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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neolithic_and_Bronze_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neolithic_and_Bronze_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Neolithic and Bronze Age </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neolithic_and_Bronze_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Antiquity </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Antiquity subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scythian_settlement,_Greek_colonization,_and_Roman_domination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scythian_settlement,_Greek_colonization,_and_Roman_domination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Scythian settlement, Greek colonization, and Roman domination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scythian_settlement,_Greek_colonization,_and_Roman_domination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arrival_of_the_Goths_and_Huns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrival_of_the_Goths_and_Huns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Arrival of the Goths and Huns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arrival_of_the_Goths_and_Huns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Middle Ages </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Middle Ages subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Slavs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Slavs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Early Slavs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Slavs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arrival_of_the_Bulgars_and_Khazars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrival_of_the_Bulgars_and_Khazars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Arrival of the Bulgars and Khazars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arrival_of_the_Bulgars_and_Khazars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kievan_Rus'_(9th_century–1240)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kievan_Rus'_(9th_century–1240)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Kievan Rus' (9th century–1240) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kievan_Rus'_(9th_century–1240)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origin_and_foundation_of_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_and_foundation_of_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Origin and foundation of state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_and_foundation_of_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Golden_Age_and_Christianisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Golden_Age_and_Christianisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Golden Age and Christianisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Golden_Age_and_Christianisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feudal_fragmentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feudal_fragmentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 Feudal fragmentation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feudal_fragmentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus'" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus'"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.4 Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus' </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus'-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kingdom_of_Galicia–Volhynia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingdom_of_Galicia–Volhynia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.5 Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingdom_of_Galicia–Volhynia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_domination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_domination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Foreign domination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_domination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Early modern period </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_modern_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Early modern period subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cossack_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cossack_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Cossack era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cossack_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cossack_Hetmanate_(1649–1764)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cossack_Hetmanate_(1649–1764)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Cossack Hetmanate (1649–1764) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cossack_Hetmanate_(1649–1764)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liquidation_of_the_Zaporozhian_Sich" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liquidation_of_the_Zaporozhian_Sich"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liquidation_of_the_Zaporozhian_Sich-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Modern history </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern history subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Empires_and_Ukrainian_National_Revival" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empires_and_Ukrainian_National_Revival"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Empires and Ukrainian National Revival </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empires_and_Ukrainian_National_Revival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_of_Independence_(1917–1922)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_of_Independence_(1917–1922)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 War of Independence (1917–1922) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_of_Independence_(1917–1922)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ukrainian_People's_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ukrainian_People's_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Ukrainian People's Republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ukrainian_People's_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_first_Bolshevik_revolutionary_committees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_first_Bolshevik_revolutionary_committees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 The first Bolshevik revolutionary committees </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_first_Bolshevik_revolutionary_committees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ukrainian_State" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ukrainian_State"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 Ukrainian State </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ukrainian_State-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-West_Ukrainian_People's_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_Ukrainian_People's_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.4 West Ukrainian People's Republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_Ukrainian_People's_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unification_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unification_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.5 Unification Act </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unification_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Ukrainian_states_and_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Ukrainian_states_and_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.6 Other Ukrainian states and movements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_Ukrainian_states_and_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continued_struggle_and_exile_of_the_UPR_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continued_struggle_and_exile_of_the_UPR_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.7 Continued struggle and exile of the UPR government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continued_struggle_and_exile_of_the_UPR_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation_of_the_Ukrainian_SSR" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_of_the_Ukrainian_SSR"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.8 Formation of the Ukrainian SSR </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_of_the_Ukrainian_SSR-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ukraine_in_Soviet_Union_(1922–1991)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ukraine_in_Soviet_Union_(1922–1991)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Ukraine in Soviet Union (1922–1991) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ukraine_in_Soviet_Union_(1922–1991)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ukrainization_and_New_Economic_Policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ukrainization_and_New_Economic_Policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Ukrainization and New Economic Policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ukrainization_and_New_Economic_Policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forced_collectivization,_industrialization_and_Holodomor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forced_collectivization,_industrialization_and_Holodomor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Forced collectivization, industrialization and Holodomor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forced_collectivization,_industrialization_and_Holodomor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_repression_and_the_Great_Purge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_repression_and_the_Great_Purge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.3 Political repression and the Great Purge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_repression_and_the_Great_Purge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_Nazi_Occupation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_and_the_Nazi_Occupation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.4 World War II and the Nazi Occupation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_Nazi_Occupation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war_reconstruction_of_the_Ukrainian_SSR_and_continuation_of_repressions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war_reconstruction_of_the_Ukrainian_SSR_and_continuation_of_repressions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.5 Post-war reconstruction of the Ukrainian SSR and continuation of repressions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war_reconstruction_of_the_Ukrainian_SSR_and_continuation_of_repressions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Path_to_Independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Path_to_Independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.6 The Path to Independence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Path_to_Independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Contemporary history </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contemporary history subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Independent_Ukraine_(1991–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independent_Ukraine_(1991–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Independent Ukraine (1991–present) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independent_Ukraine_(1991–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Post-Soviet_transition:_building_the_foundations_of_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Soviet_transition:_building_the_foundations_of_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Post-Soviet transition: building the foundations of independence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Soviet_transition:_building_the_foundations_of_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strengthening_and_growing_contradictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strengthening_and_growing_contradictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 Strengthening and growing contradictions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strengthening_and_growing_contradictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orange_Revolution_and_Euromaidan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orange_Revolution_and_Euromaidan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.3 Orange Revolution and Euromaidan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orange_Revolution_and_Euromaidan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Integration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Integration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.4 Western Integration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Integration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russo-Ukrainian_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russo-Ukrainian_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.5 Russo-Ukrainian War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russo-Ukrainian_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 National historiography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-National_historiography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle National historiography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-National_historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canadian_historiography_on_Ukraine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canadian_historiography_on_Ukraine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Canadian historiography on Ukraine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canadian_historiography_on_Ukraine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Bibliography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surveys_and_reference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys_and_reference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Surveys and reference </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys_and_reference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topical_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topical_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Topical studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topical_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1930s,_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1930s,_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 1930s, World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1930s,_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Recent history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_and_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_and_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5 Historiography and memory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_and_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Teaching_and_study_guides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teaching_and_study_guides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.6 Teaching and study guides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Teaching_and_study_guides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources_in_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources_in_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.7 Primary sources in English </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources_in_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ukrainian_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ukrainian_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.7.1 Ukrainian language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ukrainian_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of Ukraine</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" > 53 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="تاريخ أوكرانيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ أوكرانيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_d%27Ucra%C3%ADna" title="Historia d'Ucraína – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia d'Ucraína" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ইউক্রেনের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইউক্রেনের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Украина тарихы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Украина тарихы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Гісторыя Украіны – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя Украіны" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%8E%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Гісторыя Ўкраіны – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Гісторыя Ўкраіны" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="История на Украйна – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Украйна" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_d%27Ucra%C3%AFna" title="Història d'Ucraïna – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història d'Ucraïna" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_Ukrajiny" title="Dějiny Ukrajiny – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Ukrajiny" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes_Wcr%C3%A1in" title="Hanes Wcráin – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hanes Wcráin" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraines_historie" title="Ukraines historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ukraines historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Ukraine" title="Geschichte der Ukraine – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Ukraine" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraina_ajalugu" title="Ukraina ajalugu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ukraina ajalugu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%9F%CF%85%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ιστορία της Ουκρανίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία της Ουκρανίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Ucrania" title="Historia de Ucrania – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de Ucrania" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_Ukrainio" title="Historio de Ukrainio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de Ukrainio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainako_historia" title="Ukrainako historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ukrainako historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86" title="تاریخ اوکراین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ اوکراین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27Ukraine" title="Histoire de l'Ukraine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'Ukraine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Ucra%C3%ADna" title="Historia de Ucraína – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia de Ucraína" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%B0%ED%81%AC%EB%9D%BC%EC%9D%B4%EB%82%98%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="우크라이나의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="우크라이나의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ուկրաինայի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ուկրաինայի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Ukrajine" title="Povijest Ukrajine – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Ukrajine" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Ukraina" title="Historio di Ukraina – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Ukraina" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Ukraina" title="Sejarah Ukraina – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Ukraina" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27Ucraina" title="Storia dell'Ucraina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'Ucraina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%94" title="היסטוריה של אוקראינה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של אוקראינה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Ukraine" title="Historia ya Ukraine – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Ukraine" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Ucrainae" title="Historia Ucrainae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia Ucrainae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainas_v%C4%93sture" title="Ukrainas vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ukrainas vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainos_istorija" title="Ukrainos istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ukrainos istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrajna_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelme" title="Ukrajna történelme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ukrajna történelme" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Историја на Украина – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на Украина" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantaran%27_i_Okraina" title="Tantaran' i Okraina – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tantaran' i Okraina" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Oekra%C3%AFne" title="Geschiedenis van Oekraïne – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Oekraïne" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%82%AF%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A4%E3%83%8A%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="ウクライナの歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ウクライナの歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainas_historie" title="Ukrainas historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ukrainas historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%93" title="ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រអ៊ុយក្រែន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រអ៊ុយក្រែន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Ukrainy" title="Historia Ukrainy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Ukrainy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_Ucr%C3%A2nia" title="História da Ucrânia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da Ucrânia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_Ucrainei" title="Istoria Ucrainei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria Ucrainei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="История Украины – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История Украины" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny_Ukrajiny" title="Dejiny Ukrajiny – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dejiny Ukrajiny" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zgodovina_Ukrajine" title="Zgodovina Ukrajine – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zgodovina Ukrajine" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Историја Украјине – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Историја Украјине" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainan_historia" title="Ukrainan historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ukrainan historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainas_historia" title="Ukrainas historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ukrainas historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrayna_tarihi" title="Ukrayna tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ukrayna tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Історія України – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія України" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="یوکرین کی تاریخ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="یوکرین کی تاریخ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Ukraine" title="Category:History of Ukraine">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Ukraine</a></th> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Lesser_Coat_of_Arms_of_Ukraine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Lesser_Coat_of_Arms_of_Ukraine.svg/80px-Lesser_Coat_of_Arms_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Lesser_Coat_of_Arms_of_Ukraine.svg/120px-Lesser_Coat_of_Arms_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Lesser_Coat_of_Arms_of_Ukraine.svg/160px-Lesser_Coat_of_Arms_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="330" data-file-height="461" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Ukraine" title="Name of Ukraine">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Ukraine" title="Flag of Ukraine">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Ukraine" title="Coat of arms of Ukraine">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_in_present-day_Ukraine" title="Historical regions in present-day Ukraine">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Ukraine" title="History of Christianity in Ukraine">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of Ukraine">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="History of banking in Ukraine">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="History of rail transport in Ukraine">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_shipbuilding_in_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="History of shipbuilding in Ukraine">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology_in_Ukraine" title="History of technology in Ukraine">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television_in_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="History of television in Ukraine">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Jewish history</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistorical_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistorical Ukraine">Prehistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cucuteni%E2%80%93Trypillia_culture" title="Cucuteni–Trypillia culture">Cucuteni–Trypillia culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacomb_culture" title="Catacomb culture">Catacomb culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Crimea" title="History of Crimea">Taurica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom" title="Bosporan Kingdom">Bosporan Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarubintsy_culture" title="Zarubintsy culture">Zarubintsy culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernyakhov_culture" title="Chernyakhov culture">Chernyakhov culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic Empire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Ukraine">Early history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early East Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazar Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumania" title="Cumania">Cumania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Principality of Kyiv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia%E2%80%93Volhynia" title="Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia">Kingdom of Ruthenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cossacks" title="History of the Cossacks">Cossacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiev_Voivodeship" title="Kiev Voivodeship">Kyiv Voivodeship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaporozhian_Cossacks" title="Zaporozhian Cossacks">Zaporozhian Host</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaporozhian_Sich" title="Zaporozhian Sich">Zaporozhian Sich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Khmelnytsky Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-bank_Ukraine" title="Left-bank Ukraine">Left bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-bank_Ukraine" title="Right-bank Ukraine">Right bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloboda_Ukraine" title="Sloboda Ukraine">Sloboda Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danubian_Sich" title="Danubian Sich">Danubian Sich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuban_Cossacks" title="Kuban Cossacks">Kuban Cossacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Russia" title="Little Russia">Little Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novorossiya" title="Novorossiya">Novorossiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg Empire">Habsburg Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria" title="Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria">Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukovina" title="Bukovina">Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Ruthenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpathian Ruthenia">Carpathian Ruthenia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Ukraine" title="Modern history of Ukraine">Modern history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine_during_World_War_I" title="Ukraine during World War I">Ukraine during World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine_after_the_Russian_Revolution" title="Ukraine after the Russian Revolution">Ukraine after the Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_War_of_Independence" title="Ukrainian War of Independence">Ukrainian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukrainian People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovshchina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_State" title="Ukrainian State">Ukrainian State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorate_of_Ukraine" title="Directorate of Ukraine">Directorate of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="West Ukrainian People's Republic">West Ukrainian People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian SSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Ukraine_(Soviet_Union)" title="Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)">Communist Party of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#World_War_II">Ukraine in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ukraine" title="Reichskommissariat Ukraine">Reichskommissariat Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Ukrainian_Nationalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists">Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Contemporary</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_transition_in_Ukraine" title="Post-Soviet transition in Ukraine">Post-Soviet transition in Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassette_Scandal" title="Cassette Scandal">Cassette Scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Revolution" title="Orange Revolution">Orange Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Ukraine_gas_disputes" title="Russia–Ukraine gas disputes">Russia–Ukraine gas disputes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas" title="War in Donbas">War in Donbas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ukraine" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Ukraine">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/16px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/24px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/32px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ukraine" title="Portal:Ukraine">Ukraine portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Ukraine" title="Template:History of Ukraine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Ukraine" title="Template talk:History of Ukraine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Ukraine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Ukraine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The history of Ukraine spans thousands of years, rooted in the <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic steppe</a>, a region central to the spread of the <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">domestication of the horse</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Antiquity" class="mw-disambig" title="Antiquity">antiquity</a>, the area was part of <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a> and later inhabited by <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic tribes">Slavic tribes</a>. Southern Ukraine was colonized by the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Crimea" title="Greek Crimea">Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Crimea">Romans</a>, leaving a significant cultural heritage.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-cbc.ca-3">[3]</a> Ukraine enters into written history with the establishment of the medieval state of <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Dnieper_Ukraine" title="Dnieper Ukraine">Dnieper Ukraine</a>, the tribe of <a href="/wiki/Polans_(eastern)" title="Polans (eastern)">Polans</a> served as the organizers of Kievan Rus' state, beginning to name themself and their land Rus' in 9th century, a word that probably derived from <a href="/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangians</a>, who laid the foundation of the state itself.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> It emerged as one of the most powerful and advanced nations of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> at that time, with <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a> meeting its golden age and <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Christianization</a> under <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_the_Great" title="Vladimir the Great">Vladimir the Great</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yaroslav_the_Wise" title="Yaroslav the Wise">Yaroslav the Wise</a>. Kievan Rus' started to disintegrate in <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Kievan_princes" class="mw-redirect" title="Kievan princes">Kievan monarchs</a> competing and fighting over the throne in the core Rus' land, while experiencing <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> raids from <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ukraine" title="Southern Ukraine">Southern Ukraine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> In 13th century <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> was destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Mongol invasion</a>, leaving its core in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Dnieper" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Dnieper">Dnieper Ukraine</a> absolutely devastated, but the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ruthenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Ruthenia">Kingdom of Ruthenia</a> (Galicia-Volhynia) succeeded Kievan Rus' under <a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_Galicia" title="Daniel of Galicia">King Daniel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pelenski-8">[8]</a> In 14th and 15th centuries, majority of Ukrainian territories became part of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania,_Ruthenia_and_Samogitia" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia">Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zakarpattia_Oblast" title="Zakarpattia Oblast">Zakarpattia</a> came under <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1320-1505)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1320-1505)">Polish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1301%E2%80%931526)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)">Hungarian</a> rule. <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Lithuania</a> kept the local <a href="/wiki/Ruthenians" title="Ruthenians">Ruthenian</a> traditions, and was gradually influenced by <a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_language" title="Ruthenian language">Ruthenian language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27_law" title="Kievan Rus' law">law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruthenian culture">culture</a>, until Lithuania itself came under <a href="/wiki/Polonization" title="Polonization">Polish influence</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Krewo" title="Union of Krewo">Union of Krewo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin" title="Union of Lublin">Union of Lublin</a>, resulting in two countries merging into <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, leaving Ukrainian lands under the dominance of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Polish crown</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Meanwhile <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ukraine" title="Southern Ukraine">Southern Ukraine</a> was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a>, which came under protection of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, major regional power in and around <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, which also had some of its own directly-administrated areas as well. In the 17th century, the <a href="/wiki/Cossack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cossack">Cossack</a> rebellion led by <a href="/wiki/Bohdan_Khmelnytsky" title="Bohdan Khmelnytsky">Bohdan Khmelnytsky</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a>, which allied with Muscovy in 1654 through the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Pereyaslav" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Pereyaslav">Treaty of Pereyaslav</a>. The exact nature of the relationship established by this treaty between the Cossack Hetmanate and <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsardom of Moscow">Tsardom of Moscow</a> remains a matter of scholarly controversy.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> This led to increasing Muscovy dominance, culminating in the 18th century with the partition of Polish-controlled territories and the incorporation of Ukrainian lands into the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Habsburg Austria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nvr_1969-11">[11]</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofrussiab0000unse/page/198/mode/2up">199</a>  The 20th century began with a renewed struggle for Ukrainian statehood. Following the collapse of empires during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_People%E2%80%99s_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian People’s Republic">Ukrainian People’s Republic</a> (UPR) was proclaimed in 1917 with <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a> as its capital. Meanwhile, in the western territories, the <a href="/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%E2%80%99s_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="West Ukrainian People’s Republic">West Ukrainian People’s Republic</a> (WUPR) was established in 1918, centered in <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lviv</a>. Both republics sought to unite, forming the <a href="/wiki/Unification_Act" title="Unification Act">Unification Act</a> (Act Zluky) on 22 January 1919.<a href="#cite_note-subtelny-362-12">[12]</a> However, their independence was short-lived. The UPR faced constant military conflict with <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> forces, <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Poland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/White_Army" title="White Army">White Army</a> factions. By 1921, following the <a href="/wiki/Soviet-Ukrainian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet-Ukrainian War">Soviet-Ukrainian War</a>, Ukrainian lands were divided: the eastern territories became the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic</a> (part of the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>), while western Ukraine was absorbed by Poland, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nvr_1969-11">[11]</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofrussiab0000unse/page/536/mode/2up">537</a>  Under Soviet rule, initial policies of <a href="/wiki/Ukrainianization" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainianization">Ukrainianization</a> gave way to oppressive <a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a> famine of 1932–1933, a man-made disaster, caused the deaths of 4-5 millions Ukrainians.<a href="#cite_note-eb_Makuchand-13">[13]</a>: §§ 8.1.3  During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Ukraine endured brutal occupations by both <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and the Soviet Union. The <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Ukrainian Insurgent Army</a> (UPA) fought for independence, though parts of Ukrainian society also collaborated with occupying forces. Post-war, Soviet control was reestablished, and <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> was <a href="/wiki/1954_transfer_of_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="1954 transfer of Crimea">transferred to Ukraine</a> in 1954. Ukraine became independent when the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union dissolved</a> in 1991. This started a period of transition to a <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a>, in which Ukraine suffered an eight-year <a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">recession</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Macroindicators_NBU-14">[14]</a> Subsequently however, the economy experienced a high increase in <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_growth_1980%E2%80%932010" title="List of countries by GDP growth 1980–2010">GDP growth</a> until it plunged during the <a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932009_Ukrainian_financial_crisis" title="2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis">Great Recession</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> This period was marked by economic challenges, the rise of <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, and growing tensions with <a href="/wiki/Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a>. In 2013, the <a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a> protests began in response to President <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Yanukovych" title="Viktor Yanukovych">Viktor Yanukovych</a>’s rejection of an <a href="/wiki/European_Union%E2%80%93Ukraine_Association_Agreement" title="European Union–Ukraine Association Agreement">EU association agreement</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_Dignity" title="Revolution of Dignity">Revolution of Dignity</a> followed, leading to Yanukovych’s ousting. Russia <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">annexed Crimea</a> in 2014 and <a href="/wiki/2014_pro-Russian_unrest_in_Ukraine" title="2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine">supported separatist movements</a> in <a href="/wiki/Donbas" title="Donbas">Donbas</a>, initiating the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a>. This escalated on 24 February 2022, with <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russia’s full-scale invasion</a>, marking a critical phase in Ukraine’s fight for sovereignty and territorial integrity. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleolithic_period">Paleolithic period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Paleolithic period">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_stone_stelae" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian stone stelae">Ukrainian stone stelae</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fig._9_mapa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Fig._9_mapa.jpg/220px-Fig._9_mapa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Fig._9_mapa.jpg/330px-Fig._9_mapa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Fig._9_mapa.jpg/440px-Fig._9_mapa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="857" data-file-height="559" /></a><figcaption>Megalithic stelae in Europe</figcaption></figure> The discovery of 1.4-million-year-old stone tools in <a href="/wiki/Korolevo" title="Korolevo">Korolevo</a>, located in western Ukraine, marks one of the earliest securely dated presences of hominins in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.These tools offer crucial insights into the behaviors and adaptive strategies of early members of the genus <a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a>, likely <a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a>, as they expanded into the continent during the Lower <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> period.<a href="#cite_note-Garba2024-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a> presence in Ukraine is well-documented through archaeological findings such as those at the Molodova sites, which date to approximately 45,000–43,000 BC. These sites, located along the <a href="/wiki/Dniester_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Dniester River">Dniester River</a>, are particularly notable for their evidence of advanced behavior. One remarkable feature is the discovery of a dwelling constructed from <a href="/wiki/Pit-house#Mammoth_bone_dwellings" title="Pit-house">mammoth bones</a>, a testament to Neanderthal ingenuity and adaptation to harsh Ice Age environments. These structures highlight their ability to organize resources and create durable shelters.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-orig-19">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Mountains" title="Crimean Mountains">Crimean Mountains</a> hold significant evidence of early modern humans (<a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a>) during the Upper Paleolithic period. The Buran-Kaya cave sites have yielded artifacts, such as tools and ornaments, along with skeletal remains, dating to approximately 32,000 BC. These <a href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian</a> settlements reflect a sophisticated hunter-gatherer culture, known for their blade-based lithic technologies and artistic expression. The region likely served as a vital hub for human activity, offering both shelter and access to diverse ecological resources.<a href="#cite_note-bbc-20">[20]</a> The archaeological record in Ukraine highlights the area's importance as a crossroads for early human populations migrating through Europe. From the earliest stone tools to evidence of complex social structures and artistic traditions, Ukraine offers a valuable lens into the evolution and adaptation of early humans over hundreds of thousands of years. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neolithic_and_Bronze_Age">Neolithic and Bronze Age</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Neolithic and Bronze Age">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cucuteni%E2%80%93Trypillia_culture" title="Cucuteni–Trypillia culture">Cucuteni–Trypillia culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sredny_Stog_culture" title="Sredny Stog culture">Sredny Stog culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yamna_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Yamna culture">Yamna culture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Catacomb_culture" title="Catacomb culture">Catacomb culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maidanetske_3D_model.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maidanetske_3D_model.jpg/220px-Maidanetske_3D_model.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maidanetske_3D_model.jpg/330px-Maidanetske_3D_model.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maidanetske_3D_model.jpg/440px-Maidanetske_3D_model.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1498" data-file-height="727" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maidanetske" title="Maidanetske">Maidanetske</a>, Cucuteni-Trypillia culture, 3800 BC</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Cucuteni-Trypillian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Cucuteni-Trypillian culture">Cucuteni-Trypillian culture</a> (ca. 4,500–3,000 BC), centered in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, represents one of the most advanced <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> civilizations in Europe. These people were known for their impressive settlements, some of which were among the largest in the world at the time, with populations reaching up to 10,000 inhabitants. They built concentric layouts of houses, often using clay and wood, demonstrating advanced planning. They are renowned for their intricate painted ceramics, featuring geometric and symbolic designs in red, black, and white. Their economy was primarily agrarian, complemented by animal husbandry and small-scale trade. Archaeological findings suggest a focus on fertility cults, as evidenced by numerous figurines and symbolic artifacts. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture began to decline around 3000 BC, possibly due to environmental changes, resource depletion, or pressures from neighboring steppe cultures.<a href="#cite_note-neolithic-21">[21]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sredny_Stog_culture" title="Sredny Stog culture">Sredny Stog culture</a> (ca. 4500–3500 BC) emerged to the east of the Cucuteni-Trypillian zone, on the <a href="/wiki/Pontic-Caspian_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic-Caspian steppe">Pontic-Caspian steppe</a>. It marked a transitional phase between the Neolithic and the emergence of the early <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> steppe cultures. This culture is among the earliest to show evidence of horse domestication, which became a defining feature of steppe societies. Early indications of mound burial (kurgans) began to appear, reflecting evolving social hierarchies and ritual practices. The Sredny Stog culture played a significant role in the genesis of the later Yamna culture.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yamna-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Yamna-en.svg/220px-Yamna-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Yamna-en.svg/330px-Yamna-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Yamna-en.svg/440px-Yamna-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1174" data-file-height="916" /></a><figcaption>Extent of the <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a> <a href="/wiki/Yamna_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Yamna culture">Yamna or "pit grave" culture</a>, 3rd millennium BC</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Yamna_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Yamna culture">Yamna culture</a> (ca. 3300–2600 BC), also known as the Pit Grave culture, was a dominant force in the early Bronze Age across the Pontic-Caspian steppe. This culture is often linked with the spread of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> and reflects a shift toward a more mobile, pastoralist lifestyle. The Yamna culture is characterized by its burial mounds (kurgans), often accompanied by grave goods such as weapons, ornaments, and animal sacrifices. The economy relied heavily on livestock, including sheep, cattle, and horses, which supported a semi-nomadic lifestyle. They utilized copper and bronze tools and weapons, demonstrating early metallurgical skills. Many scholars associate the Yamna culture with Proto-Indo-European speakers, as their migrations and cultural diffusion likely influenced vast areas of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Following the Yamna culture, the <a href="/wiki/Catacomb_culture" title="Catacomb culture">Catacomb culture</a> (ca. 2800–2200 BC) emerged, encompassing much of the same geographic area. It is distinguished by its unique burial practices, where bodies were interred in specially carved niches within grave pits. They further advanced bronze metallurgy, producing a variety of tools, weapons, and ornaments. The Catacomb culture maintained many traditions of the Yamna culture while also interacting with neighboring groups to the west and south.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeological_finds_in_National_Museum_of_the_History_of_Ukraine_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cucuteni-Typillia ceramic vessel (National Museum of the History of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine)"><img alt="Cucuteni-Typillia ceramic vessel (National Museum of the History of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Archaeological_finds_in_National_Museum_of_the_History_of_Ukraine_02.jpg/120px-Archaeological_finds_in_National_Museum_of_the_History_of_Ukraine_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Archaeological_finds_in_National_Museum_of_the_History_of_Ukraine_02.jpg/180px-Archaeological_finds_in_National_Museum_of_the_History_of_Ukraine_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Archaeological_finds_in_National_Museum_of_the_History_of_Ukraine_02.jpg/240px-Archaeological_finds_in_National_Museum_of_the_History_of_Ukraine_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="3264" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cucuteni-Typillia ceramic vessel (National Museum of the History of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Yamna stone stele, c. 2600 BC"><img alt="Yamna stone stele, c. 2600 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png/71px-%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png" decoding="async" width="71" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png/107px-%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png/143px-%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1344" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Yamna stone stele, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2600 BC</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Carts_Catacomb_GIM.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Catacomb culture wagon models"><img alt="Catacomb culture wagon models" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Carts_Catacomb_GIM.jpg/120px-Carts_Catacomb_GIM.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Carts_Catacomb_GIM.jpg/180px-Carts_Catacomb_GIM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Carts_Catacomb_GIM.jpg/240px-Carts_Catacomb_GIM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2131" data-file-height="1839" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Catacomb culture wagon models</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Antiquity">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scythian_settlement,_Greek_colonization,_and_Roman_domination">Scythian settlement, Greek colonization, and Roman domination</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Scythian settlement, Greek colonization, and Roman domination">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom" title="Bosporan Kingdom">Bosporan Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Crimea">Greeks in pre-Roman Crimea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Crimea">Roman Crimea</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Sauromates_II_of_the_Bosporan_Kingdom,_including_depiction_of_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Coin_of_Sauromates_II_of_the_Bosporan_Kingdom%2C_including_depiction_of_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla.jpg/220px-Coin_of_Sauromates_II_of_the_Bosporan_Kingdom%2C_including_depiction_of_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Coin_of_Sauromates_II_of_the_Bosporan_Kingdom%2C_including_depiction_of_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla.jpg/330px-Coin_of_Sauromates_II_of_the_Bosporan_Kingdom%2C_including_depiction_of_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Coin_of_Sauromates_II_of_the_Bosporan_Kingdom%2C_including_depiction_of_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla.jpg/440px-Coin_of_Sauromates_II_of_the_Bosporan_Kingdom%2C_including_depiction_of_Septimius_Severus_and_Caracalla.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="392" /></a><figcaption>A gold <a href="/wiki/Stater" title="Stater">stater</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom" title="Bosporan Kingdom">Bosporan</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_the_Cimmerian_Bosporus" title="List of kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus">king</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Sauromates_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiberius Julius Sauromates II">Tiberius Julius Sauromates II</a>, his bust depicted on the <a href="/wiki/Obverse" class="mw-redirect" title="Obverse">obverse</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> legend "<a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">BACΙΛΕΩC CΑΥΡΟΜΑΤΟΥ</a>", and on the reverse the heads of <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperors</a> <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a>, dated 198 or 199 AD</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, the region witnessed the rise and interaction of diverse peoples and cultures. Following earlier Bronze Age societies, the <a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a>, alongside <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_nomads" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral nomads">nomadic groups</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a> (associated with the <a href="/wiki/Novocherkassk_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Novocherkassk culture">Novocherkassk archaeological culture</a>), <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a>, dominated the landscape. Among these, the <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythians</a> established a powerful kingdom that flourished between 750 and 250 BC, characterized by their mastery of mounted warfare and trade networks spanning vast territories.<a href="#cite_note-EB-Scyth-25">[25]</a> One of the notable events in Scythian history was the <a href="/wiki/Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I" title="Scythian campaign of Darius I">campaign</a> of <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a> in 513 BC. The <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Persian</a> king led an expedition aimed at subjugating the Scythians. While the Scythians employed their signature scorched-earth and guerrilla tactics to evade outright defeat, the campaign resulted in the Persian domination of several <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracian peoples</a> and regions along the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>’s northern coast. These territories, encompassing parts of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, and southern <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, were incorporated into the vast Achaemenid sphere of influence, though direct control remained tenuous.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B.JPG/162px-%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B.JPG" decoding="async" width="162" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B.JPG/243px-%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B.JPG/324px-%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>The goddess <a href="/wiki/Demeter" title="Demeter">Demeter</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a> from <a href="/wiki/Panticapaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Panticapaeum">Panticapaeum</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom" title="Bosporan Kingdom">Bosporan Kingdom</a>, 1st century AD, Crimea</figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> colonization left a lasting imprint on the region. Beginning in the 7th or 6th century BC during the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic period</a>, Greek settlers <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek colonization">established colonies along the northern Black Sea coast</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> and parts of modern Ukraine. These colonies, such as <a href="/wiki/Chersonesus" title="Chersonesus">Chersonesus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Olbia" title="Pontic Olbia">Olbia</a>, served as hubs of trade, cultural exchange, and Hellenic influence. The <a href="/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom" title="Bosporan Kingdom">Bosporan Kingdom</a>, a Greco-Scythian polity formed in this context, became a regional power, blending Greek traditions with local elements. It thrived until the 4th century AD, when invasions by the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> disrupted its stability.<a href="#cite_note-Hammond1959-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, expanding its reach into the region, briefly annexed the Bosporan Kingdom from 62 to 68 AD under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>. During this period, the reigning <a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_the_Cimmerian_Bosporus" title="List of kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus">Bosporan king</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Cotys_I" title="Tiberius Julius Cotys I">Tiberius Julius Cotys I</a>, was deposed, and the kingdom was directly administered by <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>. Following Nero’s rule, the Bosporan Kingdom was restored as a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Crimea">Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Amicitia" title="Amicitia">client state</a>, retaining local governance but under <a href="/wiki/Roman_military" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman military">Roman military</a> oversight. This arrangement ensured the region remained within Rome’s economic and strategic sphere during the middle of the 1st century AD.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrival_of_the_Goths_and_Huns">Arrival of the Goths and Huns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Arrival of the Goths and Huns">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oium" title="Oium">Oium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyiv_culture" title="Kyiv culture">Kyiv culture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom" title="Bosporan Kingdom">Bosporan Kingdom</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></div> In the 3rd century AD, the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Germanic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic people">Germanic people</a> originally from <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, began migrating toward <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>. By approximately 250 to 375 AD, they had settled in the area of modern <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, which they referred to as <a href="/wiki/Oium" title="Oium">Oium</a>. This region is linked to the archaeological <a href="/wiki/Chernyakhov_culture" title="Chernyakhov culture">Chernyakhov culture</a>, known for its unique mix of local and Gothic influences.<a href="#cite_note-history_of_ukraine27-33">[33]</a> The Goths in this region soon divided into two main groups: the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> (Western Goths) and the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a> (Eastern Goths). The Ostrogoths established a stronghold in Ukraine but faced significant changes in the 370s with the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Nomadic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomadic">nomadic</a> group from <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. The Huns were powerful warriors and ultimately brought the Ostrogoths under their control, leading to major shifts in Gothic society and governance.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Huns450.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Huns450.png/220px-Huns450.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Huns450.png/330px-Huns450.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Huns450.png/440px-Huns450.png 2x" data-file-width="719" data-file-height="697" /></a><figcaption>Territory under Hunnic control, c. 450 AD</figcaption></figure> To the north of the Ostrogothic territory was the <a href="/wiki/Kyiv_culture" title="Kyiv culture">Kyiv culture</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavic</a> archaeological culture that thrived from the 2nd to the 5th centuries AD. As the Huns expanded their influence across Eastern Europe, this culture also came under threat. Many Slavic and other local groups were affected by the Hunnic invasions, resulting in changes in settlement patterns and local governance.<a href="#cite_note-Kazanski-35">[35]</a> In 454 AD, a decisive battle known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nedao" title="Battle of Nedao">Battle of Nedao</a> marked a turning point. The Ostrogoths, along with other Germanic tribes, rebelled against the Huns and contributed to their defeat. Following this victory, the Ostrogoths were permitted by the Romans to settle in <a href="/wiki/Pannonia" title="Pannonia">Pannonia</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>), marking their departure from the Ukrainian lands.<a href="#cite_note-unesco-36">[36]</a> Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>’s northeastern shores were dotted with ancient <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">Greek colonies</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Tyras" title="Tyras">Tyras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Olbia" title="Pontic Olbia">Pontic Olbia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hermonassa" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermonassa">Hermonassa</a>. Established as early as the 6th century BC, these colonies developed into important cultural and trading centers under <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> rule. These cities continued to thrive until the 6th century AD, when Byzantine influence began to wane.<a href="#cite_note-Boardman251-37">[37]</a> In the early 6th century AD, the <a href="/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom" title="Bosporan Kingdom">Bosporan Kingdom</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean Peninsula">Crimean Peninsula</a> came under the rule of a <a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_the_Huns" title="List of kings of the Huns">Hunnic king</a> named <a href="/wiki/Gordas" title="Gordas">Gordas</a>. Gordas maintained friendly relations with the Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>, but this ended when Gordas was killed in a local revolt around 527 AD. Justinian seized the opportunity to intervene, occupying the Bosporan Kingdom and further extending Byzantine influence over the region. However, even into the 12th century, Byzantine emperors continued to claim dominion over the Crimean region, known as the <a href="/wiki/Cimmerian_Bosporus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cimmerian Bosporus">Cimmerian Bosporus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Slavs">Early Slavs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early Slavs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early Slavs</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Slavic_migrations_to_Southeastern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe">Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe</a></div> Following the power vacuum left by the fall of <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Hunnic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Gothic</a> dominance, the <a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early Slavs</a> began to expand over much of the territory that is now Ukraine during the 5th century, continuing their migration into the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> in the 6th century. The exact origins of the Early Slavs remain uncertain, though several theories suggest they may have originated near the <a href="/wiki/Polesia" title="Polesia">Polesia</a> region, a marshy area between modern-day <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. This period marks a transition from the <a href="/wiki/Kyiv_culture" title="Kyiv culture">Kyiv culture</a> to the establishment of Slavic tribes across Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slavarchaeology.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Slavarchaeology.png/220px-Slavarchaeology.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Slavarchaeology.png/330px-Slavarchaeology.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Slavarchaeology.png/440px-Slavarchaeology.png 2x" data-file-width="896" data-file-height="766" /></a><figcaption>Archaeological cultures associated with <a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavs" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Slavs">proto-Slavs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">early Slavs</a>: <a href="/wiki/Chernoles_culture" title="Chernoles culture">Chernoles culture</a> (before 500 BC), <a href="/wiki/Zarubintsy_culture" title="Zarubintsy culture">Zarubintsy culture</a> (300 BC to AD 100), <a href="/wiki/Przeworsk_culture" title="Przeworsk culture">Przeworsk culture</a> (300 BC to AD 400), <a href="/wiki/Korchak_culture" title="Korchak culture">Prague-Korchak horizon</a> (6th to 7th century, Slavic expansion)</figcaption></figure> In the 5th and 6th centuries, the <a href="/wiki/Antes_people" title="Antes people">Antes Union</a> (a tribal confederation) is generally believed to have been situated in present-day Ukraine. The Antes are considered ancestors of several Slavic tribes that would later form the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Polans_(eastern)" title="Polans (eastern)">Polans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Severians" title="Severians">Severians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drevlians" title="Drevlians">Drevlians</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_Croats" title="White Croats">White Croats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dulebes" title="Dulebes">Dulebes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulichs" title="Ulichs">Ulichs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tivertsi" title="Tivertsi">Tivertsi</a>. The migration of these tribes from Ukraine throughout the Balkans contributed to the foundation of several <a href="/wiki/South_Slavs" title="South Slavs">South Slavic</a> nations, while northern migrations, reaching as far as <a href="/wiki/Lake_Ilmen" title="Lake Ilmen">Lake Ilmen</a>, gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Ilmen_Slavs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilmen Slavs">Ilmen Slavs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krivichs" title="Krivichs">Krivichs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radimichs" title="Radimichs">Radimichs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-so-41">[41]</a> The collapse of the Antes Union in 602, following a devastating raid by the <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Pannonian Avars</a>, led to a fragmentation of the early Slavic federation. Despite this, many of these tribes maintained their distinct identities until the formation of larger political entities in the early second millennium, such as <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>, which began to consolidate Slavic lands.<a href="#cite_note-so-41">[41]</a> The Early Slavs were primarily agrarian, relying on subsistence farming, and lived in semi-nomadic communities. Over time, they developed a complex social structure, with local chieftains leading tribal groups. They also practiced <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">paganism</a>, with a pantheon of gods tied to nature, such as <a href="/wiki/Perun" title="Perun">Perun</a> (god of thunder) and <a href="/wiki/Dazhbog" title="Dazhbog">Dazhbog</a> (sun god). By the time of the Antes Union's decline, the cultural and religious practices of the Slavs had already begun to influence neighboring peoples, laying the groundwork for the Slavic cultural sphere that would emerge later in Eastern and Southeastern <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrival_of_the_Bulgars_and_Khazars">Arrival of the Bulgars and Khazars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Arrival of the Bulgars and Khazars">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Old_Great_Bulgaria" title="Old Great Bulgaria">Old Great Bulgaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khazar_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar Khaganate">Khazar Khaganate</a></div> In the 7th century, the territory of modern Ukraine was at the core of the state of the <a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulgars</a>, often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Old_Great_Bulgaria" title="Old Great Bulgaria">Old Great Bulgaria</a>. This state, with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Phanagoria" title="Phanagoria">Phanagoria</a> (located in what is now the Taman Peninsula), controlled a significant part of the northern <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> region. The Bulgars, a semi-<a href="/wiki/Nomadic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomadic people">nomadic people</a> from <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, were known for their sophisticated society, military organization, and far-reaching influence.<a href="#cite_note-history_of_ukraine27-33">[33]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_Great_Bulgaria.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Old_Great_Bulgaria.svg/220px-Old_Great_Bulgaria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Old_Great_Bulgaria.svg/330px-Old_Great_Bulgaria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Old_Great_Bulgaria.svg/440px-Old_Great_Bulgaria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="160" /></a><figcaption>Approximate territory of Old Great Bulgaria</figcaption></figure> By the end of the 7th century, the Bulgars faced increasing pressure from neighboring tribes and empires. Most of the Bulgar tribes migrated in various directions—some settled in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, where they eventually established the <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a>. Other groups moved towards the Volga region, forming <a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgaria" title="Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria</a>, which became a prominent center of trade and culture. The remaining parts of Old Great Bulgaria were eventually absorbed by the <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a>, another semi-nomadic people from Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-history_of_ukraine27-33">[33]</a> The Khazars founded the <a href="/wiki/Khazar_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar Khaganate">Khazar Khaganate</a>, a powerful and influential state near the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_(geographic_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasus (geographic region)">Caucasus</a>. The Khaganate's territory expanded to include parts of modern-day western <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, eastern <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, and northern <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>. The Khazars were noted for their religious tolerance and political pragmatism, famously adopting <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> as their state religion in the 8th century, although <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, and other faiths were also practiced within their borders.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The Khazars played a key role in the politics and economy of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pontic-Caspian_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic-Caspian steppe">Pontic-Caspian steppe</a>. Their control over trade routes contributed to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Khazarica" title="Pax Khazarica">Pax Khazarica</a>, a period of relative peace and stability that fostered safe long-distance trade. This stability allowed traders, including the <a href="/wiki/Radhanite" title="Radhanite">Radhanite</a> Jews, to operate along vast routes that stretched from <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. These trade routes facilitated the exchange of goods, culture, and ideas across <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Akıncı_2019_pp._1123–1135-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kievan_Rus'_(9th_century–1240)">Kievan Rus' (9th century–1240)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Kievan Rus' (9th century–1240)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Origin_and_foundation_of_state">Origin and foundation of state</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Origin and foundation of state">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laurentian_Codex_01_Rus_land.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Laurentian_Codex_01_Rus_land.jpg/220px-Laurentian_Codex_01_Rus_land.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Laurentian_Codex_01_Rus_land.jpg/330px-Laurentian_Codex_01_Rus_land.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Laurentian_Codex_01_Rus_land.jpg/440px-Laurentian_Codex_01_Rus_land.jpg 2x" data-file-width="658" data-file-height="112" /></a><figcaption>"Rus' land" from the <a href="/wiki/Primary_Chronicle" title="Primary Chronicle">Primary Chronicle</a>, a copy of the <a href="/wiki/Laurentian_Codex" title="Laurentian Codex">Laurentian Codex</a></figcaption></figure> The origins of the Kievan state and the etymology of its name, Rus', continue to be subjects of scholarly debate. One theory, often called the '<a href="/wiki/Norman_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman theory">Norman theory</a>', posits that the term Rus' originated from the <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <a href="/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangians</a>, who were active in trade and military ventures across <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> in the early medieval period. Proponents of this theory argue that the Varangians, also known as the Rus', initially brought a political and military influence that shaped the emerging state structure, with the term Rus' eventually becoming synonymous with the region and its people.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In contrast, the '<a href="/wiki/Anti-Normanism" title="Anti-Normanism">anti-Norman theory</a>' suggests that the term Rus' has indigenous <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Baltic" class="mw-disambig" title="Baltic">Baltic</a> roots, developing independently of Scandinavian influence. Advocates of this theory assert that <a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">Eastern Slavic tribes</a> already had established political and social frameworks before any contact with the Varangians, and that these tribes were naturally progressing toward political consolidation. According to this perspective, the name Rus' could be linked to the <a href="/wiki/Ros_(river)" title="Ros (river)">Ros River</a>, a historically significant waterway flowing through present-day <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, which was home to various Slavic communities. In this view, Rus' may have referred to a collective identity tied to a specific geographic region or a union of native tribes, rather than to foreign invaders or rulers.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4.jpg/220px-%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4.jpg/330px-%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4.jpg/440px-%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>The Rus' under the walls of Constantinople</figcaption></figure> The first reliable mention of the Rus' dates back to the year 839 in the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> chronicle <a href="/wiki/Annals_of_St._Bertin" class="mw-redirect" title="Annals of St. Bertin">Annals of St. Bertin</a>, where members of an embassy from the north, arriving in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, referred to themselves as Rus'.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The second notable mention of the Rus' occurred in 860, when they launched a bold and unexpected <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(860)" title="Siege of Constantinople (860)">naval raid</a> on <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> from the territory around present-day Kiev. Commanding a fleet across the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, the Rus' forces struck at the very heart of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, quickly reaching the city’s outskirts. According to accounts from <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> eyewitnesses, the Rus' not only managed to pillage the suburbs of Constantinople but also instilled widespread fear among its residents. The Byzantine defenses were unprepared, allowing the Rus' to withdraw without significant resistance.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The earliest source about the history of the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper_Ukraine" title="Dnieper Ukraine">Middle Dnieper</a> region is the <a href="/wiki/Tale_of_Bygone_Years" class="mw-redirect" title="Tale of Bygone Years">Tale of Bygone Years</a> (or Primary Chronicle), written no earlier than the 11th century. In its 'legendary' part, it narrates the Rus' raid on Constantinople and the formation of a state centered in <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a> during the second half of the 9th century. The Chronicle, in particular, mentions the names of the leaders of the raid on Constantinople — <a href="/wiki/Askold_and_Dir" title="Askold and Dir">Askold and Dir</a> — and calls them retainers of the Scandinavian <a href="/wiki/Rurik_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rurik dynasty">Rurik dynasty</a>. According to the Chronicle, a representative of this dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Oleg_the_Wise" title="Oleg the Wise">Oleg the Wise</a>, allegedly came to Kiev from <a href="/wiki/Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Novgorod">Novgorod</a> in 882, killed Askold and Dir, and took control of the Kiev state. This narrative contains chronological errors—for example, it incorrectly dates the Constantinople raid to 867—and lacks corroboration from archaeological evidence, which suggests that Novgorod itself was only established in the 10th century. Therefore, modern historians view the Chronicle's account of the 9th century as largely speculative and likely a later construction by the Chronicle's author.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossSherbowitz-Wetzor195361-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOstrowski201844-51">[51]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Historic_core_of_Rus%27.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Historic_core_of_Rus%27.png/220px-Historic_core_of_Rus%27.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Historic_core_of_Rus%27.png/330px-Historic_core_of_Rus%27.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Historic_core_of_Rus%27.png/440px-Historic_core_of_Rus%27.png 2x" data-file-width="811" data-file-height="575" /></a><figcaption>Rus' land in the narrow sense<a href="#cite_note-:3-52">[52]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  1. After <a href="/wiki/Petro_Tolochko" title="Petro Tolochko">Petro Tolochko</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  2. After A. M. Nasonov</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  3. After <a href="/wiki/Boris_Rybakov" title="Boris Rybakov">Boris Rybakov</a></div></figcaption></figure> Scholars associate the state-building processes in the Middle Dnieper region with the emergence of the well-known trade route from Scandinavia to Constantinople, known as the '<a href="/wiki/Route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" title="Route from the Varangians to the Greeks">Route from the Varangians to the Greeks</a>'. A significant section of this route ran along the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Dnieper River">Dnieper River</a>, and Kiev was an important transshipment point, allowing control over trade along the Dnieper, <a href="/wiki/Pripyat" title="Pripyat">Pripyat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Desna_(river)" title="Desna (river)">Desna</a> rivers.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The Middle Dnieper region began to serve as a political, cultural, and economic center for the East Slavic world. It eventually came to be known as the Rus' land in the narrow sense of this term.<a href="#cite_note-:3-52">[52]</a> According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the East Slavic tribe of the <a href="/wiki/Polans_(eastern)" title="Polans (eastern)">Polans</a>, inhabitants of the Middle Dnieper region, adopted the name Rus' for their land and were regarded as the most advanced among the East Slavs. Thus, they played a central role in forming a new tribal union centered around Kiev.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuczko2004207-54">[54]</a> From the first half of the 10th century, the first confirmed ruler of the Kievan state, as documented in foreign sources, was <a href="/wiki/Igor_the_Old" class="mw-redirect" title="Igor the Old">Igor the Old</a>, whom the Primary Chronicle identifies as a prince. Information in the Chronicle regarding governance during this period is considered relatively reliable. The princely retinue played a significant role in governance, accompanying rulers on campaigns and collecting tribute from subjugated local <a href="/wiki/Slavic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic tribes">Slavic tribes</a>. The collected tribute (such as <a href="/wiki/Furs" class="mw-redirect" title="Furs">furs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hide_(skin)" title="Hide (skin)">hides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wax" title="Wax">wax</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slaves</a>) was mainly exported to Byzantium, with the proceeds used to purchase <a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">weapons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luxury_goods" title="Luxury goods">luxury goods</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>—constituting the core of imports. When trade conditions no longer met the prince's expectations, he led an unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople in 941, which eventually resulted in a new <a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_Treaty_(945)" title="Rus'–Byzantine Treaty (945)">Rus-Byzantine trade treaty</a> in 944. The Tale of Bygone Years recounts Igor's attempt to levy additional tribute from the subdued Slavs, which led to a rebellion by the <a href="/wiki/Drevlians" title="Drevlians">Drevlians</a>, who killed him in 945.<a href="#cite_note-korosten-55">[55]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radzivill_Olga_in_Konstantinopol.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Radzivill_Olga_in_Konstantinopol.jpg/220px-Radzivill_Olga_in_Konstantinopol.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Radzivill_Olga_in_Konstantinopol.jpg/330px-Radzivill_Olga_in_Konstantinopol.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Radzivill_Olga_in_Konstantinopol.jpg/440px-Radzivill_Olga_in_Konstantinopol.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="309" /></a><figcaption>The baptism of <a href="/wiki/Olga_of_Kiev" title="Olga of Kiev">Olga</a> in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a></figcaption></figure> Following Igor's death in 945, his widow, <a href="/wiki/Princess_Olga" class="mw-redirect" title="Princess Olga">Princess Olga</a>, assumed the role of regent for their young son, <a href="/wiki/Sviatoslav_I" title="Sviatoslav I">Sviatoslav</a>, who was still too young to rule. Olga is best known for her calculated and fierce retaliation against the Drevlians, a campaign that culminated in the annexation of their lands into the expanding Kievan Rus'. Olga also implemented significant reforms, particularly by restructuring the tribute collection system known as <a href="/wiki/Poliudie" title="Poliudie">poliudie</a>. This new system made revenue collection more systematic and centralized, reducing the likelihood of rebellion by ensuring a more balanced distribution of power. In a landmark decision, Olga became the first ruler of Kievan Rus' to embrace <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> around 957 during a diplomatic visit to Constantinople. However, despite her conversion, the state under her rule remained predominantly pagan, with Christianity gaining influence only later under her descendants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossSherbowitz-Wetzor195379–80-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasparovRaevsky-Hughes201877–81-57">[57]</a> When Sviatoslav assumed rule over Kievan Rus', he launched an ambitious military expansion. His most notable achievement was the decisive defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Khazar_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar Khaganate">Khazar Khaganate</a>, a once-dominant regional power that had controlled key trade routes for centuries. The fall of the Khazars opened opportunities for Kievan Rus' to extend its influence into the Caucasus and beyond. In addition to his campaigns in the east, Sviatoslav waged numerous battles against the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, seeking to establish Kievan Rus' as a formidable power in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>. His primary goal was to create a lasting base in <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a>, strengthening his strategic position in southeastern Europe. However, his ambitions in the Balkans were thwarted after a Byzantine counterattack. In 972, while returning from his Balkan campaign, Sviatoslav was ambushed and killed by the <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</a> near the Dnieper River.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephenson200056-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2019296-59">[59]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0_%D1%83_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0_%D1%83_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B0.jpg/220px-%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0_%D1%83_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B0.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0_%D1%83_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B0.jpg/330px-%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0_%D1%83_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0_%D1%83_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B0.jpg/440px-%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0_%D1%83_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2189" data-file-height="1164" /></a><figcaption>Death of Oleg in <a href="/wiki/Ovruch" title="Ovruch">Ovruch</a></figcaption></figure> After Sviatoslav's death, a power struggle ensued among his sons. <a href="/wiki/Yaropolk_I_of_Kiev" title="Yaropolk I of Kiev">Yaropolk</a>, Sviatoslav's eldest son, assumed the title of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Prince_of_Kiev" title="Grand Prince of Kiev">Grand Prince of Kiev</a> and worked to consolidate power across the vast territory, leading to conflicts with his brothers. <a href="/wiki/Oleg_of_Drelinia" title="Oleg of Drelinia">Oleg</a>, Sviatoslav's second son, governed the Drevlian lands, and rivalry between him and Yaropolk escalated into open warfare. During one of their clashes around 977, Oleg was killed, further intensifying the conflict. Initially, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_the_Great" title="Vladimir the Great">Vladimir</a>, Sviatoslav's youngest son, fled to avoid being entangled in the conflict. However, after Oleg's death, he returned with a Varangian army. By 980, Vladimir had defeated Yaropolk and consolidated power, becoming the sole ruler of Kievan Rus'.