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href="#Transition_from_Acheulean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Transition from Acheulean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transition_from_Acheulean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lithic_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lithic_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Lithic technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lithic_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hominin_evolution_and_migration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hominin_evolution_and_migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Hominin evolution and migration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hominin_evolution_and_migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidence_for_modern_human_behavior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence_for_modern_human_behavior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Evidence for modern human behavior</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evidence_for_modern_human_behavior-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evidence for modern human behavior subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evidence_for_modern_human_behavior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Possible_cultural_complexes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_cultural_complexes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Possible cultural complexes</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brain_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brain_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Brain change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brain_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> 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Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7" title="العصر الحجري المتوسط – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العصر الحجري المتوسط" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_de_Pedra_Mitjana" title="Edat de Pedra Mitjana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Edat de Pedra Mitjana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Middle Stone Age" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edad_de_Piedra_Media" title="Edad de Piedra Media – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Edad de Piedra Media" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Middle Stone Age" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%82" title="മധ്യശിലായുഗം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മധ്യശിലായുഗം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%B1%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA" title="ကျောက်ခေတ်လယ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကျောက်ခေတ်လယ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Middle Stone Age" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolitic_mijlociu_(Africa)" title="Paleolitic mijlociu (Africa) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Paleolitic mijlociu (Africa)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B7%81%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%BA" title="මධ්‍ය ශිලා යුගය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මධ්‍ය ශිලා යුගය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87_(%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2)" title="ยุคหินกลาง (แอฟริกา) – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยุคหินกลาง (แอฟริกา)" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the term as applied to African prehistory. For the "middle" period of the Stone Age in general, see <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a>. For the "middle" part of the "<a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Old Stone Age</a>", see <a href="/wiki/Middle_Paleolithic" title="Middle Paleolithic">Middle Paleolithic</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period in African prehistory</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blombos_point.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Blombos_point.JPG/300px-Blombos_point.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Blombos_point.JPG/450px-Blombos_point.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Blombos_point.JPG/600px-Blombos_point.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1584" data-file-height="1410" /></a><figcaption>Middle Stone Age tool from Blombos Cave</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse; width:200px;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#98FB98; font-size:105%;">The <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Middle Stone Age</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="background:#efefef; font-size:100%;"> ↑ <a href="/wiki/Early_Stone_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Stone Age">Early Stone Age</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="line-height:130%; text-align:left;"> <dl><dd>Pre-Still Bay</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stillbay" title="Stillbay">Stillbay</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howiesons_Poort" title="Howiesons Poort">Howiesons Poort</a></dd> <dd>Post-Howiesons Poort</dd> <dd>Late</dd> <dd>Final MSA phases</dd></dl></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef; font-size:100%;"> ↓ <a href="/wiki/Later_Stone_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Later Stone Age">Later Stone Age</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Middle Stone Age</b> (or <b>MSA</b>) was a period of <a href="/wiki/African_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="African prehistory">African prehistory</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Early_Stone_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Stone Age">Early Stone Age</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Late_Stone_Age" title="Late Stone Age">Late Stone Age</a>. It is generally considered to have begun around 280,000 years ago and ended around 50–25,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The beginnings of particular MSA stone tools have their origins as far back as 550–500,000 years ago and as such some researchers consider this to be the beginnings of the MSA.<sup id="cite_ref-Herries_2011_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herries_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The MSA is often mistakenly understood to be synonymous with the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Paleolithic" title="Middle Paleolithic">Middle Paleolithic</a> of Europe, especially due to their roughly contemporaneous time span; however, the Middle Paleolithic of Europe represents an entirely different <a href="/wiki/Hominin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominin">hominin</a> population, <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal"><i>Homo neanderthalensis</i></a>, than the MSA of Africa, which did not have Neanderthal populations. Additionally, current archaeological research in Africa has yielded much evidence to suggest that modern human behavior and cognition was beginning to develop much earlier in Africa during the MSA than it was in Europe during the Middle Paleolithic.<sup id="cite_ref-d'Errico2013_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-d'Errico2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The MSA is associated with both anatomically modern humans (<i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i>) as well as archaic <i>Homo sapiens</i>, sometimes referred to as <i>Homo helmei</i>. Early physical evidence comes from the <a href="/wiki/Gademotta" title="Gademotta">Gademotta Formation</a> in Ethiopia, the <a href="/wiki/Kapthurin" class="mw-redirect" title="Kapthurin">Kapthurin</a> Formation in Kenya and <a href="/wiki/Kathu_Pan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kathu Pan">Kathu Pan</a> in South Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Herries_2011_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herries_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regional_development">Regional development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Regional development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are MSA archaeological sites from across the African continent, conventionally divided into five regions: northern Africa, comprising parts of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya; eastern Africa, stretching roughly from the highlands of Ethiopia to the southern part of Kenya; central Africa, stretching from the borders of Tanzania and Kenya to include Angola; southern Africa, which includes the numerous cave sites of South Africa; and western Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Lombard_2012_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard_2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marean_Assefa_2004_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marean_Assefa_2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In northern and western Africa, the wet-dry cycles of the modern Sahara desert has led to fruitful archaeological sites followed by completely barren soil and vice versa. Preservation in these two regions can vary, yet the sites that have been uncovered document the adaptive nature of early humans to climatically unstable environments.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eastern Africa represents some of the most reliable dates, due to the use of radiocarbon dating on volcanic ash deposits, as well as some of the earliest MSA sites. Faunal preservation, however, is not spectacular, and standardization in site excavation and lithic classification was, until recently, lacking. Unlike northern Africa, shifts between lithic technologies were not nearly as pronounced, likely due to more favorable climatic conditions that would have allowed for more continuous occupation of sites.<sup id="cite_ref-Lombard_2012_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard_2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marean_Assefa_2004_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marean_Assefa_2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ambrose_2001_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ambrose_2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Central Africa reflects similar patterning to eastern Africa, yet more archaeological research of the region is certainly required. </p><p>Southern Africa consists of many cave sites, most of which show very punctuated starts and stops in stone tool technology. Research in southern Africa has been continuous and quite standardized, allowing for reliable comparisons between sites in the region. Much of the archaeological evidence for the origins of modern human behavior is traced back to sites in this region, including <a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howieson%27s_Poort_Shelter" title="Howieson's Poort Shelter">Howiesons Poort</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stillbay" title="Stillbay">Still Bay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pinnacle_Point" title="Pinnacle Point">Pinnacle Point</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lombard_2012_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard_2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marean_Assefa_2004_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marean_Assefa_2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transition_from_Acheulean">Transition from Acheulean</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Transition from Acheulean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parc_national_d%27Awash-Ethiopie-Rivi%C3%A8re_(1).