azeglio.jpg/330px-Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Massimo_d%E2%80%99Azeglio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Massimo_d%E2%80%99Azeglio.jpg/440px-Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Massimo_d%E2%80%99Azeglio.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Massimo d'Azeglio, a <a href="/wiki/Moderate_Party_(Italy)" title="Moderate Party (Italy)">moderate</a> liberal statesman, novelist, and painter (1798–1866)</figcaption></figure> Italian unification is still a topic of debate. According to <a href="/wiki/Massimo_d%27Azeglio" title="Massimo d'Azeglio">Massimo d'Azeglio</a>, centuries of foreign domination created remarkable differences in Italian society, and the role of the newly formed government was to face these differences and to create a unified Italian society. Still today the most famous quote of Massimo d'Azeglio is, "L'Italia è fatta. Restano da fare gli italiani" ('Italy has been made. Now it remains to make Italians').<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> The economist and politician <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Saverio_Nitti" title="Francesco Saverio Nitti">Francesco Saverio Nitti</a> criticized the newly created state for not considering the substantial economic differences between <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">northern Italy</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free-market economy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">southern Italy</a>, a state <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionist</a> economy, when integrating the two. When the Kingdom of Italy extended the free-market economy to the rest of the country, the south's economy collapsed under the weight of the north's. Nitti contended that this change should have been much more gradual in order to allow the birth of an adequate entrepreneurial class able to make strong investments and initiatives in the south. These mistakes, he felt, were the cause of the economic and social problems which came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">southern question</a> (Questione Meridionale).<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The politician, historian, and writer <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Salvemini" title="Gaetano Salvemini">Gaetano Salvemini</a> commented that although Italian unification had been a strong opportunity for both a moral and economic rebirth of Italy's Mezzogiorno (<a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">southern Italy</a>), because of a lack of understanding and action on the part of politicians, corruption and organized crime flourished in the south.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> The Marxist theorist <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a> criticized Italian unification for the limited presence of the masses in politics, as well as the lack of modern <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a> in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/Revisionism_of_Risorgimento" title="Revisionism of Risorgimento">Revisionism of Risorgimento</a> produced a clear radicalization of Italy in the mid-20th century, following the fall of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">Savoy monarchy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> during World War II. Reviews of the historical facts concerning Italian unification's successes and failures continue to be undertaken by domestic and foreign academic authors, including <a href="/wiki/Denis_Mack_Smith" title="Denis Mack Smith">Denis Mack Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Duggan_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Duggan (historian)">Christopher Duggan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lucy_Riall" title="Lucy Riall">Lucy Riall</a>. Recent work emphasizes the central importance of nationalism.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Risorgimento_and_Italian_irredentism">Risorgimento and Italian irredentism</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Risorgimento and Italian irredentism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_of_Italian_irredentism">Origins of Italian irredentism</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Origins of Italian irredentism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SetteGiugno2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SetteGiugno2009.jpg/220px-SetteGiugno2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="500"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 293px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SetteGiugno2009.jpg/220px-SetteGiugno2009.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="293" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SetteGiugno2009.jpg/330px-SetteGiugno2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/SetteGiugno2009.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Sette_Giugno" title="Sette Giugno">Sette Giugno</a> monument, symbol of the pro-<a href="/wiki/Italian_Maltese" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Maltese">Italian Maltese</a></figcaption></figure> It can be argued that Italian unification was never truly completed in the 19th century. Even after the <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a> (1871), the final event of the unification of Italy, many ethnic <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian speakers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol" title="Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol">Trentino-Alto Adigan</a> Italians, <a href="/wiki/Savoyard_Italians" class="mw-redirect" title="Savoyard Italians">Savoyard Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corfiot_Italians" title="Corfiot Italians">Corfiot Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_Italians" title="Niçard Italians">Niçard Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Italians" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss Italians">Swiss Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corsican_Italians" class="mw-redirect" title="Corsican Italians">Corsican Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maltese_Italians" class="mw-redirect" title="Maltese Italians">Maltese Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Istrian_Italians" title="Istrian Italians">Istrian Italians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_Italians" title="Dalmatian Italians">Dalmatian Italians</a>) remained outside the borders of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> and this situation created the <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentism</a>. The Corsican revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Pasquale_Paoli" title="Pasquale Paoli">Pasquale Paoli</a> was called "the precursor of Italian irredentism" by <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Tommaseo" title="Niccolò Tommaseo">Niccolò Tommaseo</a> because he was the first to promote the Italian language and socio-culture (the main characteristics of Italian irredentism) in his island; Paoli wanted the <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian language</a> to be the official language of the newly founded <a href="/wiki/Corsican_Republic" title="Corsican Republic">Corsican Republic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The term Risorgimento refers to the domestic reorganization of the stratified Italian identity into a unified, national front. The word literally means 'rising again' and was an ideological movement which strove to spark national pride, leading to political oppositionalism to foreign rule and influence. There is contention on its actual impact in Italy, some Scholars arguing it was a liberalizing time for 19th century Italian culture, while others speculate that although it was a patriotic revolution, it only tangibly aided the upper-class and <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeois</a> publics without actively benefitting the lower classes.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Italia_irredenta" class="mw-redirect" title="Italia irredenta">Italia irredenta</a> was an Italian <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> opinion movement that emerged after Italian unification. It advocated irredentism among the Italian people as well as other nationalities who were willing to become Italian and as a movement; it is also known as "Italian irredentism". Not a formal organization, it was just an opinion movement that claimed that Italy had to reach its "natural borders", meaning that the country would need to incorporate all areas predominantly consisting of ethnic Italians within the near vicinity outside its borders. Similar patriotic and nationalistic ideas were common in Europe in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg/220px-Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="361"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 136px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg/220px-Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="136" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg/330px-Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg/440px-Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Residents of <a href="/wiki/Fiume" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiume">Fiume</a> cheering <a href="/wiki/Impresa_di_Fiume" class="mw-redirect" title="Impresa di Fiume">Gabriele D'Annunzio and his Legionari</a> in September 1919, when Fiume had 22,488 (62% of the population) Italians in a total population of 35,839 inhabitants</figcaption></figure> At the beginning, Italian irredentism promoted the annexation to Italy of territories where Italians formed the absolute majority of the population, but retained by the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third Italian War of Independence</a> in 1866. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_One" class="mw-redirect" title="World War One">World War One</a> the main "irredent lands" (terre irredente) were considered to be the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Trento" title="Trento">Trento</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a> and, in a narrow sense, irredentists referred to the Italian patriots living in these two areas. The term was later expanded to also include multilingual and multiethnic areas, where Italians were a relative majority or a substantial minority, within the northern Italian region encompassed by the Alps, with <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovenes" title="Slovenes">Slovene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Croats" title="Croats">Croatian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ladin_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladin people">Ladin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanians" title="Istro-Romanians">Istro-Romanian</a> population, such as <a href="/wiki/South_Tyrol" title="South Tyrol">South Tyrol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Istria" title="Istria">Istria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorizia_and_Gradisca" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorizia and Gradisca">Gorizia and Gradisca</a> and part of <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>. The claims were further extended also to the city of <a href="/wiki/Rijeka" title="Rijeka">Fiume</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Impresa_di_Fiume" class="mw-redirect" title="Impresa di Fiume">Impresa di Fiume</a>), <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>, the island of <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Nice" title="County of Nice">County of Nice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Switzerland">Italian Switzerland</a>. Many <a href="/wiki/Istrian_Italians" title="Istrian Italians">Istrian Italians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_Italians" title="Dalmatian Italians">Dalmatian Italians</a> looked with sympathy towards the Risorgimento movement that fought for the unification of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-corsadelricordo-102">[102]</a> However, after the <a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third Italian War of Independence</a> (1866), when the <a href="/wiki/Veneto" title="Veneto">Veneto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friuli" title="Friuli">Friuli</a> regions were ceded by the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrians</a> to the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)">Kingdom Italy</a>, Istria and Dalmatia remained part of the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a>, together with other Italian-speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic. This triggered the gradual rise of <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentism</a> among many Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia, who demanded the unification of the <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kvarner_Gulf" title="Kvarner Gulf">Kvarner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> with Italy. The Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia supported the Italian Risorgimento: as a consequence, the Austrians saw the Italians as enemies and favored the Slav communities of Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-103">[103]</a> During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph I of Austria</a> outlined a wide-ranging project aimed at the <a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a> or <a href="/wiki/Slavization" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavization">Slavization</a> of the areas of the empire with an Italian presence:<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VenetianDalmatia1797.