<a href="#cite_note-Hanak-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Golden_Age_and_Christianisation">Golden Age and Christianisation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Golden Age and Christianisation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Christianization of Kievan Rus'</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Ukraine" title="History of Christianity in Ukraine">History of Christianity in Ukraine</a></div> During the reign of Vladimir the Great, Kievan Rus' expanded significantly, notably through the conquest and annexation of <a href="/wiki/Red_Ruthenia" title="Red Ruthenia">Red Ruthenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transcarpathia" title="Transcarpathia">Transcarpathia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chersonesus" title="Chersonesus">Korsun</a>. These territorial gains made Kievan Rus' the largest state in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> at the time, covering over 800,000 square kilometers and boasting a population of more than 5 million. The socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus' was similar to that of other European states of the period, characterized by a natural economy, communal land ownership, and reliance on slash-and-burn agriculture, and animal husbandry.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:58-manasses-chronicle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/58-manasses-chronicle.jpg/220px-58-manasses-chronicle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/58-manasses-chronicle.jpg/330px-58-manasses-chronicle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/58-manasses-chronicle.jpg/440px-58-manasses-chronicle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1836" data-file-height="1118" /></a><figcaption>Christianization of Kievan Rus'</figcaption></figure> Vladimir reformed local governance by abolishing the traditional tribal autonomies and installing his own appointed governors, further centralizing his authority. Under his rule, Kiev emerged as one of the wealthiest commercial centers in Europe during the 10th and 11th centuries, benefiting from its strategic location on trade routes and its growing political influence. Initially, Vladimir supported the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">worship of Slavic deities</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Perun" title="Perun">Perun</a>. However, in 988, he made a historic decision to <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">convert Kievan Rus'</a> to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, adopting <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. He personally led the mass baptism of the people of Kiev in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pochaina_(river)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pochaina (river) (page does not exist)">Pochaina River</a> and built the first stone church in Kievan Rus' — <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Tithes" title="Church of the Tithes">Church of the Tithes</a>. He also introduced the Charter on Church Courts and Tithes, thereby securing a strong relationship between the church and state. Unlike the earlier attempts of his grandmother, Princess Olga, Vladimir's reforms had a lasting impact, deeply influencing the religious and cultural development of the region.<a href="#cite_note-Enc_Kiëv-62">[62]</a> Vladimir's rule also saw administrative, monetary, and military reforms. He appointed governors and entrusted his sons with ruling major cities, also minted his own <a href="/wiki/Money_of_Kievan_Rus%27#Zlatnik" title="Money of Kievan Rus'">gold</a> (Zlatnik) and <a href="/wiki/Money_of_Kievan_Rus%27#Srebrenik" title="Money of Kievan Rus'">silver</a> (Srebrenik) coins, and granted borderlands to loyal vassals in exchange for military defense. To protect the realm, Vladimir oversaw the construction of an extensive system of defensive fortifications, known as the <a href="/wiki/Serpent%27s_Wall" title="Serpent's Wall">Serpent's Walls</a>, which stretched for 1,000 kilometers, safeguarding Kievan Rus' from external threats.<a href="#cite_note-ehukuchera-63">[63]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daughters_of_Yaroslav_the_Wise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Daughters_of_Yaroslav_the_Wise.jpg/220px-Daughters_of_Yaroslav_the_Wise.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Daughters_of_Yaroslav_the_Wise.jpg/330px-Daughters_of_Yaroslav_the_Wise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Daughters_of_Yaroslav_the_Wise.jpg/440px-Daughters_of_Yaroslav_the_Wise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="590" /></a><figcaption>11th-century fresco of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Sophia_Cathedral,_Kyiv" title="Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv">Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv</a>, representing the daughters of Yaroslav I</figcaption></figure> Despite these accomplishments, Kievan Rus' entered a turbulent period of internal strife following Vladimir's death in 1015, as his sons fought for control. This era of internecine conflict lasted until 1019, when <a href="/wiki/Yaroslav_the_Wise" title="Yaroslav the Wise">Yaroslav the Wise</a> emerged victorious and assumed the throne. Ruling jointly with his brother <a href="/wiki/Mstislav_of_Chernigov" title="Mstislav of Chernigov">Mstislav</a> until 1036, Yaroslav presided over what is often regarded as the golden age of Kievan Rus'. One of Yaroslav's key achievements was his decisive defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</a>, who had long been a threat to the state. To commemorate this victory, Yaroslav ordered the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Sophia_Cathedral,_Kyiv" title="Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv">Saint Sophia Cathedral</a> in Kiev, a structure that still stands as a symbol of this prosperous era. He also founded the <a href="/wiki/Kyiv_Pechersk_Lavra" title="Kyiv Pechersk Lavra">Kyiv Pechersk Lavra</a> and supported the election of <a href="/wiki/Hilarion_of_Kiev" title="Hilarion of Kiev">Hilarion of Kiev</a> as the <a href="/wiki/List_of_metropolitans_and_patriarchs_of_Kyiv" title="List of metropolitans and patriarchs of Kyiv">Kyiv Metropolitan</a>, marking a significant step in the independence of the Kievan church. Yaroslav's reign was also notable for the introduction of the first written legal code — <a href="/wiki/Russkaya_Pravda" title="Russkaya Pravda">Rus' Truth</a>, which established a foundation for legal governance in the state. Additionally, Yaroslav engaged in extensive marriage diplomacy, forming alliances by arranging marriages between his daughters and European royalty.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlokhy200613-65">[65]</a> However, after Yaroslav's death, Kievan Rus' began to fragment, as his sons divided the territory among themselves, leading to further internecine conflicts and the eventual decline of centralized power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatchanovskiKohutNesebioYurkevich20131-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Feudal_fragmentation">Feudal fragmentation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Feudal fragmentation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Liubech" title="Council of Liubech">Council of Liubech</a></div> The feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus' began in the late 11th century, driven by a complex interplay of internal and external factors. One significant factor was the rotational succession system, allowing power to pass among male relatives instead of directly from father to son. This system often sparked conflicts, as competing claims to power emerged. With princes often granted specific territories, autonomous principalities began to emerge clearly. Regional cities such as <a href="/wiki/Chernihiv" title="Chernihiv">Chernihiv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polotsk" title="Polotsk">Polotsk</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Novgorod">Novgorod</a> gained power and asserted their independence, with local elites increasing their influence. By this time, the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Prince_of_Kiev" title="Grand Prince of Kiev">Grand Prince of Kiev</a> was notably weakening. Regional princes, bolstered by local resources and armies, began to resist central control. Additionally, the vast geography and economic diversity of Rus' impeded unity, as various regions developed their own trade routes and systems. External threats from nomadic groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polovtsy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polovtsy">Polovtsy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a>), further exacerbated regionalism, compelling local rulers to focus on defending their territories.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:I_zjazady_ksi%C4%85%C5%BC%C4%85t_Rusi_Kijowskiej._Br%C4%85z,_granit._1997_Lubecz,_Ukraina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/I_zjazady_ksi%C4%85%C5%BC%C4%85t_Rusi_Kijowskiej._Br%C4%85z%2C_granit._1997_Lubecz%2C_Ukraina.jpg/220px-I_zjazady_ksi%C4%85%C5%BC%C4%85t_Rusi_Kijowskiej._Br%C4%85z%2C_granit._1997_Lubecz%2C_Ukraina.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/I_zjazady_ksi%C4%85%C5%BC%C4%85t_Rusi_Kijowskiej._Br%C4%85z%2C_granit._1997_Lubecz%2C_Ukraina.jpg/330px-I_zjazady_ksi%C4%85%C5%BC%C4%85t_Rusi_Kijowskiej._Br%C4%85z%2C_granit._1997_Lubecz%2C_Ukraina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/I_zjazady_ksi%C4%85%C5%BC%C4%85t_Rusi_Kijowskiej._Br%C4%85z%2C_granit._1997_Lubecz%2C_Ukraina.jpg/440px-I_zjazady_ksi%C4%85%C5%BC%C4%85t_Rusi_Kijowskiej._Br%C4%85z%2C_granit._1997_Lubecz%2C_Ukraina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4724" data-file-height="6842" /></a><figcaption>Monument in Liubech by <a href="/wiki/Giennadij_Jerszow" title="Giennadij Jerszow">Giennadij Jerszow</a></figcaption></figure> After Yaroslav the Wise's death, his sons divided the lands, which significantly accelerated political fragmentation. Although his succession plan aimed to prevent conflict, it ultimately sowed the seeds of feudal division. The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Liubech" title="Council of Liubech">Council of Liubech</a>, convened by several princes, including <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_II_Monomakh" title="Vladimir II Monomakh">Vladimir Monomakh</a>, sought to settle disputes and clarify the inheritance of principalities. This agreement formalized Kievan Rus's division into regional hereditary principalities, thereby legalizing fragmentation. The adage "Let everyone hold his own" emerged, signifying that each prince would govern his own territory without interference from others.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Vladimir Monomakh, who served as Grand Prince of Kiev from 1113 to 1125, is remembered as one of Kievan Rus' most capable leaders. He ascended the throne amid internal strife and external threats, yet worked diligently to stabilize the fragmented territories of Rus'. Monomakh's reign achieved relative unity through efforts to reduce feuds among princes and reinforce central authority. His military successes, particularly against the Polovtsy (Cumans), secured the region's borders. Diplomatically, he forged strong ties with Europe, notably through his marriage to <a href="/wiki/Gytha_of_Wessex" title="Gytha of Wessex">Gytha of Wessex</a>, the daughter of English <a href="/wiki/King_Harold_II" class="mw-redirect" title="King Harold II">King Harold II</a>. As an educated ruler, Monomakh authored The Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh, offering insights on governance, morality, and leadership. His reign is often regarded as one of the last periods of unity before Rus' descended further into division.<a href="#cite_note-RBA-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2004200-71">[71]</a> Monomakh's son, <a href="/wiki/Mstislav_I_of_Kiev" title="Mstislav I of Kiev">Mstislav the Great</a>, preserved some unity during his reign from 1125 to 1132. However, following his death, the principality fractured. The division of lands among Monomakh's sons and other relatives resulted in multiple competing power centers.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The process of feudal fragmentation marked a turning point in the history of Rus', culminating in its eventual decline and the rise of smaller, more independent states. These would later evolve into the medieval powers of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ruthenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Ruthenia">Kingdom of Ruthenia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Polotsk" title="Principality of Polotsk">Principality of Polotsk</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod Republic</a>, and others.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus'">Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siege_of_Kiev_(1240).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Siege_of_Kiev_%281240%29.png/220px-Siege_of_Kiev_%281240%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="368" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Siege_of_Kiev_%281240%29.png/330px-Siege_of_Kiev_%281240%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Siege_of_Kiev_%281240%29.png/440px-Siege_of_Kiev_%281240%29.png 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="829" /></a><figcaption>Imaginative portrayal of the 1240 Siege of Kiev in the 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Facial_Chronicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Facial Chronicle">Facial Chronicle</a></figcaption></figure> In 1222, a new wave of nomads—the warlike <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>—arrived in the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> steppes and defeated the <a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Polovtsians</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>'s westward expansion. The Polovtsians, who had family ties with the Rus' princes, turned to Rus' for help. A joint Rus'-Polovtsian force marched into the steppes, where the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Kalka_River" title="Battle of the Kalka River">Battle of the Kalka River</a> took place in 1223. Following the battle, the Mongols retreated eastward for approximately 15 years.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> In the late 1230s, the Mongols returned with significantly larger forces under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Batu_Khan" title="Batu Khan">Batu Khan</a> and his general <a href="/wiki/Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a>. The Mongols first attacked the eastern regions of the state, using superior siege tactics to overwhelm local defenses. Between 1239 and 1240, the Mongols shifted their focus to the southern territories. In 1240, they laid <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kiev_(1240)" title="Siege of Kiev (1240)">siege to Kiev</a>, which ultimately fell after a brutal assault, marking the final collapse of Kievan Rus' as a unified political entity.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> As a result of this invasion, Kievan Rus' was extensively destroyed, depopulated, and fragmented. Following their conquest, the Mongols established dominion over the region through the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>, transforming most of the Rus' principalities into tributary states. Under Mongol rule, the Rus' were required to pay heavy taxes and submit to Mongol authority. The invasion severely stunted the region's political, cultural, and economic development, and the effects of Mongol domination reverberated for centuries. Despite its devastation, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> played an important role in preserving cultural identity during Mongol rule.<a href="#cite_note-Mongol_Conquests-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kingdom_of_Galicia–Volhynia">Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia%E2%80%93Volhynia" title="Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia">Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia</a></div> The Principality—later the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia%E2%80%93Volhynia" title="Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia">Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ruthenia" title="Ruthenia">Ruthenia</a>)—emerged from the disintegration of <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>. Its rulers continued the political and cultural legacy of Kiev, preserving the traditions and governance of the Rus' state even as Kiev fell to <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongol</a> control.<a href="#cite_note-Pelenski-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Previously, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_the_Great" title="Vladimir the Great">Vladimir the Great</a> had established the cities of <a href="/wiki/Halych" title="Halych">Halych</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volodymyr-Volynskyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Volodymyr-Volynskyi">Volodymyr</a> as regional capitals, setting the foundation for future political entities in the region. The area was originally inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Dulebes" title="Dulebes">Dulebes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tivertsi" title="Tivertsi">Tivertsi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/White_Croats" title="White Croats">White Croats</a> tribes.<a href="#cite_note-Sedov-84">[84]</a> Initially, <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a> existed as separate principalities, each ruled by descendants of <a href="/wiki/Yaroslav_the_Wise" title="Yaroslav the Wise">Yaroslav the Wise</a>. Galicia was governed by the <a href="/wiki/Rostislav_of_Tmutarakan" title="Rostislav of Tmutarakan">Rostislavich</a> dynasty, while Volhynia was initially ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Igor_Yaroslavich" title="Igor Yaroslavich">Igorevichs</a> and eventually by the <a href="/wiki/Iziaslav_II_of_Kiev" title="Iziaslav II of Kiev">Iziaslavich</a> dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagocsi2010123-85">[85]</a> During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Yaroslav_Osmomysl" title="Yaroslav Osmomysl">Yaroslav Osmomysl</a> (1153–1187), Galicia expanded its influence, extending as far as the Black Sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagocsi2010123-85">[85]</a> Rivalry between the rulers of these principalities often revolved around efforts to assert dominance over one another. This conflict was finally resolved by <a href="/wiki/Roman_the_Great" title="Roman the Great">Roman the Great</a> (1197–1205), who not only succeeded in uniting Galicia and Volhynia under his rule but also briefly extended his authority over <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a>. Roman's consolidation of power laid the groundwork for the rise of the Principality of Galicia–Volhynia, which became a significant political force in the region.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=File:%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81_(2002).djvu&page=5" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81_%282002%29.djvu/page5-220px-%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81_%282002%29.djvu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="339" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81_%282002%29.djvu/page5-330px-%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81_%282002%29.djvu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81_%282002%29.djvu/page5-440px-%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81_%282002%29.djvu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4599" data-file-height="7097" /></a><figcaption>Fragment of a copy of the <a href="/wiki/Galician%E2%80%93Volhynian_Chronicle" title="Galician–Volhynian Chronicle">Galician–Volhynian Chronicle</a>, a literary work and historical source of the period</figcaption></figure> Following Roman's death, a period of unrest ensued, lasting until his son <a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_Galicia" title="Daniel of Galicia">Daniel Romanovich</a> reclaimed the throne in 1238. Daniel successfully restored his father's state, including Kiev. In 1240, the Mongol Empire, led by Batu Khan, unleashed devastating invasions across Kievan Rus'. Cities like Kiev were sacked, leaving much of the region in ruins. Daniel's decisive victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yaroslavl_(1245)" title="Battle of Yaroslavl (1245)">Battle of Yaroslavl</a> in 1245 ended internal conflicts and firmly secured his control over the state. By 1246, Daniel was compelled to recognize Mongol supremacy to safeguard his state. Though this submission was humiliating, it allowed Daniel to retain some degree of autonomy, provided he paid tribute to the Mongol khan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVernadsky1970144–149-87">[87]</a> Despite this subjugation, Daniel remained determined to free Ruthenia from Mongol dominance. He sought support from Western Europe, forging diplomatic ties with the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">Papacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. In 1253, Daniel was crowned <a href="/wiki/King_of_Ruthenia" title="King of Ruthenia">King of Ruthenia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Rex Rusiae) by a papal legate in <a href="/wiki/Drohiczyn" title="Drohiczyn">Drohiczyn</a>, receiving formal recognition from <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_IV" title="Pope Innocent IV">Pope Innocent IV</a>. This coronation symbolized Ruthenia's alignment with <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> and its Christian identity, while still adhering to the Orthodox faith. The crowning also carried the hope of an anti-Mongol alliance, though such a coalition never materialized due to political divisions in Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagocsi2010126-88">[88]</a> King Daniel also founded numerous cities that became hubs of trade, culture, and military strength. Among his most notable achievements were the establishments of <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lviv</a>, named after his son Lev, and <a href="/wiki/Chelm" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelm">Kholm</a>. These urban centers not only revitalized the kingdom's economy but also helped Daniel consolidate his political authority over the region.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> After King Daniel Romanovych's death in 1264, the kingdom was inherited by his son, <a href="/wiki/Leo_I_of_Galicia" title="Leo I of Galicia">Lev Danylovych</a>. Lev I ruled from 1269 to 1301 and relocated the capital from Kholm to Lviv. He continued his father's policies of defending the kingdom against external threats, particularly from the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, while also striving to maintain alliances with Poland and Lithuania to counterbalance Mongol influence. Although Lev managed to preserve the state's territorial integrity, the kingdom's power gradually eroded under the relentless pressure from the Mongol <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> and ongoing internal political challenges.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Following Lev's death in 1301, his son, <a href="/wiki/Yuri_I_of_Galicia" title="Yuri I of Galicia">Yuri Lvovych</a>, ascended the throne and ruled until 1308. During his reign, Yuri I succeeded in maintaining relative stability, yet the kingdom's political position had significantly weakened compared to the time of Daniel. Despite his efforts, Yuri's reign was short-lived, and after his death, the kingdom entered a period of fragmentation.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alex_K_Yuri_Boleslav_seal.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Alex_K_Yuri_Boleslav_seal.png/220px-Alex_K_Yuri_Boleslav_seal.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Alex_K_Yuri_Boleslav_seal.png/330px-Alex_K_Yuri_Boleslav_seal.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Alex_K_Yuri_Boleslav_seal.png/440px-Alex_K_Yuri_Boleslav_seal.png 2x" data-file-width="854" data-file-height="419" /></a><figcaption>King's seal of Yuri Lvovych</figcaption></figure> Yuri's sons, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_of_Galicia" title="Andrew of Galicia">Andrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leo_II_of_Galicia" title="Leo II of Galicia">Lev II</a>, attempted to co-rule, but their efforts to sustain the kingdom's unity and strength ultimately failed. The Mongol Golden Horde continued to exert substantial influence over the weakened <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ruthenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Ruthenia">Kingdom of Ruthenia</a> throughout the 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> After the deaths of the co-rulers around 1323, the kingdom found itself without strong leadership. <a href="/wiki/Yuri_II_Boleslav" title="Yuri II Boleslav">Yuri II Boleslav</a>, the last ruler of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, took power following the demise of the Romanovych line. Reigning from 1323 to 1340, he was a member of the Polish <a href="/wiki/Piast_dynasty" title="Piast dynasty">Piast dynasty</a>, chosen as king due to his maternal connection to the Ruthenian royal family—his mother, <a href="/wiki/Maria_of_Galicia" title="Maria of Galicia">Maria</a>, was the daughter of Lev I.<a href="#cite_note-Jasinski60-96">[96]</a> Upon ascending the throne, Boleslav converted to <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Orthodox Christianity</a> and adopted the name Yuriy to garner support from the local Orthodox nobility. However, his reign was fraught with tension due to his <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> background, which clashed with the predominantly Orthodox Ruthenian elite. During his rule, Yuriy II struggled to balance the competing interests of Poland, Lithuania, and the Mongol Golden Horde, while also introducing pro-Catholic policies that alienated the local nobility. His rule culminated in his assassination in 1340 by <a href="/wiki/Ruthenians" title="Ruthenians">Ruthenian</a> nobles discontented with his leadership. His death triggered a fierce power struggle between Poland and Lithuania for control over the region. Soon after, <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a> was annexed by Poland, and <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a> fell under Lithuanian rule, marking the end of the independent Kingdom of Ruthenia.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_domination">Foreign domination</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Foreign domination">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Crown of the Kingdom of Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genoese_Gazaria" title="Genoese Gazaria">Genoese Gazaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Theodoro" title="Principality of Theodoro">Principality of Theodoro</a></div> From the 13th century onwards, various parts of the coastline of what is now Ukraine were dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a>, which established <a href="/wiki/Genoese_colonies" title="Genoese colonies">numerous colonies</a> around the Black Sea. Many of these colonies were located in today's <a href="/wiki/Odesa_Oblast" title="Odesa Oblast">Odesa Oblast</a>. The Genoese settlements were heavily fortified, protected by garrisons stationed within the fortresses, and served primarily to strengthen Genoa’s control over trade in the Black Sea region. Genoa's dominance persisted until the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> In 1322, <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXII" title="Pope John XXII">Pope John XXII</a> established a <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">diocese</a> in <a href="/wiki/Caffa" class="mw-redirect" title="Caffa">Caffa</a> (modern-day Feodosia), separating it from the Diocese of <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Khanbaliq</a> (modern-day Beijing), which was the only Catholic presence in the Mongol-controlled territories at the time. For several centuries, the Caffa diocese served as the central Catholic authority from the Balkans to <a href="/wiki/Sarai_(city)" title="Sarai (city)">Sarai</a>, the capital of the Golden Horde.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Meanwhile, in southwestern Crimea, the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Theodoro" title="Principality of Theodoro">Principality of Theodoro</a>, also known as the Principality of Gothia, emerged as a small but important Byzantine successor state. Centered around its capital, <a href="/wiki/Mangup" title="Mangup">Doros</a> (modern-day Mangup), Theodoro was a multi-ethnic state with <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a>, among others. It played a crucial role as a buffer between Genoese colonies and the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a>. Theodoro maintained close ties with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Empire of Trebizond</a>. However, in 1475, the Ottomans conquered the principality during their campaign to dominate the Black Sea region, incorporating it into their expanding empire.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lithuanian_state_in_13-15th_centuries.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Lithuanian_state_in_13-15th_centuries.png/220px-Lithuanian_state_in_13-15th_centuries.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Lithuanian_state_in_13-15th_centuries.png/330px-Lithuanian_state_in_13-15th_centuries.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Lithuanian_state_in_13-15th_centuries.png/440px-Lithuanian_state_in_13-15th_centuries.png 2x" data-file-width="1010" data-file-height="1411" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a>, at its greatest extent from the 13th to 15th centuries.</figcaption></figure> During the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> waged wars against <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> invaders, gradually reclaiming territories. As a result, most of Ukraine came under the control of Poland and Lithuania. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Red_Ruthenia" title="Red Ruthenia">Red Ruthenia</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Podolia" title="Podolia">Podolia</a> were absorbed into the Kingdom of Poland. The Polish monarch adopted the title "lord and heir of Ruthenia" (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Russiae dominus et Heres).<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blue_Waters" title="Battle of Blue Waters">Battle of Blue Waters</a> (1362/63), Lithuania gained control over <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Polotsk" title="Principality of Polotsk">Polotsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chernihiv" title="Chernihiv">Chernihiv</a>, and Kyiv. The rulers of Lithuania then adopted the title "ruler of Rus’".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Despite the political collapse of <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ruthenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Ruthenia">Kingdom of Ruthenia</a>, their political, cultural, and religious traditions persisted under Lithuanian control. Ruthenian aristocrats, such as the <a href="/wiki/Olelkovich" title="Olelkovich">Olelkovich</a> family, integrated into the Lithuanian ruling elite, serving in positions of power within the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> as members of the duke's <a href="/wiki/Privy_council" title="Privy council">privy council</a>, high-ranking military officers, and administrators.<a href="#cite_note-The_Lithuanian-Ukrainian_State-103">[103]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a> was the native language of the ruling elite, the primary written languages in the Grand Duchy were <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_language" title="Ruthenian language">Ruthenian</a>. By the early modern period, East Slavonic Chancery language had been gradually replaced by <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Eventually, Poland extended its influence over southwestern Ukraine. After the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish–Lithuanian Union">Union between Poland and Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_people" class="mw-redirect" title="German people">Germans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuanians" title="Lithuanians">Lithuanians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> migrated to the region, displacing Ukrainians from positions of authority that they had shared with Lithuanians. This led to increased migration of Ukrainians toward central Ukraine. Polish migration, combined with policies of <a href="/wiki/Polonization" title="Polonization">Polonization</a> and other forms of repression, increasingly marginalized Ukrainians and intensified their cultural and political subjugation.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1490, due to growing oppression by the Polish authorities, a series of rebellions broke out, led by Ukrainian leader <a href="/wiki/Petro_Mukha" title="Petro Mukha">Petro Mukha</a>. His forces, which included early <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hutsuls" title="Hutsuls">Hutsuls</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Romanians" title="Romanians">Moldavians (Romanians)</a>, launched a series of successful uprisings known as <a href="/wiki/Mukha_Rebellion" title="Mukha Rebellion">Mukha’s Rebellion</a>. Supported by the Moldavian prince <a href="/wiki/Stephen_the_Great" title="Stephen the Great">Stephen the Great</a>, Mukha's forces captured several cities in <a href="/wiki/Pokuttya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pokuttya">Pokuttya</a> and advanced as far west as <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lviv</a>, though they failed to seize the city.<a href="#cite_note-Mukha's_Rebellionn-105">[105]</a> The decline of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> in the 15th century paved the way for the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a>, which controlled much of the Black Sea coastline and the southern <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">steppes of Ukraine</a>. From the early 16th century until the late 18th century, the Crimean Khanate engaged in a vast <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">slave trade</a>, exporting approximately 2 million slaves from Russia and Ukraine to the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East between 1500 and 1700. The Khanate remained a vassal state of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> until its dissolution by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> in 1783, following the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk_Kaynarca" title="Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca">Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca</a> in 1774.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_modern_period">Early modern period</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Early modern period">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1569%E2%80%931648)" title="History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)">History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rzeczpospolita2nar.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Rzeczpospolita2nar.png/220px-Rzeczpospolita2nar.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Rzeczpospolita2nar.png/330px-Rzeczpospolita2nar.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Rzeczpospolita2nar.png/440px-Rzeczpospolita2nar.png 2x" data-file-width="3507" data-file-height="2480" /></a><figcaption>Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Kingdom of Poland</div></figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin" title="Union of Lublin">Union of Lublin</a> in 1569 and the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, Ukraine came under Polish administration, becoming part of the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Crown of the Kingdom of Poland</a>. This period marked a significant shift in the region's political and social landscape. Following the establishment of the Commonwealth, there was a renewed effort to colonize the lands of Ukraine, leading to the foundation of many new towns and villages. These developments also facilitated the expansion of connections between various Ukrainian regions, such as <a href="/wiki/Halych_Land_(ziemia)" title="Halych Land (ziemia)">Halych Land</a> (Galicia) and <a href="/wiki/Volyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Volyn">Volhynia</a>, helping to strengthen internal links within the Ukrainian lands.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> ideas began to permeate Ukrainian society, driven by the spread of new schools and institutions. Polish settlers arrived in large numbers, gradually mixing with the local population, and this led to a process of cultural assimilation. A significant portion of the Ukrainian nobility became '<a href="/wiki/Polonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Polonisation">polonised</a>', adopting Polish customs, language, and converting to Roman <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a>. Meanwhile, the majority of <a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_language" title="Ruthenian language">Ruthenian-speaking</a> peasants remained loyal to the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, which caused growing social tensions. Polish influence extended not only politically but also culturally, as some polonized nobles, such as <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Orzechowski" title="Stanisław Orzechowski">Stanisław Orzechowski</a>, made notable contributions to Polish intellectual and cultural life.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BlackSea1600-es.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/BlackSea1600-es.svg/220px-BlackSea1600-es.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/BlackSea1600-es.svg/330px-BlackSea1600-es.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/BlackSea1600-es.svg/440px-BlackSea1600-es.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1771" data-file-height="1254" /></a><figcaption>Control of the territory of Ukraine in 1600</figcaption></figure> At the same time, the harsh conditions imposed on Ruthenian peasants sparked widespread resistance. Those who fled serfdom sought freedom in the borderlands, where they became known as <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a>. The Cossacks quickly gained a reputation for their martial prowess and independence. Some of them were <a href="/wiki/Registered_Cossacks" title="Registered Cossacks">enlisted by the Commonwealth to serve as soldiers</a>, particularly in the defense of the southeastern borders against <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatar</a> raids, while others participated in campaigns abroad, such as <a href="/wiki/Petro_Konashevych-Sahaidachny" title="Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny">Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny</a>, who played a key role in the Commonwealth's victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Khotyn_(1621)" title="Battle of Khotyn (1621)">Battle of Khotyn</a> in 1621.<a href="#cite_note-Hrushevsky-109">[109]</a> Despite their contributions to the Commonwealth's military efforts, the Cossacks were consistently denied any substantial political or social autonomy. The ruling nobility of the Commonwealth viewed the Cossacks largely as a disruptive force and attempted to transform them into <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfs</a>. This ongoing marginalization and denial of rights fueled a series of <a href="/wiki/Cossack_uprisings" title="Cossack uprisings">Cossack uprisings</a>, as they sought to defend their autonomy and way of life, ultimately setting the stage for more significant conflicts between the Cossacks and the Commonwealth.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Size and population of the voivodeships in the 16th century<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" class="unsortable">Voivodeship</th> <th>Square kilometers</th> <th>Population (est.) </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_Voivodeship" title="Ruthenian Voivodeship">Galicia</a></td> <td>45,000</td> <td>446,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Volhynian_Voivodeship_(1569%E2%80%931795)" title="Volhynian Voivodeship (1569–1795)">Volhynia</a></td> <td>42,000</td> <td>294,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Podolian_Voivodeship" title="Podolian Voivodeship">Podilia</a></td> <td>19,000</td> <td>98,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Brac%C5%82aw_Voivodeship" title="Bracław Voivodeship">Bratslav</a></td> <td>35,000</td> <td>311,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Kiev_Voivodeship" title="Kiev Voivodeship">Kyiv</a></td> <td>117,000</td> <td>234,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Belz_Voivodeship" title="Belz Voivodeship">Belz</a> (two regions)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82m_Land" title="Chełm Land">Kholm</a></td> <td>19,000</td> <td>133,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Podlaskie_Voivodeship_(1513%E2%80%931795)" title="Podlaskie Voivodeship (1513–1795)">Pidliassia</a></td> <td>10,000</td> <td>233,000 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cossack_era">Cossack era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Cossack era">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cossacks" title="History of the Cossacks">History of the Cossacks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zaporozhian_Sich" title="Zaporozhian Sich">Zaporozhian Sich</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cossack_Hetmanate_(1649–1764)">Cossack Hetmanate (1649–1764)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cossack Hetmanate (1649–1764)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Khmelnytsky Uprising</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Location_of_Cossack_Hetmanate.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Location_of_Cossack_Hetmanate.png/220px-Location_of_Cossack_Hetmanate.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Location_of_Cossack_Hetmanate.png/330px-Location_of_Cossack_Hetmanate.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Location_of_Cossack_Hetmanate.png/440px-Location_of_Cossack_Hetmanate.png 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Territory gained after the <a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Khmelnytsky Uprising</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a>, also known as the Hetmanate of Ukraine, was a self-governing <a href="/wiki/Zaporozhian_Cossacks" title="Zaporozhian Cossacks">Cossack state</a> that existed from 1649 to 1764. It emerged during a turbulent period in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, following the 1648 <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <a href="/wiki/Cossack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cossack">Cossack</a> (Kozak) rebellion, or <a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Khmelnytsky Uprising</a>, which aimed to liberate Ukrainian lands from Polish-Lithuanian control. This uprising, led by <a href="/wiki/Bohdan_Khmelnytsky" title="Bohdan Khmelnytsky">Bohdan Khmelnytsky</a>, destabilized the <a href="/wiki/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> and began an era of chaos in Ukrainian history known as the "<a href="/wiki/The_Ruin_(Ukrainian_history)" title="The Ruin (Ukrainian history)">Ruin</a>" (referred to as "the <a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a>" in Polish history). The newly-formed Cossack Hetmanate soon found itself caught in a complex web of military and diplomatic conflicts with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Muscovy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Serhy-112">[112]</a> Following a series of early military successes, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Zboriv" title="Treaty of Zboriv">Treaty of Zboriv</a> in 1649 officially established the Hetmanate as an autonomous entity within the Commonwealth. However, the region’s quest for stability remained elusive, and in 1654, the <a href="/wiki/Zaporozhian_Host" title="Zaporozhian Host">Zaporozhian Host</a>, seeking to escape Polish influence, entered into the <a href="/wiki/Pereiaslav_Agreement" title="Pereiaslav Agreement">Pereiaslav Agreement</a> with Tsardom of Muscovy. This treaty brought the Hetmanate under Moscow protection, altering the political landscape. Despite the initial hopes for autonomy, the Hetmanate soon faced challenges in maintaining its sovereignty as Moscow sought to expand its influence.<a href="#cite_note-Serhy-112">[112]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_d%27Ukranie_by_Beauplan,_Guillaume_Le_Vasseur_(16..-1673),_cartographer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Carte_d%27Ukranie_by_Beauplan%2C_Guillaume_Le_Vasseur_%2816..-1673%29%2C_cartographer.jpg/220px-Carte_d%27Ukranie_by_Beauplan%2C_Guillaume_Le_Vasseur_%2816..-1673%29%2C_cartographer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Carte_d%27Ukranie_by_Beauplan%2C_Guillaume_Le_Vasseur_%2816..-1673%29%2C_cartographer.jpg/330px-Carte_d%27Ukranie_by_Beauplan%2C_Guillaume_Le_Vasseur_%2816..-1673%29%2C_cartographer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Carte_d%27Ukranie_by_Beauplan%2C_Guillaume_Le_Vasseur_%2816..-1673%29%2C_cartographer.jpg/440px-Carte_d%27Ukranie_by_Beauplan%2C_Guillaume_Le_Vasseur_%2816..