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Parc_national_d%27Awash-Ethiopie-Rivi%C3%A8re_%281%29.JPG/220px-Parc_national_d%27Awash-Ethiopie-Rivi%C3%A8re_%281%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Parc_national_d%27Awash-Ethiopie-Rivi%C3%A8re_%281%29.JPG/330px-Parc_national_d%27Awash-Ethiopie-Rivi%C3%A8re_%281%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Parc_national_d%27Awash-Ethiopie-Rivi%C3%A8re_%281%29.JPG/440px-Parc_national_d%27Awash-Ethiopie-Rivi%C3%A8re_%281%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>The Awash Valley</figcaption></figure> <p>The term "Middle Stone Age" (MSA) was proposed to the African Archaeological Congress by <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Goodwin_(archeologist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Goodwin (archeologist) (page does not exist)">Goodwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clarence_van_Riet_Lowe" title="Clarence van Riet Lowe">Van Riet Lowe</a> in 1929. The use of these terms was officially abandoned in 1965,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the term remains in use in the context of <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>, beginning with a transitional late Acheulean period known as the <a href="/wiki/Fauresmith_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauresmith industry">Fauresmith industry</a>. The Fauresmith industry is poorly dated, according to Herries (2011) beginning around 511–435 kya. This time, rather than the actual end of the Achaeulean around 130 kya is taken as the beginning of the MSA. The MSA so defined is associated with the gradual replacement of <a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" title="Archaic humans">archaic humans</a> by <a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern humans">anatomically modern humans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a different convention, MSA refers to sites characterized by the use of <a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois</a> methods for flake production, to the exclusion of Acheulean sites with large cleavers or handaxes. Following McBrearty and Tryon (2006), the term "early MSA" (EMSA) refers to sites predating the 126 kya interglacial, and "later MSA" (LMSA) refers to site younger than 126 kya. In this convention, Fauresmith sites of 500 to 300 kya are within the ESA, and the MSA begins after about 280 kya and is largely associated with <i>H. sapiens</i>, the earliest reliably dated MSA site in East Africa being <a href="/wiki/Gademotta" title="Gademotta">Gademotta</a> in Ethiopia, at 276 kya.<sup id="cite_ref-Tryon_Faith_2013_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tryon_Faith_2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Awash" title="Middle Awash">Middle Awash</a> valley of Ethiopia and the Central Rift Valley of Kenya constituted a major center for behavioural innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-Brooks2006_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooks2006-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is likely that the large terrestrial mammal biomass of these regions supported substantial human populations with subsistence and manufacturing patterns similar to those of ethnographically known foragers. </p><p>Archaeological evidence from eastern Africa extending from the Rift Valley from Ethiopia to northern Tanzania represents the largest archaeological evidence of the shift from the Late Acheulian to the Middle Stone Age tool technologies. This transition is characterized by stratigraphic layering of Acheulian stone tools, a bifacial handaxe technology, underneath and even contemporaneous with MSA technologies, such as <a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois</a> tools, flakes, flaked tools, pointed flakes, smaller bifaces that are projectile in form, and, on rare occasions, hafted tools.<sup id="cite_ref-Marean_Assefa_2004_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marean_Assefa_2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tryon_Faith_2013_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tryon_Faith_2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence of the gradual displacement of Acheulian by MSA technologies is further supported by this layering and contemporaneous placement, as well as by the earliest appearance of MSA technologies at <a href="/wiki/Gademotta" title="Gademotta">Gademotta</a> and the latest Acheulian technologies at the <a href="/wiki/Bouri_Formation" title="Bouri Formation">Bouri Formation</a> of Ethiopia, dated to 154 to 160 kya. This suggests a possible overlap of 100–150 thousand years.<sup id="cite_ref-Tryon_Faith_2013_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tryon_Faith_2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Late Acheulean artefacts associated with <i>Homo sapiens</i> have been found in South African cave sites. The <a href="/wiki/Makapansgat#Cave_of_Hearths_and_Hyaena_Mandible_Cave" title="Makapansgat">Cave of Hearths</a> and Montague Cave in South Africa contain evidence of Acheulian technologies, as well as later MSA technologies, however there is no evidence of crossover<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2018)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in this region.<sup id="cite_ref-Marean_Assefa_2004_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marean_Assefa_2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>ESA Acheulean sites are well documented across West Africa (except from the most tropical regions) but mostly remain undated. A few late Acheulean sites ("MSA" in the sense of late Acheulean, not Levallois) have been dated. Middle Pleistocene (pre 126 kya) sites are known from the northern Sahelian zones, while Late Pleistocene (post 126 kya) sites are known both from northern and southern West Africa. Unlike elsewhere in Africa, MSA sites appear to persist until very late, down to the Holocene boundary (12 kya), pointing to the possibility of late survival of <a href="/wiki/Archaic_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic human">archaic humans</a>, and late <a href="/wiki/Archaic_admixture_to_anatomically_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic admixture to anatomically modern humans">hybridization</a> with <i>H. sapiens</i> in West Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.137_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.137-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, such results highlight significant spatiotemporal cultural <a href="/wiki/Human_variability" title="Human variability">variability</a> and suggest that long inter-group cultural differences played a major role in later stages of human evolution in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lithic_technology">Lithic technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Lithic technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diepkloof-excavation-2009.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Diepkloof-excavation-2009.JPG/220px-Diepkloof-excavation-2009.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Diepkloof-excavation-2009.JPG/330px-Diepkloof-excavation-2009.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Diepkloof-excavation-2009.JPG/440px-Diepkloof-excavation-2009.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="654" /></a><figcaption>2009 excavations at the <a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Diepkloof Rock Shelter</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Early blades have been documented as far back as 550–500,000 years in the <a href="/wiki/Kapthurin" class="mw-redirect" title="Kapthurin">Kapthurin</a> Formation in Kenya and Kathu Pan in South Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Herries_2011_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herries_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Backed pieces from the Twin Rivers and <a href="/wiki/Kalambo_Falls" title="Kalambo Falls">Kalambo Falls</a> sites in <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>, dated at sometime between 300 and 140,000 years, likewise indicate a suite of new behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-Herries_2011_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herries_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Barham2002_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barham2002-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A high level of technical competence is also indicated for the c. 280 ka blades recovered from the Kapthurin Formation, <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Deino_and_McBrearty_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deino_and_McBrearty-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The stone tool technology in use during the Middle Stone Age shows a mosaic of techniques. Beginning approximately 300 kya, the large cutting tools of the Achuelian are gradually displaced by <a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois</a> prepared core technologies, also widely used by <a href="/wiki/Neanderthals" class="mw-redirect" title="Neanderthals">Neanderthals</a> during the European <a href="/wiki/Middle_Palaeolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Palaeolithic">Middle Palaeolithic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shea_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shea-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the MSA progresses, highly varied technocomplexes become common throughout Africa and include pointed artifacts, blades, retouched flakes, end and side scrapers, grinding stones, and even bone tools.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marean_Assefa_2004_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marean_Assefa_2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the use of <a href="/wiki/Blade_(archaeology)" title="Blade (archaeology)">blades</a> (associated mainly with the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Palaeolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Palaeolithic">Upper Palaeolithic</a> in Europe) is seen at many sites as well.