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/VenetianDalmatia1797.jpg/400px-VenetianDalmatia1797.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="339" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="543" data-file-height="460"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 400px;height: 339px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/VenetianDalmatia1797.jpg/400px-VenetianDalmatia1797.jpg" data-width="400" data-height="339" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/VenetianDalmatia1797.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Austrian linguistic map from 1896. In green the areas where <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a> were the majority of the population, in orange the areas where <a href="/wiki/Istrian_Italians" title="Istrian Italians">Istrian Italians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_Italians" title="Dalmatian Italians">Dalmatian Italians</a> were the majority of the population. The boundaries of <a href="/wiki/Venetian_Dalmatia" title="Venetian Dalmatia">Venetian Dalmatia</a> in 1797 are delimited with blue dots.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">His Majesty expressed the precise order that action be taken decisively against the influence of the Italian elements still present in some regions of the Crown and, appropriately occupying the posts of public, judicial, masters employees as well as with the influence of the press, work in <a href="/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol" title="Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol">South Tyrol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Littoral" title="Austrian Littoral">Littoral</a> for the Germanization and Slavization of these territories according to the circumstances, with energy and without any regard. His Majesty calls the central offices to the strong duty to proceed in this way to what has been established.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Franz Joseph I of Austria, Council of the Crown of 12 November 1866<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Istrian_Italians" title="Istrian Italians">Istrian Italians</a> were more than 50% of the total population of Istria for centuries,<a href="#cite_note-iemed-106">[106]</a> while making up about a third of the population in 1900.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-107">[107]</a> Dalmatia, especially its maritime cities, once had a substantial local ethnic Italian population (<a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_Italians" title="Dalmatian Italians">Dalmatian Italians</a>), making up 33% of the total population of Dalmatia in 1803,<a href="#cite_note-Bartoli-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-Seton-Watson-109">[109]</a> but this was reduced to 20% in 1816.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> In Dalmatia there was a constant decline in the Italian population, in a context of repression that also took on violent connotations.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> During this period, Austrians carried out an aggressive <a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">anti-Italian</a> policy through a forced Slavization of Dalmatia.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> According to Austrian census, the Dalmatian Italians formed 12.5% of the population in 1865.<a href="#cite_note-:9-113">[113]</a> In the 1910 Austro-Hungarian census, Istria had a population of 57.8% Slavic-speakers (Croat and Slovene), and 38.1% Italian speakers.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> For the Austrian <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dalmatia" title="Kingdom of Dalmatia">Kingdom of Dalmatia</a>, (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>), the 1910 numbers were 96.2% Slavic speakers and 2.8% Italian speakers.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> The Italian population in Dalmatia was concentrated in the major coastal cities. In the city of <a href="/wiki/Split,_Croatia" title="Split, Croatia">Split</a> in 1890 there were 1,969 Dalmatian Italians (12.5% of the population), in <a href="/wiki/Zadar" title="Zadar">Zadar</a> 7,423 (64.6%), in <a href="/wiki/%C5%A0ibenik" title="Šibenik">Šibenik</a> 1,018 (14.5%), in <a href="/wiki/Kotor" title="Kotor">Kotor</a> 623 (18.7%) and in <a href="/wiki/Dubrovnik" title="Dubrovnik">Dubrovnik</a> 331 (4.6%).<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> In other Dalmatian localities, according to Austrian censuses, Dalmatian Italians experienced a sudden decrease: in the twenty years 1890-1910, in <a href="/wiki/Rab_(island)" title="Rab (island)">Rab</a> they went from 225 to 151, in <a href="/wiki/Vis_(island)" title="Vis (island)">Vis</a> from 352 to 92, in <a href="/wiki/Pag_(island)" title="Pag (island)">Pag</a> from 787 to 23, completely disappearing in almost all the inland locations. In 1909 the <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian language</a> lost its <a href="/wiki/Status_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Status (law)">status</a> as the official language of Dalmatia in favor of Croatian only (previously both languages were recognized): thus Italian could no longer be used in the public and administrative sphere.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Irredentism_and_the_World_Wars">Irredentism and the World Wars</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Irredentism and the World Wars" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png/220px-Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1114" data-file-height="785"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 155px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png/220px-Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png" data-width="220" data-height="155" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png/330px-Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png/440px-Promised_Borders_of_the_Tready_of_London.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Territories promised to Italy by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1915)" title="Treaty of London (1915)">Treaty of London (1915)</a>, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige" class="mw-redirect" title="Trentino-Alto Adige">Trentino-Alto Adige</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> (tan), and the <a href="/wiki/Sne%C5%BEnik_(plateau)" title="Snežnik (plateau)">Snežnik Plateau</a> area (green). Dalmatia, after the WWI, however, was not assigned to Italy but to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>.</figcaption></figure> Italy <a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">entered into the First World War</a> in 1915 with the aim of completing national unity: for this reason, the Italian intervention in the First World War is also considered the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Italian_War_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Italian War of Independence">Fourth Italian War of Independence</a>,<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> in a historiographical perspective that identifies in the latter the conclusion of the unification of Italy, whose military actions began during the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">revolutions of 1848</a> with the <a href="/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="First Italian War of Independence">First Italian War of Independence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> During the post-unification era, some Italians were dissatisfied with the current state of the Italian Kingdom since they wanted the kingdom to include <a href="/wiki/Triest" class="mw-redirect" title="Triest">Trieste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Istria" title="Italian irredentism in Istria">Istria</a>, and other adjacent territories as well. This Italian irredentism succeeded in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> with the annexation of Trieste and <a href="/wiki/Trento" title="Trento">Trento</a>, with the respective territories of <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol" title="Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol">Trentino-Alto Adige</a>. The Kingdom of Italy had declared neutrality at the beginning of the war, officially because the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> with Germany and Austria-Hungary was a defensive one, requiring its members to come under attack first. Many Italians were still hostile to Austria's continuing occupation of ethnically Italian areas, and Italy chose not to enter. <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> requested Italian neutrality, while the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a> (which included Great Britain, France and Russia) requested its intervention. With the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1915)" title="Treaty of London (1915)">Treaty of London</a>, signed in April 1915, Italy agreed to declare war against the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> in exchange for the irredent territories of Friuli, Trentino, and <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Dalmatia" title="Italian irredentism in Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Italia_irredenta" class="mw-redirect" title="Italia irredenta">Italia irredenta</a>). <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GovernateOfDalmatia1941_43.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/GovernateOfDalmatia1941_43.png/400px-GovernateOfDalmatia1941_43.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="270" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="676"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 400px;height: 270px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/GovernateOfDalmatia1941_43.png/400px-GovernateOfDalmatia1941_43.png" data-width="400" data-height="270" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/GovernateOfDalmatia1941_43.png/600px-GovernateOfDalmatia1941_43.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/GovernateOfDalmatia1941_43.png/800px-GovernateOfDalmatia1941_43.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map of the three Italian provinces of the <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Dalmatia" title="Governorate of Dalmatia">Governorate of Dalmatia</a> (1941–1943): <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Zara" title="Province of Zara">province of Zara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spalato_(Italian_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spalato (Italian province)">province of Spalato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Cattaro" title="Province of Cattaro">province of Cattaro</a></figcaption></figure> Italian irredentism obtained an important result after the First World War, when Italy gained <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorizia" title="Gorizia">Gorizia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Istria" title="Istria">Istria</a>, and the cities of <a href="/wiki/Zadar" title="Zadar">Zara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pula" title="Pula">Pola</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rapallo_(1920)" title="Treaty of Rapallo (1920)">Treaty of Rapallo</a> in 1920. Some historians see the Risorgimento as continuing to that time, which is the view presented at the <a href="/wiki/Central_Museum_of_the_Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Museum of the Risorgimento">Central Museum of the Risorgimento</a> at <a href="/wiki/Altare_della_Patria" class="mw-redirect" title="Altare della Patria">Altare della Patria</a> in Rome.<a href="#cite_note-Arnaldi-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-museo-6">[6]</a> But Italy did not receive other territories promised by the Treaty of London, such Dalmatia, so this outcome was denounced as a "<a href="/wiki/Mutilated_victory" title="Mutilated victory">mutilated victory</a>". The rhetoric of "mutilated victory" was adopted by <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> and led to the <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">rise of</a> <a href="/wiki/Italian_Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fascism">Italian Fascism</a>, becoming a key point in the <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_of_Fascist_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Propaganda of Fascist Italy">propaganda of Fascist Italy</a>. Historians regard "mutilated victory" as a "political myth", used by fascists to fuel <a href="/wiki/Italian_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian imperialism">Italian imperialism</a> and obscure the successes of <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Italy">liberal Italy</a> in the aftermath of World War I.