-1673%29%2C_cartographer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7866" data-file-height="3926" /></a><figcaption>French map of Ukraine (Carte d'Ukranie), by Beauplan (1600–1673), cartographer (south at the top)</figcaption></figure> In an effort to regain control over Ukrainian territories, the Commonwealth attempted to compromise with the Cossack state through the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hadiach" title="Treaty of Hadiach">Treaty of Hadiach</a> in 1658. Yet, <a href="/wiki/Russo-Polish_War_(1654%E2%80%931667)" title="Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)">after thirteen years of continuous warfare</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Andrusovo" title="Truce of Andrusovo">Truce of Andrusovo</a> in 1667 divided Ukraine between Poland and Muscovy, splitting the country along the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Dnieper River">Dnieper River</a>. <a href="/wiki/Right-bank_Ukraine" title="Right-bank Ukraine">Right-bank Ukraine</a> remained under Polish control, while <a href="/wiki/Left-bank_Ukraine" title="Left-bank Ukraine">left-bank Ukraine</a> was incorporated into the Tsardom of Muscovy. Although the Hetmanate retained a degree of autonomy, this division marked the beginning of a long period of foreign dominance over Ukrainian lands.<a href="#cite_note-Serhy-112">[112]</a> The late 17th century was characterized by civil strife, foreign intervention, and territorial shifts. From 1657 to 1686, Ukraine endured constant conflict and war, with neighboring powers exploiting the instability. For example, <a href="/wiki/Hetman" title="Hetman">Hetman</a> <a href="/wiki/Petro_Doroshenko" title="Petro Doroshenko">Petro Doroshenko</a>'s efforts to control regions like Kyiv and <a href="/wiki/Bratslav" title="Bratslav">Bratslav</a> were thwarted when these areas fell under Turkish occupation. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Karlowitz" title="Treaty of Karlowitz">Treaty of Karlowitz</a> in 1699 ultimately returned much of this land to Polish control, although the Cossacks continued to assert their independence in regions such as <a href="/wiki/Zaporozhian_Sich" title="Zaporozhian Sich">Zaporizhzhia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sloboda_Ukraine" title="Sloboda Ukraine">Sloboda Ukraine</a>, where semi-independent republics emerged on the Moscow frontier.<a href="#cite_note-Ágoston-113">[113]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NaUKMA_seal_transp2.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/NaUKMA_seal_transp2.PNG/220px-NaUKMA_seal_transp2.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/NaUKMA_seal_transp2.PNG/330px-NaUKMA_seal_transp2.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/NaUKMA_seal_transp2.PNG/440px-NaUKMA_seal_transp2.PNG 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption>Seal of the old Kyiv-Mohyla Academy.</figcaption></figure> In addition to political turbulence, the Hetmanate played a significant role in the cultural and intellectual development of both Ukraine and Moscovy. Ukrainian clerics, scholars, and intellectuals, many of whom were educated at the <a href="/wiki/Kyiv-Mohyla_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyiv-Mohyla Academy">Kyiv-Mohyla Academy</a>, contributed to major reforms in Moscow society, particularly during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a>. Figures like <a href="/wiki/Theophan_Prokopovich" title="Theophan Prokopovich">Theophan Prokopovich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Yavorsky" title="Stefan Yavorsky">Stefan Yavorsky</a>, both key members of the <a href="/wiki/Most_Holy_Synod" title="Most Holy Synod">Most Holy Synod</a>, influenced religious and cultural reforms, with the so-called "Ukrainian school" dominating Russian literature in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-empire-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Metropolis_of_Kyiv" title="Metropolis of Kyiv">Metropolis of Kyiv</a> was also <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_the_Metropolis_of_Kyiv_by_the_Moscow_Patriarchate" title="Annexation of the Metropolis of Kyiv by the Moscow Patriarchate">annexed</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Patriarchate" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Patriarchate">Moscow Patriarchate</a> in 1686, a significant moment in the religious history of Ukraine. This annexation by Moscow symbolized the growing cultural and political ties between Ukraine and Moscovy, although the Hetmanate’s leadership continued to struggle to preserve their autonomy.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marten%27s_Poltava.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marten%27s_Poltava.jpg/220px-Marten%27s_Poltava.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marten%27s_Poltava.jpg/330px-Marten%27s_Poltava.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marten%27s_Poltava.jpg/440px-Marten%27s_Poltava.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2293" data-file-height="1441" /></a><figcaption>The Battle of Poltava by <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Denis_Martin_(1663%E2%80%931742)" title="Pierre-Denis Martin (1663–1742)">Pierre-Denis Martin</a></figcaption></figure> The Hetmanate reached its peak of independence under Hetman <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Mazepa" title="Ivan Mazepa">Ivan Mazepa</a>, who sought to align with <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a> and break free from Russian dominance during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a>. However, Mazepa’s rebellion ended in disaster at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Poltava" title="Battle of Poltava">Battle of Poltava</a> in 1709, after which Moscow control tightened significantly. The office of hetman was eventually abolished in 1764 under <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a>, marking the official end of the Cossack Hetmanate and its institutions.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Despite its eventual dissolution, the Hetmanate’s legacy endured, influencing both Ukrainian national identity and Russian political and cultural life. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Liquidation_of_the_Zaporozhian_Sich">Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Liquidation_of_the_Zaporozhian_Sich" title="Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich">Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich</a></div> During the 18th century, the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> steadily replaced its earlier "protection" over central Ukraine with direct control, gradually eroding the autonomy of the Cossacks. The Cossack uprisings, which had once been directed against the <a href="/wiki/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, now shifted focus to the Russian authorities. However, by the late 18th century, these uprisings had largely petered out, weakened by the overwhelming power of the Russian state and internal divisions within the Cossack ranks.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1775_Zaporizhya.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/1775_Zaporizhya.png/220px-1775_Zaporizhya.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/1775_Zaporizhya.png/330px-1775_Zaporizhya.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/1775_Zaporizhya.png/440px-1775_Zaporizhya.png 2x" data-file-width="4557" data-file-height="4243" /></a><figcaption>Territories controlled by Ukrainian Cossacks at the end of their existence</figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_of_1768-1774" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774">Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774</a>, in which Ukrainian Cossacks played a vital role supporting the Russian Empire, a dramatic shift occurred. The Russian victory resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk_Kaynarca" title="Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca">Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca</a>, which granted Russia significant territorial gains along the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> coast, as well as control over parts of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>'s sphere of influence. This victory, while strengthening Russia, diminished the strategic importance of the <a href="/wiki/Zaporozhian_Sich" title="Zaporozhian Sich">Zaporozhian Sich</a>, as the borderlands the Cossacks had traditionally defended were now under Russian control. This geopolitical shift paved the way for the Sich’s destruction.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> In 1775, Russian troops under General <a href="/wiki/Peter_Tekeli" title="Peter Tekeli">Peter Tekeli</a> marched on the Zaporozhian Sich, following orders from Empress <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a>. Catherine, intent on centralizing her empire and removing any threats to her power, saw the independent and militarized Cossack host as an obstacle. On June 15, 1775, after a swift operation, Tekeli’s forces, consisting of 8 cavalry regiments, 10 infantry regiments, 20 hussar squadrons, 17 pike squadrons, and 13 squadrons of <a href="/wiki/Don_Cossacks" title="Don Cossacks">Don Cossacks</a>—totaling 45,000 troops—destroyed the Sich. Defended by a small garrison of only 3,000 Cossacks, the Sich fell quickly.<a href="#cite_note-Solovyov-121">[121]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg/220px-35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg/330px-35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg/440px-35-101-0621_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Cannons at the entrance to the Fortress of Saint Elizabeth</figcaption></figure> The last <a href="/wiki/Kosh_Otaman" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosh Otaman">Kosh Otaman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petro_Kalnyshevsky" title="Petro Kalnyshevsky">Petro Kalnyshevsky</a>, was arrested and exiled to the <a href="/wiki/Solovetsky_Islands" title="Solovetsky Islands">Solovetsky Islands</a> in the far north, where he spent the remainder of his life in harsh conditions, dying in captivity. The destruction of the Sich marked the end of an era for the Cossack state, a symbol of Ukrainian independence and military prowess. Following the destruction, a smaller group of Cossacks fled to the lands of the Ottoman Empire, settling beyond the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, where they formed the <a href="/wiki/Danubian_Sich" title="Danubian Sich">Danubian Sich</a>. Others relocated to the <a href="/wiki/Kuban" title="Kuban">Kuban</a> region in the Russian Empire, where they helped establish the <a href="/wiki/Kuban_Cossack_Host" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuban Cossack Host">Kuban Cossack Host</a>. However, the majority of the Ukrainian Cossacks were deported to remote parts of the Russian Empire, including <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, in a move that sought to break their power and disperse their population. Cultural Loss: In addition to the loss of Cossack autonomy, the Russian troops seized over 30,000 documents, along with weapons and other valuables, representing the history of Ukraine from the 16th to the 18th centuries. These items were stored in the <a href="/wiki/Fortress_of_St._Elizabeth" title="Fortress of St. Elizabeth">fortress of St. Elizabeth</a>, which had been the primary military base of the Russian Imperial Army in Ukraine. The fortress itself held historical significance, having repelled the <a href="/wiki/Crimean%E2%80%93Nogai_slave_raids_in_Eastern_Europe" title="Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe">last slave raids by the Crimean Tatars</a> and played a crucial role in the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. These historical artifacts remained in St. Elizabeth’s fortress until they were eventually transferred to Kyiv in 1918, providing valuable insights into the rich history of the Ukrainian Cossacks.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CossackMamay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/CossackMamay.jpg/220px-CossackMamay.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/CossackMamay.jpg/330px-CossackMamay.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/CossackMamay.jpg/440px-CossackMamay.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="486" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Mamay" title="Cossack Mamay">Cossack Mamay</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Haidamaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Haidamaka">Haidamaka</a> hang a Jew by his heels. Ukrainian folk art, 19th century.</figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, in right-bank Ukraine, dissatisfaction with Polish rule had been growing for decades. Increased corvée (forced labor) obligations, along with the abuse of power by Polish magnates, nobles, and their <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Jewish</a> stewards, led to widespread unrest. The peasants, many of whom were Orthodox Christians, resented the imposition of taxes and labor on their lands, as well as the presence of Roman Catholic and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church">Uniate</a> clergy. The resulting discontent gave rise to a series of <a href="/wiki/Haidamak" class="mw-redirect" title="Haidamak">Haidamak</a> uprisings, in which bands of rebels attacked and looted towns, targeting the estates of nobles, clergy, and Jewish populations. Major uprisings occurred in 1734, 1750, and the largest—known as <a href="/wiki/Koliyivschyna" class="mw-redirect" title="Koliyivschyna">Koliyivschyna</a>—took place in 1768. This uprising was violently suppressed, but it revealed deep-seated resentment toward foreign rule in Ukraine.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> By the end of the century, Catherine the Great’s policies had reshaped the political landscape of Ukraine. The Cossack's role in defending the borderlands was no longer necessary, as the Russian Empire now controlled the Black Sea and <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>. In 1783, the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a> was formally <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_the_Crimean_Khanate_by_the_Russian_Empire" title="Annexation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire">annexed by Russia</a>, cementing control over the northern Black Sea region. A few years earlier, in 1778, <a href="/wiki/Emigration_of_Christians_from_the_Crimea_(1778)" class="mw-redirect" title="Emigration of Christians from the Crimea (1778)">a mass emigration of Christians from Crimea occurred</a>, further altering the demographic balance of the region. Finally, in 1793, following the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Second Partition of Poland</a>, right-bank Ukraine was officially incorporated into the Russian Empire. By the end of Catherine’s reign, most of Ukraine had fallen under Russian control, bringing an end to the centuries-old struggle for autonomy and leaving the Ukrainian people under the rule of the Tsar.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_history">Modern history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Modern history">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Ukraine" title="Modern history of Ukraine">Modern history of Ukraine</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empires_and_Ukrainian_National_Revival">Empires and Ukrainian National Revival</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Empires and Ukrainian National Revival">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_National_Revival" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian National Revival">Ukrainian National Revival</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taras_Shevchenko_selfportrait_oil_1840-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Taras_Shevchenko_selfportrait_oil_1840-2.jpg/220px-Taras_Shevchenko_selfportrait_oil_1840-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Taras_Shevchenko_selfportrait_oil_1840-2.jpg/330px-Taras_Shevchenko_selfportrait_oil_1840-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Taras_Shevchenko_selfportrait_oil_1840-2.jpg/440px-Taras_Shevchenko_selfportrait_oil_1840-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1517" data-file-height="2006" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko" title="Taras Shevchenko">Taras Shevchenko</a> self-portrait, 1840</figcaption></figure> Under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I</a> (1801–1825), the Russian presence in Ukraine was largely limited to the imperial army and its bureaucracy. However, by the reign of <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a> (1825–1855), Russia had established a centralized administration in Ukraine. After suppressing the <a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a> of 1830, the tsarist regime implemented Russification policies, particularly on the <a href="/wiki/Right-bank_Ukraine" title="Right-bank Ukraine">Right-bank Ukraine</a>. These policies not only suppressed the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian language</a> but also aimed to weaken local traditions by emphasizing loyalty to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a>, which actively promoted <a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a> in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Uniate_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniate Church">Uniate Church</a>'s earlier influence in Western Ukraine.<a href="#cite_note-:2-127">[127]</a> The 1861 <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">emancipation of serfs</a> had a profound effect on Ukraine, as 42% of its population were serfs. By the late 19th century, heavy taxes, rapid population growth, and land shortages led to widespread impoverishment among the peasantry. Many rural Ukrainians began migrating to cities, where <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a> and urban development created new economic opportunities but also fostered a growing sense of class consciousness. The construction of the first railway track in 1866 not only integrated Ukraine’s economy into the Russian imperial system but also facilitated the mobility of workers and goods. Despite their hardships, Ukrainian peasants and workers contributed significantly to the empire’s economy, with the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian steppe">steppe regions</a> producing 20% of the world's wheat and 80% of the empire's sugar.<a href="#cite_note-:2-127">[127]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_national_revival" title="Ukrainian national revival">Ukrainian national revival</a> began in the late 18th century with the emergence of modern <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_literature" title="Ukrainian literature">Ukrainian literature</a>, spearheaded by <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Kotliarevsky" title="Ivan Kotliarevsky">Ivan Kotliarevsky</a>. Prominent 19th-century Ukrainian authors included <a href="/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko" title="Taras Shevchenko">Taras Shevchenko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mykhailo_Kotsiubynsky" title="Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky">Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lesya_Ukrainka" title="Lesya Ukrainka">Lesya Ukrainka</a> in the Russian Empire, and <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Franko" title="Ivan Franko">Ivan Franko</a> in <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>. The rise of a Ukrainian intelligentsia, increasingly composed of commoners and peasants, challenged the dominance of the traditional nobility and fueled the movement for national rights and social justice. However, fearing the rise of separatism, the Russian government imposed strict limits on Ukrainian language and culture. In 1863, the <a href="/wiki/Valuev_Circular" title="Valuev Circular">Valuev Circular</a> banned the use of Ukrainian in religious and educational texts. Further repression came with the <a href="/wiki/Ems_Ukaz" title="Ems Ukaz">Ems Ukaz</a> in 1876, which prohibited Ukrainian-language publications, the import of Ukrainian books from abroad, the use of Ukrainian in theater, and even public readings. Ukrainian schools were also suppressed. These policies prompted many Ukrainian intellectuals, such as <a href="/wiki/Mykhailo_Drahomanov" title="Mykhailo Drahomanov">Mykhailo Drahomanov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mykhailo_Hrushevsky" title="Mykhailo Hrushevsky">Mykhailo Hrushevsky</a>, to flee to Austrian-ruled Western Ukraine.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> In addition, the development of underground educational organizations, such as the "<a href="/wiki/Prosvita" title="Prosvita">Prosvita</a>" society, played a critical role in preserving Ukrainian culture. Despite the restrictions, Ukrainians within the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> sometimes succeeded in advancing within the system, often blending loyalty to the tsar with a subtle promotion of their heritage. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B7%E2%80%99%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83_%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2_%D0%B7_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8_100-%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D1%87%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82_%C2%AB%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%97%D0%B4%D0%B8%C2%BB.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B7%E2%80%99%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83_%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2_%D0%B7_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8_100-%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D1%87%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82_%C2%AB%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%97%D0%B4%D0%B8%C2%BB.jpeg/220px-%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B7%E2%80%99%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83_%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2_%D0%B7_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8_100-%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D1%87%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82_%C2%AB%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%97%D0%B4%D0%B8%C2%BB.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B7%E2%80%99%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83_%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2_%D0%B7_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8_100-%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D1%87%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82_%C2%AB%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%97%D0%B4%D0%B8%C2%BB.jpeg/330px-%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B7%E2%80%99%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83_%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2_%D0%B7_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8_100-%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D1%87%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82_%C2%AB%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%97%D0%B4%D0%B8%C2%BB.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B7%E2%80%99%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83_%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2_%D0%B7_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8_100-%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D1%87%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82_%C2%AB%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%97%D0%B4%D0%B8%C2%BB.jpeg/440px-%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B7%E2%80%99%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83_%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2_%D0%B7_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8_100-%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D1%87%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82_%C2%AB%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%97%D0%B4%D0%B8%C2%BB.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2488" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>The board and members of the <a href="/wiki/Shevchenko_Scientific_Society" title="Shevchenko Scientific Society">Shevchenko Scientific Society</a> celebrating the 100th anniversary of the publication of <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Kotliarevsky" title="Ivan Kotliarevsky">Ivan Kotliarevsky</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Eneida" title="Eneida">Eneida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lviv</a>, 31 October 1898: Sitting in the first row: Mykhaylo Pavlyk, <a href="/wiki/Yevheniya_Yaroshynska" title="Yevheniya Yaroshynska">Yevheniya Yaroshynska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nataliya_Kobrynska" title="Nataliya Kobrynska">Natalia Kobrynska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olha_Kobylianska" title="Olha Kobylianska">Olha Kobylianska</a>, Sylvester Lepky, Andriy Chaykovsky, Kost Pankivsky. In the second row: Ivan Kopach, <a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Hnatiuk" title="Volodymyr Hnatiuk">Volodymyr Hnatiuk</a>, Osyp Makovej, <a href="/wiki/Mykhailo_Hrushevsky" title="Mykhailo Hrushevsky">Mykhailo Hrushevsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Franko" title="Ivan Franko">Ivan Franko</a>, Oleksandr Kolessa, <a href="/wiki/Bohdan_Lepky" title="Bohdan Lepky">Bohdan Lepky</a>. Standing in the third row: Ivan Petrushevych, <a href="/wiki/Filaret_Kolessa" title="Filaret Kolessa">Filaret Kolessa</a>, Yossyp Kyshakevych, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Trush" title="Ivan Trush">Ivan Trush</a>, Denys Lukianovych, <a href="/wiki/Mykola_Ivasyuk" title="Mykola Ivasyuk">Mykola Ivasyuk</a></figcaption></figure> The fate of Ukrainians under the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a> was markedly different. In Austrian-ruled <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a>, Ukrainians found themselves in a delicate position within the broader Russian-Austrian rivalry for influence in Central and Southern Europe. Unlike in the Russian Empire, Galicia’s ruling elite were primarily of Austrian or Polish descent, while the Ruthenian population remained predominantly peasant. During the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Galician_Russophilia" title="Galician Russophilia">Russophilia</a> was initially common among Galicia’s Slavic population. However, the influx of Ukrainian intellectuals fleeing Russian repression, combined with Austrian intervention, gradually replaced Russophilia with a growing <a href="/wiki/Ukrainophilia" title="Ukrainophilia">Ukrainophilia</a>. This sentiment spread back into Russian-ruled Ukraine, fueling the national revival.<a href="#cite_note-:2-127">[127]</a> The 2.4 million Ukrainians under Habsburg rule lived primarily in Eastern Galicia, with 95% of them being peasants. The region remained one of the poorest in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, with persistent land shortages and limited industrialization. Nevertheless, the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Greek Catholic Church">Greek Catholic Church</a> in Galicia became a key institution in preserving Ukrainian culture and fostering national identity. The first Ukrainian-language newspaper, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoria_Halytska&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zoria Halytska (page does not exist)">Zoria Halytska</a>, launched in 1848, symbolized the growing national awakening. Many Ukrainians from Galicia and other Austrian territories also emigrated to <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> during this period, seeking economic opportunities and escaping poverty.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The late 19th century witnessed a slow but steady growth of Ukrainian urban populations and the beginnings of a political awakening. Ukrainians in Galicia formed the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Ruthenian_Council" title="Supreme Ruthenian Council">Supreme Ruthenian Council</a> and began advocating for autonomy and reforms, such as land redistribution. In Russian Ukraine, underground networks spread literature, education, and national ideas among the peasantry, contributing to the resilience of Ukrainian identity under challenging conditions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_of_Independence_(1917–1922)">War of Independence (1917–1922)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: War of Independence (1917–1922)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ukraine_during_World_War_I" title="Ukraine during World War I">Ukraine during World War I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_War_of_Independence" title="Ukrainian War of Independence">Ukrainian War of Independence</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine_after_the_Russian_Revolution" title="Ukraine after the Russian Revolution">Ukraine after the Russian Revolution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">Polish–Ukrainian War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Ukrainian–Soviet War">Ukrainian–Soviet War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kyiv_(1918)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Kyiv (1918)">Battle of Kyiv (1918)</a></div> <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and the wave of revolutions that swept across Europe—including the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> in Russia—shattered empires such as the <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empires</a>, leaving Ukraine caught in the midst of geopolitical upheaval. Between 1917 and 1919, several Ukrainian republics declared independence, marking the emergence of a complex array of states and territories seeking sovereignty. Among these were the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukrainian People's Republic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_State" title="Ukrainian State">Ukrainian State</a>, the <a href="/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="West Ukrainian People's Republic">West Ukrainian People's Republic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovshchina</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kholodny_Yar_Republic" title="Kholodny Yar Republic">Kholodny Yar Republic</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kuban_People%27s_Republic" title="Kuban People's Republic">Kuban People's Republic</a>. Concurrently, a number of <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> revolutionary committees, or revkoms, sought to establish Soviet power, leading to the formation of various Soviet-aligned entities, including the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_Soviets" title="Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets">Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Odessa_Soviet_Republic" title="Odessa Soviet Republic">Odessa Soviet Republic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Donetsk%E2%80%93Krivoy_Rog_Soviet_Republic" title="Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic">Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Republic">Ukrainian Soviet Republic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Taurida_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Taurida Soviet Socialist Republic">Taurida Soviet Socialist Republic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Galician_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Galician Soviet Socialist Republic">Galician Soviet Socialist Republic</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic</a>. Each of these republics and regimes represented different visions for Ukraine's future, reflecting the era's ideological and territorial conflicts that would profoundly impact the region. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ukrainian_People's_Republic">Ukrainian People's Republic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Ukrainian People's Republic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukrainian People's Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Propaganda_UPR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Propaganda_UPR.jpg/220px-Propaganda_UPR.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Propaganda_UPR.jpg/330px-Propaganda_UPR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Propaganda_UPR.jpg/440px-Propaganda_UPR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="696" data-file-height="464" /></a><figcaption>UPR postcard depicting a group with the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Ukraine" title="Flag of Ukraine">yellow-blue flag</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Ukraine" title="National anthem of Ukraine">anthem lyrics</a>, defending themselves from a Russian <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Russia" title="Coat of arms of Russia">double-headed eagle</a> (November–December 1917)</figcaption></figure> The Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) was officially proclaimed on November 20, 1917, amidst the turmoil of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> and the disintegration of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>. Initially, the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Central_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian Central Council">Ukrainian Central Council</a> (Rada), comprising influential Ukrainian political figures, pursued autonomy within a <a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">federated Russia</a>. However, as the political situation in Russia grew increasingly unstable, the UPR took a decisive step by declaring full independence on January 22, 1918.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYekelchyk200727-130">[130]</a> From its inception, the fledgling UPR faced significant challenges. Internally, political divisions among various factions, including socialists, nationalists, and federalists, complicated governance and decision-making. Economically, the nascent republic struggled with the transition from imperial control to an independent administration, resulting in shortages, inflation, and a weakened infrastructure. Externally, the UPR faced threats from multiple sides, primarily from the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a>, who regarded Ukraine as essential to their revolutionary agenda. As a result, they launched a series of military campaigns to assert control over Ukrainian territories, triggering prolonged and intense conflicts with UPR forces.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_first_Bolshevik_revolutionary_committees">The first Bolshevik revolutionary committees</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: The first Bolshevik revolutionary committees">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_Soviets" title="Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets">Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Republic">Ukrainian Soviet Republic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Donetsk%E2%80%93Krivoy_Rog_Soviet_Republic" title="Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic">Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Odessa_Soviet_Republic" title="Odessa Soviet Republic">Odessa Soviet Republic</a></div> As the Bolsheviks sought to expand their influence across the former territories of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, Ukraine became a significant battleground. In December 1917, amidst the chaos of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> and the collapse of imperial power, the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_Soviets" title="Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets">Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets</a> was proclaimed. This was a direct challenge to the Ukrainian People's Republic, which had declared its independence from the Russian Empire earlier that year. The UPR, led by nationalists and democrats, sought to build an independent Ukrainian state. In contrast, the Bolshevik-backed People's Republic of Soviets aimed to bring Ukraine under Soviet control and align it with the goals of the Russian Bolsheviks.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg/220px-Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg/330px-Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg/440px-Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets</figcaption></figure> In March 1918, this newly established republic merged with two other short-lived Soviet republics in the region: the <a href="/wiki/Donetsk%E2%80%93Krivoy_Rog_Soviet_Republic" title="Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic">Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Odessa_Soviet_Republic" title="Odessa Soviet Republic">Odessa Soviet Republic</a>. These republics were formed by local Bolshevik groups seeking to establish Soviet power across key industrial and strategic regions of Ukraine. The result of this merger was the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Republic">Ukrainian Soviet Republic</a>, a state that was aligned with <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Russia">Soviet Russia</a> and part of the larger efforts of the Bolsheviks to secure control over Ukraine during the chaotic period of civil war and foreign intervention. This period was marked by fierce conflicts between various Ukrainian factions, including the Ukrainian People's Republic, anarchists, and foreign powers, alongside the advancing Bolshevik forces, contributing to the overall instability of the region. When the Bolshevik troops retreated from the territory, on April 18, 1918, the Ukrainian Soviet Republic was officially dissolved.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ukrainian_State">Ukrainian State</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Ukrainian State">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_State" title="Ukrainian State">Ukrainian State</a></div> Amid growing unrest, a coup d'état led by General <a href="/wiki/Pavlo_Skoropadskyi" title="Pavlo Skoropadskyi">Pavlo Skoropadskyi</a> on April 29, 1918, dismantled the UPR and established the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_State" title="Ukrainian State">Ukrainian State</a>, also known as the Hetmanate. Skoropadskyi, a former officer in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Imperial_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Imperial Army">Russian Imperial Army</a>, assumed the title of <a href="/wiki/Hetman_of_all_Ukraine" title="Hetman of all Ukraine">Hetman of all Ukraine</a>, aiming to create a strong, centralized state with close ties to the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>. His vision for the Hetmanate included restoring order, promoting economic development, and implementing agrarian reforms to stabilize the economy and society.<a href="#cite_note-endSkoro-135">[135]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skoropadsky_-_1918_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Skoropadsky_-_1918_%282%29.jpg/220px-Skoropadsky_-_1918_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Skoropadsky_-_1918_%282%29.jpg/330px-Skoropadsky_-_1918_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Skoropadsky_-_1918_%282%29.jpg/440px-Skoropadsky_-_1918_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption>Skoropadskyi inspecting troops from the "Greycoat" division</figcaption></figure> While the Hetmanate initially brought some stability, Skoropadskyi's alignment with the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> and his authoritarian policies alienated many <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a>. Nationalists, socialists, and peasant groups grew increasingly discontented, perceiving his regime as prioritizing foreign interests over Ukrainian sovereignty. Additionally, Skoropadskyi's agricultural reforms, which often favored large landowners and reinstated some pre-revolutionary land policies, furthered resentment among the rural populace.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> As the Central Powers began to crumble in late 1918 with their defeat in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, opposition to Skoropadskyi's rule surged. In November 1918, a coalition of anti-Hetmanate forces known as <a href="/wiki/Directorate_of_Ukraine" title="Directorate of Ukraine">The Directorate</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Symon_Petliura" title="Symon Petliura">Symon Petliura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Vynnychenko" title="Volodymyr Vynnychenko">Volodymyr Vynnychenko</a>, and other prominent Ukrainian leaders, initiated a successful uprising against Skoropadskyi’s government. By December 1918, Skoropadskyi was forced to abdicate, dissolving the Ukrainian State and restoring the Ukrainian People's Republic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYekelchyk2007-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="West_Ukrainian_People's_Republic">West Ukrainian People's Republic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: West Ukrainian People's Republic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="West Ukrainian People's Republic">West Ukrainian People's Republic</a></div> Simultaneously, a separate Ukrainian state was established in the western part of the country. The <a href="/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="West Ukrainian People's Republic">West Ukrainian People's Republic</a> (WUPR) was proclaimed on October 19, 1918, following the disintegration of the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a>. This new state centered around <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Galicia" title="Eastern Galicia">Eastern Galicia</a>, including the key city of <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lviv</a>, and extended into parts of <a href="/wiki/Bukovina" title="Bukovina">Bukovina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transcarpathia" title="Transcarpathia">Transcarpathia</a>, areas with substantial Ukrainian populations. The WUPR government, led by <a href="/wiki/Yevhen_Petrushevych" title="Yevhen Petrushevych">Yevhen Petrushevych</a>, aspired to build an independent Ukrainian state in Western Ukraine, distinct from both Polish and Russian influences.<a href="#cite_note-Shkandrij2-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pic_U_K_Ukrainian_Galician_Army_supreme_command.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pic_U_K_Ukrainian_Galician_Army_supreme_command.jpg/220px-Pic_U_K_Ukrainian_Galician_Army_supreme_command.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pic_U_K_Ukrainian_Galician_Army_supreme_command.jpg/330px-Pic_U_K_Ukrainian_Galician_Army_supreme_command.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pic_U_K_Ukrainian_Galician_Army_supreme_command.jpg/440px-Pic_U_K_Ukrainian_Galician_Army_supreme_command.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1360" data-file-height="742" /></a><figcaption>The Supreme Command of the Ukrainian Galician Army. Sitting, 5th through 7th from left, Gen <a href="/wiki/Mykhailo_Omelianovych-Pavlenko" title="Mykhailo Omelianovych-Pavlenko">Mykhailo Omelianovych-Pavlenko</a>, Col Viktor Kurmanovych, and Otaman Alfred Schamanek</figcaption></figure> The WUPR quickly developed its administrative structures, forming the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Galician_Army" title="Ukrainian Galician Army">Ukrainian Galician Army</a> to defend its territories and introducing social and economic reforms to stabilize the new state. However, the WUPR’s claim over Eastern Galicia sparked immediate conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">re-established Polish state</a>, which also sought control over the region. This territorial dispute erupted into the <a href="/wiki/Polish-Ukrainian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Ukrainian War">Polish-Ukrainian War</a> (1918-1919), beginning with fierce fighting in Lviv, where Polish paramilitary forces resisted Ukrainian authority.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Although Ukrainian forces initially gained some ground, the Polish Army, bolstered by material support from the <a href="/wiki/Entente_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Entente Powers">Entente Powers</a>, soon regained momentum. By mid-1919, the Polish Army launched a major offensive, pushing back the Ukrainian Galician Army and regaining control over contested areas. Facing overwhelming opposition, WUPR forces retreated into Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) territory by July 1919, marking the end of the WUPR as an independent state.<a href="#cite_note-Chojnowski-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unification_Act">Unification Act</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Unification Act">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unification_Act" title="Unification Act">Unification Act</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Signing_of_the_Act_Zluky_on_January_22_1919._%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%97%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8_22_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8F_1919.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Signing_of_the_Act_Zluky_on_January_22_1919._%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%97%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8_22_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8F_1919.jpg/220px-Signing_of_the_Act_Zluky_on_January_22_1919._%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%97%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8_22_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8F_1919.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Signing_of_the_Act_Zluky_on_January_22_1919._%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%97%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8_22_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8F_1919.jpg/330px-Signing_of_the_Act_Zluky_on_January_22_1919._%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%97%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8_22_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8F_1919.