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Africa, blades may have been used during the transition from the <a href="/wiki/Early_Stone_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Stone Age">Early Stone Age</a> to the Middle Stone Age onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Porat_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porat-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, during the later part of the Middle Stone Age, <a href="/wiki/Microlithic_technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Microlithic technologies">microlithic technologies</a> aimed at producing replaceable components of composite hafted tools are seen from at least 70 ka at sites such as <a href="/wiki/Pinnacle_Point" title="Pinnacle Point">Pinnacle Point</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Diepkloof Rock Shelter</a> in South Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Rigaud_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rigaud-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brown_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Artifact</a> technology during the Middle Stone Age shows a pattern of innovation followed by disappearance. This occurs with technology such as the manufacture of shell <a href="/wiki/Bead" title="Bead">beads</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-d'Errico_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-d'Errico-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> arrows and hide working tools including needles,<sup id="cite_ref-Backwell_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Backwell-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and gluing technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Wadley_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wadley-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These pieces of evidence provide a counterpoint to the classic "Out of Africa" scenario in which increasing complexity accumulated during the Middle Stone Age. Instead, it has been argued that such technological innovations "appear, disappear and re-appear in a way that best fits a scenario in which historical contingencies and environmental rather than cognitive changes are seen as main drivers".<sup id="cite_ref-Backwell_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Backwell-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hominin_evolution_and_migration">Hominin evolution and migration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Hominin evolution and migration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Homo_erectus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Homo_erectus.jpg/220px-Homo_erectus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Homo_erectus.jpg/330px-Homo_erectus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Homo_erectus.jpg/440px-Homo_erectus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="551" data-file-height="534" /></a><figcaption><i>Homo erectus</i> skull, Museum of Natural History, Ann Arbor</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></div> <p>There have been two migration events out of Africa. The first was the expansion of <i>H. erectus</i> into Eurasia approximately 1.9 to 1.7 million years ago, and the second, by <i>H. sapiens</i> began during the MSA by 80 – 50 ka MSA <a href="/wiki/Out_of_Africa_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Out of Africa hypothesis">out of Africa</a> to Asia, Australia and Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Anton_et_al_2014_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anton_et_al_2014-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mellars2006_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mellars2006-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perhaps only in small numbers initially, but by 30 ka they had replaced <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a> and <i>H. erectus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Manica_et_al_2007_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manica_et_al_2007-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each of these migrations represent the increased flexibility of the genus <i>Homo</i> to survive in widely varied climates. Based on the measurement of a large number of human skulls a recent study supports a central/southern African origin for <i>Homo sapiens</i> as this region shows the highest intra-population diversity in phenotypic measurements. Genetic data supports this conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-Manica_et_al_2007_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manica_et_al_2007-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is genetic evidence to suggest that dispersal out of Africa began in eastern Africa. Sites such as the <a href="/wiki/Omo_Kibish_Formation" title="Omo Kibish Formation">Omo Kibish Formation</a>, the Herto Member of the <a href="/wiki/Bouri_Formation" title="Bouri Formation">Bouri Formation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mumba_Cave" title="Mumba Cave">Mumba Cave</a> contain fossil evidence to support this conclusion as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Tryon_Faith_2013_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tryon_Faith_2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evidence_for_modern_human_behavior">Evidence for modern human behavior</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Evidence for modern human behavior"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></div> <p>There have been a number of theories proposed regarding the development of modern human behavior, but in recent years the mosaic approach has been the most favored perspective in regards to the MSA, especially when taken in consideration with the archaeological evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Henshilwood_et_al_2001_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henshilwood_et_al_2001-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars including <a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Klein" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard G. Klein">Klein</a><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have argued for discontinuity, while others including McBrearty and Brooks have argued that cognitive advances can be detected in the MSA and that the origin of our species is linked with the appearance of Middle Stone Age technology at 250–300 ka.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest remains of <a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a> date back to approximately 300 thousand years ago in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Schlebusch2017_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schlebusch2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20190910_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20190910-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20190910_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20190910-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The continent was mainly populated by groups of <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the archaeological record of both eastern Africa and southern Africa, there is immense variability associated with Homo sapiens sites, and it is during this time that we see evidence of the origins of <a href="/wiki/Modern_human_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern human behavior">modern human behavior</a>. According to McBrearty and Brooks, there are four features that are characteristic of modern human behavior: abstract thinking, the ability to plan and strategize, "behavioral, economic and technological innovativeness," and symbolic behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these aspects of modern human behavior can be broken down into more specific categories, including art, personal adornment, technological advancement, yet these four overarching categories allow for a thorough, albeit significantly overlapping, discussion of behavioral modernity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_cultural_complexes">Possible cultural complexes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Possible cultural complexes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ateriense-punta_pedunculada.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Ateriense-punta_pedunculada.jpg/170px-Ateriense-punta_pedunculada.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Ateriense-punta_pedunculada.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="315" /></a><figcaption>Aterian stone tool</figcaption></figure> <p>As early <i>Homo sapiens</i> began to diversify the ecological zones that they inhabited during the MSA, the archaeological record associated with these zones begins to show evidence for regional continuities. These continuities are significant for a number of reasons. The expansion of <i>Homo sapiens</i> into various ecological zones demonstrates an ability to adapt to a variety of environmental contexts including marine environments, savanna grasslands, relatively arid deserts, and forests. This adaptability is reflected in MSA artifacts found in these zones. These artifacts display stylistic variability depending on zone. During the Acheulian, which spanned from 1.5 million years ago to 300 thousand years ago, lithic technology displayed incredible homogeneity throughout all ecological niches. MSA technologies, with their evidence for regional variability and continuity, represent a remarkable advance.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ambrose_2001_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ambrose_2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tryon_Faith_2013_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tryon_Faith_2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These data have been used to support theories of social and stylistic development throughout the MSA.<sup id="cite_ref-Larsson_2011_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larsson_2011-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In southern Africa, we see the technocomplexes of <a href="/wiki/Howiesons_Poort" title="Howiesons Poort">Howiesons Poort</a> and <a href="/wiki/Still_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Still Bay">Stillbay</a>, named after the sites at which they were first discovered. Several others have not been dated or have been dated unreliably; these include the <a href="/wiki/Lupemban" class="mw-redirect" title="Lupemban">Lupemban</a> technocomplex of central Africa, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bambatan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bambatan (page does not exist)">Bambatan</a> in southeast Africa, 70–80ka, and the <a href="/wiki/Aterian" title="Aterian">Aterian</a> technocomplex of northern Africa, 160–90ka.