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, after the Axis attack on <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>, Italy created the <a href="/wiki/Governatorate_of_Dalmatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Governatorate of Dalmatia">Governatorate of Dalmatia</a> (from 1941 to September 1943), so the Kingdom of Italy annexed temporarily <a href="/wiki/Split,_Croatia" title="Split, Croatia">Split</a> (Italian Spalato), <a href="/wiki/Kotor" title="Kotor">Kotor</a> (Cattaro), and most of coastal Dalmatia. From 1942 to 1943, <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Corsica" title="Italian irredentism in Corsica">Corsica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Nice" title="Italian irredentism in Nice">Nice</a> (Italian Nizza) were temporarily annexed to the Kingdom of Italy, nearly fulfilling in those years the ambitions of Italian irredentism. For its avowed purpose, the movement had the "emancipation" of all Italian lands still subject to foreign rule after Italian unification. The Irredentists took language as the test of the alleged Italian nationality of the countries they proposed to emancipate, which were <a href="/wiki/Trentino" title="Trentino">Trentino</a>, Trieste, Dalmatia, Istria, Gorizia, <a href="/wiki/Ticino" title="Ticino">Ticino</a>, Nice (Nizza), Corsica, and <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Malta" title="Italian irredentism in Malta">Malta</a>. Austria-Hungary promoted <a href="/wiki/Croats" title="Croats">Croatian</a> interests in Dalmatia and Istria to weaken Italian claims in the western <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> before the First World War.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_Italian_irredentism">End of Italian irredentism</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: End of Italian irredentism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italians_leave_Pola.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Italians_leave_Pola.jpg/220px-Italians_leave_Pola.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="237" data-file-height="212"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 197px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Italians_leave_Pola.jpg/220px-Italians_leave_Pola.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="197" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Italians_leave_Pola.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Istrian_Italians" title="Istrian Italians">Istrian Italians</a> leave <a href="/wiki/Pula" title="Pula">Pola</a> in 1947 during the <a href="/wiki/Istrian-Dalmatian_exodus" class="mw-redirect" title="Istrian-Dalmatian exodus">Istrian-Dalmatian exodus</a>.</figcaption></figure> Under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Peace_with_Italy,_1947" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947">Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947</a>, <a href="/wiki/Istria" title="Istria">Istria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kvarner_Gulf" title="Kvarner Gulf">Kvarner</a>, most of the <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatian</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Zadar" title="Zadar">Zara</a> was annexed by <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> causing the <a href="/wiki/Istrian-Dalmatian_exodus" class="mw-redirect" title="Istrian-Dalmatian exodus">Istrian-Dalmatian exodus</a>, which led to the emigration of between 230,000 and 350,000 of local ethnic <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Istrian_Italians" title="Istrian Italians">Istrian Italians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_Italians" title="Dalmatian Italians">Dalmatian Italians</a>), the others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic <a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanians" title="Istro-Romanians">Istro-Romanians</a>, choosing to maintain Italian citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> The Istrian-Dalmatian exodus started in 1943 and ended completely only in 1960. According to the census organized in <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> in 2001 and that organized in <a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a> in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia).<a href="#cite_note-dzs-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-stat-125">[125]</a> After World War II, <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentism</a> disappeared along with the defeated Fascists and the Monarchy of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a>. After the Treaty of Paris (1947) and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Osimo" title="Treaty of Osimo">Treaty of Osimo</a> (1975), all territorial claims were abandoned by the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Republic">Italian Republic</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Italy" title="Foreign relations of Italy">Foreign relations of Italy</a>).<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> The Italian irredentist movement thus vanished from Italian politics. The 1947 <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Constitution of Italy</a> established five autonomous regions (<a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friuli-Venezia_Giulia" title="Friuli-Venezia Giulia">Friuli-Venezia Giulia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aosta_Valley" title="Aosta Valley">Aosta Valley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol" title="Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol">Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol</a>), in recognition of their cultural and linguistic distinctiveness. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Anniversary_of_the_unification_of_Italy">Anniversary of the unification of Italy</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Anniversary of the unification of Italy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anniversary_of_the_unification_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniversary of the unification of Italy">Anniversary of the unification of Italy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2987" data-file-height="1967"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 145px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="145" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Piazza_Venezia_-_Il_Vittoriano_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_Monument" title="Victor Emmanuel II Monument">Victor Emmanuel II Monument</a> in Rome, inaugurated in 1911 on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the unification of Italy</figcaption></figure> Italy celebrates the <a href="/wiki/Anniversary_of_the_unification_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniversary of the unification of Italy">anniversary of the unification</a> every fifty years, on 17 March (the date of <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a>). The anniversary occurred in 1911 (50th), 1961 (100th), 2011 (150th) and 2021 (160th) with several celebrations throughout the country.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> While remaining a working day, 17 March is considered a "day promoting the values linked to national identity".<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Unity_and_Armed_Forces_Day" title="National Unity and Armed Forces Day">National Unity and Armed Forces Day</a>, celebrated on 4 November, commemorates the end of World War I with the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Villa_Giusti" title="Armistice of Villa Giusti">Armistice of Villa Giusti</a>, a war event considered to complete the process of unification of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Culture_and_Risorgimento">Culture and Risorgimento</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Culture and Risorgimento" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Art" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S._croce,_tomba_vittorio_alfieri.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/S._croce%2C_tomba_vittorio_alfieri.JPG/170px-S._croce%2C_tomba_vittorio_alfieri.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="2320"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 226px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/S._croce%2C_tomba_vittorio_alfieri.JPG/170px-S._croce%2C_tomba_vittorio_alfieri.JPG" data-width="170" data-height="226" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/S._croce%2C_tomba_vittorio_alfieri.JPG/255px-S._croce%2C_tomba_vittorio_alfieri.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/S._croce%2C_tomba_vittorio_alfieri.JPG/340px-S._croce%2C_tomba_vittorio_alfieri.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mourning <a href="/wiki/Italia_turrita" title="Italia turrita">Italia turrita</a> on the tomb to Vittorio Alfieri by <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Canova" title="Antonio Canova">Antonio Canova</a></figcaption></figure> In art, this period was characterised by the <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a> that draws inspiration from the "classical" art and culture of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a>. The main Italian sculptor was <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Canova" title="Antonio Canova">Antonio Canova</a> who became famous for his <a href="/wiki/Marble_sculpture" title="Marble sculpture">marble sculptures</a> that delicately rendered <a href="/wiki/Nudity" title="Nudity">nude</a> flesh. The mourning <a href="/wiki/Italia_turrita" title="Italia turrita">Italia turrita</a> on the tomb to <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Vittorio Alfieri</a> is one of the main works of Risorgimento by Canova. By this time, in sculpture, a veiled woman in the style of the <a href="/wiki/Veiled_Rebecca" title="Veiled Rebecca">Veiled Rebecca</a> of Benzoni had become an allegory for <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-met-130">[130]</a> <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Francesco Hayez</a> was another remarkable artist of this period whose works often contain allegories about Italian unification. His most known painting <a href="/wiki/The_Kiss_(Hayez)" title="The Kiss (Hayez)">The Kiss</a> aims to portray the spirit of the <a href="/wiki/Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">Risorgimento</a>: the man wears red, white and green, representing the Italian patriots fighting for independence from the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian empire">Austro-Hungarian empire</a> while the girl's pale blue dress signifies France, which in 1859 (the year of the painting's creation) made an alliance with the <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861) (page does not exist)">Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia</a> enabling the latter to unify the many states of the Italian peninsula into the new kingdom of Italy. Hayez's three paintings on the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Vespers" title="Sicilian Vespers">Sicilian Vespers</a> are an implicit protest against the foreign domination of Italy. <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Appiani" title="Andrea Appiani">Andrea Appiani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domenico_Induno" title="Domenico Induno">Domenico Induno</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gerolamo_Induno" title="Gerolamo Induno">Gerolamo Induno</a> are also known for their patriotic canvases. The Risorgimento was also represented by works not necessarily linked to Neoclassicism—as in the case of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Fattori" title="Giovanni Fattori">Giovanni Fattori</a> who was one of the leaders of the group known as the <a href="/wiki/Macchiaioli" title="Macchiaioli">Macchiaioli</a> and who soon became a leading Italian <a href="/wiki/En_plein_air" title="En plein air">plein-airist</a>, painting landscapes, rural scenes, and military life during the Italian unification.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Literature" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg/170px-Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3704" data-file-height="4886"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 224px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg/170px-Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="224" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg/255px-Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg/340px-Francesco_Hayez_-_Ritratto_di_Alessandro_Manzoni.