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Signing_of_the_Act_Zluky_on_January_22_1919._%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%97%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8_22_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8F_1919.jpg/440px-Signing_of_the_Act_Zluky_on_January_22_1919._%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%97%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8_22_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8F_1919.jpg 2x" data-file-width="771" data-file-height="514" /></a><figcaption>The signing of the Act Zluky, on the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Sophia_Cathedral,_Kyiv" title="Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv">St. Sophia Square</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a></figcaption></figure> In an effort to consolidate their positions during a tumultuous period, UPR and WUPR formally united on January 22, 1919, through the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Unification_Act" title="Unification Act">Unification Act</a> (Act Zluky). This historic declaration symbolized the unification of the two republics into a single Ukrainian state. Despite its significance as a milestone for Ukrainian national aspirations, the unification remained largely symbolic in practice. The lack of effective integration between the UPR and WUPR resulted in minimal military coordination or mutual support. Both entities were preoccupied with their respective military challenges: the UPR was engaged in a desperate struggle against advancing <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> forces, while the WUPR was embroiled in a conflict with Polish troops over territorial claims in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Galicia" title="Eastern Galicia">Eastern Galicia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-subtelny-362-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_Ukrainian_states_and_movements">Other Ukrainian states and movements</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Other Ukrainian states and movements">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovshchina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kholodny_Yar_Republic" title="Kholodny Yar Republic">Kholodny Yar Republic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kuban_People%27s_Republic" title="Kuban People's Republic">Kuban People's Republic</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovshchina</a>, which existed from 1918 to 1921, was a revolutionary anarchist movement in southern Ukraine led by <a href="/wiki/Nestor_Makhno" title="Nestor Makhno">Nestor Makhno</a>. It emerged during the chaos of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a>. The Makhnovists aimed to establish a stateless, self-managed society based on anarchist principles, where peasants and workers controlled the land and factories. Makhno's forces fought against various powers, including the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a>, the <a href="/wiki/White_Army" title="White Army">White Army</a>, and foreign invaders. Despite initial successes, the movement was eventually crushed by the Bolsheviks.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Euromaidan_in_Kyiv_(2013-12-15)_17.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Euromaidan_in_Kyiv_%282013-12-15%29_17.JPG/220px-Euromaidan_in_Kyiv_%282013-12-15%29_17.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Euromaidan_in_Kyiv_%282013-12-15%29_17.JPG/330px-Euromaidan_in_Kyiv_%282013-12-15%29_17.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Euromaidan_in_Kyiv_%282013-12-15%29_17.JPG/440px-Euromaidan_in_Kyiv_%282013-12-15%29_17.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Flag of Kholodny Yar Republic during <a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Kholodny_Yar_Republic" title="Kholodny Yar Republic">Kholodny Yar Republic</a>, which existed from 1919 to 1922, was a small Ukrainian insurgent state located in the <a href="/wiki/Chyhyryn" title="Chyhyryn">Chyhyryn</a> region. It was formed by local resistance fighters and peasants who opposed both the Bolshevik <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> and White Army forces during the Russian Civil War. Inspired by Ukrainian independence and nationalist ideals, the republic remained independent for a few years but was eventually overwhelmed by Bolshevik forces.<a href="#cite_note-kholodnogoyaru15000-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> In May 1919, in central Ukraine began the <a href="/wiki/Hryhoriv_Uprising" title="Hryhoriv Uprising">Hryhoriv Uprising</a>, largest anti-soviet Uprising in Ukraine, which was brutally suppressed by regular troops.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kuban_People%27s_Republic" title="Kuban People's Republic">Kuban People's Republic</a>, which existed from 1918 to 1920, was a short-lived state established by <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Kuban" title="Kuban">Kuban</a> region, near the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>. In the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>'s collapse during the revolution, the <a href="/wiki/Kuban_Cossacks" title="Kuban Cossacks">Kuban Cossacks</a> declared independence and formed the <a href="/wiki/Kuban_Rada" title="Kuban Rada">Kuban Rada</a> to govern. Their goal was to preserve their cultural identity and retain control over their land amid the Russian Civil War. The republic allied with the White Army against the Bolsheviks and sought to unite with the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukrainian People's Republic</a> (UPR) due to shared Cossack heritage and mutual strategic interests. However, these negotiations never culminated in a formal union. Isolated, the republic fell to the advancing Bolshevik Red Army by 1920, ending its brief independence.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kubiyovych-148">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Continued_struggle_and_exile_of_the_UPR_government">Continued struggle and exile of the UPR government</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Continued struggle and exile of the UPR government">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Warsaw_(1920)" title="Treaty of Warsaw (1920)">Treaty of Warsaw (1920)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Riga" title="Treaty of Riga">Treaty of Riga</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Symon_Petliura_and_Antoni_Listowski_during_Polish-Soviet_War.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Symon_Petliura_and_Antoni_Listowski_during_Polish-Soviet_War.PNG/220px-Symon_Petliura_and_Antoni_Listowski_during_Polish-Soviet_War.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Symon_Petliura_and_Antoni_Listowski_during_Polish-Soviet_War.PNG/330px-Symon_Petliura_and_Antoni_Listowski_during_Polish-Soviet_War.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Symon_Petliura_and_Antoni_Listowski_during_Polish-Soviet_War.PNG 2x" data-file-width="422" data-file-height="630" /></a><figcaption>Exiled Ukrainian leader <a href="/wiki/Symon_Petliura" title="Symon Petliura">Symon Petliura</a> (right foreground) conversing with Polish General <a href="/wiki/Antoni_Listowski" title="Antoni Listowski">Antoni Listowski</a> after his alliance with the Poles</figcaption></figure> After being driven out of Kyiv by Bolshevik forces in early 1919, the UPR government, led by Symon Petliura, continued to resist Bolshevik advances and Polish encroachment. By 1920, facing insurmountable odds and a deteriorating military position, Petliura sought an alliance with Poland. In April 1920, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Warsaw_(1920)" title="Treaty of Warsaw (1920)">Treaty of Warsaw</a> was signed, under which the UPR agreed to recognize Polish control over Western Ukraine in exchange for Polish military support against the Bolsheviks.<a href="#cite_note-Debo210-149">[149]</a> The joint Polish-Ukrainian campaign initially achieved some success, including the temporary recapture of Kyiv in May 1920. However, the Bolshevik counter-offensive soon pushed back the allied forces. The situation for the UPR became even more precarious when Poland sought a peace agreement with <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Russia">Soviet Russia</a>, culminating in the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Riga" title="Treaty of Riga">Treaty of Riga</a> in March 1921. The treaty effectively partitioned Ukraine, leaving most of its territory under Soviet control and the western parts under Polish administration.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> With the signing of the Treaty of Riga, the UPR government went into exile, primarily in Poland and other European countries. Ukrainian leaders continued their efforts to advocate for Ukrainian independence in the international arena, but without a territorial base or significant military forces, their influence was limited. Symon Petliura, a key figure in the UPR, continued his political activities in exile until his assassination in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> in 1926.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Canadian scholar <a href="/wiki/Orest_Subtelny" title="Orest Subtelny">Orest Subtelny</a> says: <dl><dd>In 1919 total chaos engulfed Ukraine. Indeed, in the modern history of Europe no country experienced such complete anarchy, bitter civil strife, and total collapse of authority as did Ukraine at this time. Six different armies – those of the Ukrainians, the Bolsheviks, the Whites, the Entente [French], the Poles and the anarchists – operated on its territory. Kiev changed hands five times in less than a year. Cities and regions were cut off from each other by the numerous fronts. Communications with the outside world broke down almost completely. The starving cities emptied as people moved into the countryside in their search for food.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></dd></dl> Historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Kubicek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Kubicek (page does not exist)">Paul Kubicek</a> says: <dl><dd>Between 1917 and 1920, several entities that aspired to be independent Ukrainian states came into existence. This period, however, was extremely chaotic, characterized by revolution, international and civil war, and lack of strong central authority. Many factions competed for power in the area that is today's Ukraine, and not all groups desired a separate Ukrainian state. Ultimately, Ukrainian independence was short-lived, as most Ukrainian lands were incorporated into the Soviet Union and the remainder, in western Ukraine, was divided among Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Romania.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Formation_of_the_Ukrainian_SSR">Formation of the Ukrainian SSR</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Formation of the Ukrainian SSR">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic#Founding:_1917–1922" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic § Founding: 1917–1922</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ukraine_Historical_Borders.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Ukraine_Historical_Borders.svg/220px-Ukraine_Historical_Borders.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Ukraine_Historical_Borders.svg/330px-Ukraine_Historical_Borders.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Ukraine_Historical_Borders.svg/440px-Ukraine_Historical_Borders.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="988" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>Territorial evolution of the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a> (1919–1954)<a href="#cite_note-154">[a]</a> </figcaption></figure> As both the UPR and WUPR faced defeat, the Bolshevik forces consolidated their control over Ukraine. On December 30, 1919, the Bolsheviks proclaimed the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic">Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic</a> (Ukrainian SSR), positioning it as a satellite of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic</a> (RSFSR). The new Soviet government aimed to establish complete Soviet authority over all Ukrainian territories, incorporating Ukraine into the broader framework of Soviet expansion.<a href="#cite_note-eb_Makuchand-13">[13]</a> The creation of the Ukrainian SSR marked the beginning of Soviet rule in Ukraine. Over the next two years, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> systematically subdued remaining Ukrainian forces, nationalist resistance movements, and other anti-Bolshevik factions. By 1921, Bolshevik forces had largely crushed organized resistance, paving the way for the integration of the Ukrainian SSR as one of the founding republics of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in 1922.<a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ukraine_in_Soviet_Union_(1922–1991)">Ukraine in Soviet Union (1922–1991)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Ukraine in Soviet Union (1922–1991)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Collectivization in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Collectivization in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Vistula" title="Operation Vistula">Operation Vistula</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ukrainization_and_New_Economic_Policy">Ukrainization and New Economic Policy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Ukrainization and New Economic Policy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ukrainization#1923–1931:_early_years_of_Soviet_Ukraine" title="Ukrainization">Ukrainization § 1923–1931: early years of Soviet Ukraine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ukposter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Ukposter.jpg/220px-Ukposter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Ukposter.jpg/330px-Ukposter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Ukposter.jpg/440px-Ukposter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="524" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ukrainianization" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainianization">Ukrainianization</a> program aimed at fostering <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainian ethnic identity</a> among the population of Ukraine. This 1921 recruitment poster uses Ukrainian orthography to convey its message, "Son, join the <a href="/w/index.php?title=School_of_Red_Commanders&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="School of Red Commanders (page does not exist)">School of Red Commanders</a> [<a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD" class="extiw" title="uk:Школа червоних старшин">uk</a>], and the defense of Soviet Ukraine will be ensured".</figcaption></figure> In the 1920s, the Soviet government implemented a policy of "<a href="/wiki/Ukrainization" title="Ukrainization">Ukrainization</a>" as part of its broader strategy to strengthen support for the Soviet regime in non-Russian republics. This policy encouraged the use of the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian language</a> in education, government, and media. <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian culture">Ukrainian culture</a> and history were promoted to win over the local population and intellectual elite. Ukrainization allowed a degree of cultural revival after years of Russian dominance in Ukraine. <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_literature" title="Ukrainian literature">Ukrainian literature</a>, theater, and arts experienced significant growth, and schools began teaching in the Ukrainian language. However, this policy was carefully controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Party">Communist Party</a>, ensuring that cultural development aligned with <a href="/wiki/Soviet_ideology" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet ideology">Soviet ideology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EncUkr-156">[155]</a> Following the devastation of war and revolution, the Soviet government introduced the <a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> (NEP) to stabilize the economy. It represented a temporary retreat from pure socialist policies, allowing some elements of private enterprise and market mechanisms to function alongside state-controlled industries. The NEP had a mixed impact on Ukraine. On one hand, it allowed limited economic recovery, especially in agriculture and small-scale industry. Peasants were permitted to sell surplus products on the market, and small businesses could operate under certain conditions. On the other hand, large-scale industries remained under state control, and the heavy industrial sector, which Ukraine relied on, remained inefficient and slow to recover. While the NEP offered some relief to peasants, many remained suspicious of Soviet power, particularly after the harsh grain requisition policies during the civil war. Tensions between the peasantry and the Soviet regime continued to simmer.<a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a> During this period, the Communist Party tightened its control over Ukraine. The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Ukraine" title="Communist Party of Ukraine">Communist Party of Ukraine</a> (CPU) became a key instrument in enforcing Soviet policies and maintaining order. Political power was highly centralized, with decisions made in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> dictating policy in Ukraine. Despite the relative cultural freedom of Ukrainization, any political opposition to the Soviet regime was harshly repressed. Former nationalists, intellectuals, and opponents of Soviet power were marginalized, and any movement toward true Ukrainian autonomy was quickly suppressed. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dmitry_Kardovsky_-_NEPmen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Dmitry_Kardovsky_-_NEPmen.jpg/220px-Dmitry_Kardovsky_-_NEPmen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="411" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Dmitry_Kardovsky_-_NEPmen.jpg/330px-Dmitry_Kardovsky_-_NEPmen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Dmitry_Kardovsky_-_NEPmen.jpg/440px-Dmitry_Kardovsky_-_NEPmen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="548" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>"Nepmen", caricature by <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Kardovsky" title="Dmitry Kardovsky">Dmitry Kardovsky</a>, 1920s</figcaption></figure> In the early Soviet years, there was a strong emphasis on rebuilding Ukraine's war-ravaged economy. Ukraine was a critical industrial center, especially in coal, steel, and machinery production. While some infrastructure was rebuilt, economic challenges remained due to the inefficiency of state control and the lingering effects of war. Ukraine, being an agriculturally rich region, faced difficulties as the peasants were subjected to state control over grain production. Despite the NEP, rural areas continued to suffer from poverty, which would later fuel resistance to Soviet policies.<a href="#cite_note-Richman-158">[157]</a> By the late 1920s, the NEP was being phased out as the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> prepared for a shift towards more centralized and state-controlled economic policies under <a href="/wiki/Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin">Stalin</a>. The focus was moving toward heavy industrialization and forced collectivization, setting the stage for the dramatic and tragic events of the 1930s, including the <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a>. Although Ukrainization was relatively successful in the 1920s, by the end of the decade, Stalin's regime began to reverse this policy, with a focus on Russian centralization. The coming years would see a crackdown on Ukrainian nationalism and culture as part of Stalin's larger efforts to solidify control over the Soviet republics. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Forced_collectivization,_industrialization_and_Holodomor">Forced collectivization, industrialization and Holodomor</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Forced collectivization, industrialization and Holodomor">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Collective_farming#Soviet_Union" title="Collective farming">Collective farming § Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">Industrialization in the Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></div> In 1929, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> launched a campaign of forced collectivization across the Soviet Union, including Ukraine. The policy aimed to consolidate individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled collective farms (<a href="/wiki/Kolkhoz" title="Kolkhoz">kolkhozes</a>) to increase agricultural productivity and secure grain supplies for rapid <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a>. Ukrainian peasants, particularly wealthier ones known as "<a href="/wiki/Kulak" title="Kulak">kulaks</a>", resisted <a href="/wiki/Collectivization" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivization">collectivization</a>. The Soviet regime responded with brutal force, seizing land, livestock, and grain, and deporting or executing those who resisted. Collectivization led to widespread chaos in rural areas. Agricultural output plummeted due to poor planning, lack of incentives, and resistance from the peasantry. The disruption of traditional farming practices and the state's requisition of grain exacerbated food shortages.<a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ukraine_famine_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Ukraine_famine_map.png/220px-Ukraine_famine_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Ukraine_famine_map.png/330px-Ukraine_famine_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Ukraine_famine_map.png/440px-Ukraine_famine_map.png 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="1744" /></a><figcaption>Depopulation in 1929–1933, including during the <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a>.</figcaption></figure> In 1932-33, <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a>, derived from the Ukrainian words for "hunger" (holod) and "extermination" (moryty), was a man-made famine that resulted from the Soviet government's grain requisition policies and punitive measures against those who resisted collectivization. Millions of Ukrainians died from starvation during the Holodomor. Entire villages were decimated, and the event remains one of the most tragic episodes in Ukrainian history. The Soviet government denied the famine's existence and continued exporting grain during the crisis. The Holodomor not only devastated the rural population but also weakened <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_national_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian national identity">Ukrainian national identity</a> and culture. It served as a stark warning against any resistance to Soviet authority.<a href="#cite_note-eb_Makuchand-13">[13]</a>: <span title="Location: §§ 8.1.3
Quotation: "The Great Famine (Holodomor) of 1932–33 – a man-made demographic catastrophe unprecedented in peacetime. Of the estimated six to eight million people who died in the Soviet Union, about four to five million were Ukrainians... Its deliberate nature is underscored by the fact that no physical basis for famine existed in Ukraine ... Soviet authorities set requisition quotas for Ukraine at an impossibly high level. Brigades of special agents were dispatched to Ukraine to assist in procurement, and homes were routinely searched and foodstuffs confiscated ... The rural population was left with insufficient food to feed itself."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine/The-famine-of-1932-33-Holodomor">§§ 8.1.3</a> <a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a> Stalin's economic strategy included a series of <a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five-Year Plans</a> aimed at rapidly industrializing the Soviet Union. Ukraine, with its rich natural resources and strategic location, was a key focus of these plans. Ukraine became a major center for heavy industry, particularly in coal mining, steel production, and machine building. Cities like <a href="/wiki/Kharkiv" title="Kharkiv">Kharkiv</a>, Dnipropetrovsk (now <a href="/wiki/Dnipro" title="Dnipro">Dnipro</a>), and Stalino (now <a href="/wiki/Donetsk" title="Donetsk">Donetsk</a>) were transformed into industrial hubs. The rapid growth of industry led to significant urbanization. Millions of <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a> moved from rural areas to cities in search of work, fundamentally altering the demographic and social landscape.<a href="#cite_note-PetrovskyII-162">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_repression_and_the_Great_Purge">Political repression and the Great Purge</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Political repression and the Great Purge">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Executed_Renaissance" title="Executed Renaissance">Executed Renaissance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></div> Throughout the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin">Stalin</a>'s regime became increasingly marked by paranoia and a relentless drive to eradicate any perceived threats to his authority. This climate of suspicion fueled widespread political repression across the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, profoundly impacting every layer of society in Ukraine. The purges specifically targeted Ukrainian intellectuals, artists, political leaders, and ordinary citizens suspected of harboring nationalist sympathies or potential dissenting views. Stalin’s objective was clear: to eliminate any possible source of opposition to Soviet rule, no matter how tenuous or imagined.<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B83.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B83.jpg/220px-%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B83.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B83.jpg/330px-%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B83.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B83.jpg/440px-%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B83.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>Mass burial in Bykivnia</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a>, reaching its zenith between 1936 and 1938, devastated Ukraine. During this period, tens of thousands were arrested, tortured, and executed, or sent to forced labor camps (the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a>) in remote Soviet regions. The Ukrainian intelligentsia, initially supported during the Soviet policy of Ukrainization in the 1920s, became a particular target as they were increasingly viewed as a threat to Soviet ideological conformity. In a systematic crackdown, the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a>, Stalin’s secret police, dismantled the Ukrainian cultural and intellectual community. Most members of this intelligentsia were either imprisoned, executed, or driven to despair and suicide. One notable site, the <a href="/wiki/Slovo_Building" title="Slovo Building">Slovo Building</a> in Kharkiv, where many prominent Ukrainian intellectuals resided, became infamous as a place where residents were closely surveilled, then rounded up in these purges.<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> The terror also took a horrific toll on <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a>, which became the capital of the Ukrainian SSR in 1934, replacing Kharkiv. Tens of thousands of Kyiv’s citizens were abducted by Soviet security forces, tortured, and summarily executed on fabricated charges. Victims were accused of treason, espionage, or nationalist activities without evidence and sentenced to death in sham trials. Their bodies were secretly buried in <a href="/wiki/Bykivnia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bykivnia">Bykivnia</a>, a wooded area near Kyiv, which later became one of the largest mass grave sites in Ukraine. After Ukraine’s independence and the declassification of <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> archives, thousands of graves were discovered in Bykivnia, leading to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Bykivnia_graves" title="Bykivnia graves">Bykivnia Graves Memorial Complex</a>. Soviet authorities had long denied the truth, claiming instead that <a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> atrocities had caused the mass burials.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson-166">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kuzio-167">[166]</a> These purges were marked by infamous show trials, where prominent figures were coerced, often through brutal interrogation, into confessing to invented charges of anti-Soviet activity. The loss of Ukraine's educated and skilled citizens stifled intellectual, cultural, and social progress for decades, creating a legacy of fear that has hampered Ukraine's development and left a scar that is remembered in Ukraine to this day.<a href="#cite_note-168">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_War_II_and_the_Nazi_Occupation">World War II and the Nazi Occupation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: World War II and the Nazi Occupation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Carpatho-Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine">Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ukraine" title="Reichskommissariat Ukraine">Reichskommissariat Ukraine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">The Holocaust in Ukraine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Act_of_Subcarpathian_Rus_Autonomy_1938.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Act_of_Subcarpathian_Rus_Autonomy_1938.png/220px-Act_of_Subcarpathian_Rus_Autonomy_1938.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Act_of_Subcarpathian_Rus_Autonomy_1938.png/330px-Act_of_Subcarpathian_Rus_Autonomy_1938.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Act_of_Subcarpathian_Rus_Autonomy_1938.png/440px-Act_of_Subcarpathian_Rus_Autonomy_1938.png 2x" data-file-width="1331" data-file-height="1940" /></a><figcaption>Constitutional Law on the Autonomy of Carpatho-Ukraine</figcaption></figure> In October 1938, following the <a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carpatho-Ukraine" title="Carpatho-Ukraine">Carpatho-Ukraine</a>, also known as Subcarpathian Ruthenia, gained autonomy within <a href="/wiki/Second_Czechoslovak_Republic" title="Second Czechoslovak Republic">Czechoslovakia</a>. This allowed the formation of a local government led by <a href="/wiki/Avhustyn_Voloshyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Avhustyn Voloshyn">Avhustyn Voloshyn</a>. However, this period of autonomy was brief.<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a> In March 1939, as Czechoslovakia disintegrated under pressure from <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, Carpathian Ukraine declared independence as the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Carpatho-Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine">Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine</a>. The government envisioned this small, mountainous region as the nucleus of a future independent Ukrainian state. Unfortunately, this independence was short-lived. Within days, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian" class="mw-disambig" title="Hungarian">Hungarian</a> forces, supported by Nazi Germany, invaded and occupied the region. The occupation was brutal, and many Ukrainian leaders were arrested or executed. Carpathian Ukraine remained under Hungarian control.<a href="#cite_note-2660044karpatskoiukraini-170">[169]</a> On 1 September 1939, <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> began with <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Nazi Germany’s invasion</a> of western <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Poland</a>. Sixteen days later, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">invaded eastern Poland</a> under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Molotov-Ribbentrop_Pact" class="mw-redirect" title="Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact</a>, dividing <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> into spheres of influence between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. The eastern part of Poland, which included Western Ukraine (<a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a>), was annexed into the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic</a>. As Soviet forces occupied these territories, they quickly implemented <a href="/wiki/Sovietization" title="Sovietization">Sovietization</a> policies, repressing nationalist movements and religious institutions, which fueled local resentment.<a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a> On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany and <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">its allies</a> launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, invading the Soviet Union. Ukraine became one of the main battlegrounds during the conflict, as Nazi forces occupied large parts of the country, including major cities such as <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odesa" title="Odesa">Odesa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lviv</a>. The <a href="/wiki/German-occupied_Europe" title="German-occupied Europe">German occupation</a>, while initially seen by some as a potential liberation from the oppressive Soviet regime, quickly turned brutal. <a href="/wiki/Nazi_ideology" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ideology">Nazi ideology</a> viewed Ukraine as a critical part of its plan for <a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a> (living space) and exploitation of resources.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Around 4.5 to 6 million <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a> fought in the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> against Nazi Germany, contributing significantly to the eventual Soviet victory. At the same time, Ukraine became a center of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">partisan resistance</a>. Some Ukrainians collaborated with the <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a>, hoping to secure independence, while others joined the resistance movement. The <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Ukrainian Insurgent Army</a> (UPA), formed by the <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Ukrainian_Nationalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists">Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists</a> (OUN), fought for an independent Ukraine, engaging in conflict with both the Nazis and the Soviet forces. This dual struggle was motivated by a desire to free Ukraine from foreign domination, but the complexity of alliances and enmities made this a multi-sided war.<a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ukrayins%27ka_Povstans%27ka_Armiya_(poster).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ukrayins%27ka_Povstans%27ka_Armiya_%28poster%29.jpg/220px-Ukrayins%27ka_Povstans%27ka_Armiya_%28poster%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ukrayins%27ka_Povstans%27ka_Armiya_%28poster%29.jpg/330px-Ukrayins%27ka_Povstans%27ka_Armiya_%28poster%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ukrayins%27ka_Povstans%27ka_Armiya_%28poster%29.jpg/440px-Ukrayins%27ka_Povstans%27ka_Armiya_%28poster%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1273" data-file-height="1753" /></a><figcaption>UPA propaganda poster. The OUN/UPA's formal greeting is written in Ukrainian on two of horizontal lines Glory to Ukraine – Glory to (her) Heroes. The soldier is standing on the banners of the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany.</figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, some factions within the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_nationalism" title="Ukrainian nationalism">Ukrainian nationalist</a> movement, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_National_Democratic_Alliance" title="Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance">Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance</a> (UNDA), sought autonomy within a pro-Polish framework before the war. However, Polish policies of forced assimilation marginalized these efforts, leading to growing tensions between <a href="/wiki/Poles" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Poles">Poles</a> and Ukrainians. During the German occupation, these tensions escalated into violent ethnic conflicts in <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Galicia" title="Eastern Galicia">Eastern Galicia</a>, known as the Volhynian-Galician tragedy. The <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Ukrainian Insurgent Army</a> (UPA) and Polish underground forces, including the <a href="/wiki/Armia_Krajowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Armia Krajowa">Armia Krajowa</a>, engaged in a simultaneous campaign of mutual violence during 1943–1944. The UPA targeted Polish civilians in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia, resulting in the deaths of up to 100,000 Poles, while Polish forces carried out attacks on Ukrainian civilians, killing tens of thousands of Ukrainians. These events, driven by competing nationalist ambitions, caused immense suffering on both sides and remain a deeply painful chapter in Ukrainian-Polish history.<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Nazi_occupation_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi occupation of Ukraine">Nazi occupation of Ukraine</a> was marked by extreme brutality, especially towards <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>. Around 1.5 million Jews were murdered during the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_in_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust in Ukraine">Holocaust in Ukraine</a>, with atrocities such as the <a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Babi Yar massacre">Babi Yar massacre</a>, where tens of thousands of Jews were executed near Kyiv. The occupation also saw widespread repression of other groups, including <a href="/wiki/Roma" class="mw-disambig" title="Roma">Roma</a>, communists, and Ukrainian nationalists.<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a> By 1943, following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>, the tide of the war began to turn in favor of the Soviet Union. Soviet forces began to push the Germans out of Ukraine, and by 1944, the entire country was back under Soviet control. However, Soviet "liberation" did not bring freedom for many Ukrainians. The Soviet government imposed harsh reprisals against those suspected of collaboration with the Nazis or support for Ukrainian independence. The <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> (Soviet secret police) conducted mass arrests, deportations, and executions. Small groups of UPA partisans continued their armed resistance against the Soviet regime well into the late 1940s and early 1950s, particularly in Western Ukraine, though the Soviet authorities eventually crushed this insurgency.<a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a> Carpathian Ukraine, during the <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Ruthenia_during_World_War_II" title="Carpathian Ruthenia during World War II">Hungarian occupation</a>, faced significant repression, particularly against its Jewish and Ukrainian populations. Thousands of Jews from the region were deported to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a>, and many Ukrainian nationalists were imprisoned or killed. In 1944, the Soviet Red Army "liberated" Carpathian Ukraine from Hungarian and German forces.<a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZakapratskaUkraina1944.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/ZakapratskaUkraina1944.png/220px-ZakapratskaUkraina1944.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/ZakapratskaUkraina1944.png/330px-ZakapratskaUkraina1944.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/ZakapratskaUkraina1944.png/440px-ZakapratskaUkraina1944.png 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1111" /></a><figcaption>Front page of the Zakarpattia Ukraine newspaper (1944) with manifest of unification with <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Ukraine">Soviet Ukraine</a></figcaption></figure> In addition to the annexation of Galicia and Volhynia, several other territories were incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR as a result of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and subsequent wartime events. These included <a href="/wiki/Bukovina" title="Bukovina">Northern Bukovina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">South Bessarabia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Ruthenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpathian Ruthenia">Carpathian Ruthenia</a> (Transcarpathia), regions with a predominantly Ukrainian population.<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kafkadesk-2021-178">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Post-war_reconstruction_of_the_Ukrainian_SSR_and_continuation_of_repressions">Post-war reconstruction of the Ukrainian SSR and continuation of repressions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Post-war reconstruction of the Ukrainian SSR and continuation of repressions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic#postwar" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Post-war years: 1945–1953</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg/220px-Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg/330px-Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg/440px-Soviet_Union_Administrative_Divisions_1989.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1887" data-file-height="1313" /></a><figcaption>Location of the Ukrainian SSR (yellow) within the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in 1954–1991</figcaption></figure> After World War II, amendments to the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR were accepted, which allowed it to act as a separate subject of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> in some cases and to a certain extent, remaining a part of the Soviet Union at the same time. In particular, these amendments allowed the Ukrainian SSR to become one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN) together with the Soviet Union and the <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussian SSR</a>. This was part of a deal with the United States to ensure a degree of balance in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">General Assembly</a>, which, the USSR opined, was unbalanced in favor of the Western Bloc. In its capacity as a member of the UN, the Ukrainian SSR was <a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council" title="List of members of the United Nations Security Council">an elected member</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> in 1948–1949 and 1984–1985.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B9-%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A0%D0%96%D0%94.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B9-%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A0%D0%96%D0%94.jpg/220px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B9-%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A0%D0%96%D0%94.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B9-%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A0%D0%96%D0%94.jpg/330px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B9-%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A0%D0%96%D0%94.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B9-%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A0%D0%96%D0%94.jpg/440px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B9-%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A0%D0%96%D0%94.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="429" /></a><figcaption>The deportees were transported in such wagons.</figcaption></figure> One of the most notable territorial changes occurred in 1954, when the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean Oblast">Crimean Oblast</a> <a href="/wiki/1954_transfer_of_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="1954 transfer of Crimea">was transferred</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic</a> (RSFSR) to the Ukrainian SSR.<a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a> However, this period was also marked by severe repression and social upheaval. The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1946%E2%80%931947" title="Soviet famine of 1946–1947">famine of 1946-1947</a> devastated large parts of Ukraine, as the Soviet government requisitioned the entirety of the grain harvest, exacerbating food shortages. Western Ukraine, however, was less affected by the famine, largely due to the resistance efforts of the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Ukrainian Insurgent Army</a> (UIA). In response, the Soviet regime launched Operation "West" in 1947, <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">forcibly deporting</a> over 77,000 individuals—men, women, and children—from Western Ukraine to <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. These deportees later played a critical role in organizing uprisings within the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> system, including the notable <a href="/wiki/Norilsk_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Norilsk Uprising">Norilsk Uprising</a>, which hastened the decline of the forced labor camp network.