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Henshilwood_et_al_2001_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henshilwood_et_al_2001-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abstract_thinking">Abstract thinking</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Abstract thinking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidence of abstract thinking can be seen in the archaeological record as early as the Acheulean–Middle Stone Age transition, approximately 300,000–250,000 years ago. This transition involves a shift in stone tool technology from Mode 2, Acheulean tools, to Mode 3 and 4, which include blades and microliths. The manufacture of these tools requires planning and the understanding of how striking a stone will produce different flaking patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This requires abstract thought, one of the hallmarks of modern human behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The shift from large cutting tools in the Acheulian to smaller and more diversified toolkits in the MSA represents a better cognitive and conceptual understanding of flintknapping, as well as the potential functional effects of distinct tool types. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planning_depth">Planning depth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Planning depth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ability to plan and strategize, much like abstract thinking, can be seen in the more diversified toolkit of the Middle Stone Age, as well as in the <a href="/wiki/Subsistence" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsistence">subsistence</a> patterns of the period. As MSA hominins began to migrate into a range of different ecological zones, it became necessary to base hunting strategies around seasonally available resources. Awareness of seasonality is evident in the faunal remains found at temporary sites. In less forgiving ecological zones, this awareness would have been essential for survival and the ability to plan subsistence strategies based on this awareness demonstrates an ability to think beyond the present tense and act upon this knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This planning depth is also seen in the presence of exotic raw materials at a variety of sites throughout the MSA. Procurement of local raw materials would have been a simple task to accomplish, yet MSA sites regularly contain raw materials that were obtained from sources over 100 km away, and sometimes farther than 300 km.<sup id="cite_ref-Marean_Assefa_2004_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marean_Assefa_2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Obtaining raw materials from this distance would require an awareness of the resources, a perceived value in the resources, whether it be functional or symbolic, and, possibly, the ability to organize an exchange network in order to obtain the materials.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marean_Assefa_2004_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marean_Assefa_2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Innovation">Innovation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Innovation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ability to expand into new environments throughout Africa and, ultimately, the world, displays a level of adaptability and, consequently, innovativeness that is often seen as characteristic of behavioral modernity.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Middle Stone Age sites are found in a wide range of environments, including coastal and inland areas of southern and eastern Africa, and in at least one case MSA foragers were exploiting high-altitude glaciated environments, at <a href="/wiki/Fincha_Habera,_Ethiopia" title="Fincha Habera, Ethiopia">Fincha Habera</a> in Ethiopia. This, however, is not the only evidence of innovativeness that can be seen in early Homo sapiens. The development of new, regionally relevant tools, such as those used for the collection of marine resources seen at Abdur, Ethiopia, <a href="/wiki/Pinnacle_Point" title="Pinnacle Point">Pinnacle Point</a> Cave, South Africa, and <a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a>, South Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lombard_2012_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard_2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of fire demonstrates another innovative aspect of human behavior when it is used in order to create stronger tools, such as the heated silcrete at Blombos, Howiesons Poort and Still Bay,<sup id="cite_ref-Lombard_2012_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard_2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brown_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the heat treated bone tools from Still Bay.<sup id="cite_ref-Henshilwood_et_al_2001_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henshilwood_et_al_2001-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hafted tools are further representative of human innovation. The large cutting tools of the Acheulian technocomplex become smaller, as more complex tools are better suited towards the needs of highly diversified environments. Composite tools represent a new level of innovation in their increased efficacy and more complex manufacturing process. The ability to conceptualize beyond the mere reduction of stone cores demonstrates cognitive flexibility, and the use of glue, which was often processed with ochre, to attach flakes to hafts demonstrates an understanding of chemical changes that can be utilized beyond the simple use of color.<sup id="cite_ref-Lombard_2012_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard_2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adhesives were used to construct hafted tools by 70ka at Sibudu Cave in South Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lombard_2012_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard_2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these adhesives were made from local conifers of the genus <i>Podocarpus</i>, using a process based on distillation.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other technological innovations of the period include specialized projectile weapons found at various sites in Middle Stone Age Africa such as: bone and stone arrowheads at South African sites such as <a href="/wiki/Sibudu_Cave" title="Sibudu Cave">Sibudu Cave</a> (along with an early bone needle also found at Sibudu) dating approximately 60,000–70,000 years ago,<sup id="cite_ref-Backwell_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Backwell-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lombard_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lombard_M_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard_M-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Backwell2018_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Backwell2018-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and bone harpoons at the Central African site of Katanda dating to about 90,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The arrows and needle, along with hide working tools, from Sibudu Cave<sup id="cite_ref-Backwell_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Backwell-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are seen as evidence of making weapons with compound heat treated gluing technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Wadley_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wadley-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence also exists for the systematic heat treating of silcrete stone to increase its flake-ability for the purpose of toolmaking, beginning approximately 164,000 years ago at the South African site of <a href="/wiki/Pinnacle_Point" title="Pinnacle Point">Pinnacle Point</a> and becoming common there for the creation of microlithic tools at about 72,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Characteristically modern human behaviors, such as the making of shell beads, bone tools and arrows, and the use of ochre pigment, are evident at <a href="/wiki/Panga_ya_Saidi" title="Panga ya Saidi">Panga ya Saidi</a> in Kenya by 78,000–67,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence of early stone-tipped projectile weapons (a characteristic tool of <i>Homo sapiens</i>), the stone tips of javelins or throwing spears, were discovered in 2013 at the Ethiopian site of <a href="/wiki/Gademotta" title="Gademotta">Gademotta</a>, and date to around 279,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-SahlePLOS1_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahlePLOS1-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evidence was found in 2018, dating to about 320,000 years ago, at the Kenyan site of <a href="/wiki/Olorgesailie" title="Olorgesailie">Olorgesailie</a>, of the early emergence of innovations and behaviors including: long-distance trade networks (involving goods such as obsidian), the use of pigments, and the possible making of projectile points. It is observed by the authors of three 2018 studies on the site, that the evidence of these behaviors is approximately contemporary to the earliest known <i>Homo sapiens</i> fossil remains from Africa (such as at <a href="/wiki/Jebel_Irhoud" title="Jebel Irhoud">Jebel Irhoud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Florisbad_Skull" title="Florisbad Skull">Florisbad</a>), and they suggest that complex and modern behaviors had already begun in Africa around the time of the emergence of <i>Homo sapiens</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-NPR-593591796_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NPR-593591796-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Atlantic-555674_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Atlantic-555674-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brooks_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooks-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbolic_behavior">Symbolic behavior</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Symbolic behavior"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lubang_Jeriji_Sal%C3%A9h_cave_painting_of_Bull.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Lubang_Jeriji_Sal%C3%A9h_cave_painting_of_Bull.jpg/220px-Lubang_Jeriji_Sal%C3%A9h_cave_painting_of_Bull.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Lubang_Jeriji_Sal%C3%A9h_cave_painting_of_Bull.jpg/330px-Lubang_Jeriji_Sal%C3%A9h_cave_painting_of_Bull.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Lubang_Jeriji_Sal%C3%A9h_cave_painting_of_Bull.jpg/440px-Lubang_Jeriji_Sal%C3%A9h_cave_painting_of_Bull.