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Portrait of Alessandro Manzoni">Portrait of Alessandro Manzoni</a> (1841) by <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Francesco Hayez</a></figcaption></figure> The most well known writer of Risorgimento is <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a>, whose works are a symbol of the Italian unification, both for its patriotic message and because of his efforts in the development of the modern, unified <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian language</a>. He is famous for the novel <a href="/wiki/The_Betrothed_(Manzoni_novel)" title="The Betrothed (Manzoni novel)">The Betrothed</a> (orig. Italian: I Promessi Sposi) (1827), generally ranked among the masterpieces of <a href="/wiki/World_literature" title="World literature">world literature</a>. <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Vittorio Alfieri</a>, was the founder of a new school in the Italian drama, expressed in several occasions his suffering about the foreign domination's tyranny. <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Ugo Foscolo</a> describes in his works the passion and love for the fatherland and the glorious history of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian people">Italian people</a>; these two concepts are respectively well expressed in two masterpieces, <a href="/wiki/The_Last_Letters_of_Jacopo_Ortis" title="The Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis">The Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dei_Sepolcri" title="Dei Sepolcri">Dei Sepolcri</a>. <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Monti" title="Vincenzo Monti">Vincenzo Monti</a>, known for the <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> translation of the <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a>, described in his works both enthusiasms and disappointments of Risorgimento until his death. <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Berchet" title="Giovanni Berchet">Giovanni Berchet</a> wrote a poetry characterized by a high moral, popular and social content; he also contributed to <a href="/wiki/Il_Conciliatore" title="Il Conciliatore">Il Conciliatore</a>, a progressive bi-weekly scientific and literary journal, influential in the early <a href="/wiki/Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">Risorgimento</a> that was published in <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> from September 1818 until October 1819 when it was closed by the Austrian censors; its writers included also <a href="/wiki/Ludovico_di_Breme" title="Ludovico di Breme">Ludovico di Breme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Nicolini_(writer)" title="Giuseppe Nicolini (writer)">Giuseppe Nicolini</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Pellico" title="Silvio Pellico">Silvio Pellico</a>. <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Giacomo Leopardi</a> was one of the most important poets of Risorgimento thanks to works such as <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi#First_Canti" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Canzone all'Italia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi#Il_Risorgimento" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Risorgimento</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_De_Sanctis_ritratto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Francesco_De_Sanctis_ritratto.jpg/170px-Francesco_De_Sanctis_ritratto.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="782"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 200px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Francesco_De_Sanctis_ritratto.jpg/170px-Francesco_De_Sanctis_ritratto.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Francesco_De_Sanctis_ritratto.jpg/255px-Francesco_De_Sanctis_ritratto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Francesco_De_Sanctis_ritratto.jpg/340px-Francesco_De_Sanctis_ritratto.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Francesco_De_Sanctis" class="mw-redirect" title="Francesco De Sanctis">Francesco De Sanctis</a> (1890) by <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Saverio_Altamura" title="Francesco Saverio Altamura">Francesco Saverio Altamura</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Tommaseo" title="Niccolò Tommaseo">Niccolò Tommaseo</a>, the editor of the Italian Language Dictionary in eight volumes, was a precursor of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentism</a> and his works are a rare examples of a metropolitan culture above nationalism; he supported the liberal revolution headed by <a href="/wiki/Daniele_Manin" title="Daniele Manin">Daniele Manin</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a> and he will always support the unification of Italy. <a href="/wiki/Francesco_de_Sanctis" title="Francesco de Sanctis">Francesco de Sanctis</a> was one of the most important scholars of Italian language and literature in the 19th century; he supported the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Revolution of 1848</a> in <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> and for this reason he was imprisoned for three years; his reputation as a lecturer on <a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a> in <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a> brought him the appointment of professor at <a href="/wiki/ETH_Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="ETH Zürich">ETH Zürich</a> in 1856; he returned to <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> as Minister of Public Education after the unification of Italy. The writer and patriot <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Settembrini" title="Luigi Settembrini">Luigi Settembrini</a> published anonymously the Protest of the People of the Two Sicilies, a scathing indictment of the Bourbon government and was imprisoned and exiled several times by the Bourbons because of his support to Risorgimento; after the formation of the Kingdom of Italy, he was appointed professor of <a href="/wiki/Italian_literature" title="Italian literature">Italian literature</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Naples" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Naples">University of Naples</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ippolito_Nievo" title="Ippolito Nievo">Ippolito Nievo</a> is another main representative of Risorgimento with his novel <a href="/wiki/Ippolito_Nievo" title="Ippolito Nievo">Confessioni d'un italiano</a>; he fought with <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a>. The Risorgimento was also depicted in famous novels: <a href="/wiki/The_Leopard" title="The Leopard">The Leopard</a> written by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Tomasi_di_Lampedusa" title="Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa">Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heart_(novel)" title="Heart (novel)">Heart</a> by <a href="/wiki/Edmondo_De_Amicis" title="Edmondo De Amicis">Edmondo De Amicis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Piccolo_mondo_antico" title="Piccolo mondo antico">Piccolo mondo antico</a> by <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Fogazzaro" title="Antonio Fogazzaro">Antonio Fogazzaro</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Music" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Verdi_palermo_bust_200805.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Verdi_palermo_bust_200805.jpg/170px-Verdi_palermo_bust_200805.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1423" data-file-height="1877"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 224px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Verdi_palermo_bust_200805.jpg/170px-Verdi_palermo_bust_200805.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="224" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Verdi_palermo_bust_200805.jpg/255px-Verdi_palermo_bust_200805.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Verdi_palermo_bust_200805.jpg/340px-Verdi_palermo_bust_200805.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Verdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Verdi">Verdi</a>'s bust outside the <a href="/wiki/Teatro_Massimo" title="Teatro Massimo">Teatro Massimo</a> in Palermo</figcaption></figure> Risorgimento won the support of many leading Italian opera composers.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Their librettos often saw a delicate balance between European romantic narratives and dramatic themes evoking nationalistic sentiments. Ideas expressed in operas stimulated the political mobilisation in Italy and among the cultured classes of Europe who appreciated Italian opera. Furthermore, Mazzini and many other nationalists found inspiration in musical discourses.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> In his <a href="/wiki/L%27italiana_in_Algeri" title="L'italiana in Algeri">L'italiana in Algeri</a> ('The Italian Girl in Algiers'), <a href="/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini" title="Gioachino Rossini">Gioachino Rossini</a> expressed his support to the unification of Italy; the patriotic line Pensa alla patria, e intrepido il tuo dover adempi: vedi per tutta Italia rinascere gli esempi d’ardir e di valor ('Think about the fatherland and intrepid do your duty: see for all Italy the birth of the examples of courage and value') was censored in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Two_Sicilies" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Two Sicilies">Kingdom of Two Sicilies</a>. <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini" title="Vincenzo Bellini">Vincenzo Bellini</a> was a secret member of the Carbonari and in his masterpiece <a href="/wiki/I_puritani" title="I puritani">I puritani</a> (The Puritans), the last part of Act 2 is an allegory to Italian unification. Another Bellini opera, <a href="/wiki/Norma_(opera)" title="Norma (opera)">Norma</a>, was at the center of an unexpected standing ovation during its performance in <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> in 1859: while the <a href="/wiki/Choir" title="Choir">chorus</a> was performing Guerra, guerra! Le galliche selve ('War, war! The Gallic forests') in Act 2, the Italians began to greet the chorus with loud applause and to yell the word War! several times towards the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian officers</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Opera_house" title="Opera house">opera house</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> The relationship between <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Donizetti" title="Gaetano Donizetti">Gaetano Donizetti</a> and the Risorgimento is still controversial. Although <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a> tried to use some of Donizetti's works for promoting the Italian cause, Donizetti had always preferred not to get involved in politics.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viva_VERDI_grafitti.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Viva_VERDI_grafitti.jpeg/220px-Viva_VERDI_grafitti.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 154px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Viva_VERDI_grafitti.jpeg/220px-Viva_VERDI_grafitti.jpeg" data-width="220" data-height="154" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Viva_VERDI_grafitti.jpeg/330px-Viva_VERDI_grafitti.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Viva_VERDI_grafitti.jpeg/440px-Viva_VERDI_grafitti.jpeg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Patriots scrawling "Viva VERDI" on walls</figcaption></figure> Historians vigorously debate how political were the operas of <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Giuseppe Verdi</a> (1813–1901). In particular, the chorus of the Hebrew slaves (known as "<a href="/wiki/Va,_pensiero" title="Va, pensiero">Va, pensiero</a>") from the third act of the opera <a href="/wiki/Nabucco" title="Nabucco">Nabucco</a> was intended to be an anthem for Italian patriots, who were seeking to unify their country and free it from foreign control in the years up to 1861 (the chorus's theme of exiles singing about their homeland, and its lines such as O mia patria, si bella e perduta—'O my country, so lovely and so lost'—were thought to have resonated with many Italians).<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Beginning in Naples in 1859 and spreading throughout Italy, the slogan "Viva VERDI" was used as an acronym for Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re D'Italia ('<a href="/wiki/Vive,_Viva" class="mw-redirect" title="Vive, Viva">Viva</a> Victor Emmanuel King of Italy'), referring to <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel II of Italy">Victor Emmanuel II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Franco Della Peruta argues in favour of close links between the operas and the Risorgimento, emphasizing Verdi's patriotic intent and links to the values of the Risorgimento. Verdi started as a republican, became a strong supporter of Cavour and entered the Italian parliament on Cavour's suggestion. His politics caused him to be frequently in trouble with the Austrian censors. Verdi's main works of 1842–49 were especially relevant to the struggle for independence, including Nabucco (1842), <a href="/wiki/I_Lombardi_alla_prima_crociata" title="I Lombardi alla prima crociata">I Lombardi alla prima crociata</a> (1843), <a href="/wiki/Ernani" title="Ernani">Ernani</a> (1844), <a href="/wiki/Attila_(opera)" title="Attila (opera)">Attila</a> (1846), <a href="/wiki/Macbeth_(Verdi)" title="Macbeth (Verdi)">Macbeth</a> (1847), and <a href="/wiki/La_battaglia_di_Legnano" title="La battaglia di Legnano">La battaglia di Legnano</a> (1848). However, starting in the 1850s, his operas showed few patriotic themes because of the heavy censorship of the absolutist regimes in power. Verdi later became disillusioned by politics, but he was personally active part in the political world of events of the Risorgimento and was elected to the first Italian parliament in 1861.