<a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[182]</a> From the 1960s through the 1980s, Ukraine became a focal point for <a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">dissident activity</a> within the USSR. A disproportionately high number of Ukrainian intellectuals, activists, and cultural figures were imprisoned, exiled, or subjected to <a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">punitive psychiatry</a> for opposing the regime. These movements not only highlighted the systemic oppression within the Soviet Union but also laid the groundwork for future independence efforts.<a href="#cite_note-184">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a> On 26 April 1986, the Ukrainian town of <a href="/wiki/Pripyat" title="Pripyat">Pripyat</a> became the site of one of the worst nuclear disasters in history when Reactor 4 of the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant">Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant</a> exploded. The resulting radioactive fallout contaminated vast areas of northern Ukraine and neighboring <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>. This tragedy had profound environmental, health, and political consequences. The <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> galvanized local independence movements, such as <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Movement_of_Ukraine" title="People's Movement of Ukraine">Rukh</a>, which gained significant momentum in the late 1980s and contributed to the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Path_to_Independence">The Path to Independence</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: The Path to Independence">edit</a>]</div> By 1990, calls for Ukrainian sovereignty reached a fever pitch, fueled by decades of cultural suppression, economic exploitation, and a growing national consciousness among <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a>. On 21 January 1990, one of the most iconic demonstrations of unity and determination occurred when over 300,000 Ukrainians formed the "human chain" stretching from <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lviv</a>. This symbolic act, known as the "Chain of Unity", marked the anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/Unification_Act" title="Unification Act">Unification Act</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukrainian People's Republic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="West Ukrainian People's Republic">West Ukrainian People's Republic</a> in 1919. It highlighted the nation's steadfast commitment to reclaiming its independence, emphasizing the unity between eastern and western Ukraine.<a href="#cite_note-subtelny-576-186">[185]</a> The momentum gained from these movements culminated in a series of decisive events. On 16 July 1990, the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian SSR adopted the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_State_Sovereignty_of_Ukraine" title="Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine">Declaration of State Sovereignty</a>, asserting Ukraine's autonomy and commitment to creating a democratic state governed by the rule of law. This declaration was a critical step towards independence, signaling the diminishing grip of the Soviet Union over its republics.<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ukraine_proclaims_sovereignty_UW-188">[187]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_848095_Signing_the_Agreement_to_eliminate_the_USSR_and_establish_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Ukrainian President Leonid Kravchuk and <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the Russian Federation">President of the Russian Federation</a> <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a> signed the <a href="/wiki/Belavezha_Accords" class="mw-redirect" title="Belavezha Accords">Belavezha Accords</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolving the Soviet Union</a>, 8 December 1991</figcaption></figure> The final collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> occurred on 26 December 1991, following a series of seismic political changes. Earlier that year, on 1 December 1991, <a href="/wiki/1991_Ukrainian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Ukrainian independence referendum">a nationwide referendum</a> was held in Ukraine, where an overwhelming 90.32% of voters supported independence. This demonstrated a nearly unanimous desire across all regions of the country, including those with significant Russian-speaking populations, to break free from Soviet rule.<a href="#cite_note-Magocsi-189">[188]</a> The dissolution of the USSR was formalized in the <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82owie%C5%BCa_Forest" title="Białowieża Forest">Białowieża Forest</a> in <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>, where the leaders of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia—<a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kravchuk" title="Leonid Kravchuk">Leonid Kravchuk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanislav_Shushkevich" title="Stanislav Shushkevich">Stanislav Shushkevich</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a>—signed the <a href="/wiki/Belovezh_Accords" class="mw-redirect" title="Belovezh Accords">Belovezh Accords</a> on 8 December 1991. These accords declared the Soviet Union defunct and established the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a> (CIS) as a loose association of former Soviet republics. By 26 December 1991, the USSR officially ceased to exist, and Ukraine's independence gained de jure recognition from the international community.<a href="#cite_note-c97-190">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_history">Contemporary history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Contemporary history">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independent_Ukraine_(1991–present)">Independent Ukraine (1991–present)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Independent Ukraine (1991–present)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Ukraine" title="Politics of Ukraine">Politics of Ukraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/President_of_Ukraine" title="President of Ukraine">President of Ukraine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Verkhovna_Rada" title="Verkhovna Rada">Verkhovna Rada</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Post-Soviet_transition:_building_the_foundations_of_independence">Post-Soviet transition: building the foundations of independence</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Post-Soviet transition: building the foundations of independence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_Ukraine" title="Declaration of Independence of Ukraine">Declaration of Independence of Ukraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_transition_in_Ukraine" title="Post-Soviet transition in Ukraine">Post-Soviet transition in Ukraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Ukraine" title="Constitution of Ukraine">Constitution of Ukraine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hryvnia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hryvnia">Hryvnia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kravchuk" title="Leonid Kravchuk">Leonid Kravchuk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kuchma" title="Leonid Kuchma">Leonid Kuchma</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8.pdf/page1-220px-%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8.pdf/page1-330px-%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8.pdf/page1-440px-%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1754" data-file-height="2481" /></a><figcaption>The front page of the parliamentary newspaper <a href="/wiki/Holos_Ukrayiny" title="Holos Ukrayiny">Holos Ukrayiny</a> with the text of the declaration printed on the lower half (27 August 1991)</figcaption></figure> On August 24, 1991, following the failed <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">August Coup</a> in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Verkhovna_Rada" title="Verkhovna Rada">Verkhovna Rada</a> (Ukrainian Parliament) <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_Ukraine" title="Declaration of Independence of Ukraine">declared Ukraine’s independence</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Magocsi-189">[188]</a> This historic decision was reinforced by <a href="/wiki/1991_Ukrainian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Ukrainian independence referendum">a nationwide referendum</a> on December 1, 1991, where over 90% of voters supported independence, with majorities in every region (including 56% in <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>).<a href="#cite_note-NS-191">[190]</a> That same day, Ukraine held its <a href="/wiki/1991_Ukrainian_presidential_election" title="1991 Ukrainian presidential election">first presidential election</a>, a pivotal moment in its post-Soviet history. <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kravchuk" title="Leonid Kravchuk">Leonid Kravchuk</a>, a former high-ranking Soviet official, won the election, becoming first <a href="/wiki/President_of_Ukraine" title="President of Ukraine">President of Ukraine</a>. During his tenure, Kravchuk worked to maintain stability, distance Ukraine from Moscow’s influence, and manage internal political challenges.<a href="#cite_note-UKrW812991-192">[191]</a> After declaring independence, Ukraine began a complex <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_transition_in_Ukraine" title="Post-Soviet transition in Ukraine">post-Soviet transition</a>, shaping its identity as a new independent nation. From 1991 to 1996, Ukraine experienced significant political, economic, and social transformations aimed at establishing itself as a sovereign state on the global stage.<a href="#cite_note-193">[192]</a> In the early years of independence, the <a href="/wiki/Verkhovna_Rada" title="Verkhovna Rada">Verkhovna Rada</a> played a key role in establishing the country’s legal and political framework. As Ukraine’s legislative body, the Rada was responsible for drafting and passing laws to build the foundation of Ukraine’s political and economic structures. However, it faced ideological divides as members debated Ukraine’s path—whether to orient toward Western integration or maintain stronger ties with <a href="/wiki/Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a>. These debates mirrored broader societal divides and significantly influenced legislative reform.<a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UkraineFlag.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/UkraineFlag.png/220px-UkraineFlag.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/UkraineFlag.png/330px-UkraineFlag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/UkraineFlag.png/440px-UkraineFlag.png 2x" data-file-width="1494" data-file-height="2328" /></a><figcaption>Modern <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Ukraine" title="Flag of Ukraine">flag of Ukraine</a></figcaption></figure> To solidify its national identity, Ukraine adopted state symbols that resonated with historical and cultural significance. The Parliament selected the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Ukraine" title="Flag of Ukraine">blue-and-yellow flag</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Ukraine" title="Coat of arms of Ukraine">tryzub</a> (trident) as national emblems, which became powerful representations of Ukrainian sovereignty and unity.<a href="#cite_note-195">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-Symbolsx2-196">[195]</a> A significant historical moment of this period was the transfer of powers from the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Ukraine#In_exile" title="President of Ukraine">President of the Ukrainian People's Republic</a> <a href="/wiki/Mykola_Plaviuk" title="Mykola Plaviuk">Mykola Plaviuk</a> to the newly elected President of independent Ukraine, Leonid Kravchuk, during the solemn session of the Verkhovna Rada on August 22, 1992 in <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a>. This transfer, while largely symbolic, marked a continuity of the Ukrainian struggle for independence, linking the efforts of past leaders to those of the new government. This act represented the culmination of over 70 years of Ukrainian national aspirations and signaled a deepening commitment to the state’s sovereignty and historical continuity.<a href="#cite_note-Plaviuk163058UPR-197">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[197]</a> In his declaration, Plaviuk proclaimed that the current Ukrainian state is the lawful successor to the Ukrainian People's Republic and a continuation of its authority and state traditions.<a href="#cite_note-199">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-Plaviuk163058UPR-197">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[b]</a> The transition to a <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a> was compounded by inflation and political instability. The absence of immediate reforms led to widespread frustration, culminating in a snap <a href="/wiki/1994_Ukrainian_presidential_election" title="1994 Ukrainian presidential election">presidential election in 1994</a>, where Leonid Kravchuk was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kuchma" title="Leonid Kuchma">Leonid Kuchma</a>, an engineer and former Soviet official. Kuchma’s presidency aimed at modernizing Ukraine’s economy and fostering a balanced relationship with both Russia and <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, a delicate approach to preserving Ukraine’s independence amid complex geopolitical pressures.<a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grivna_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Grivna_1.jpg/220px-Grivna_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Grivna_1.jpg/330px-Grivna_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Grivna_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="427" data-file-height="403" /></a><figcaption>11th–12th century Kyiv hryvnia, as reproduced by the <a href="/wiki/National_Bank_of_Ukraine" title="National Bank of Ukraine">National Bank of Ukraine</a></figcaption></figure> Trying to stabilize the economy, back in 1992, Ukraine introduced a temporary currency, the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_karbovanets" title="Ukrainian karbovanets">Ukrainian karbovanets</a>. This currency was intended to serve as a stopgap measure until a more permanent solution could be implemented. The karbovanets quickly devalued, contributing to growing economic instability.<a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> In 1996, Ukraine introduced the <a href="/wiki/Hryvnia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hryvnia">Hryvnia</a> as the national currency, marking a significant milestone in the country’s economic transition and further solidifying its independence.<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-Matvienko-205">[203]</a> It is named after <a href="/wiki/Grivna" title="Grivna">a measure of weight</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Langer-206">[204]</a> Despite disputes in the Verkhovna Rada, which at the time struggled to reach consensus on reform initiatives and reconcile the interests of pro-Western and pro-Russian factions, Ukraine took a decisive step in defining its legal structure by adopting the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Ukraine" title="Constitution of Ukraine">Constitution of Ukraine</a> on June 28, 1996. This document established Ukraine as a <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a>, law-based state with a presidential-parliamentary system, clearly delineating the separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Drafted with input from various political factions and scholars, the Constitution enshrined Ukraine’s commitment to legal governance and <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, becoming a cornerstone for Ukraine’s development as an independent nation.<a href="#cite_note-UNIANCD28616-207">[205]</a> At the end of its transition, Ukraine created the main components of its independence. With its own currency, Constitution, national symbols, and a growing sense of <a href="/wiki/National_identity" title="National identity">national identity</a>, Ukraine began to chart its course as a <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">sovereign state</a>. Despite the fact that the post-Soviet transition period caused numerous economic and political challenges, this formative period played an important role in shaping the direction and identity of <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">modern Ukraine</a>. <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Buleten_1991-12.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. As printed on the ballot for the national referendum on December 1, 1991."><img alt="Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. As printed on the ballot for the national referendum on December 1, 1991." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Buleten_1991-12.jpg/111px-Buleten_1991-12.jpg" decoding="async" width="111" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Buleten_1991-12.jpg/167px-Buleten_1991-12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Buleten_1991-12.jpg/223px-Buleten_1991-12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="880" data-file-height="948" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_Ukraine" title="Declaration of Independence of Ukraine">Declaration of Independence of Ukraine</a>. As printed on the ballot for the national referendum on December 1, 1991.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonid_Kravchuk.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Leonid Kravchuk, the first President of Ukraine, in 1992"><img alt="Leonid Kravchuk, the first President of Ukraine, in 1992" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Leonid_Kravchuk.jpg/90px-Leonid_Kravchuk.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Leonid_Kravchuk.jpg/136px-Leonid_Kravchuk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Leonid_Kravchuk.jpg/181px-Leonid_Kravchuk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="182" data-file-height="241" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kravchuk" title="Leonid Kravchuk">Leonid Kravchuk</a>, the first President of Ukraine, in 1992</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonid_Kuchma.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Leonid Kuchma, the second President of Ukraine, in 2001"><img alt="Leonid Kuchma, the second President of Ukraine, in 2001" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Leonid_Kuchma.jpg/87px-Leonid_Kuchma.jpg" decoding="async" width="87" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Leonid_Kuchma.jpg/131px-Leonid_Kuchma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Leonid_Kuchma.jpg/174px-Leonid_Kuchma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="523" data-file-height="720" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kuchma" title="Leonid Kuchma">Leonid Kuchma</a>, the second President of Ukraine, in 2001</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitution_of_Ukraine.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Constitution of Ukraine"><img alt="Constitution of Ukraine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Constitution_of_Ukraine.jpg/120px-Constitution_of_Ukraine.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Constitution_of_Ukraine.jpg/180px-Constitution_of_Ukraine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Constitution_of_Ukraine.jpg/240px-Constitution_of_Ukraine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1280" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Ukraine" title="Constitution of Ukraine">Constitution of Ukraine</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Strengthening_and_growing_contradictions">Strengthening and growing contradictions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Strengthening and growing contradictions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cassette_Scandal" title="Cassette Scandal">Cassette Scandal</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Yushchenko" title="Viktor Yushchenko">Viktor Yushchenko</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yulia_Tymoshenko" title="Yulia Tymoshenko">Yulia Tymoshenko</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/1999_Ukrainian_presidential_election" title="1999 Ukrainian presidential election">third presidential election in Ukraine</a> took place in 1999, resulting in a victory for <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kuchma" title="Leonid Kuchma">Leonid Kuchma</a>, who defeated <a href="/wiki/Petro_Symonenko" title="Petro Symonenko">Petro Symonenko</a> in the run-off. This secured Kuchma a second consecutive term. However, his second term was plagued by widespread controversies, including allegations of authoritarianism, pervasive corruption scandals, curtailment of media freedoms, and large-scale public protests that challenged his leadership and legitimacy.<a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ukraine_Without_Kuchma_6_February.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Ukraine_Without_Kuchma_6_February.jpg/220px-Ukraine_Without_Kuchma_6_February.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Ukraine_Without_Kuchma_6_February.jpg/330px-Ukraine_Without_Kuchma_6_February.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Ukraine_Without_Kuchma_6_February.jpg/440px-Ukraine_Without_Kuchma_6_February.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1645" data-file-height="1057" /></a><figcaption>Protests of 6 February 2001 during Ukraine without Kuchma campaign</figcaption></figure> One of the darkest episodes of Kuchma’s presidency was the "<a href="/wiki/Cassette_Scandal" title="Cassette Scandal">Cassette Scandal</a>", which erupted after recordings allegedly made by his former bodyguard, <a href="/wiki/Mykola_Melnychenko" title="Mykola Melnychenko">Mykola Melnychenko</a>, were leaked. These recordings implicated Kuchma in severe abuses of power, including involvement in the murder of journalist <a href="/wiki/Georgiy_Gongadze" title="Georgiy Gongadze">Georgiy Gongadze</a>, as well as corruption and electoral manipulations. The scandal provoked massive public outrage, culminating in the "<a href="/wiki/Ukraine_without_Kuchma" title="Ukraine without Kuchma">Ukraine without Kuchma</a>" protests of 2000–2001. These protests, marked by their intensity and broad support, severely undermined Kuchma's standing both domestically and internationally.<a href="#cite_note-BBCprofileUkraine-209">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a> During his presidency, Kuchma’s administration was accused of suppressing opposition media outlets and harassing journalists and political opponents. High-profile figures like <a href="/wiki/Viacheslav_Chornovil" title="Viacheslav Chornovil">Viacheslav Chornovil</a> died under mysterious circumstances, further fueling suspicions of state complicity.<a href="#cite_note-211">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[211]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Serhy_Yekelchyk" title="Serhy Yekelchyk">Serhy Yekelchyk</a> observed that Kuchma's government "employed electoral fraud freely", particularly during the 1999 presidential elections and the <a href="/wiki/2000_Ukrainian_constitutional_referendum" title="2000 Ukrainian constitutional referendum">2000 constitutional referendum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-214">[212]</a> Amid these challenges, <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Yushchenko" title="Viktor Yushchenko">Viktor Yushchenko</a>, a respected economist and reformer, rose to prominence. His tenure as the Governor of the <a href="/wiki/National_Bank_of_Ukraine" title="National Bank of Ukraine">National Bank of Ukraine</a> earned him recognition for his professionalism and integrity, which led to his appointment as <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Ukraine" title="Prime Minister of Ukraine">Prime Minister</a> in 1999, during Kuchma's re-election campaign. Yushchenko was perceived as a technocratic leader capable of addressing Ukraine’s economic stagnation and corruption.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viktor_Yushchenko_in_Polish_parliament..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Viktor_Yushchenko_in_Polish_parliament..jpg/220px-Viktor_Yushchenko_in_Polish_parliament..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Viktor_Yushchenko_in_Polish_parliament..jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="274" /></a><figcaption>Yushchenko as prime minister visiting Poland in 2000</figcaption></figure> Initially, Yushchenko's government embarked on an ambitious reform agenda. These reforms included fiscal discipline, restructuring of key industries, and efforts to stabilize the economy, which had suffered during Kuchma’s first term. However, Yushchenko's policies soon clashed with the entrenched oligarchic networks that had flourished under Kuchma's protection. These oligarchic factions, wielding significant influence in Parliament and the Kuchma administration, actively resisted reforms that threatened their monopolistic practices and access to state resources.<a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a> One of the most contentious episodes of Yushchenko’s premiership was the dismissal of his deputy prime minister, <a href="/wiki/Yulia_Tymoshenko" title="Yulia Tymoshenko">Yulia Tymoshenko</a>, in 2001. Tymoshenko, who spearheaded anti-corruption initiatives and energy sector reforms, posed a significant challenge to oligarchic interests. Under pressure from Kuchma and oligarchic allies, Yushchenko was forced to dismiss Tymoshenko, a move that symbolized the constraints on reform under Kuchma’s presidency. Shortly after, the <a href="/wiki/Verkhovna_Rada" title="Verkhovna Rada">Verkhovna Rada</a>, dominated by pro-Kuchma factions, passed a vote of no confidence in Yushchenko’s government, effectively ending his tenure as Prime Minister. Kuchma’s lack of support during this political crisis highlighted the deepening rift between the two leaders.<a href="#cite_note-LushnyckyRiabchuk2009-216">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a> Following his dismissal, Yushchenko became a potent symbol of reform and anti-corruption, gaining significant public support. In 2002, he founded the "<a href="/wiki/Our_Ukraine%E2%80%93People%27s_Self-Defense_Bloc" title="Our Ukraine–People's Self-Defense Bloc">Our Ukraine</a>" (Nasha Ukrayina) political coalition, which championed pro-Western and democratic ideals. This bloc emerged as a key opposition force against Kuchma’s policies and set the stage for the pivotal <a href="/wiki/2004_Ukrainian_presidential_election" title="2004 Ukrainian presidential election">2004 presidential election</a>. In this election, Yushchenko, as the leading opposition candidate, challenged <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Yanukovych" title="Viktor Yanukovych">Viktor Yanukovych</a>, Kuchma’s chosen successor, in a contest that would shape Ukraine’s political trajectory for years to come.<a href="#cite_note-CarnIP-218">[216]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Georgi_gongadse.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Georgiy Gongadze, journalist, founder of a popular Internet newspaper Ukrainska Pravda, who was kidnapped and murdered in 2000"><img alt="Georgiy Gongadze, journalist, founder of a popular Internet newspaper Ukrainska Pravda, who was kidnapped and murdered in 2000" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Georgi_gongadse.jpg/107px-Georgi_gongadse.jpg" decoding="async" width="107" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Georgi_gongadse.jpg/161px-Georgi_gongadse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Georgi_gongadse.jpg/215px-Georgi_gongadse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="263" data-file-height="294" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Georgiy_Gongadze" title="Georgiy Gongadze">Georgiy Gongadze</a>, journalist, founder of a popular Internet newspaper <a href="/wiki/Ukrainska_Pravda" title="Ukrainska Pravda">Ukrainska Pravda</a>, who was kidnapped and murdered in 2000</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_at_CIS_Summit_30_November-1_December_2000-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Leonid Kuchma with Russian President Vladimir Putin and Azerbaijani President Heydar Aliyev"><img alt="Leonid Kuchma with Russian President Vladimir Putin and Azerbaijani President Heydar Aliyev" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Vladimir_Putin_at_CIS_Summit_30_November-1_December_2000-2.jpg/120px-Vladimir_Putin_at_CIS_Summit_30_November-1_December_2000-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Vladimir_Putin_at_CIS_Summit_30_November-1_December_2000-2.jpg/180px-Vladimir_Putin_at_CIS_Summit_30_November-1_December_2000-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Vladimir_Putin_at_CIS_Summit_30_November-1_December_2000-2.jpg/240px-Vladimir_Putin_at_CIS_Summit_30_November-1_December_2000-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="334" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Leonid Kuchma with Russian President <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> and Azerbaijani President <a href="/wiki/Heydar_Aliyev" title="Heydar Aliyev">Heydar Aliyev</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Julija_tymoschenko_2002.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Yulia Tymoshenko, Yushchenko's deputy prime minister, in 2002"><img alt="Yulia Tymoshenko, Yushchenko's deputy prime minister, in 2002" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Julija_tymoschenko_2002.jpg/90px-Julija_tymoschenko_2002.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Julija_tymoschenko_2002.jpg/135px-Julija_tymoschenko_2002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Julija_tymoschenko_2002.jpg/180px-Julija_tymoschenko_2002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="408" data-file-height="544" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Yulia_Tymoshenko" title="Yulia Tymoshenko">Yulia Tymoshenko</a>, Yushchenko's deputy prime minister, in 2002</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Orange_Revolution_and_Euromaidan">Orange Revolution and Euromaidan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Orange Revolution and Euromaidan">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Orange_Revolution" title="Orange Revolution">Orange Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_Dignity" title="Revolution of Dignity">Revolution of Dignity</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Yanukovych" title="Viktor Yanukovych">Viktor Yanukovych</a> and <a href="/wiki/Party_of_Regions" title="Party of Regions">Party of Regions</a></div> In 2004, Kuchma announced that he would not run for re-election. Two major candidates emerged in the <a href="/wiki/2004_Ukrainian_presidential_election" title="2004 Ukrainian presidential election">2004 presidential election</a>. <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Yanukovych" title="Viktor Yanukovych">Viktor Yanukovych</a>,<a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a> the incumbent Prime Minister, supported by both Kuchma and by the Russian Federation, wanted closer ties with Russia. The main opposition candidate, <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Yushchenko" title="Viktor Yushchenko">Viktor Yushchenko</a>, called for Ukraine to turn its attention westward and aim to eventually join the EU. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morning_first_day_of_Orange_Revolution.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Morning_first_day_of_Orange_Revolution.jpg/220px-Morning_first_day_of_Orange_Revolution.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Morning_first_day_of_Orange_Revolution.jpg/330px-Morning_first_day_of_Orange_Revolution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Morning_first_day_of_Orange_Revolution.jpg/440px-Morning_first_day_of_Orange_Revolution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>Orange-clad demonstrators gather in the <a href="/wiki/Maidan_Nezalezhnosti" title="Maidan Nezalezhnosti">Independence Square</a> in Kyiv.</figcaption></figure> In the runoff election, Yanukovych officially won by a narrow margin, but Yushchenko and his supporters alleged that vote rigging and intimidation cost him many votes, especially in eastern Ukraine. A political crisis erupted after the opposition started massive street <a href="/wiki/Orange_Revolution" title="Orange Revolution">protests in Kyiv and other cities</a> ("Orange Revolution"), and the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Ukraine" title="Supreme Court of Ukraine">Supreme Court of Ukraine</a> ordered the election results null and void. A second runoff found <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Yushchenko" title="Viktor Yushchenko">Viktor Yushchenko</a> the winner. Five days later, Yanukovych resigned from office and his cabinet was dismissed on 5 January 2005.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] During the Yushchenko term, <a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Ukraine_relations" title="Russia–Ukraine relations">relations between Russia and Ukraine</a> often appeared strained as Yushchenko looked towards improved <a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93Ukraine_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="EU–Ukraine relations">relations with the</a> <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> and less toward Russia.<a href="#cite_note-BBCprofileYushchenko-220">[218]</a> In 2005, a highly publicized <a href="/wiki/Russia-Ukraine_gas_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="Russia-Ukraine gas dispute">dispute over natural gas prices</a> with Russia caused shortages in many European countries that were reliant on Ukraine as a transit country.<a href="#cite_note-BBCprofileUkraine2012-221">[219]</a> A compromise was reached in January 2006.<a href="#cite_note-BBCprofileUkraine2012-221">[219]</a> By the time of the <a href="/wiki/2010_Ukrainian_presidential_election" title="2010 Ukrainian presidential election">presidential election of 2010</a>, Yushchenko and <a href="/wiki/Yulia_Tymoshenko" title="Yulia Tymoshenko">Yulia Tymoshenko</a>—allies during the Orange Revolution<a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a>—had become bitter enemies.<a href="#cite_note-BBCprofileUkraine-209">[207]</a> Tymoshenko ran for president against both Yushchenko and Viktor Yanukovych, creating a three-way race. Yushchenko, whose popularity had plummeted,<a href="#cite_note-BBCprofileYushchenko-220">[218]</a> persisted in running, and many pro-Orange voters stayed home.<a href="#cite_note-223">[221]</a> In the second round of the election, Yanukovych won the run-off ballot with 48% to Tymoshenko's 45%.<a href="#cite_note-224">[222]</a> During his presidency (2010–2014), Yanukovych and his <a href="/wiki/Party_of_Regions" title="Party of Regions">Party of Regions</a> were accused of trying to create a "controlled democracy" in Ukraine and of trying to destroy the main opposition party <a href="/wiki/Bloc_Yulia_Tymoshenko" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloc Yulia Tymoshenko">Bloc Yulia Tymoshenko</a>, but both have denied these charges.<a href="#cite_note-225">[223]</a> One frequently cited example of Yanukovych's attempts to centralise power was <a href="/wiki/Tymoshenko_v._Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Tymoshenko v. Ukraine">the 2011 sentencing of Yulia Tymoshenko</a>, which has been condemned by Western governments as potentially being politically motivated.<a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Euromaidan_Kyiv_1-12-13_by_Gnatoush_009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Euromaidan_Kyiv_1-12-13_by_Gnatoush_009.jpg/220px-Euromaidan_Kyiv_1-12-13_by_Gnatoush_009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Euromaidan_Kyiv_1-12-13_by_Gnatoush_009.jpg/330px-Euromaidan_Kyiv_1-12-13_by_Gnatoush_009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Euromaidan_Kyiv_1-12-13_by_Gnatoush_009.jpg/440px-Euromaidan_Kyiv_1-12-13_by_Gnatoush_009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>2014 <a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a> protests in Kyiv</figcaption></figure> In November 2013, President Yanukovych did not sign the <a href="/wiki/Ukraine%E2%80%93European_Union_Association_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement">Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement</a> and instead pursued closer ties with Russia.<a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-aljVS291113-228">[226]</a> This move sparked <a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">protests on the streets of Kyiv</a> and, ultimately, the <a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_Dignity" title="Revolution of Dignity">Revolution of Dignity</a>. Protesters set up camps in <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Maidan_Nezalezhnosti" title="Maidan Nezalezhnosti">Maidan Nezalezhnosti</a> (Independence Square),<a href="#cite_note-229">[227]</a> and in December 2013 and January 2014 protesters started <a href="/wiki/2014_Ukrainian_Regional_State_Administration_occupations" class="mw-redirect" title="2014 Ukrainian Regional State Administration occupations">taking over various government buildings</a>, first in Kyiv, and later in <a href="/wiki/Western_Ukraine" title="Western Ukraine">Western Ukraine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-230">[228]</a> <a href="/wiki/February_2014_Euromaidan_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="February 2014 Euromaidan riots">Battles between protesters and police</a> resulted in about 80 deaths in February 2014.<a href="#cite_note-231">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a> Following the violence, the Ukrainian parliament on 22 February voted to remove Yanukovych from power (on the grounds that his whereabouts were unknown and he thus could not fulfil his duties), and to free Yulia Tymoshenko from prison. On the same day, Yanukovych supporter <a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Vasylyovych_Rybak" title="Volodymyr Vasylyovych Rybak">Volodymyr Rybak</a> resigned as speaker of the Parliament, and was replaced by Tymoshenko loyalist <a href="/wiki/Oleksandr_Turchynov" title="Oleksandr Turchynov">Oleksandr Turchynov</a>, who was subsequently installed as interim President.<a href="#cite_note-233">[231]</a> Yanukovych had fled Kyiv, and subsequently gave a press conference in the Russian city of <a href="/wiki/Rostov-on-Don" title="Rostov-on-Don">Rostov-on-Don</a>.<a href="#cite_note-234">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Western_Integration">Western Integration</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Western Integration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ukraine%E2%80%93European_Union_relations" title="Ukraine–European Union relations">Ukraine–European Union relations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Ukraine–NATO relations">Ukraine–NATO relations</a></div> On 1 January 2016, Ukraine joined the <a href="/wiki/Deep_and_Comprehensive_Free_Trade_Area" title="Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area">DCFTA</a> with the EU. Ukrainian citizens were granted <a href="/wiki/Visa_policy_of_the_Schengen_Area" title="Visa policy of the Schengen Area">visa-free travel</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen Area</a> for up to 90 days during any 180-day period on 11 June 2017, and the Association Agreement formally came into effect on 1 September 2017.<a href="#cite_note-2017-assoc-235">[233]</a> Significant achievements in the foreign policy arena include support for anti-Russian sanctions, obtaining a visa-free regime with the countries of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, and better recognition of the need to overcome extremely difficult tasks within the country. However, the old local authorities did not want any changes; they were cleansed of anti-Maidan activists (<a href="/wiki/Lustration_in_Ukraine" title="Lustration in Ukraine">lustration</a>), but only in part. The fight against corruption was launched, but was limited to sentences of petty officials and electronic declarations, and the newly established <a href="/wiki/National_Anti-Corruption_Bureau_of_Ukraine" title="National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine">NABU</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_Agency_on_Corruption_Prevention" title="National Agency on Corruption Prevention">NACP</a> were marked by scandals in their work. Judicial reform was combined with the appointment of old, compromised judges. The investigation of crimes against Maidan residents was delayed. In order to counteract the massive global <a href="/wiki/Russian-Ukrainian_information_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian-Ukrainian information war">Russian anti-Ukrainian propaganda</a> of the "information war", the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Information_Policy_(Ukraine)" title="Ministry of Information Policy (Ukraine)">Ministry of Information Policy</a> was created, which for 5 years did not show effective work, except for the ban on <a href="/wiki/Kaspersky_Lab" title="Kaspersky Lab">Kaspersky Lab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dr.Web" title="Dr.Web">Dr.Web</a>, <a href="/wiki/1C_Company" title="1C Company">1С</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mail.ru_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Mail.ru Group">Mail.ru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yandex" title="Yandex">Yandex</a> and Russian social networks <a href="/wiki/VK_(service)" title="VK (service)">VKontakte</a> or <a href="/wiki/Odnoklassniki" title="Odnoklassniki">Odnoklassniki</a> and propaganda media. In 2017, the president signed the law "On Education", which met with opposition from national minorities, and quarreled with the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Hungary" title="Government of Hungary">Government of Hungary</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>].<a href="#cite_note-236">[234]</a> On 19 May 2018, Poroshenko signed a Decree which put into effect the decision of the National Security and Defense Council on the final termination of Ukraine's participation in the statutory bodies of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-237">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a> As of February 2019, Ukraine minimized its participation in the Commonwealth of Independent States to a critical minimum and effectively completed its withdrawal. The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine did not ratify the accession, i.e. Ukraine has never been a member of the CIS.<a href="#cite_note-239">[237]</a> On 6 January 2019, in <a href="/wiki/Fener" title="Fener">Fener</a>, a delegation of the <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Church_of_Ukraine" title="Orthodox Church of Ukraine">Orthodox Church of Ukraine</a> with the participation of President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko <a href="/wiki/Autocephaly_of_the_Orthodox_Church_of_Ukraine" title="Autocephaly of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine">received</a> a <a href="/wiki/Tomos_(Eastern_Orthodox_Church)" title="Tomos (Eastern Orthodox Church)">Tomos</a> on <a href="/wiki/Autocephaly" title="Autocephaly">autocephaly</a>. The Tomos was presented to the head of the OCU, <a href="/wiki/Epiphanius_I_of_Ukraine" title="Epiphanius I of Ukraine">Metropolitan Epiphanius</a>, during a joint liturgy with the <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople">Ecumenical Patriarch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-240">[238]</a> The next day, Tomos was brought to Ukraine for a demonstration at <a href="/wiki/Saint_Sophia_Cathedral,_Kyiv" title="Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv">St. Sophia Cathedral</a>. On 9 January, all members of the <a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synod</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarchate_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople">Constantinople Orthodox Church</a> signed the Tomos during the scheduled meeting of the Synod.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] On 21 February 2019, the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Ukraine" title="Constitution of Ukraine">Constitution of Ukraine</a> was amended, with the norms on the strategic course of Ukraine for membership in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> being enshrined in the preamble of the Basic Law, three articles and transitional provisions.<a href="#cite_note-241">[239]</a> On 21 April 2019, <a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Zelenskyy" title="Volodymyr Zelenskyy">Volodymyr Zelenskyy</a> was elected president in the second round of the presidential election. Early <a href="/wiki/2019_Ukrainian_parliamentary_election" title="2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election">parliamentary elections</a> on 21 July allowed the newly formed pro-presidential <a href="/wiki/Servant_of_the_People_(political_party)" class="mw-redirect" title="Servant of the People (political party)">Servant of the People party</a> to win an absolute majority of seats for the first time in the history of independent Ukraine (248). <a href="/wiki/Dmytro_Razumkov" title="Dmytro Razumkov">Dmytro Razumkov</a>, the party's chairman, was elected speaker of parliament. The majority was able to form a government on 29 August on its own, without forming coalitions, and approved <a href="/wiki/Oleksiy_Honcharuk" title="Oleksiy Honcharuk">Oleksii Honcharuk</a> as prime minister.