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1814" data-file-height="1155" /></a><figcaption>One of the oldest known <a href="/wiki/Figurative_art" title="Figurative art">figurative paintings</a>, a depiction of an unknown <a href="/wiki/Bovinae" title="Bovinae">bovine</a>, was discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Lubang_Jeriji_Sal%C3%A9h" title="Lubang Jeriji Saléh">Lubang Jeriji Saléh</a> cave and dated to be more than 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20181107-cz_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20181107-cz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20181107_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20181107-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Symbolic behavior is, perhaps, one of the most difficult aspects of modern human behavior to distinguish archaeologically. When searching for evidence of symbolic behavior in the MSA, there are three lines of evidence that can be considered: direct evidence reflecting concrete examples of symbols; indirect evidence reflecting behaviors that would have been used to convey symbolic thought; and technological evidence reflecting the tools and skills that would have been used to produce art. Direct evidence is difficult to find beyond 40ka, and indirect evidence is essentially intangible, thus technological evidence is the most fruitful of the three.<sup id="cite_ref-Marean_Assefa_2004_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marean_Assefa_2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today there is widespread agreement among archaeologists that the world's first art and <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_culture" title="Symbolic culture">symbolic culture</a> dates to the African Middle Stone Age. Some of the most striking artifacts, including engraved pieces of red ochre, were manufactured at <a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> 75,000 years ago. Pierced and ochred <i><a href="/wiki/Nassarius" title="Nassarius">Nassarius</a></i> shell beads were also recovered from Blombos, with even earlier examples (Middle Stone Age, <a href="/wiki/Aterian" title="Aterian">Aterian</a>) from the <a href="/wiki/Taforalt_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Taforalt Caves">Taforalt Caves</a>. In addition, ostrich egg shell containers engraved with geometric designs dating to 60,000 years ago were found at <a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Diepkloof</a>, South Africa,<sup id="cite_ref-Texier_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Texier-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> beads and other personal ornamentation have been found from Morocco which might be as much as 130,000 years old, and the Cave of Hearths in South Africa has yielded a number of beads dating from significantly prior to 50,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-McBrearty_Brooks_2000_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBrearty_Brooks_2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At <a href="/wiki/Panga_ya_Saidi" title="Panga ya Saidi">Panga ya Saidi</a> in Kenya, marine shell beads appear perhaps as early as 67,000 years ago and certainly by 33,000 years ago, and engraved ochre by 48,500 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence for the making of paints by a complex process also exists dating to 100,000 years ago in South Africa,<sup id="cite_ref-bbc.com-15257259_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc.com-15257259-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Washington_Post-2011/10/12/gIQApyHrhL_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Washington_Post-2011/10/12/gIQApyHrhL-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Henshilwood_et_al._2011_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henshilwood_et_al._2011-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and for the use of pigments in Kenya dating to about 320,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Brooks_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooks-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Atlantic-555674_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Atlantic-555674-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complex_cognition">Complex cognition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Complex cognition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A series of innovations have been documented by 170–160,000 years ago at the site of <a href="/wiki/Pinnacle_Point" title="Pinnacle Point">Pinnacle Point</a> 13B on the southern Cape coast of <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Marean_et_al_2007_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marean_et_al_2007-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes the oldest confirmed evidence for the utilization of ochre and marine resources in the form of shellfish exploitation for food. Based on his analysis of the MSA bovid assemblage at <a href="/wiki/Klasies_River_Caves" title="Klasies River Caves">Klasies</a>, Milo<sup id="cite_ref-Milo1998_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milo1998-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reports MSA people were formidable hunters and that their social behavior patterns approached those of modern humans. Deacon<sup id="cite_ref-Deacon2001_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deacon2001-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> maintains that the management of plant food resources through deliberate burning of the veld to encourage the growth of plants with <a href="/wiki/Corm" title="Corm">corms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tubers" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubers">tubers</a> in the southern Cape during the <a href="/wiki/Howiesons_Poort" title="Howiesons Poort">Howiesons Poort</a> (c. 70–55 ka) is indicative of <a href="/wiki/Modern_human_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern human behavior">modern human behavior</a>. A family basis to foraging groups, color symbolism and the reciprocal exchange of artifacts and the formal organization of living space are, he suggests, further evidence for modernity in the MSA. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lyn_Wadley" title="Lyn Wadley">Lyn Wadley</a> et al.<sup id="cite_ref-Wadley_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wadley-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have argued that the complexity of the skill needed to process the heat-treated compound glue (gum and red ochre) used to haft spears would seem to argue for continuity between modern human cognition and that of <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a> 70,000 BP at <a href="/wiki/Sibudu_Cave" title="Sibudu Cave">Sibudu Cave</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wynn_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wynn-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2008, an ochre processing workshop likely for the production of paints was uncovered dating to ca. 100,000 years ago at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Analysis shows that a liquefied pigment-rich mixture was produced and stored in the two abalone shells, and that ochre, bone, charcoal, grindstones and hammer-stones also formed a composite part of the toolkits. Evidence for the complexity of the task includes procuring and combining raw materials from various sources (implying they had a mental template of the process they would follow), possibly using pyrotechnology to facilitate fat extraction from bone, using a probable recipe to produce the compound, and the use of shell containers for mixing and storage for later use.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc.com-15257259_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc.com-15257259-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Washington_Post-2011/10/12/gIQApyHrhL_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Washington_Post-2011/10/12/gIQApyHrhL-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Henshilwood_et_al._2011_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henshilwood_et_al._2011-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evidence_for_language">Evidence for language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Evidence for language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ochre" title="Ochre">Ochre</a> is reported from some early MSA sites, for example at Kapthurin and Twin Rivers, and is common after c. 100 ka.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Barham<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argues that even if some of this ochre was used in a symbolic, color-related role then this abstraction could not have worked without language. Ochre, he suggests, could be one proxy for trying to find the emergence of language. </p><p>Formal bone tools are frequently associated with <a href="/wiki/Modern_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern behaviour">modern behaviour</a> by archaeologists.<sup id="cite_ref-Henshilwood2001_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henshilwood2001-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sophisticated bone <a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoons</a> manufactured at Katanda, West Africa at c. 90 ka<sup id="cite_ref-yellen1995_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yellen1995-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brooks1995_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brooks1995-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and bone tools from Blombos Cave dated at c. 77 ka<sup id="cite_ref-Henshilwood2001_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henshilwood2001-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> may then also serve as examples of material culture associated with modern language. </p><p>Language has been suggested to be necessary to maintain exchange networks. Evidence of some form of exchange networks during the Middle Stone Age is presented in Marwick (2003) in which the distance between the source of raw material and location in which a stone artifact was found was compared throughout sites containing early stone artifacts.<sup id="cite_ref-Marwick2003_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marwick2003-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Five Middle Stone Age sites contained distances between 140–340 km and have been interpreted, when compared with ethnographic data, that these distances were made possible through exchange networks.