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Likewise Marco Pizzo argues that after 1815 music became a political tool, and many songwriters expressed ideals of freedom and equality. Pizzo says Verdi was part of this movement, for his operas were inspired by the love of country, the struggle for Italian independence, and speak to the sacrifice of patriots and exiles.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> On the other side of the debate, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ann_Smart" title="Mary Ann Smart">Mary Ann Smart</a> argues that music critics at the time seldom mentioned any political themes.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Likewise <a href="/wiki/Roger_Parker" title="Roger Parker">Roger Parker</a> argues that the political dimension of Verdi's operas was exaggerated by nationalistic historians looking for a hero in the late 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Final_scene_from_the_opera_Risorgimento!.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Final_scene_from_the_opera_Risorgimento%21.jpg/220px-Final_scene_from_the_opera_Risorgimento%21.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="972" data-file-height="628"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 142px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Final_scene_from_the_opera_Risorgimento%21.jpg/220px-Final_scene_from_the_opera_Risorgimento%21.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="142" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Final_scene_from_the_opera_Risorgimento%21.jpg/330px-Final_scene_from_the_opera_Risorgimento%21.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Final_scene_from_the_opera_Risorgimento%21.jpg/440px-Final_scene_from_the_opera_Risorgimento%21.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The final scene of the opera Risorgimento! (2011) by <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Ferrero" title="Lorenzo Ferrero">Lorenzo Ferrero</a></figcaption></figure> Giuseppe Verdi's Nabucco and the Risorgimento are the subject of a 2011 opera, <a href="/wiki/Risorgimento!_(opera)" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento! (opera)">Risorgimento!</a> by Italian composer <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Ferrero" title="Lorenzo Ferrero">Lorenzo Ferrero</a>, written to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the Italian unification. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Films">Films</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Films" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/The_Leopard_(1963_film)" title="The Leopard (1963 film)">The Leopard</a> is a film from 1963, based on the novel by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Tomasi_di_Lampedusa" title="Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa">Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa</a>, and directed by <a href="/wiki/Luchino_Visconti" title="Luchino Visconti">Luchino Visconti</a>. It features <a href="/wiki/Burt_Lancaster" title="Burt Lancaster">Burt Lancaster</a> as the eponymous character, the Prince of Salina. The film depicts his reaction to the Risorgimento, and his vain attempts to retain his social standing. There are other movies set in this period: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1860_(film)" title="1860 (film)">1860</a> (1934), by <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Blasetti" title="Alessandro Blasetti">Alessandro Blasetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piccolo_mondo_antico" title="Piccolo mondo antico">Piccolo mondo antico</a> (1941), by <a href="/wiki/Mario_Soldati" title="Mario Soldati">Mario Soldati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Un_garibaldino_al_convento" class="mw-redirect" title="Un garibaldino al convento">Un garibaldino al convento</a> (1942), by <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_De_Sica" title="Vittorio De Sica">Vittorio De Sica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart_and_Soul_(1948_film)" title="Heart and Soul (1948 film)">Heart and Soul</a> (1948), by <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_De_Sica" title="Vittorio De Sica">Vittorio De Sica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senso_(film)" title="Senso (film)">Senso</a> (1954), by <a href="/wiki/Luchino_Visconti" title="Luchino Visconti">Luchino Visconti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garibaldi_(film)" title="Garibaldi (film)">Garibaldi</a> (1961), by <a href="/wiki/Roberto_Rossellini" title="Roberto Rossellini">Roberto Rossellini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_(film)" title="1870 (film)">1870</a> (1971), by <a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Giannetti" title="Alfredo Giannetti">Alfredo Giannetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passion_of_Love" title="Passion of Love">Passione D'Amore</a> (1981), by <a href="/wiki/Ettore_Scola" title="Ettore Scola">Ettore Scola</a> (later adapted by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Sondheim" title="Stephen Sondheim">Stephen Sondheim</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Lapine" title="James Lapine">James Lapine</a> into the Tony Award-winning Broadway musical <a href="/wiki/Passion_(musical)" title="Passion (musical)">Passion</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noi_credevamo" class="mw-redirect" title="Noi credevamo">Noi credevamo</a> (2010), by <a href="/wiki/Mario_Martone" title="Mario Martone">Mario Martone</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="Maps_of_Italy_before_and_during_Italian_unification">Maps of Italy before and during Italian unification</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Maps of Italy before and during Italian unification" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_1494.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Italy in 1494"><noscript><img alt="Italy in 1494" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Italy_1494.svg/100px-Italy_1494.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3481" data-file-height="4167"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 100px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Italy_1494.svg/100px-Italy_1494.svg.png" data-alt="Italy in 1494" data-width="100" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Italy_1494.svg/150px-Italy_1494.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Italy_1494.svg/200px-Italy_1494.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Italy in 1494</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_1796.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Italy in 1796"><noscript><img alt="Italy in 1796" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Italy_1796.svg/100px-Italy_1796.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="4200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 100px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Italy_1796.svg/100px-Italy_1796.svg.png" data-alt="Italy in 1796" data-width="100" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Italy_1796.svg/150px-Italy_1796.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Italy_1796.svg/200px-Italy_1796.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Italy in 1796</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_1843.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Italy in 1843"><noscript><img alt="Italy in 1843" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Italy_1843.svg/100px-Italy_1843.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="4200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 100px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Italy_1843.svg/100px-Italy_1843.svg.png" data-alt="Italy in 1843" data-width="100" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Italy_1843.svg/150px-Italy_1843.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Italy_1843.svg/200px-Italy_1843.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Italy in 1843</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Italia1860.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Italy in 1860: orange Kingdom of Sardinia, blue Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Austrian Empire), pink United Provinces of Central Italy, red Papal States, pale green Kingdom of Two Sicilies"><noscript><img alt="Italy in 1860: orange Kingdom of Sardinia, blue Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Austrian Empire), pink United Provinces of Central Italy, red Papal States, pale green Kingdom of Two Sicilies" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Italia1860.png/120px-Italia1860.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="387"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Italia1860.png/120px-Italia1860.png" data-alt="Italy in 1860: orange Kingdom of Sardinia, blue Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Austrian Empire), pink United Provinces of Central Italy, red Papal States, pale green Kingdom of Two Sicilies" data-width="120" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Italia1860.png/180px-Italia1860.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Italia1860.png/240px-Italia1860.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Italy in 1860: orange <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>, blue <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Austrian Empire)</a>, pink <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy" title="United Provinces of Central Italy">United Provinces of Central Italy</a>, red <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>, pale green <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Two_Sicilies" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Two Sicilies">Kingdom of Two Sicilies</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:RegnoItalia1861.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Italy in 1861: orange Kingdom of Italy, blue Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Austrian Empire), red Papal States"><noscript><img alt="Italy in 1861: orange Kingdom of Italy, blue Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Austrian Empire), red Papal States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/RegnoItalia1861.png/120px-RegnoItalia1861.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="387"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/RegnoItalia1861.png/120px-RegnoItalia1861.png" data-alt="Italy in 1861: orange Kingdom of Italy, blue Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Austrian Empire), red Papal States" data-width="120" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/RegnoItalia1861.png/180px-RegnoItalia1861.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/RegnoItalia1861.png/240px-RegnoItalia1861.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Italy in 1861: orange Kingdom of Italy, blue <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Austrian Empire)</a>, red <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_1870.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kingdom of Italy in 1870, showing the Papal States, before the Capture of Rome"><noscript><img alt="Kingdom of Italy in 1870, showing the Papal States, before the Capture of Rome" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Italy_1870.svg/104px-Italy_1870.svg.png" decoding="async" width="104" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="924" data-file-height="1065"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 104px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Italy_1870.svg/104px-Italy_1870.svg.png" data-alt="Kingdom of Italy in 1870, showing the Papal States, before the Capture of Rome" data-width="104" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Italy_1870.svg/156px-Italy_1870.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Italy_1870.svg/208px-Italy_1870.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> in 1870, showing the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>, before the <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_1871.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kingdom of Italy in 1871"><noscript><img alt="Kingdom of Italy in 1871" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Italy_1871.svg/104px-Italy_1871.svg.png" decoding="async" width="104" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="924" data-file-height="1065"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 104px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Italy_1871.svg/104px-Italy_1871.svg.png" data-alt="Kingdom of Italy in 1871" data-width="104" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Italy_1871.svg/156px-Italy_1871.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Italy_1871.svg/208px-Italy_1871.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> in 1871</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:RegnoItalia1919.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Kingdom of Italy in 1919"><noscript><img alt="Kingdom of Italy in 1919" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/RegnoItalia1919.png/120px-RegnoItalia1919.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="387"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/RegnoItalia1919.png/120px-RegnoItalia1919.png" data-alt="Kingdom of Italy in 1919" data-width="120" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/RegnoItalia1919.png/180px-RegnoItalia1919.