<a href="#cite_note-242">[240]</a> On 4 March 2020, due to a 1.5% drop in GDP (instead of a 4.5% increase at the time of the election), the Verkhovna Rada fired <a href="/wiki/Honcharuk_Government" title="Honcharuk Government">Honcharuk's government</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denys_Shmyhal" title="Denys Shmyhal">Denys Shmyhal</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[241]</a> became the new Prime Minister.<a href="#cite_note-244">[242]</a> On 28 July 2020, in <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> and Ukraine created the <a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a> initiative, which aims to create further cooperation between the three historical countries of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> and further Ukraine's integration and accession to the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a> and <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>.<a href="#cite_note-245">[243]</a> On 17 May 2021, the <a href="/wiki/Association_Trio" title="Association Trio">Association Trio</a> was formed by signing a joint memorandum between the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_of_Georgia" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia">Foreign Ministers of Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_and_European_Integration_of_Moldova" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration of Moldova">Moldova</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Ukraine)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ukraine)">Ukraine</a>. Association Trio is tripartite format for the enhanced cooperation, coordination, and dialogue between the three countries (that have signed the Association Agreement with the EU) with the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> on issues of common interest related to <a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a>, enhancing cooperation within the framework of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a>, and committing to the prospect of joining the European Union.<a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a> At the June <a href="/wiki/2021_Brussels_summit" title="2021 Brussels summit">2021 Brussels Summit</a>, NATO leaders reiterated the decision taken at the <a href="/wiki/2008_Bucharest_summit" title="2008 Bucharest summit">2008 Bucharest Summit</a> that Ukraine would become a member of the Alliance with the Membership Action Plan (MAP) as an integral part of the process and Ukraine's right to determine its own future and foreign policy without outside interference.<a href="#cite_note-:0-247">[245]</a> Ukraine was originally preparing to formally apply for <a href="/wiki/Accession_of_Ukraine_to_the_European_Union" title="Accession of Ukraine to the European Union">EU membership</a> in 2024, but instead signed an application for membership in February 2022.<a href="#cite_note-:1-248">[246]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russo-Ukrainian_War">Russo-Ukrainian War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Russo-Ukrainian War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2014-07-31._%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BD_%C2%AB%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%C2%BB_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_29.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/2014-07-31._%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BD_%C2%AB%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%C2%BB_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_29.jpg/220px-2014-07-31._%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BD_%C2%AB%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%C2%BB_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/2014-07-31._%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BD_%C2%AB%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%C2%BB_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_29.jpg/330px-2014-07-31._%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BD_%C2%AB%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%C2%BB_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/2014-07-31._%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BD_%C2%AB%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%C2%BB_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_29.jpg/440px-2014-07-31._%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BD_%C2%AB%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%C2%BB_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1365" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas" title="War in Donbas">War in Donbas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pervomaisk,_Luhansk_Oblast" title="Pervomaisk, Luhansk Oblast">Pervomaisk</a>, July 2014</figcaption></figure> In March 2014, the <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation</a> occurred. Although official results of a <a href="/wiki/2014_Crimean_status_referendum" title="2014 Crimean status referendum">referendum</a> on Crimean reunification with Russia were reported as showing a large majority in favor of the proposition, the vote was organized under Russian military occupation and was denounced by the European Union and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> as illegal.<a href="#cite_note-249">[247]</a> The Crimean crisis was followed by <a href="/wiki/2014_pro-Russian_unrest_in_Ukraine" title="2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine">pro-Russian unrest</a> in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ukraine" title="Eastern Ukraine">east Ukraine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ukraine" title="Southern Ukraine">south Ukraine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ukraine_crisis_timeline_BBC-250">[248]</a> In April 2014 Ukrainian separatists <a href="/wiki/Self-proclaimed" title="Self-proclaimed">self-proclaimed</a> the <a href="/wiki/Donetsk_People%27s_Republic" title="Donetsk People's Republic">Donetsk People's Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luhansk_People%27s_Republic" title="Luhansk People's Republic">Luhansk People's Republic</a> and held <a href="/wiki/2014_Donbas_status_referendums" title="2014 Donbas status referendums">referendums</a> on 11 May 2014; the separatists claimed nearly 90% voted in favor of independence.<a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ukraine_crisis_timeline_BBC-250">[248]</a> Later in April 2014, fighting between the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian army">Ukrainian army</a> and <a href="/wiki/Territorial_defense_battalion_(Ukraine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Territorial defense battalion (Ukraine)">pro-Ukrainian volunteer battalions</a> on one side, and forces supporting the Donetsk and Lugansk People's Republics on the other side, escalated into the <a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas_(2014%E2%80%932022)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Donbas (2014–2022)">war in Donbas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ukraine_crisis_timeline_BBC-250">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a> By December 2014, more than 6,400 people had died in this conflict, and according to <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> figures it led to over half a million people becoming <a href="/wiki/Internally_displaced" class="mw-redirect" title="Internally displaced">internally displaced</a> within Ukraine and two hundred thousand refugees to flee to (mostly) <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and other neighboring countries.<a href="#cite_note-253">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[254]</a> During the same period, political (including adoption of <a href="/wiki/Lustration_in_Ukraine" title="Lustration in Ukraine">the law on lustration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decommunization_in_Ukraine" title="Decommunization in Ukraine">the law on decommunization</a>) and economic reforms started.<a href="#cite_note-carnegie-257">[255]</a> On 25 May 2014, <a href="/wiki/Petro_Poroshenko" title="Petro Poroshenko">Petro Poroshenko</a> was elected president<a href="#cite_note-258">[256]</a> in the first round of the presidential election. By the second half of 2015, independent observers noted that reforms in Ukraine had considerably slowed down, <a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Ukraine" title="Corruption in Ukraine">corruption</a> did not subside, and the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Ukraine" title="Economy of Ukraine">economy of Ukraine</a> was still in a deep crisis.<a href="#cite_note-carnegie-257">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[259]</a> By December 2015, more than 9,100 people had died (largely civilians) in the war in Donbas,<a href="#cite_note-262">[260]</a> according to United Nations figures.<a href="#cite_note-263">[261]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%B2%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_50.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%B2%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_50.jpg/220px-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%B2%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_50.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%B2%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_50.jpg/330px-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%B2%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_50.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%B2%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_50.jpg/440px-%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%B2%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83_50.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2001" /></a><figcaption>President Zelenskyy with members of the Ukrainian army on 18 June 2022</figcaption></figure> On 2 February 2021, a presidential decree banned the television broadcasting of the pro-Russian TV channels <a href="/wiki/112_Ukraine" title="112 Ukraine">112 Ukraine</a>, NewsOne and ZIK.<a href="#cite_note-264">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[263]</a> The decision of the National Security and Defense Council and the Presidential Decree of 19 February 2021 imposed sanctions on 8 individuals and 19 legal entities, including Putin's pro-Russian politician and <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Putin's</a> godfather <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Medvedchuk" title="Viktor Medvedchuk">Viktor Medvedchuk</a> and his wife Oksana Marchenko.<a href="#cite_note-266">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[265]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kerch_Strait_incident" title="Kerch Strait incident">Kerch Strait incident</a> occurred on 25 November 2018 when the <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a> <a href="/wiki/Federal_Security_Service" title="Federal Security Service">Federal Security Service</a> (FSB) <a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_(Russia)" title="Coast Guard (Russia)">coast guard</a> fired upon and captured three <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Navy" title="Ukrainian Navy">Ukrainian Navy</a> vessels attempting to pass from the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Azov" title="Sea of Azov">Sea of Azov</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Kerch_Strait" title="Kerch Strait">Kerch Strait</a> on their way to the port of <a href="/wiki/Mariupol" title="Mariupol">Mariupol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-268">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a> <a href="/wiki/Prelude_to_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Prelude to the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Throughout 2021</a>, Russian forces built up along the <a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Ukraine_border" title="Russia–Ukraine border">Russia-Ukraine Border</a>, in occupied Crimea and Donbas, and in Belarus.<a href="#cite_note-270">[268]</a> On 24 February 2022, Russian forces <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">invaded</a> Ukraine.<a href="#cite_note-271">[269]</a> Russia quickly occupied much of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ukraine_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Ukraine offensive">east</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ukraine_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Ukraine offensive">south</a> of the country, but failed to advance past the city of <a href="/wiki/Mykolaiv" title="Mykolaiv">Mykolaiv</a> towards <a href="/wiki/Odesa" title="Odesa">Odesa</a>, and were forced to retreat from the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ukraine_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Ukraine offensive">north</a> after failing to occupy <a href="/wiki/Kyiv_offensive_(2022)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyiv offensive (2022)">Kyiv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chernihiv" title="Chernihiv">Chernihiv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sumy" title="Sumy">Sumy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kharkiv" title="Kharkiv">Kharkiv</a>.<a href="#cite_note-272">[270]</a> After failing to gain further territories and being driven out of <a href="/wiki/Kharkiv_Oblast" title="Kharkiv Oblast">Kharkiv Oblast</a> by a fast-paced <a href="/wiki/2022_Ukrainian_Kharkiv_counteroffensive" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Ukrainian Kharkiv counteroffensive">Ukrainian counteroffensive</a>,<a href="#cite_note-273">[271]</a> Russia officially annexed the <a href="/wiki/Donetsk_People%27s_Republic" title="Donetsk People's Republic">Donetsk People's Republic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Luhansk_People%27s_Republic" title="Luhansk People's Republic">Luhansk People's Republic</a>, along with most of the <a href="/wiki/Kherson_Oblast" title="Kherson Oblast">Kherson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zaporizhzhia_Oblast" title="Zaporizhzhia Oblast">Zaporizhzhia Oblasts</a> on 30 September. The invasion was met with <a href="/wiki/Reactions_to_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Reactions to the Russian invasion of Ukraine">international condemnation</a>. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> passed <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_ES-11/1" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/1">a resolution</a> condemning the invasion and demanding a full Russian withdrawal in March 2022. The <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a> ordered Russia to suspend military operations and the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a> expelled Russia. Many countries <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine">imposed sanctions</a> on Russia and its ally Belarus, and provided <a href="/wiki/List_of_humanitarian_aid_to_Ukraine_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="List of humanitarian aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War">humanitarian</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_military_aid_to_Ukraine_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="List of military aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War">military aid to Ukraine</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic states</a> all declared Russia a <a href="/wiki/State_terrorism" title="State terrorism">terrorist state</a>. <a href="/wiki/Protests_against_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Protests against the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Protests occurred</a> around the world, along with mass arrests of <a href="/wiki/Anti-war_protests_in_Russia_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="Anti-war protests in Russia (2022–present)">anti-war protesters in Russia</a>, which also enacted a law enabling greater <a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Russia" title="Censorship in Russia">media censorship</a>. Over 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Corporate_responses_to_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Corporate responses to the Russian invasion of Ukraine">companies closed their operations</a> in Russia and Belarus as a result of the invasion.<a href="#cite_note-274">[272]</a> On the eve of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country was <a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita" title="List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (PPP) per capita">the poorest in Europe</a>,<a href="#cite_note-275">[273]</a> a handicap whose cause was attributed to high <a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Ukraine" title="Corruption in Ukraine">corruption</a> levels<a href="#cite_note-276">[274]</a> and the slow pace of <a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalization" title="Economic liberalization">economic liberalization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reform" title="Reform">institutional reform</a>.<a href="#cite_note-277">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-279">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-280">[278]</a> Russia's invasion of the country damaged Ukraine's economy and future prospects of improvement to such an extent, that the GDP of the country was projected to shrink by as much as 35% in its first year alone after the invasion.<a href="#cite_note-281">[279]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="National_historiography">National historiography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: National historiography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/50px-Split-arrows.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/75px-Split-arrows.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/100px-Split-arrows.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that this section be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">split</a> out into another article titled <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian historiography">Ukrainian historiography</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_Ukraine" title="Talk:History of Ukraine">Discuss</a>) (November 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_National_Revival" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian National Revival">Ukrainian National Revival</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_nationalism" title="Ukrainian nationalism">Ukrainian nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainophilia" title="Ukrainophilia">Ukrainophilia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russophilia" title="Russophilia">Russophilia</a>, <a href="/wiki/All-Russian_nation" title="All-Russian nation">All-Russian nation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Pan-Slavism</a></div> Knowledge about Ukraine in other parts of the world came chiefly from Russian secondary sources until relatively recently. After the second half of the seventeenth century, when Muscovy and later the Russian Empire came to control much of Ukrainian territory, Russian writers included Ukraine as part of Russian history. This included referring to medieval <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> as "Kievan Russia" and its <a href="/wiki/Old_East_Slavic" title="Old East Slavic">Old East Slavic</a> culture and inhabitants as "Kievan Russian" or "Old Russian". Later Ukraine or its parts were called "<a href="/wiki/Little_Russia" title="Little Russia">Little Russia</a>", "South Russia", "West Russia" (with Belarus), or "<a href="/wiki/Novorossiya" title="Novorossiya">New Russia</a>" (the Black Sea coast and southeastern <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppe</a>). But parts of Ukraine beyond Russia's reach were called <a href="/wiki/Ruthenia" title="Ruthenia">Ruthenia</a> and its people <a href="/wiki/Ruthenians" title="Ruthenians">Ruthenians</a>. The names chosen to refer to Ukraine and Ukrainians have often reflected a certain political position, and sometimes even to deny the existence of Ukrainian nationality.<a href="#cite_note-history_of_ukraine27-33">[33]</a>: 10–11  The Russian point-of-view of Ukrainian history became the prevailing one in Western academia, and although the bias was identified as early as the 1950s, many scholars of Slavic studies and history believe significant changes are still necessary to correct the Moscow-centric view.<a href="#cite_note-282">[280]</a> The scholarly study of Ukraine's history emerged from romantic impulses in the late 19th century when <a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">German Romanticism</a> spread to Eastern Europe. The outstanding leaders were <a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Antonovych" title="Volodymyr Antonovych">Volodymyr Antonovych</a> (1834–1908), based in Kiev, and his student <a href="/wiki/Mykhailo_Hrushevsky" title="Mykhailo Hrushevsky">Mykhailo Hrushevsky</a> (1866–1934).<a href="#cite_note-283">[281]</a> The first serious challenge to the Russian view of Ukraine was Hrushevsky's 1904 article "The Traditional Scheme of 'Russian' History and the Problem of the Rational organization of the History of the Eastern Slavs".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagocsi201021-284">[282]</a> For the first time full-scale scholarly studies based on archival sources, modern research techniques, and modern historical theories became possible. However, the demands of government officials—Tsarist, to a lesser degree Austro-Hungarian and Polish, and later Soviet—made it difficult to disseminate ideas that ran counter to the central government. Therefore, exile schools of historians emerged in central Europe and Canada after 1920.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Strikingly different interpretations of the medieval state of Kievan Rus' appear in the four schools of historiography within Ukraine: <a href="/wiki/Russophilia" title="Russophilia">Russophile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet historiography">Sovietophile</a>, Eastern Slavic, and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainophilia" title="Ukrainophilia">Ukrainophile</a>. In the Soviet Union, there was a radical break after 1921, led by <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Pokrovsky" title="Mikhail Pokrovsky">Mikhail Pokrovsky</a>. Until 1934, history was generally not regarded as chauvinistic, but was rewritten in the style of <a href="/wiki/Marxist_historiography" title="Marxist historiography">Marxist historiography</a>. National "pasts" were rewritten as social and national liberation for non-Russians, and social liberation for Russians, in a process that ended in 1917. Under Stalin, the state and its official historiography were given a distinct Russian character and a certain Russocentrism. Imperial history was rewritten such that non-Russian love caused an emulation and deference to "join" the Russian people by becoming part of the (tsarist) Russian state, and in return, Russian state interests were driven by altruism and concern for neighboring people.<a href="#cite_note-285">[283]</a> Russophile and Sovietophile schools have become marginalized in independent Ukraine, with the Ukrainophile school being dominant in the early 21st century. The Ukrainophile school promotes an identity that is mutually exclusive of Russia. It has come to dominate the nation's educational system, security forces, and national symbols and monuments, although it has been dismissed as nationalist by Western historians. The East Slavic school, an eclectic compromise between Ukrainophiles and Russophilism, has a weaker ideological and symbolic base, although it is preferred by Ukraine's centrist former elites.<a href="#cite_note-286">[284]</a> Many historians in recent years have sought alternatives to national histories, and Ukrainian history invited approaches that looked beyond a national paradigm. Multiethnic history recognises the numerous peoples in Ukraine; <a href="/wiki/Transnational_history" title="Transnational history">transnational history</a> portrays Ukraine as a border zone for various empires; and <a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">area studies</a> categorises Ukraine as part of East-Central Europe or, less often, as part of Eurasia. <a href="/wiki/Serhii_Plokhy" title="Serhii Plokhy">Serhii Plokhy</a> argues that looking beyond the country's national history has made possible a richer understanding of Ukraine, its people, and the surrounding regions.<a href="#cite_note-287">[285]</a> since 2015, there has been renewed interest in integrating a "territorial-civic" and "linguistic-ethnic" history of Ukraine. For example, the history of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a> and the more distant history of the <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> peninsula is now integrated into Ukrainian school history. This is part of the constitutionally mandated "people of Ukraine" rather than "Ukrainian people". Slowly, the histories of Poles and Jews are also being reintegrated. However, due to the current political climate caused by territorial sovereignty breaches by Russia, the role of Russians as "co-host" has been greatly minimized, and there are still unresolved difficult issues of the past, for example, the role of Ukrainians during the Holodomor.<a href="#cite_note-288">[286]</a>: 98  After 1991, historical memory was a powerful tool in the political mobilization and legitimation of the post-Soviet Ukrainian state, as well as the division of selectively used memory along the lines of the political division of Ukrainian society. Ukraine did not experience the restorationist paradigm typical of some other post-Soviet nations, for example the <a href="/wiki/State_continuity_of_the_Baltic_states" title="State continuity of the Baltic states">three Baltic countries</a>—<a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>—although the multifaceted history of independence, the <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Church_in_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthodox Church in Ukraine">Orthodox Church in Ukraine</a>, Soviet-era repressions, <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">mass famine</a>, and World War II collaboration were used to provide a different constitutive frame for developing Ukrainian nationhood. The <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">politics of identity</a> (which includes the production of history textbooks and the authorization of commemorative practices) has remained fragmented and tailored to reflect the ideological anxieties and concerns of individual regions of Ukraine.<a href="#cite_note-289">[287]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canadian_historiography_on_Ukraine">Canadian historiography on Ukraine</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Canadian historiography on Ukraine">edit</a>]</div> In Soviet Ukraine, twentieth-century historians were strictly limited in the range of models and topics they could cover, with Moscow insisting on an official <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> approach. However, émigré <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainians in Canada">Ukrainians in Canada</a> developed an independent scholarship that ignored Marxism, and shared the Western tendencies in historiography.<a href="#cite_note-290">[288]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_W._Simpson" title="George W. Simpson">George W. Simpson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orest_Subtelny" title="Orest Subtelny">Orest Subtelny</a> were leaders promoting Ukrainian studies in Canadian academe.<a href="#cite_note-291">[289]</a> The lack of independence in Ukraine meant that traditional historiographical emphases on diplomacy and politics were handicapped. The flourishing of social history after 1960 opened many new approaches for researchers in Canada; Subtelny used the <a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">modernization</a> model. Later historiographical trends were quickly adapted to the Ukrainian evidence, with special focus on Ukrainian nationalism. The new cultural history, <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">post-colonial studies</a>, and the "<a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">linguistic turn</a>" augmenting, if not replacing <a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social history</a>, allowed for multiple angles of approach. By 1991, historians in Canada had freely explored a wide range of approaches regarding the emergence of a <a href="/wiki/National_identity" title="National identity">national identity</a>. After independence, a high priority in Canada was assisting in the freeing of Ukrainian scholarship from Soviet-Marxist orthodoxy—which downplayed Ukrainian nationalism and insisted that true Ukrainians were always trying to reunite with Russia. Independence from Moscow meant freedom from an orthodoxy that was never well suited to Ukrainian developments. Scholars in Ukraine welcomed the "national paradigm" that Canadian historians had helped develop. Since 1991, the study of Ukrainian <a href="/wiki/Nation-building" title="Nation-building">nation-building</a> became an increasingly global and collaborative enterprise, with scholars from Ukraine studying and working in Canada, and with conferences on related topics attracting scholars from around the world.<a href="#cite_note-292">[290]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/32px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/48px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/64px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ukraine" title="Portal:Ukraine">Ukraine portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Historical_maps_of_Ukraine" class="extiw" title="commons:Historical maps of Ukraine">Historical maps of Ukraine</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Ukraine" title="Politics of Ukraine">Politics of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruthenia" title="Ruthenia">Ruthenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kievan Rus">Kievan Rus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Ukraine" title="History of Christianity in Ukraine">History of Christianity in Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ukrainian_rulers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ukrainian rulers">List of Ukrainian rulers</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> East bank of <a href="/wiki/Kalmius" title="Kalmius">Kalmius</a> river (Eastern <a href="/wiki/Donbas" title="Donbas">Donbas</a>) gained in 1920, partially (Okrug <a href="/wiki/Taganrog" title="Taganrog">Taganrog</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shakhty" title="Shakhty">Shakhty</a>) returned back in 1924; <a href="/wiki/Wo%C5%82y%C5%84_Voivodeship_(1921%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–39)">Volhynia</a> gained (1939); <a href="/wiki/Transnistria" title="Transnistria">Transnistria</a> lost (1940); <a href="/wiki/Zakarpattia_Oblast" title="Zakarpattia Oblast">Transcarpatia</a> gained (1945); <a href="/wiki/Snake_Island_(Black_Sea)" class="mw-redirect" title="Snake Island (Black Sea)">Snake Island</a> gained (1948); <a href="/wiki/1954_transfer_of_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="1954 transfer of Crimea">Crimea gained</a> (1954) </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian law">Ukrainian law</a> current Ukraine is the <a href="/wiki/Successor_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Successor state">successor state</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a> that was part of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Plaviuk163058UPR-197">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Matossian Shaping World History p. 43 </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://imh.org/history-of-the-horse/legacy-of-the-horse/the-domestication-of-the-horse/what-we-theorize-when-and-where-did-domestication-occur.html/">"What We Theorize – When and Where Did Domestication Occur"</a>. International Museum of the Horse. Retrieved 12 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Museum+of+the+Horse&rft.atitle=What+We+Theorize+%E2%80%93+When+and+Where+Did+Domestication+Occur&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fimh.org%2Fhistory-of-the-horse%2Flegacy-of-the-horse%2Fthe-domestication-of-the-horse%2Fwhat-we-theorize-when-and-where-did-domestication-occur.html%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-cbc.ca-3"><a href="#cite_ref-cbc.ca_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbc.ca/quirks/episode/2009/03/07/horsey-aeology-binary-black-holes-tracking-red-tides-fish-re-evolution-walk-like-a-man-fact-or-ficti/">"Horsey-aeology, Binary Black Holes, Tracking Red Tides, Fish Re-evolution, Walk Like a Man, Fact or Fiction"</a>. Quirks and Quarks Podcast with Bob Macdonald. <a href="/wiki/CBC_Radio" title="CBC Radio">CBC Radio</a>. 7 March 2009. Retrieved 18 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quirks+and+Quarks+Podcast+with+Bob+Macdonald&rft.atitle=Horsey-aeology%2C+Binary+Black+Holes%2C+Tracking+Red+Tides%2C+Fish+Re-evolution%2C+Walk+Like+a+Man%2C+Fact+or+Fiction&rft.date=2009-03-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fquirks%2Fepisode%2F2009%2F03%2F07%2Fhorsey-aeology-binary-black-holes-tracking-red-tides-fish-re-evolution-walk-like-a-man-fact-or-ficti%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988">(Link does not exist anymore) </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLogan2005" class="citation book cs1">Logan, F. Donald (2005). The Vikings in History. Taylor & Francis. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415327565" title="Special:BookSources/9780415327565"><bdi>9780415327565</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vikings+in+History&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780415327565&rft.aulast=Logan&rft.aufirst=F.+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Encyclopedia of Ukraine, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CY%5CKyivanRushDA.htm">Kyivan Rus</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages%5CP%5CO%5CPolianians.htm">"Polianians"</a>. www.encyclopediaofukraine.com. Retrieved 26 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com&rft.atitle=Polianians&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediaofukraine.com%2Fdisplay.asp%3FAddButton%3Dpages%255CP%255CO%255CPolianians.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Orest Subtelny. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://diasporiana.org.ua/istoriya/11408-subtelny-o-ukraine-a-history/">"Ukraine. A History" (Fourth edition)</a>. Page 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pelenski-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pelenski_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pelenski_8-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iuFB8V2X4yEC&pg=PA9">Jarosław Pelenski.</a> In P. Potichnyj (ed.) (1992). Ukraine and Russia in their historical encounter. Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, University of Alberta. pp.8–15 </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterwick2021" class="citation book cs1">Butterwick, Richard (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g2cOEAAAQBAJ">The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1733–1795</a>. Yale University Press. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25220-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25220-0"><bdi>978-0-300-25220-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth%2C+1733%E2%80%931795&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-300-25220-0&rft.aulast=Butterwick&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg2cOEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroll2008" class="citation book cs1">Kroll, Piotr (2008). Od ugody hadziackiej do Cudnowa. 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Chwalba, Andrzej; Zamorski, Krzysztof (eds.). The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: History, Memory, Legacy. 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Euromaidan Press. Retrieved 18 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Euromaidan+Press&rft.atitle=Ukrainian+writer+%26+publisher%3A+Language+is+the+most+important+marker+of+national+identity&rft.date=2018-10-07&rft.aulast=Doskoch&rft.aufirst=Viktoriya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feuromaidanpress.com%2F2018%2F10%2F07%2Fukrainian-writer-publisher-language-is-the-most-important-marker-of-national-identity%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Михайличенко Д. Ю. Травнева військово-політична криза в УСРР, 1919 р. // Вісник Харківського національного університету ім. В. Н. Каразіна. — Сер. Історія України. — Вип. 5. — Харків, 2002. — С. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130706154947/http://kuban.in.ua/index.php/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D1%87%D1%96-%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8/2013-04-07-22-54-26.html">"Примарний день незалежності // Українська Кубань"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kuban.in.ua/index.php/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D1%87%D1%96-%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8/2013-04-07-22-54-26.html">the original</a> on 6 July 2013. Retrieved 4 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C+%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96+%2F%2F+%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0+%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkuban.in.ua%2Findex.php%2F%25D0%2593%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%25D1%258F%25D1%2587%25D1%2596-%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%2F2013-04-07-22-54-26.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Kenez, Peter Civil War in South Russia, 1919-1920: The Defeat of the Whites, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kubiyovych-148"><a href="#cite_ref-Kubiyovych_148-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKubijovyč,_Volodymyr1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Kubiyovych" class="mw-redirect" title="Volodymyr Kubiyovych">Kubijovyč, Volodymyr</a> (1963). Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia. <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>. pp. 790–793.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine%3A+A+Concise+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=790-793&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.au=Kubijovy%C4%8D%2C+Volodymyr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Debo210-149"><a href="#cite_ref-Debo210_149-0">^</a> Richard K Debo, Survival and Consolidation: The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia, 1918–1921, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gQfUB0CXBO4C&pg=PA210">pp. 210–211</a>, McGill-Queen's Press, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7735-0828-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7735-0828-7">0-7735-0828-7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> K. Marek. Identity and Continuity of States in Public International Law. Librairie Droz 1968. pp. 419–420. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkPath=pages%5CP%5CE%5CPetliuraSymon.htm">Petliura, Symon</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrest_Subtelny2000" class="citation book cs1">Orest Subtelny (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0">Ukraine: A History</a>. U of Toronto Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/359">359</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802083906" title="Special:BookSources/9780802083906"><bdi>9780802083906</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine%3A+A+History&rft.pages=359&rft.pub=U+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780802083906&rft.au=Orest+Subtelny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fukrainehistory00subt_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Paul Kubicek, The History of Ukraine (2008) p 79 </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a class="external text" href="https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%BE%D0%B1_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA">"Договор об образовании Союза Советских Социалистических Республик — Викитека"</a>. ru.wikisource.org (in Russian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230419182258/https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%BE%D0%B1_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ru.wikisource.org&rft.atitle=%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80+%D0%BE%D0%B1+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B0+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA+%E2%80%94+%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fru.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2F%25D0%2594%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B2%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580_%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B1_%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B1%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B7%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B8_%25D0%25A1%25D0%25BE%25D1%258E%25D0%25B7%25D0%25B0_%25D0%25A1%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D1%2582%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B8%25D1%2585_%25D0%25A1%25D0%25BE%25D1%2586%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B8%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D1%2587%25D0%25B5%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B8%25D1%2585_%25D0%25A0%25D0%25B5%25D1%2581%25D0%25BF%25D1%2583%25D0%25B1%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EncUkr-156"><a href="#cite_ref-EncUkr_156-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Kubiyovych" class="mw-redirect" title="Volodymyr Kubiyovych">Volodymyr Kubiyovych</a>; Zenon Kuzelia, Енциклопедія українознавства (Encyclopedia of Ukrainian studies), 3-volumes, Kyiv, 1994, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-7702-0554-7" title="Special:BookSources/5-7702-0554-7">5-7702-0554-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">"The New Economic Policy (NEP)", Resources for Teaching History : 14–16, Bloomsbury Education, 2010, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5040%2F9781472926647.ch-034">10.5040/9781472926647.ch-034</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472926647" title="Special:BookSources/9781472926647"><bdi>9781472926647</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+New+Economic+Policy+%28NEP%29&rft.btitle=Resources+for+Teaching+History+%3A+14%E2%80%9316&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Education&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5040%2F9781472926647.ch-034&rft.isbn=9781472926647&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Richman-158"><a href="#cite_ref-Richman_158-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichman1981" class="citation journal cs1">Richman, Sheldon (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdn.mises.org/5_1_5_0.pdf">"War Communism to NEP: the road from serfdom"</a> (PDF). Journal of Libertarian Studies: 93–94. Retrieved 12 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Libertarian+Studies&rft.atitle=War+Communism+to+NEP%3A+the+road+from+serfdom&rft.pages=93-94&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Richman&rft.aufirst=Sheldon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdn.mises.org%2F5_1_5_0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniels2008" class="citation book cs1">Daniels, Robert V. (1 October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=27JGzAoMLjoC">The Rise and Fall of Communism in Russia</a>. Yale University Press. p. 195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-13493-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-13493-3"><bdi>978-0-300-13493-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Communism+in+Russia&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008-10-01&rft.isbn=978-0-300-13493-3&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=Robert+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D27JGzAoMLjoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllman2018" class="citation magazine cs1">Ellman, Michael (April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=51300">"Review of: Anne Applebaum's Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine, New York: Doubleday. 2017. 496 pp. $35.00"</a>. H-Diplo, H-Net Reviews in the Humanties and Social Sciences. pp. 1–4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=H-Diplo%2C+H-Net+Reviews+in+the+Humanties+and+Social+Sciences&rft.atitle=Review+of%3A+Anne+Applebaum%27s+Red+Famine%3A+Stalin%27s+War+on+Ukraine%2C+New+York%3A+Doubleday.+2017.+496%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E+%3C%2Fspan%3Epp.+%2435.00&rft.pages=1-4&rft.date=2018-04&rft.aulast=Ellman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.h-net.org%2Freviews%2Fshowpdf.php%3Fid%3D51300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220227202140/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=51300">Archived</a> 27 February 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKappeler2023" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Kappeler" title="Andreas Kappeler">Kappeler, Andreas</a> (2023). Ungleiche Brüder: Russen und Ukrainer vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart [Unequal Brothers: Russians and Ukrainians from the Middle Ages to the Present] (in German). München: C.H.Beck oHG. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-80042-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-80042-9"><bdi>978-3-406-80042-9</bdi></a>. <q>Der weit überproportionale Anteil an ukrainischen Opfern wirft die Frage auf, ob die sowjetische Führung mit der von ihr herbeigeführten Hungersnot nicht nur allgemein die Bauern, sondern spezifisch die ukrainischen Bauern und damit die Basis der ukrainischen Nation treffen wollte.</q> [The vastly disproportionate number of Ukrainian victims raises the question whether the Soviet leadership was targeting not just the peasants in general with the famine it caused, but specifically the Ukrainian peasants and thereby the foundations of the Ukrainian nation.]