<sup id="cite_ref-Marwick2003_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marwick2003-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Barham<sup id="cite_ref-Barham2001_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barham2001-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also views syntactic language as one aspect of behavior that in fact allowed MSA people to settle in the tropical forest environments of what is now the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>. </p><p>Many authors have speculated that at the core of this symbolic explosion, and in tandem, was the development of syntactic language that evolved through a highly specialized social learning system<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> providing the means for semantically unbounded discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Syntax would have played a key role in this process and its full adoption could have been a crucial element of the symbolic behavioral package in the MSA.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Brain_change">Brain change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Brain change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the advent of anatomical physical modernity cannot confidently be linked with palaeoneurological change,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it does seem probable that hominid brains evolved through the same selection processes as other body parts.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genes that promoted a capacity for symbolism may have been selected for, suggesting that the foundations for symbolic culture may well be grounded in biology. However, behavior that was mediated by symbolism may have only come later, even though this physical capacity was already in place much earlier. Skoyles and Sagan, for example, argue that human brain expansion by increasing the prefrontal cortex would have created a brain capable of symbolizing its previously non-symbolic cognition, and that this process, slow to begin with, increasingly accelerated during the last 100,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Symbolically mediated behavior may then feed back upon this process by creating a greater ability to manufacture symbolic <a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">artifacts</a> and social networks. According to the research team in <a href="/wiki/Jebel_Irhoud" title="Jebel Irhoud">Jebel Irhoud</a>, the discovery means that <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i>—not members of a rival or ancestor species (<i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_naledi" title="Homo naledi">Homo naledi</a></i>)—were the ones who left behind Middle Stone Age hand tools that have since been unearthed all over Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sites">Sites</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinnacle_Point_Archaeological_Site,_Mossel_Bay_South_Africa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Pinnacle_Point_Archaeological_Site%2C_Mossel_Bay_South_Africa.jpg/170px-Pinnacle_Point_Archaeological_Site%2C_Mossel_Bay_South_Africa.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Pinnacle_Point_Archaeological_Site%2C_Mossel_Bay_South_Africa.jpg/255px-Pinnacle_Point_Archaeological_Site%2C_Mossel_Bay_South_Africa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Pinnacle_Point_Archaeological_Site%2C_Mossel_Bay_South_Africa.jpg/340px-Pinnacle_Point_Archaeological_Site%2C_Mossel_Bay_South_Africa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="384" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Excavations at Pinnacle Point, South Africa</figcaption></figure> <p>Numerous sites in southern Africa reflect the four characteristics of behavioral modernity. <a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a>, South Africa contains personal ornaments and what are presumed to be the tools used for the production of artistic imagery, as well as bone tools.<sup id="cite_ref-Henshilwood_et_al_2001_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henshilwood_et_al_2001-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Still_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Still Bay">Still Bay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Howieson%27s_Poort" class="mw-redirect" title="Howieson's Poort">Howieson's Poort</a> contain variable tool technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-Henshilwood_Benoit_2011_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henshilwood_Benoit_2011-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These different types of assemblages allow researchers to extrapolate behaviors that would likely be associated with such technologies, such as shifts in foraging behaviors, which are further supported by <a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">faunal</a> data at these sites. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a>, South Africa<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klasies_River_Caves" title="Klasies River Caves">Klasies River Caves</a>, South Africa</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibudu_Cave" title="Sibudu Cave">Sibudu Cave</a>, South Africa<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Diepkloof Rock Shelter</a>, South Africa</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinnacle_Point" title="Pinnacle Point">Pinnacle Point</a>, South Africa</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_Cave" title="Border Cave">Border Cave</a>, South Africa<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Bambata Cave, South Africa<sup id="cite_ref-:0_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mossel_Bay" title="Mossel Bay">Mossel Bay</a>, South Africa<sup id="cite_ref-:0_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mumba_Cave" title="Mumba Cave">Mumba Cave</a>, Tanzania</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mumbwa_Caves" title="Mumbwa Caves">Mumbwa Caves</a>, Zambia</li> <li>Laminia and Saxomununya, Senegal<sup id="cite_ref-10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.137_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.137-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Out_of_Africa_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Out of Africa hypothesis">Out of Africa hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_culture" title="Symbolic culture">Symbolic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Human_Revolution_(human_origins)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Human Revolution (human origins)">The Human Revolution (human origins)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Stone_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Later Stone Age">Later Stone Age</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Stone_Age&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-McBrearty-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McBrearty_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McBrearty_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McBrearty_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McBrearty_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McBrearty_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McBrearty_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McBrearty_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McBrearty_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McBrearty_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McBrearty_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McBrearty_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McBrearty_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McBrearty_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output 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"The Still Bay and Howiesons Poort, 77–59 ka: Symbolic Material Culture and the Evolution of the Mind during the African Middle Stone Age". <i>Current Anthropology</i>. <b>52</b> (3): 361–400. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F660022">10.1086/660022</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161517258">161517258</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=The+Still+Bay+and+Howiesons+Poort%2C+77%E2%80%9359+ka%3A+Symbolic+Material+Culture+and+the+Evolution+of+the+Mind+during+the+African+Middle+Stone+Age&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=361-400&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F660022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161517258%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Henshilwood&rft.aufirst=Christopher+S.&rft.au=Dubreuil%2C+Benoit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Stone+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://in-africa.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Henshilwood-et-al-2001-JAS-Blombos.pdf">"Blombos Cave, Southern Cape, South Africa: Preliminary Report on the 1992–1999 Excavations of the Middle Stone Age Levels"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Blombos+Cave%2C+Southern+Cape%2C+South+Africa%3A+Preliminary+Report+on+the+1992%E2%80%931999+Excavations+of+the+Middle+Stone+Age+Levels&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fin-africa.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F12%2FHenshilwood-et-al-2001-JAS-Blombos.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Stone+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/handle/10204/527/wadley_2004.pdf;jsessionid=747B19B505E8BBA3B2B76667AED199A3?sequence=1">"Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal: Background to the excavations of Middle Stone Age and Iron Age occupations"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sibudu+Cave%2C+KwaZulu-Natal%3A+Background+to+the+excavations+of+Middle+Stone+Age+and+Iron+Age+occupations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearchspace.csir.co.za%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10204%2F527%2Fwadley_2004.pdf%3Bjsessionid%3D747B19B505E8BBA3B2B76667AED199A3%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Stone+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286376263">"Border Cave and the beginning of the Later Stone Age in South Africa"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Border+Cave+and+the+beginning+of+the+Later+Stone+Age+in+South+Africa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F286376263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Stone+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Stone-Age/Africa">"Stone Age – Africa"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-11-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stone+Age+%E2%80%93+Africa&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FStone-Age%2FAfrica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Stone+Age" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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title="Technology">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Tools" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Tools</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">Farming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founder_crops" title="Founder crops">Founder crops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ard_(plough)" title="Ard (plough)">Ard / plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celt_(tool)" title="Celt (tool)">Celt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging_stick" title="Digging stick">Digging stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goad" title="Goad">Goad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_products_revolution" title="Secondary products revolution">Secondary products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">Sickle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Food processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basket" title="Basket">Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Cooking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_oven" title="Earth oven">Earth oven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">Granaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grinding_slab" title="Grinding slab">Grinding slab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_stone" title="Ground stone">Ground stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">Hearth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9F%C4%B1kl%C4%B1_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk#Hearths" title="Aşıklı Höyük">Aşıklı Höyük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qesem_cave#Fire" title="Qesem cave">Qesem cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mano_(stone)" title="Mano (stone)">Manos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">Mortar and pestle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_storage_pits" title="Prehistoric storage pits">Storage pits</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">Boomerang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Throwing_stick" title="Throwing stick">throwing stick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archery" title="History of archery">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Hunting" title="Gravettian">Nets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">Spear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spear-thrower" title="Spear-thrower">spear-thrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_fragment_(Palart_310)" title="Baton fragment (Palart 310)">baton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6ningen_spears" title="Schöningen spears">Schöningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woomera_(spear-thrower)" title="Woomera (spear-thrower)">woomera</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">Projectile points</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">Arrowhead</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_arrowhead" title="Transverse arrowhead">Transverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_Island_projectile_point" title="Bare Island projectile point">Bare Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_point" title="Cascade point">Cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creswellian_culture" title="Creswellian culture">Cresswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumberland_point" title="Cumberland point">Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_point" title="Eden point">Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamoka_projectile_point" title="Lamoka projectile point">Lamoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manis_Mastodon_site" title="Manis Mastodon site">Manis Mastodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_point" title="Plano point">Plano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_drive_system" title="Game drive system">Game drive system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_jump" title="Buffalo jump">Buffalo jump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Toolmaking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industry_(archaeology)" title="Industry (archaeology)">Earliest toolmaking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurignacian" title="Aurignacian">Aurignacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupstone" title="Cupstone">Cupstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_hardening" title="Fire hardening">Fire hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafting" title="Hafting">Hafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">Hand axe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grooves_(archaeology)" title="Grooves (archaeology)">Grooves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdale_axe_industry" title="Langdale axe industry">Langdale axe industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_core" title="Lithic core">Lithic core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_reduction" title="Lithic reduction">Lithic reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debitage" title="Debitage">debitage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_flake" title="Lithic flake">flake</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Lithic technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magdalenian" title="Magdalenian">Magdalenian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microblade_technology" title="Microblade technology">Microblade technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grime%27s_Graves" title="Grime's Graves">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepared-core_technique" title="Prepared-core technique">Prepared-core technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutrean" title="Solutrean">Solutrean industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Striking_platform" title="Striking platform">Striking platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_stone" title="Tool stone">Tool stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniface" title="Uniface">Uniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yubetsu_technique" title="Yubetsu technique">Yubetsu technique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Other tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">Adze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stitching_awl" title="Stitching awl">Awl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Use_of_animal_remains" title="Gravettian">bone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">Axe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannerstone" title="Bannerstone">Bannerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_(archaeology)" title="Blade (archaeology)">Blade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prismatic_blade" title="Prismatic blade">prismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">Bone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_drill" title="Bow drill">Bow drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burin_(lithic_flake)" title="Burin (lithic flake)">Burin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canoe#History" title="Canoe">Canoe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopper_(archaeology)" title="Chopper (archaeology)">Chopper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chopping_tool" title="Chopping tool">tool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaver_(Stone_Age_tool)" title="Cleaver (Stone Age tool)">Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denticulate_tool" title="Denticulate tool">Denticulate tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_plough" title="Fire plough">Fire plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-saw" title="Fire-saw">Fire-saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammerstone" title="Hammerstone">Hammerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">Knife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microlith" title="Microlith">Microlith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racloir" title="Racloir">Racloir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">Scraper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grattoir_de_c%C3%B4t%C3%A9" title="Grattoir de côté">side</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">Stone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tally_stick#Paleolithic_tally_sticks" title="Tally stick">Tally stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_weapons#Copper_Age" title="History of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">Wheel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronocice_pot" title="Bronocice pot">illustration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Architecture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Ceremonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">Pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">Standing stones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_row" title="Stone row">row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Dwellings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_architecture" title="Neolithic architecture">Neolithic architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_long_house" title="Neolithic long house">long house</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_megalith_architecture" title="British megalith architecture">British megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_megalith_architecture" title="Nordic megalith architecture">Nordic megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burdei" title="Burdei">Burdei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_dwelling" title="Cliff dwelling">Cliff dwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hut" title="Hut">Hut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quiggly_hole" title="Quiggly hole">Quiggly hole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacal" title="Jacal">Jacal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse" title="Longhouse">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">Mudbrick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh#Lifestyle_and_technology" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit-house" title="Pit-house">Pit-house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_pueblitos" title="Navajo pueblitos">Pueblitos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo" title="Pueblo">Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_shelter" title="Rock shelter">Rock shelter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abri_de_la_Madeleine" title="Abri de la Madeleine">Abri de la Madeleine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibudu_Cave" title="Sibudu Cave">Sibudu Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundhouse_(dwelling)" title="Roundhouse (dwelling)">Roundhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilt_house" title="Stilt house">Stilt house</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_pile_dwellings_around_the_Alps" title="Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps">Alp pile dwellings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ness_of_Brodgar" title="Ness of Brodgar">Stone roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wattle_and_daub" title="Wattle and daub">Wattle and