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/RegnoItalia1919.png/240px-RegnoItalia1919.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Kingdom of Italy in 1919</div> </li> </ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_unification_of_Italy" title="Timeline of the unification of Italy">Timeline of the unification of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="German unification">German unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia">Formation of Romania</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCollier2003" class="citation book cs1">Collier, Martin (2003). Italian unification, 1820–71. Heinemann Advanced History (First ed.). Oxford: Heinemann. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-435-32754-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-435-32754-5"><bdi>978-0-435-32754-5</bdi></a>. <q>The Risorgimento is the name given to the process that ended with the political unification of Italy in 1871.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italian+unification%2C+1820%E2%80%9371&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Heinemann+Advanced+History&rft.pages=2&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Heinemann&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-435-32754-5&rft.aulast=Collier&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiall1994" class="citation book cs1">Riall, Lucy (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/italianrisorgime00rial">The Italian Risorgimento: state, society, and national unification</a> (First ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/italianrisorgime00rial/page/n19">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-41234-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-41234-3"><bdi>978-0-203-41234-3</bdi></a>. <q>The functional importance of the Risorgimento to both Italian politics and Italian historiography has made this short period (1815–60) one of the most contested and controversial in modern Italian history.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Italian+Risorgimento%3A+state%2C+society%2C+and+national+unification&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-203-41234-3&rft.aulast=Riall&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fitalianrisorgime00rial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lastampa.it/cultura/2016/12/12/news/fratelli-d-italia-divisi-su-tutto-1.34750698">"Fratelli d'Italia, divisi su tutto"</a> (in Italian). 12 December 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fratelli+d%27Italia%2C+divisi+su+tutto&rft.date=2016-12-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lastampa.it%2Fcultura%2F2016%2F12%2F12%2Fnews%2Ffratelli-d-italia-divisi-su-tutto-1.34750698&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-raicultura-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-raicultura_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-raicultura_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.raicultura.it/storia/articoli/2019/04/Vittorio-Emanuele-II-bb3018d0-6851-47f8-bedd-9211db07e064.html">"Vittorio Emanuele II"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 17 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vittorio+Emanuele+II&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.raicultura.it%2Fstoria%2Farticoli%2F2019%2F04%2FVittorio-Emanuele-II-bb3018d0-6851-47f8-bedd-9211db07e064.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arnaldi-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arnaldi_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arnaldi_5-1">b</a> Arnaldi, Girolamo. Italy and Its Invaders. Harvard University Press, 2005. p. 194. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01870-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-01870-2">0-674-01870-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-museo-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-museo_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-museo_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.risorgimento.it/index.php?section=museo">"Museo Centrale del Risorgimento di Roma"</a>. Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento italiano (in Italian). Retrieved 6 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Istituto+per+la+storia+del+Risorgimento+italiano&rft.atitle=Museo+Centrale+del+Risorgimento+di+Roma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.risorgimento.it%2Findex.php%3Fsection%3Dmuseo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHörnqvist2004" class="citation book cs1">Hörnqvist, Mikael (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wLY2tlPZqvsC&q=petrarch+l%27antico+valor&pg=PA257">Machiavelli and Empire – Mikael Hörnqvist – Google Books</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1139456340" title="Special:BookSources/978-1139456340"><bdi>978-1139456340</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Machiavelli+and+Empire+%E2%80%93+Mikael+H%C3%B6rnqvist+%E2%80%93+Google+Books&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1139456340&rft.aulast=H%C3%B6rnqvist&rft.aufirst=Mikael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwLY2tlPZqvsC%26q%3Dpetrarch%2Bl%2527antico%2Bvalor%26pg%3DPA257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Antonio Trampus, "Gianrinaldo Carli at the centre of the Milanese Enlightenment". History of European ideas 32#4 (2006): 456–476. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolt1971" class="citation book cs1">Holt, Edgar (1971). The Making of Italy: 1815–1870. New York: Murray Printing Company. pp. 22–23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Italy%3A+1815%E2%80%931870&rft.pages=22-23&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Murray+Printing+Company&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=Edgar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Raymond Grew, "Finding social capital: the French revolution in Italy". Journal of Interdisciplinary History 29#3 (1999): 407–433. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/002219598551760?journalCode=jinh#.WCROKi0rLhs">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Anna Maria Rao, "Republicanism in Italy from the eighteenth century to the early Risorgimento", Journal of Modern Italian Studies (2012) 17#2 pp 149–167. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaiorinoMarchetti_TricamoZagami2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maiorino, Tarquinio; Marchetti Tricamo, Giuseppe; Zagami, Andrea (2002). Il tricolore degli italiani. Storia avventurosa della nostra bandiera (in Italian). Arnoldo Mondadori Editore. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-04-50946-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-04-50946-2"><bdi>978-88-04-50946-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Il+tricolore+degli+italiani.+Storia+avventurosa+della+nostra+bandiera&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Arnoldo+Mondadori+Editore&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-88-04-50946-2&rft.aulast=Maiorino&rft.aufirst=Tarquinio&rft.au=Marchetti+Tricamo%2C+Giuseppe&rft.au=Zagami%2C+Andrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esteri.it/MAE/EN/Benvenuti_in_Italia/Conoscere_Italia/bandieraInno.htm">The tri-coloured standard</a>.Getting to Know Italy, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (retrieved 5 October 2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080223131121/http://www.esteri.it/MAE/EN/Benvenuti_in_Italia/Conoscere_Italia/bandieraInno.htm">Archived</a> 23 February 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-miolegale-14"><a href="#cite_ref-miolegale_14-0">^</a> Article 1 of the law n. 671 of 31 December 1996 ("National celebration of the bicentenary of the first national flag") </li> <li id="cite_note-Cita|Ferorelli_|p._662-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Cita%7CFerorelli_%7Cp._662_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerorelli1925" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ferorelli, Nicola (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190331181159/http://www.risorgimento.it/rassegna/index.php?id=10511&ricerca_inizio=0&ricerca_query=&ricerca_ordine=DESC&ricerca_libera=">"La vera origine del tricolore italiano"</a>. Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento (in Italian). XII (fasc. III): 662. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.risorgimento.it/rassegna/index.php?id=10511&ricerca_inizio=0&ricerca_query=&ricerca_ordine=DESC&ricerca_libera=">the original</a> on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 25 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rassegna+Storica+del+Risorgimento&rft.atitle=La+vera+origine+del+tricolore+italiano&rft.volume=XII&rft.issue=fasc.+III&rft.pages=662&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Ferorelli&rft.aufirst=Nicola&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.risorgimento.it%2Frassegna%2Findex.php%3Fid%3D10511%26ricerca_inizio%3D0%26ricerca_query%3D%26ricerca_ordine%3DDESC%26ricerca_libera%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarozziVecchio1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tarozzi, Fiorenza; Vecchio, Giorgio (1999). Gli italiani e il tricolore (in Italian). Il Mulino. pp. 67–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-15-07163-6" title="Special:BookSources/88-15-07163-6"><bdi>88-15-07163-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gli+italiani+e+il+tricolore&rft.pages=67-68&rft.pub=Il+Mulino&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=88-15-07163-6&rft.aulast=Tarozzi&rft.aufirst=Fiorenza&rft.au=Vecchio%2C+Giorgio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.napoleon.org/en/reading_room/articles/files/hicks_napoleon_kingitaly.asp">"How Napoleon became 'King of Italy'"</a>. Napoleon.org. 23 October 2012. Retrieved 28 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Napoleon+became+%27King+of+Italy%27&rft.pub=Napoleon.org&rft.date=2012-10-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.napoleon.org%2Fen%2Freading_room%2Farticles%2Ffiles%2Fhicks_napoleon_kingitaly.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVilla2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Villa, Claudio (2010). I simboli della Repubblica: la bandiera tricolore, il canto degli italiani, l'emblema (in Italian). Comune di Vanzago. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_Service_of_Italy" title="National Library Service of Italy">SBN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/bid/LO11355389">IT\ICCU\LO1\1355389</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+simboli+della+Repubblica%3A+la+bandiera+tricolore%2C+il+canto+degli+italiani%2C+l%27emblema&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Comune+di+Vanzago&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Villa&rft.aufirst=Claudio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaiorinoMarchetti_TricamoZagami2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maiorino, Tarquinio; Marchetti Tricamo, Giuseppe; Zagami, Andrea (2002). Il tricolore degli italiani. Storia avventurosa della nostra bandiera (in Italian). Arnoldo Mondadori Editore. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-04-50946-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-04-50946-2"><bdi>978-88-04-50946-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Il+tricolore+degli+italiani.+Storia+avventurosa+della+nostra+bandiera&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Arnoldo+Mondadori+Editore&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-88-04-50946-2&rft.aulast=Maiorino&rft.aufirst=Tarquinio&rft.au=Marchetti+Tricamo%2C+Giuseppe&rft.au=Zagami%2C+Andrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Ghisi, Enrico Il tricolore italiano (1796–1870) Milano: Anonima per l'Arte della Stampa, 1931; see Gay, H. Nelson in The American Historical Review Vol. 37 No. 4 (pp. 750–751), July 1932 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1843352">1843352</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVilla2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Villa, Claudio (2010). I simboli della Repubblica: la bandiera tricolore, il canto degli italiani, l'emblema (in Italian). Comune di Vanzago. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_Service_of_Italy" title="National Library Service of Italy">SBN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/bid/LO11355389">IT\ICCU\LO1\1355389</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+simboli+della+Repubblica%3A+la+bandiera+tricolore%2C+il+canto+degli+italiani%2C+l%27emblema&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Comune+di+Vanzago&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Villa&rft.aufirst=Claudio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicassio2009" class="citation book cs1">Nicassio, Susan Vandiver (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/imperialcityrome00nica">Imperial City: Rome Under Napoleon</a>. 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Nineteenth-century politics and the cult of Garibaldi". <a href="/wiki/Modern_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Italy">Modern Italy</a>. 3 (2): 191–204. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13532949808454803">10.1080/13532949808454803</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143746713">143746713</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Italy&rft.atitle=Hero%2C+saint+or+revolutionary%3F+Nineteenth-century+politics+and+the+cult+of+Garibaldi&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=191-204&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13532949808454803&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143746713%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Riall&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Ridley, Jasper. Garibaldi (1974), a standard biography.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarlin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Sarlin, Simon (2009). "Fighting the Risorgimento: foreign volunteers in southern Italy (1860–63)". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Modern_Italian_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Modern Italian Studies">Journal of Modern Italian Studies</a>. 14 (4): 476–490. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13545710903281987">10.1080/13545710903281987</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144416217">144416217</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Modern+Italian+Studies&rft.atitle=Fighting+the+Risorgimento%3A+foreign+volunteers+in+southern+Italy+%281860%E2%80%9363%29&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=476-490&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13545710903281987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144416217%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sarlin&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThayer1911" class="citation book cs1">Thayer, William Roscoe (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zfwNAQAAMAAJ">The Life and Times of Cavour vol 1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Times+of+Cavour+vol+1&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Thayer&rft.aufirst=William+Roscoe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzfwNAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"> old interpretations but useful on details; vol 1 goes to 1859]; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sK_CnX3-ZMQC">volume 2 online covers 1859–62</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrevelyan1911" class="citation book cs1">Trevelyan, George Macaulay (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/garibaldiandmak01trevgoog">Garibaldi and the making of Italy</a>. Longmans, Green and Company. <q>garibaldi trevelyan.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Garibaldi+and+the+making+of+Italy&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+and+Company&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Trevelyan&rft.aufirst=George+Macaulay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgaribaldiandmak01trevgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Wawro, Geoffrey. "Austria versus the Risorgimento: A New Look at Austria's Italian strategy in the 1860s." European History Quarterly 26#1 (1996): 7–29.</li> <li>Woolf, Stuart Joseph. The Italian Risorgimento (1969).</li> <li>Woolf, Stuart. A History of Italy 1700–1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change (1960), 519 pp</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wright, Owain (2012). "British foreign policy and the Italian occupation of Rome, 1870". <a href="/wiki/The_International_History_Review" title="The International History Review">The International History Review</a>. 34 (1): 161–176. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07075332.2012.668343">10.1080/07075332.2012.668343</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154971989">154971989</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+History+Review&rft.atitle=British+foreign+policy+and+the+Italian+occupation+of+Rome%2C+1870&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=161-176&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07075332.2012.668343&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154971989%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Owain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Massimo Colella, Luigi Russo interprete di Vincenzo Cuoco. Un inedito corso universitario, in «Otto/Novecento», 2020, pp. 153–187.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_2">Historiography</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Historiography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li>Alio, Jacqueline. Sicilian Studies: A Guide and Syllabus for Educators (2018), 250 pp.</li> <li>Bouchard, Norma, ed. Risorgimento in modern Italian culture: revisiting the nineteenth-century past in history, narrative, and cinema. (Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 2005).</li> <li>De Francesco, Antonino. The antiquity of the Italian nation: the cultural origins of a political myth in modern Italy, 1796–1943 (Oxford UP, 2013).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsabella2012" class="citation journal cs1">Isabella, Maurizio (2012). "Rethinking Italy's Nation-Building 150 Years Afterwards: The New Risorgimento Historiography". Past & Present (217): 247–268. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgts028">10.1093/pastj/gts028</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23324209">23324209</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Rethinking+Italy%27s+Nation-Building+150+Years+Afterwards%3A+The+New+Risorgimento+Historiography&rft.issue=217&rft.pages=247-268&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgts028&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23324209%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Isabella&rft.aufirst=Maurizio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Manenti, Luca G., "Italian Freemasonry from the Eighteenth Century to Unification. Protagonists, Metamorphoses, Interpretations", in History of the Grand Orient of Italy, edited by E. Locci (Washington D.C., Westphalia Press, 2019), pp. 27–60.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamm1972" class="citation journal cs1">Ramm, Agatha (1972). "The Risorgimento in Sicily: Recent Literature". English Historical Review. 87 (345): 795–811. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2FLXXXVII.CCCXLV.795">10.1093/ehr/LXXXVII.CCCXLV.795</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/562204">562204</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Risorgimento+in+Sicily%3A+Recent+Literature&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=345&rft.pages=795-811&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2FLXXXVII.CCCXLV.795&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F562204%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ramm&rft.aufirst=Agatha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Rao, Anna Maria. "Napoleonic Italy: Old and New Trends in Historiography." in Ute Planert, ed., Napoleon's Empire (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016). pp 84–97.</li> <li>Salsini, Laura A. "Re-envisioning the Risorgimento: Isabella Bossi Fedrigotti's Amore mio uccidi Garibaldi." Forum Italicum: A Journal of Italian Studies 42#1 (2008).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italian">Italian</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Italian" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li>Alio, Jacqueline. Sicilian Studies: A Guide and Syllabus for Educators (2018), 250 pp.</li> <li>Bacchin, Elena. Italofilia. Opinione pubblica britannica e il Risorgimento italiano 1847–1864 (Turin, Carocci editore, 2014), 266 pp</li> <li>Banti, Alberto Mario. La nazione del Risorgimento: parentela, santità e onore alle origini dell'Italia unita. Torino, Einaudi, 2000</li> <li>Banti, Alberto Mario. Il Risorgimento italiano. Roma-Bari, Laterza, 2004 (Quadrante Laterza; 125)</li> <li>Ghisalberti, Carlo. Istituzioni e società civile nell'età del Risorgimento. Roma-Bari, Laterza, 2005 (Biblioteca universale Laterza; 575)</li> <li>Della Peruta, Franco. L'Italia del Risorgimento: problemi, momenti e figure. Milano, Angeli, 1997 (Saggi di storia; 14)</li> <li>Della Peruta, Franco. Conservatori, liberali e democratici nel Risorgimento. Milano, Angeli, 1989 (Storia; 131)</li> <li>De Rosa, Luigi. La provincia subordinata. Saggio sulla questione meridionale, Bari, Laterza, 2004</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuerra2009" class="citation book cs1">Guerra, Nicola (2009). Eclettica (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1957081">Controrisorgimento. Il movimento filoestense apuano e lunigianese</a>. Nicola Guerra. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8890416804" title="Special:BookSources/978-8890416804"><bdi>978-8890416804</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Controrisorgimento.+Il+movimento+filoestense+apuano+e+lunigianese&rft.pub=Nicola+Guerra&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-8890416804&rft.aulast=Guerra&rft.aufirst=Nicola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1957081&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuerra2011" class="citation journal cs1">Guerra, Nicola (October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2024121">"Le due anime del processo di unificazione nazionale: Risorgimento e Controrisorgimento. La necessità di un nuovo approccio di ricerca ancora disatteso"</a>. Chronica Mundi: 53–68. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2239-7515">2239-7515</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chronica+Mundi&rft.atitle=Le+due+anime+del+processo+di+unificazione+nazionale%3A+Risorgimento+e+Controrisorgimento.+La+necessit%C3%A0+di+un+nuovo+approccio+di+ricerca+ancora+disatteso&rft.pages=53-68&rft.date=2011-10&rft.issn=2239-7515&rft.aulast=Guerra&rft.aufirst=Nicola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2024121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Scirocco, Alfonso. L'Italia del risorgimento: 1800–1860. (vol. 1 di Storia d'Italia dall'unità alla Repubblica), Bologna, Il mulino, 1990</li> <li>Scirocco, Alfonso. In difesa del Risorgimento. Bologna, Il mulino, 1998 (Collana di storia contemporanea)</li> <li>Tomaz, Luigi. Il confine d'Italia in Istria e Dalmazia, Presentazione di Arnaldo Mauri, Conselve, Think ADV, 2008.</li> <li>Carlo Cardia, Risorgimento e religione, Giappichelli, Torino, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-348-2552-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-348-2552-5">978-88-348-2552-5</a>.</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(16)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-16 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-16"> <style 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data-alt="" data-width="13" data-height="16" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Unification_of_Italy" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a> at Wikiquote <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020603114124/http://www.pirandello.com/risorg.html">The Risorgimento: A Time for Reunification</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.florin.ms/laurel.html">Women of the Risorgimento</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dl.lib.brown.edu/garibaldi">Garibaldi & The Risorgimento</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/history/italian_unification.html">Cavour and the Unification of Italy</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArcaini2005" class="citation web cs1">Arcaini, G.B. (6 March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171225230621/http://www.arcaini.com/ITALY/ItalyHistory/ItalianUnification.htm">"The Italian Unification"</a>. History of Italy. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arcaini.com/ITALY/ItalyHistory/ItalianUnification.htm">the original</a> on 25 December 2017. Retrieved 19 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+of+Italy&rft.atitle=The+Italian+Unification&rft.date=2005-03-06&rft.aulast=Arcaini&rft.aufirst=G.B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arcaini.com%2FITALY%2FItalyHistory%2FItalianUnification.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArcaini2003" class="citation web cs1">Arcaini, G.B. (30 November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120328011653/http://www.arcaini.com/ITALY/ItalyHistory/ItalyUnity.htm">"Italy's Unity"</a>. History of Italy. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arcaini.com/ITALY/ItalyHistory/ItalyUnity.htm">the original</a> on 28 March 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+of+Italy&rft.atitle=Italy%27s+Unity&rft.date=2003-11-30&rft.aulast=Arcaini&rft.aufirst=G.B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arcaini.com%2FITALY%2FItalyHistory%2FItalyUnity.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnification+of+Italy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vimeo.com/ondemand/tricolour">In the sign of the tricolour: Italians and Hungarians in the Risorgimento</a> A documentary directed by Gilberto Martinelli</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row 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decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 14px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/21px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" data-alt="flag" data-width="21" data-height="14" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/42px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 19px;" 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data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&oldid=1258573356">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&oldid=1258573356</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Unification_of_Italy&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 20 November 2024, at 13:02 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unifikasie_van_Itali%C3%AB" title="Unifikasie van Italië – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Unifikasie van Italië" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorgimento" title="Risorgimento – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Risorgimento" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D8%A5%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="توحيد إيطاليا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="توحيد إيطاليا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unificaci%C3%B3n_d%27Italia" title="Unificación d'Italia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Unificación d'Italia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorcimento" title="Risorcimento – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Risorcimento" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italia_th%C3%B3ng-it" title="Italia thóng-it – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Italia thóng-it" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Рысарджымента – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рысарджымента" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Рысарджымэнта – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рысарджымэнта" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Рисорджименто – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Рисорджименто" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorgimento" title="Risorgimento – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Risorgimento" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unificaci%C3%B3_italiana" title="Unificació italiana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Unificació italiana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorgimento" title="Risorgimento – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Risorgimento" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorgimento" title="Risorgimento – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Risorgimento" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorgimento" title="Risorgimento – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Risorgimento" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itaalia_%C3%BChinemine" title="Itaalia ühinemine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Itaalia ühinemine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%AF%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Ιταλική ενοποίηση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιταλική ενοποίηση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unificaci%C3%B3n_italiana" title="Unificación italiana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Unificación italiana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unui%C4%9Do_de_Italio" title="Unuiĝo de Italio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Unuiĝo de Italio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italiaren_bateratzea" title="Italiaren bateratzea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Italiaren bateratzea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%AA_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="وحدت ایتالیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="وحدت ایتالیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorgimento" title="Risorgimento – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Risorgimento" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risuriment" title="Risuriment – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Risuriment" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aont%C3%BA_na_hIod%C3%A1ile" title="Aontú na hIodáile – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Aontú na hIodáile" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorgimento" title="Risorgimento – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Risorgimento" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A6%AC%EC%86%8C%EB%A5%B4%EC%A7%80%EB%A9%98%ED%86%A0" title="리소르지멘토 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="리소르지멘토" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%B8" title="Ռիսորջիմենտո – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռիսորջիմենտո" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="इतालवी एकीकरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इतालवी एकीकरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ujedinjenje_Italije" title="Ujedinjenje Italije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ujedinjenje Italije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_unigo" title="Italian unigo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Italian unigo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyatuan_Italia" title="Penyatuan Italia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penyatuan Italia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sameining_%C3%8Dtal%C3%ADu" title="Sameining Ítalíu – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sameining Ítalíu" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorgimento" title="Risorgimento – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Risorgimento" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%97%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94" title="איחוד איטליה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="איחוד איטליה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="იტალიის გაერთიანება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="იტალიის გაერთიანება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Рисоржименто – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Рисоржименто" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unificatio_Italiae" title="Unificatio Italiae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Unificatio Italiae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risord%C5%BEimento" title="Risordžimento – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Risordžimento" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italijos_suvienijimas" title="Italijos suvienijimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Italijos suvienijimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resorsgiment" title="Resorsgiment – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Resorsgiment" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%C3%A1lia_egyes%C3%ADt%C3%A9se" title="Itália egyesítése – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Itália egyesítése" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%98%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Обединување на Италија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Обединување на Италија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="इटलीचे एकत्रीकरण – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="इटलीचे एकत्रीकरण" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyatuan_Itali" title="Penyatuan Itali – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penyatuan Itali" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorgimento" title="Risorgimento – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Risorgimento" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="इटालीको एकीकरण – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="इटालीको एकीकरण" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%BF%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E7%B5%B1%E4%B8%80%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95" title="イタリア統一運動 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イタリア統一運動" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italias_samling" title="Italias samling – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Italias samling" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samlinga_av_Italia" title="Samlinga av Italia – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Samlinga av Italia" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorgimento" title="Risorgimento – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Risorgimento" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorjimento" title="Risorjimento – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Risorjimento" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%B9%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="اٹلی دا اتحاد – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اٹلی دا اتحاد" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%BC%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="د ايټالیا اتحاد – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ايټالیا اتحاد" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zjednoczenie_W%C5%82och" title="Zjednoczenie Włoch – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zjednoczenie Włoch" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorgimento" title="Risorgimento – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Risorgimento" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unificarea_Italiei" title="Unificarea Italiei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Unificarea Italiei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Рисорджименто – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Рисорджименто" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashkimi_i_Italis%C3%AB" title="Bashkimi i Italisë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Bashkimi i Italisë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risurgimentu" title="Risurgimentu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Risurgimentu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_unification" title="Italian unification – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Italian unification" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorgimento" title="Risorgimento – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Risorgimento" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zdru%C5%BEitev_Italije" title="Združitev Italije – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Združitev Italije" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%9A%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%98%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Уједињење Италије – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Уједињење Италије" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ujedinjenje_Italije" title="Ujedinjenje Italije – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ujedinjenje Italije" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_yhdistyminen" title="Italian yhdistyminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Italian yhdistyminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italiens_enande" title="Italiens enande – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Italiens enande" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pag-iisa_ng_Italya" title="Pag-iisa ng Italya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pag-iisa ng Italya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="இத்தாலிய ஐக்கியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இத்தாலிய ஐக்கியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5" title="การรวมชาติอิตาลี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การรวมชาติอิตาลี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0talya%27n%C4%B1n_birle%C5%9Fmesi" title="İtalya'nın birleşmesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İtalya'nın birleşmesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Рісорджименто – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Рісорджименто" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DB%81_%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="اطالیہ کا اتحاد – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اطالیہ کا اتحاد" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resorzimento" title="Resorzimento – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Resorzimento" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%91ng_nh%E1%BA%A5t_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_%C3%9D" title="Thống nhất nước Ý – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thống nhất nước Ý" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Ctidse_Itaalia_luumin%C3%B5" title="Ütidse Itaalia luuminõ – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Ütidse Itaalia luuminõ" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pag-urusa_han_Italya" title="Pag-urusa han Italya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pag-urusa han Italya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%80" title="意大利统一 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="意大利统一" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E7%B5%B1%E4%B8%80" title="意大利統一 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="意大利統一" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E7%B5%B1%E4%B8%80" title="意大利統一 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="意大利統一" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img 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