daub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Water management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Check_dam" title="Check dam">Check dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet#History" title="Flush toilet">Flush toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">Reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Archaeological features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_mound" title="Burnt mound">Burnt mound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fulacht_fiadh" title="Fulacht fiadh">fulacht fiadh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causewayed_enclosure" title="Causewayed enclosure">Causewayed enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tor_enclosure" title="Tor enclosure">Tor enclosure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_circular_enclosures_in_Central_Europe" title="Neolithic circular enclosures in Central Europe">Circular enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goseck_Circle" title="Goseck Circle">Goseck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus" title="Cursus">Cursus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henge" title="Henge">Henge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thornborough_Henges" title="Thornborough Henges">Thornborough</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_architectural_elements" title="Megalithic architectural elements">Megalithic architectural elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_extant_buildings" title="List of oldest extant buildings">Oldest extant buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_circle" title="Timber circle">Timber circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_trackway" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber trackway">Timber trackway</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_Track" title="Sweet Track">Sweet Track</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arts_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Material goods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basket_weaving" title="Basket weaving">Baskets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beadwork" title="Beadwork">Beadwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed#History" title="Bed">Beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles" title="History of clothing and textiles">Clothing/textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cosmetics" title="History of cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Glue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hide_materials" title="History of hide materials">Hides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoe#History" title="Shoe">shoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96tzi#Clothes_and_shoes" title="Ötzi">Ötzi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery#History" title="Jewellery">Jewelry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amber#Use" title="Amber">amber use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror#History" title="Mirror">Mirrors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery#History" title="Pottery">Pottery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardium_pottery" title="Cardium pottery">Cardium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cord-marked_pottery" title="Cord-marked pottery">Cord-marked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grooved_ware" title="Grooved ware">Grooved ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_pottery" title="Jōmon pottery">Jōmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstan_ware" title="Unstan ware">Unstan ware</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing_needle#History" title="Sewing needle">Sewing needle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">Wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areni-1_winery" title="Areni-1 winery">winery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_wine_press#Early_history" title="History of the wine press">wine press</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Upper_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Upper Paleolithic">Art of the Upper Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Middle_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Middle Paleolithic">Art of the Middle Paleolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave#Archaeological_remains_and_material_culture_from_the_Middle_Stone_Age_levels" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stone_Age_art" title="List of Stone Age art">List of Stone Age art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_stone" title="Bird stone">Bird stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairn" title="Cairn">Cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carved_stone_balls" title="Carved stone balls">Carved stone balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_and_ring_mark" title="Cup and ring mark">Cup and ring mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hill_figure" title="Hill figure">Hill figure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_hat" title="Golden hat">Golden hats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_stones" title="Guardian stones">Guardian stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwion_Gwion_rock_paintings" title="Gwion Gwion rock paintings">Gwion Gwion rock paintings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting#Pre-history" title="History of painting">painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment#History" title="Pigment">pigment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_art" title="Megalithic art">Megalithic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroform" title="Petroform">Petroform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrosomatoglyph" title="Petrosomatoglyph">Petrosomatoglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">Rock art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rock_cupule" title="Rock cupule">Rock cupule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Stone carving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture#Prehistoric_periods" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_menhir" title="Statue menhir">Statue menhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circle" title="Stone circle">Stone circle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stone_circles" title="List of stone circles">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circles_in_the_British_Isles_and_Brittany" title="Stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany">British Isles and Brittany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_figurine" title="Venus figurine">Venus figurine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Burial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">Burial mounds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bowl_barrow" title="Bowl barrow">Bowl barrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_barrow" title="Round barrow">Round barrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_mounds_in_the_United_States" title="List of burial mounds in the United States">U.S. sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_tomb" title="Chamber tomb">Chamber tomb</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cotswold-Severn_Group" title="Cotswold-Severn Group">Cotswold-Severn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cist" title="Cist">Cist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dartmoor_kistvaens" title="Dartmoor kistvaens">Dartmoor kistvaens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clava_cairn" title="Clava cairn">Clava cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_cairn" title="Court cairn">Court cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremation#History" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">Dolmen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_dolmen" title="Great dolmen">Great dolmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyre" title="Pyre">Funeral pyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallery_grave" title="Gallery grave">Gallery grave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transepted_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Transepted gallery grave">transepted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge-shaped_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedge-shaped gallery grave">wedge-shaped</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jar_burial" title="Jar burial">Jar burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_barrow" title="Long barrow">Long barrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_barrow" title="Unchambered long barrow">unchambered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%B8nsalen" title="Grønsalen">Grønsalen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_tomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic tomb">Megalithic tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_grave" title="Passage grave">Passage grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectangular_dolmen" title="Rectangular dolmen">Rectangular dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_cairn" title="Ring cairn">Ring cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_dolmen" title="Simple dolmen">Simple dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_box_grave" title="Stone box grave">Stone box grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tor_cairn" title="Tor cairn">Tor cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_cairn" title="Unchambered long cairn">Unchambered long cairn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeoastronomical_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeoastronomical sites by country">sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Evolutionary musicology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">music archaeology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogenic_drugs_and_the_archaeological_record" title="Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record">Spiritual drug use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" title="Prehistoric counting">Prehistoric counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">trepanning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_drum" title="Alligator drum">Alligator drum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_flute" title="Paleolithic flute">flutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divje_Babe_flute" title="Divje Babe flute">Divje Babe flute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_(instrument)" title="Gudi (instrument)">gudi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Howiesons_Poort#Symbolism" title="Howiesons Poort">symbolism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" 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