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ungleiche+Br%C3%BCder%3A+Russen+und+Ukrainer+vom+Mittelalter+bis+zur+Gegenwart&rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=C.H.Beck+oHG&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-3-406-80042-9&rft.aulast=Kappeler&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PetrovskyII-162"><a href="#cite_ref-PetrovskyII_162-0">^</a> Petrovsky David Alexandrovich. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alkruglov.narod.ru/z-petrovsk.pdf">Reconstruction of the Technical School and the Five-Year Frame</a>. Page 5 – Leningrad, Gostekhizdat, 1930. – 42 pages. (Leningrad Regional Sovnarkhoz) </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecollector.com/stalin-great-purge-political-rivals/">Stalin’s Great Purge: Gulags, Show Trials, and Terror</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Павличко С. Дискурс модернізму в українській літературі: [монографія] / С. Павличко. — К.: Либідь, 1997. — C. 170. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Українська література XX століття: навч.-метод. посіб. для студентів 2-го курсу, які навчаються за спец. 035 — Філологія (заоч. форма) / Нар. укр. акад., каф. українознавства; упоряд. О. В. Слюніна. — Харків: Вид-во НУА, 2018. — 128 с. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pearson-166"><a href="#cite_ref-Pearson_166-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaymond_Pearson2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Pearson" class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond Pearson">Raymond Pearson</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/risefallofsoviet00pear">The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire</a>. 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Ukraine: Perestroika to Independence. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alberta" title="University of Alberta">University of Alberta</a>: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/092086287X" title="Special:BookSources/092086287X"><bdi>092086287X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine%3A+Perestroika+to+Independence&rft.place=University+of+Alberta&rft.pub=Canadian+Institute+of+Ukrainian+Studies+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=092086287X&rft.au=Taras+Kuzio&rft.au=Andrew+Wilson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Purge">Britannica: Great-Purge</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRychlíkRychlíková2016" class="citation book cs1">Rychlík, Jan; Rychlíková, Magdaléna (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jIJuDwAAQBAJ">Podkarpatská Rus v dějinách Československa 1918–1946</a>. Praha: Vyšehrad. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788074297694" title="Special:BookSources/9788074297694"><bdi>9788074297694</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Podkarpatsk%C3%A1+Rus+v+d%C4%9Bjin%C3%A1ch+%C4%8Ceskoslovenska+1918%E2%80%931946&rft.place=Praha&rft.pub=Vy%C5%A1ehrad&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9788074297694&rft.aulast=Rychl%C3%ADk&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft.au=Rychl%C3%ADkov%C3%A1%2C+Magdal%C3%A9na&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjIJuDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2660044karpatskoiukraini-170"><a href="#cite_ref-2660044karpatskoiukraini_170-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ukrinform.ua/rubric-society/2660044-sogodni-80ricca-z-dna-progolosenna-karpatskoi-ukraini.html">"Today is the 80th anniversary of the proclamation of Carpatho-Ukraine"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ukrinform" title="Ukrinform">Ukrinform</a> (in Ukrainian). 15 March 2019. Retrieved 24 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ukrinform&rft.atitle=Today+is+the+80th+anniversary+of+the+proclamation+of+Carpatho-Ukraine&rft.date=2019-03-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fukrinform.ua%2Frubric-society%2F2660044-sogodni-80ricca-z-dna-progolosenna-karpatskoi-ukraini.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/german-soviet-pact">"German-Soviet Pact"</a>. encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 27 July 2022. <q>...paved the way for the joint invasion and occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union that September.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=encyclopedia.ushmm.org&rft.atitle=German-Soviet+Pact&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.ushmm.org%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fgerman-soviet-pact&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Leonid D. Grenkevich. The Soviet Partisan Movement, 1941–1944: A Critical Historiographical Analysis.Routledge. 2013. p.325 </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140413132510/http://www.volhyniamassacre.eu/spory-o-wolyn/polish-ukrainian-historical-disputes-over-the-volhynian-massacres">"Mariusz Zajączkowski: 1943 Volhynia massacre"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.volhyniamassacre.eu/spory-o-wolyn/polish-ukrainian-historical-disputes-over-the-volhynian-massacres">the original</a> on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mariusz+Zaj%C4%85czkowski%3A+1943+Volhynia+massacre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.volhyniamassacre.eu%2Fspory-o-wolyn%2Fpolish-ukrainian-historical-disputes-over-the-volhynian-massacres&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. 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KyivPost. 12 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=KyivPost&rft.atitle=Ukrainian+Insurgent+Army%3A+Myths+and+facts+-+Oct.+12%2C+2012&rft.date=2012-10-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kyivpost.com%2Farticle%2Fopinion%2Fop-ed%2Fukrainian-insurgent-army-myths-and-facts-314313.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/11885029">"A kárpátaljai magyar és német polgári lakosság tömeges elhurcolása szovjet hadifogságba"</a> [The deportation of masses of Hungarian and German civilians from Subcarpathia to Soviet prisoner of war camps]. Orpheus Noster (in Hungarian). 4 (2). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm">the original</a> on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 22 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bukovyna&rft.pub=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Ukraine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediaofukraine.com%2Fdisplay.asp%3Flinkpath%3Dpages%255CB%255CU%255CBukovyna.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kafkadesk-2021-178"><a href="#cite_ref-Kafkadesk-2021_178-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kafkadesk.org/2021/06/29/on-this-day-in-1945-carpathian-ruthenia-was-annexed-by-the-soviet-union/">"On this Day, in 1945: Carpathian Ruthenia was annexed by the Soviet Union"</a>. Kafkadesk. 29 June 1992. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210726185851/https://kafkadesk.org/2021/06/29/on-this-day-in-1945-carpathian-ruthenia-was-annexed-by-the-soviet-union/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+this+Day%2C+in+1945%3A+Carpathian+Ruthenia+was+annexed+by+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pub=Kafkadesk&rft.date=1992-06-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkafkadesk.org%2F2021%2F06%2F29%2Fon-this-day-in-1945-carpathian-ruthenia-was-annexed-by-the-soviet-union%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18287223">Crimea profile – Overview</a>, BBC News </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Командував нею заступник міністра внутрішніх справ УРСР Микола Дятлов. Місце дислокації штабу операції — Львів. До виконання операції були залучені: оперсклад МГБ — 6859 осіб, збройні сили (солдати внутрішніх військ МГБ і корпус охорони МГБ, особовий склад МВД і прикордонних військ, «стрибки»)— 46 509, радянський партактив — 15 556, армійські шофери — 1227 осіб </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://24tv.ua/chomu_radyanska_vlada_zrobila_masovu_deportatsiyu_ukrayintsiv_u_sibir_n879491">Чому радянська влада зробила масову депортацію українців у Сибір</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920-х — первая половина 1950-х годов: Собрание документов в 7 томах. — Т. 6: Восстания, бунты и забастовки заключённых Архивная копия от 1 апреля 2024 на Wayback Machine / Ответственный редактор и составитель В. А. Козлов; Составитель О. В. Лавинская. — М.: РОССПЭН, 2004. — 736 с. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Макарова А. Б. Норильское восстание // «Воля»: журнал узников тоталитарных систем. — 1993. — № 1. — С. 68—108. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Дисиденти. Антологія текстів / Упоряд.: О. Сінченко, Д. Стус, Л. Фінберг; Наук. ред. О. Сінченко. Національний університет «Києво-Могилянська академія», Центр досліджень історії та культури східноєвропейського єврейства, Центр європейських гуманітарних досліджень; Український католицький університет, Інститут релігії та суспільства. ‒ K.: Дух і Літера, 2018. ‒ 656 с. ‒ (БІБЛІОТЕКА СПРОТИВУ, БІБЛІОТЕКА НАДІЇ) </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> Bociurkiw В. R. Religious Situation in the Soviet Ukraine. A paper presented at a Symposium marking the 30th anniversary of the Ukrainian Quarterly in Doc. 1974.Koszeliwec I. Kronika ukrainskiego oporu. Kultura. № 1 — 2 (328 — 329). </li> <li id="cite_note-subtelny-576-186"><a href="#cite_ref-subtelny-576_186-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubtelny,_Orest2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Orest_Subtelny" title="Orest Subtelny">Subtelny, Orest</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/576">Ukraine: A History</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/576">576</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8020-8390-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8020-8390-0"><bdi>0-8020-8390-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine%3A+A+History&rft.pages=576&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-8020-8390-0&rft.au=Subtelny%2C+Orest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fukrainehistory00subt_0%2Fpage%2F576&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÅslund2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anders_%C3%85slund" title="Anders Åslund">Åslund, Anders</a> (March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C8C3xuqd6aMC&pg=PA21">How Ukraine Became a Market Economy and Democracy</a>. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/Peterson_Institute_for_International_Economics" title="Peterson Institute for International Economics">Peterson Institute for International Economics</a>. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780881325461" title="Special:BookSources/9780881325461"><bdi>9780881325461</bdi></a>. Retrieved 29 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Ukraine+Became+a+Market+Economy+and+Democracy&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Peterson+Institute+for+International+Economics&rft.date=2009-03&rft.isbn=9780881325461&rft.aulast=%C3%85slund&rft.aufirst=Anders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC8C3xuqd6aMC%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ukraine_proclaims_sovereignty_UW-188"><a href="#cite_ref-Ukraine_proclaims_sovereignty_UW_188-0">^</a> Cite error: The named reference <code>Ukraine proclaims sovereignty UW</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</li> <li id="cite_note-Magocsi-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Magocsi_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Magocsi_189-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BNUtdVrw6lIC&dq=16+July+1991+Ukrainian+state+sovereignty.&pg=PA722">A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples</a> by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Robert_Magocsi" title="Paul Robert Magocsi">Paul Robert Magocsi</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>, 2010, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1442610212" title="Special:BookSources/1442610212">1442610212</a> (page 722/723) </li> <li id="cite_note-c97-190"><a href="#cite_ref-c97_190-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070203021058/http://www.charter97.org/eng/news/2005/12/08/14">"14 Years of Belavezha Accords' Signing"</a>. Charter'97. 8 December 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.charter97.org/eng/news/2005/12/08/14">the original</a> on 3 February 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=14+Years+of+Belavezha+Accords%27+Signing&rft.date=2005-12-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.charter97.org%2Feng%2Fnews%2F2005%2F12%2F08%2F14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NS-191"><a href="#cite_ref-NS_191-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Dieter_Nohlen" title="Dieter Nohlen">Dieter Nohlen</a> & Philip Stöver (2010) Elections in Europe: A data handbook, page 1976 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783832956097" title="Special:BookSources/9783832956097">9783832956097</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-UKrW812991-192"><a href="#cite_ref-UKrW812991_192-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ukrweekly.com/old/archive/1991/499101.shtml">Independence - over 90% vote yes in referendum; Kravchuk elected president of Ukraine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171019083729/http://www.ukrweekly.com/old/archive/1991/499101.shtml">Archived</a> 2017-10-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Ukrainian_Weekly" title="The Ukrainian Weekly">The Ukrainian Weekly</a>, 8 December 1991 </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Vasylenko" title="Volodymyr Vasylenko">Volodymyr Vasylenko</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190620220422/https://i.tyzhden.ua/content/photoalbum/2018/05_2018/30/bild/specproject.pdf">Non-nuclear status of Ukraine: past, present, and future (Без'ядерний статус України: минуле, сучасне, майбутнє)</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Ukrainian_Week" title="The Ukrainian Week">The Ukrainian Week</a>. 31 May 2018 </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930203430/http://gska2.rada.gov.ua:7777/site/postanova_eng/Rres_Declaration_Independence_rev12.htm">"Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine Resolution On Declaration of Independence of Ukraine"</a>. Official website of the Verkhovna Rada. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gska2.rada.gov.ua:7777/site/postanova_eng/Rres_Declaration_Independence_rev12.htm">the original</a> on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 11 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Official+website+of+the+Verkhovna+Rada&rft.atitle=Verkhovna+Rada+of+Ukraine+Resolution+On+Declaration+of+Independence+of+Ukraine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgska2.rada.gov.ua%3A7777%2Fsite%2Fpostanova_eng%2FRres_Declaration_Independence_rev12.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unian.info/society/1747301-ukraines-national-flag-celebrating-25th-anniversary-today.html">"Ukraine's national flag celebrating 25th anniversary today"</a>. <a href="/wiki/UNIAN" class="mw-redirect" title="UNIAN">UNIAN</a>. Retrieved 4 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNIAN&rft.atitle=Ukraine%27s+national+flag+celebrating+25th+anniversary+today&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unian.info%2Fsociety%2F1747301-ukraines-national-flag-celebrating-25th-anniversary-today.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Symbolsx2-196"><a href="#cite_ref-Symbolsx2_196-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrach2016" class="citation news cs1">Trach, Nataliya (26 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/ukraine-politics/the-story-behind-2-top-ukrainian-symbols-national-flag-and-trident-421675.html">"The story behind 2 top Ukrainian symbols: National flag and trident"</a>. Kyiv Post. Retrieved 27 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+story+behind+2+top+Ukrainian+symbols%3A+National+flag+and+trident&rft.date=2016-08-26&rft.aulast=Trach&rft.aufirst=Nataliya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kyivpost.com%2Farticle%2Fcontent%2Fukraine-politics%2Fthe-story-behind-2-top-ukrainian-symbols-national-flag-and-trident-421675.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Plaviuk163058UPR-197">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Plaviuk163058UPR_197-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plaviuk163058UPR_197-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plaviuk163058UPR_197-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.istpravda.com.ua/columns/2023/08/22/163058/">"Ukraine is the legal successor of the Ukrainian People's Republic"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Istorychna_Pravda" title="Istorychna Pravda">Istorychna Pravda</a> (in Ukrainian). 22 August 2023. Retrieved 22 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Istorychna+Pravda&rft.atitle=Ukraine+is+the+legal+successor+of+the+Ukrainian+People%27s+Republic&rft.date=2023-08-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.istpravda.com.ua%2Fcolumns%2F2023%2F08%2F22%2F163058%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110727114824/http://www.uvkr.com.ua/ua/visnyk/uvkr-2002/august/gr-ukr.html">"10 years since the Government center of the UNR in exile gave to the free and sovereign Ukraine the symbols of government authority. This establishes that Ukraine is the legal successor to the Ukrainian National Republic. This action was proclaimed by the former President of the UNR in exile Mykola Plaviuk"</a>. Visnyka UVKR (in Ukrainian). Ukrainian World Coordination Council. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uvkr.com.ua/ua/visnyk/uvkr-2002/august/gr-ukr.html">the original</a> on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Visnyka+UVKR&rft.atitle=10+years+since+the+Government+center+of+the+UNR+in+exile+gave+to+the+free+and+sovereign+Ukraine+the+symbols+of+government+authority.+This+establishes+that+Ukraine+is+the+legal+successor+to+the+Ukrainian+National+Republic.+This+action+was+proclaimed+by+the+former+President+of+the+UNR+in+exile+Mykola+Plaviuk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uvkr.com.ua%2Fua%2Fvisnyk%2Fuvkr-2002%2Faugust%2Fgr-ukr.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRol" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rol, Mykhailo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umoloda.kiev.ua/number/352/264/12716/">"Tenth President"</a> (in Ukrainian). Ukrayina Moloda. Retrieved 30 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Tenth+President&rft.aulast=Rol&rft.aufirst=Mykhailo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.umoloda.kiev.ua%2Fnumber%2F352%2F264%2F12716%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BNUtdVrw6lIC&dq=16+July+1991+Ukrainian+state+sovereignty.&pg=PA722">A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407100810/https://books.google.com/books?id=BNUtdVrw6lIC&dq=16+July+1991+Ukrainian+state+sovereignty.&pg=PA722">Archived</a> 7 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Robert_Magocsi" title="Paul Robert Magocsi">Paul Robert Magocsi</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>, 2010, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1442610212" title="Special:BookSources/1442610212">1442610212</a> (page 563/564 & 722/723) </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirch1995" class="citation journal cs1">Birch, Sarah (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0261-3794(95)95775-6">"The Ukrainian parliamentary and presidential elections of 1994"</a>. Electoral Studies. 14 (1): 93–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0261-3794%2895%2995775-6">10.1016/0261-3794(95)95775-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3794">0261-3794</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electoral+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Ukrainian+parliamentary+and+presidential+elections+of+1994&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=93-99&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0261-3794%2895%2995775-6&rft.issn=0261-3794&rft.aulast=Birch&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2F0261-3794%2895%2995775-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> НБР: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bank.gov.ua/control/en/publish/article?art_id=37482&cat_id=37437">History of Hryvnia</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bank.gov.ua/control/en/publish/printable_article;jsessionid=15111854B1ABFB8B3B2073ED5CB1BD7F?art_id=37482&showTitle=true">"National Bank of Ukraine"</a>. Bank.gov.ua. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190402175059/https://www.bank.gov.ua/control/en/publish/printable_article;jsessionid=15111854B1ABFB8B3B2073ED5CB1BD7F?art_id=37482&showTitle=true">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 11 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bank.gov.ua&rft.atitle=National+Bank+of+Ukraine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bank.gov.ua%2Fcontrol%2Fen%2Fpublish%2Fprintable_article%3Bjsessionid%3D15111854B1ABFB8B3B2073ED5CB1BD7F%3Fart_id%3D37482%26showTitle%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matvienko-205"><a href="#cite_ref-Matvienko_205-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081231072715/http://www.obriy.pib.com.ua/2002/04_02/01.htm">"Volodymyr Matvienko. Autograph on Hryvnia"</a> (in Ukrainian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.obriy.pib.com.ua/2002/04_02/01.htm">the original</a> on 31 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Volodymyr+Matvienko.+Autograph+on+Hryvnia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.obriy.pib.com.ua%2F2002%2F04_02%2F01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Langer-206"><a href="#cite_ref-Langer_206-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanger2002" class="citation book cs1">Langer, Lawrence N. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DlWPEH3dF38C&pg=PA56">"Grivna"</a>. Historical Dictionary of Medieval Russia. Scarecrow Press. pp. 56–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810866188" title="Special:BookSources/9780810866188"><bdi>9780810866188</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200117181510/https://books.google.com/books?id=DlWPEH3dF38C&pg=PA56">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2020. Retrieved 2 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Grivna&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Medieval+Russia&rft.pages=56-57&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780810866188&rft.aulast=Langer&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDlWPEH3dF38C%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNIANCD28616-207"><a href="#cite_ref-UNIANCD28616_207-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unian.info/society/1389415-ukraine-celebrating-20th-anniversary-of-constitution.html">Ukraine celebrating 20th anniversary of Constitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/UNIAN" class="mw-redirect" title="UNIAN">UNIAN</a> (28 June 2016) </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Dieter_Nohlen" title="Dieter Nohlen">Dieter Nohlen</a> & Philip Stöver (2010) Elections in Europe: A data handbook, p. 1976. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783832956097" title="Special:BookSources/9783832956097">9783832956097</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBCprofileUkraine-209">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BBCprofileUkraine_209-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBCprofileUkraine_209-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18018002">Ukraine country profile – Overview</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220325182022/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18018002">Archived</a> 25 March 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> Adrian Karatnycky, "Ukraine's Orange Revolution," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 84, No. 2 (March – April 2005), pp. 35–52 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20034274">in JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181206103903/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20034274">Archived</a> 6 December 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928014426/http://www.nrcu.gov.ua/index.php?id=148&listid=33534">"Vyacheslav Chornovil was murdered, rather than killed in road accident"</a>. 7 September 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrcu.gov.ua/index.php?id=148&listid=33534">the original</a> on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 5 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vyacheslav+Chornovil+was+murdered%2C+rather+than+killed+in+road+accident&rft.date=2006-09-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrcu.gov.ua%2Findex.php%3Fid%3D148%26listid%3D33534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303233412/http://www.archives.gov.ua/Sections/Ukraineomni/prechornovil.htm">"Ukrainian Government Archives"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov.ua/Sections/Ukraineomni/prechornovil.htm">the original</a> on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 26 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ukrainian+Government+Archives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov.ua%2FSections%2FUkraineomni%2Fprechornovil.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1102303.stm#media">"Country profile: Ukraine"</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_KRBCgAAQBAJ&dq=Ukrainian+constitutional+referendum+election+fraud+2000&pg=PA87">The Conflict in Ukraine: What Everyone Needs to Know</a> by <a href="/wiki/Serhy_Yekelchyk" title="Serhy Yekelchyk">Serhy Yekelchyk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2015, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0190237287" title="Special:BookSources/0190237287">0190237287</a> (page 87) </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/apr/27/iantraynor">"Ukraine's popular PM forced out"</a>. <a href="/wiki/TheGuardian.com" class="mw-redirect" title="TheGuardian.com">TheGuardian.com</a>. 27 April 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheGuardian.com&rft.atitle=Ukraine%27s+popular+PM+forced+out&rft.date=2001-04-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2001%2Fapr%2F27%2Fiantraynor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LushnyckyRiabchuk2009-216"><a href="#cite_ref-LushnyckyRiabchuk2009_216-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLushnyckyRiabchuk2009" class="citation book cs1">Lushnycky, Andrej N.; <a href="/wiki/Mykola_Riabchuk" title="Mykola Riabchuk">Riabchuk, Mykola</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cQqr7f9QkngC&pg=PA87">Ukraine on Its Meandering Path Between East and West</a>. Peter Lang. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-03911-607-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-03911-607-2"><bdi>978-3-03911-607-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine+on+Its+Meandering+Path+Between+East+and+West&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-03911-607-2&rft.aulast=Lushnycky&rft.aufirst=Andrej+N.&rft.au=Riabchuk%2C+Mykola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcQqr7f9QkngC%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uU-uTX6IYCQC&pg=PT77">Energy Dependency, Politics and Corruption in the Former Soviet Union: Russia's Power, Oligarchs' Profits and Ukraine's Missing Energy Policy, 1995–2006</a> by Margarita M. Balmaceda, <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, 2007, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-43779-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-43779-0">978-0-415-43779-0</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-CarnIP-218"><a href="#cite_ref-CarnIP_218-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X0PAQrsx-6YC&q=Force+of+the+people&pg=PA34">Revolution in Orange: The Origins of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough</a> by <a href="/wiki/Anders_Aslund" class="mw-redirect" title="Anders Aslund">Anders Aslund</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_A._McFaul" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael A. McFaul">Michael A. McFaul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace" title="Carnegie Endowment for International Peace">Carnegie Endowment for International Peace</a>, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87003-221-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-87003-221-6">0-87003-221-6</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87003-221-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87003-221-9">978-0-87003-221-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uawarexplained.com/yanukovych/?version=sixty-minutes/">"Yanukovych is president"</a>. UaWarExplained.com. 29 March 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UaWarExplained.com&rft.atitle=Yanukovych+is+president&rft.date=2022-03-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uawarexplained.com%2Fyanukovych%2F%3Fversion%3Dsixty-minutes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBCprofileYushchenko-220">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BBCprofileYushchenko_220-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBCprofileYushchenko_220-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4035789.stm">Profile: Viktor Yushchenko</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171023150016/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4035789.stm">Archived</a> 23 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBCprofileUkraine2012-221">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BBCprofileUkraine2012_221-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBCprofileUkraine2012_221-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1102303.stm">Ukraine country profile – Overview 2012</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120609073220/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1102303.stm">Archived</a> 9 June 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uawarexplained.com/orange-revolution/?version=sixty-minutes/">"The Orange Revolution"</a>. UaWarExplained.com. 29 March 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UaWarExplained.com&rft.atitle=The+Orange+Revolution&rft.date=2022-03-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uawarexplained.com%2Forange-revolution%2F%3Fversion%3Dsixty-minutes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100215041206/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1963613,00.html">Ukraine's New President: Is the Orange Revolution Over?</a>, <a href="/wiki/Time.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Time.com">Time.com</a> (11 February 2010) </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uawarexplained.com/yanukovych/?version=sixty-minutes/">"The Orange Revolution"</a>. UaWarExplained.com. 29 March 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UaWarExplained.com&rft.atitle=The+Orange+Revolution&rft.date=2022-03-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uawarexplained.com%2Fyanukovych%2F%3Fversion%3Dsixty-minutes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/andreas-umland/ukraine-right-wing-politics-is-genie-out-of-bottle">Ukraine right-wing politics: is the genie out of the bottle?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171014083516/http://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/andreas-umland/ukraine-right-wing-politics-is-genie-out-of-bottle">Archived</a> 14 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/OpenDemocracy.net" class="mw-redirect" title="OpenDemocracy.net">openDemocracy.net</a> (3 January 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12171740">Ukraine viewpoint: Novelist Andrey Kurkov</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181011223832/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12171740">Archived</a> 11 October 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a> (13 January 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12042561">Ukraine ex-PM Tymoshenko charged with misusing funds</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171201225215/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12042561">Archived</a> 1 December 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a> (20 December 2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2010-09-29/party-regions-monopolises-power-ukraine#_ftn5">The Party of Regions monopolises power in Ukraine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110903124818/http://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2010-09-29/party-regions-monopolises-power-ukraine#_ftn5">Archived</a> 3 September 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Eastern_Studies" title="Centre for Eastern Studies">Centre for Eastern Studies</a> (29 September 2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12219712">Ukraine launches battle against corruption</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170321003502/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12219712">Archived</a> 21 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a> (18 January 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-11549381">Ukrainians' long wait for prosperity</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170321004648/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-11549381">Archived</a> 21 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a> (18 October 2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/news-points/ukraine-press-censorship-journalists-uncertain-future">Ukraine:Journalists Face Uncertain Future</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111005204055/http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/news-points/ukraine-press-censorship-journalists-uncertain-future">Archived</a> 5 October 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Center_on_Crisis_Reporting" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting">Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting</a> (27 October 2010) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120603124713/http://www.interfax.com.ua/eng/main/69573/">"Our Ukraine comes to defense of Tymoshenko, Lutsenko, Didenko, Makarenko in statement"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Interfax-Ukraine" title="Interfax-Ukraine">Interfax-Ukraine</a>. 25 May 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.interfax.com.ua/eng/main/69573/">the original</a> on 3 June 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Our+Ukraine+comes+to+defense+of+Tymoshenko%2C+Lutsenko%2C+Didenko%2C+Makarenko+in+statement&rft.date=2011-05-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.interfax.com.ua%2Feng%2Fmain%2F69573%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025646/http://ukraine.usembassy.gov/government-statement-tymoshenko.html">"U.S. Government Statement of Concern about Arrest of Former Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ukraine.usembassy.gov/government-statement-tymoshenko.html">the original</a> on 4 March 2016. 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Ordinary Ukrainians have seen their living standards stagnate, while a handful of oligarchs have become billionaires.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Welcome+to+Ukraine%2C+the+most+corrupt+nation+in+Europe&rft.date=2015-02-06&rft.aulast=Bullough&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fnews%2F2015%2Ffeb%2F04%2Fwelcome-to-the-most-corrupt-nation-in-europe-ukraine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bruegel.org/policy-brief/ukraine-can-meaningful-reform-come-out-conflict">"Ukraine: Can meaningful reform come out of conflict?"</a>. Bruegel | The Brussels-based economic think tank. 25 July 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bruegel+%7C+The+Brussels-based+economic+think+tank&rft.atitle=Ukraine%3A+Can+meaningful+reform+come+out+of+conflict%3F&rft.date=2022-07-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bruegel.org%2Fpolicy-brief%2Fukraine-can-meaningful-reform-come-out-conflict&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPikulicka-Wilczewska2017" class="citation web cs1">Pikulicka-Wilczewska, Agnieszka (19 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://neweasterneurope.eu/2017/07/19/why-the-reforms-in-ukraine-are-so-slow/">"Why the reforms in Ukraine are so slow?"</a>. New Eastern Europe - A bimonthly news magazine dedicated to Central and Eastern European affairs. Retrieved 17 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Eastern+Europe+-+A+bimonthly+news+magazine+dedicated+to+Central+and+Eastern+European+affairs&rft.atitle=Why+the+reforms+in+Ukraine+are+so+slow%3F&rft.date=2017-07-19&rft.aulast=Pikulicka-Wilczewska&rft.aufirst=Agnieszka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fneweasterneurope.eu%2F2017%2F07%2F19%2Fwhy-the-reforms-in-ukraine-are-so-slow%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bruegel.org/blog-post/slow-reform-trap">"The slow-reform trap"</a>. Bruegel | The Brussels-based economic think tank. Retrieved 17 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bruegel+%7C+The+Brussels-based+economic+think+tank&rft.atitle=The+slow-reform+trap&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bruegel.org%2Fblog-post%2Fslow-reform-trap&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oecd.org/countries/ukraine/35290615.pdf">"Ukraine Country Assistance Evaluation"</a> (PDF). OECD. 8 November 2000.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OECD&rft.atitle=Ukraine+Country+Assistance+Evaluation&rft.date=2000-11-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd.org%2Fcountries%2Fukraine%2F35290615.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackinnonGramer2022" class="citation magazine cs1">Mackinnon, Amy; Gramer, Robbie (5 October 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/10/05/russia-ukraine-war-reconstruction-european-bank-odile-renaud-basso/">"The Battle to Save Ukraine's Economy From the War"</a>. Foreign Policy. Retrieved 2 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy&rft.atitle=The+Battle+to+Save+Ukraine%27s+Economy+From+the+War&rft.date=2022-10-05&rft.aulast=Mackinnon&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft.au=Gramer%2C+Robbie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforeignpolicy.com%2F2022%2F10%2F05%2Frussia-ukraine-war-reconstruction-european-bank-odile-renaud-basso%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrince2023" class="citation news cs1">Prince, Todd (1 January 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-war-ukraine-western-academia/32201630.html">"Moscow's Invasion Of Ukraine Triggers 'Soul-Searching' At Western Universities As Scholars Rethink Russian Studies"</a>. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 17 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radio+Free+Europe%2FRadio+Liberty&rft.atitle=Moscow%27s+Invasion+Of+Ukraine+Triggers+%27Soul-Searching%27+At+Western+Universities+As+Scholars+Rethink+Russian+Studies&rft.date=2023-01-01&rft.aulast=Prince&rft.aufirst=Todd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rferl.org%2Fa%2Frussia-war-ukraine-western-academia%2F32201630.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> Serhii Plokhy, Unmaking Imperial Russia: Mykhailo Hrushevsky and the Writing of Ukrainian History (2005) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagocsi201021-284"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagocsi201021_284-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMagocsi2010">Magocsi 2010</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVelychenko1993" class="citation book cs1">Velychenko, Stephen (1993). Shaping Identity in Eastern Europe and Russia: Soviet-Russian and Polish Accounts of Ukrainian History, 1914–1991. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-05825-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-05825-6"><bdi>978-1-137-05825-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1004379833">1004379833</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shaping+Identity+in+Eastern+Europe+and+Russia%3A+Soviet-Russian+and+Polish+Accounts+of+Ukrainian+History%2C+1914%E2%80%931991&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1004379833&rft.isbn=978-1-137-05825-6&rft.aulast=Velychenko&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> Taras Kuzio, "National Identity and History Writing in Ukraine," Nationalities Papers 2006 34(4): 407–427, online in <a href="/wiki/EBSCO" class="mw-redirect" title="EBSCO">EBSCO</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> Plokhy, Serhii (2007). "Beyond Nationality" Ab Imperio 2007 (4): 25–46, </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStudenna-Skrukwa2022" class="citation book cs1">Studenna-Skrukwa, Marta (2022). "What history? What homeland? The nationalization of history in the school education before the breakthroughs in 2014–15 and after". In Tomasz Stryjek; Joanna Konieczna-Sałamatin (eds.). The politics of memory in Poland and Ukraine: From reconciliation to de-conciliation. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 85–103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-01734-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-003-01734-9"><bdi>978-1-003-01734-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1257314140">1257314140</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+history%3F+What+homeland%3F+The+nationalization+of+history+in+the+school+education+before+the+breakthroughs+in+2014%E2%80%9315+and+after&rft.btitle=The+politics+of+memory+in+Poland+and+Ukraine%3A+From+reconciliation+to+de-conciliation&rft.place=London&rft.pages=85-103&rft.pub=Routledge%2C+Taylor+%26+Francis+Group&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1257314140&rft.isbn=978-1-003-01734-9&rft.aulast=Studenna-Skrukwa&rft.aufirst=Marta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> See: Portnov, Andriy (2007). "Exercises with history Ukrainian style (notes on public aspects of history's functioning in post-Soviet Ukraine)". Ab Imperio 2007 (3): 93–138, (in Ukrainian) </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> Roman Senkus, "Ukrainian Studies in Canada Since the 1950s: An Introduction." East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies 5.1 (2018): 3–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> Bohdan Krawchenko, "Ukrainian studies in Canada." Nationalities Papers 6#1 (1978): 26–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> Serhy Yekelchyk, "Studying the Blueprint for a Nation: Canadian Historiography of Modern Ukraine," East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies (2018) 5#1 pp. 115–137. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ewjus.com/index.php/ewjus/article/view/373/pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190228191910/https://www.ewjus.com/index.php/ewjus/article/view/373/pdf">Archived</a> 28 February 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Ukrainian_history" title="Bibliography of Ukrainian history">Bibliography of Ukrainian history</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys_and_reference">Surveys and reference</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Surveys and reference">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Encyclopedia of Ukraine (University of Toronto Press, 1984–93) 5 vol.; from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121001155033/http://www.utoronto.ca/cius/webfiles/eu.htm">Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies</a>, partly online as the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/">Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._E._D._Allen" class="mw-redirect" title="W. E. D. Allen">Allen, W. E. D.</a> (1963). The Ukraine: a history. Russell & Russell. p. 404. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/578666051">578666051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ukraine%3A+a+history&rft.pages=404&rft.pub=Russell+%26+Russell&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F578666051&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bilinsky, Yaroslav The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World War II (Rutgers UP, 1964).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossSherbowitz-Wetzor1953" class="citation book cs1">Cross, Samuel Hazzard; Sherbowitz-Wetzor, Olgerd P., eds. (1953) [1930]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf">The Russian Primary Chronicle, Laurentian Text</a> (PDF). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Mediaeval Academy of America. p. 325. Retrieved 26 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Primary+Chronicle%2C+Laurentian+Text&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=325&rft.pub=The+Mediaeval+Academy+of+America&rft.date=1953&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mgh-bibliothek.de%2Fdokumente%2Fa%2Fa011458.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCybriwsky2018" class="citation book cs1">Cybriwsky, Roman Adrian (20 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W_4OEAAAQBAJ">Along Ukraine's River: A Social and Environmental History of the Dnipro</a>. Central European University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-6338-6205-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-6338-6205-6"><bdi>978-9-6338-6205-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Along+Ukraine%27s+River%3A+A+Social+and+Environmental+History+of+the+Dnipro&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2018-03-20&rft.isbn=978-9-6338-6205-6&rft.aulast=Cybriwsky&rft.aufirst=Roman+Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW_4OEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmytro_Doroshenko" title="Dmytro Doroshenko">Doroshenko, Dmytro</a>, History of the Ukraine. Institute Press (Edmonton, Alberta), 1939: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/_Texts/DORHOU/home.html">Online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuczko2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Duczko" class="extiw" title="pl:Władysław Duczko">Duczko, Wladyslaw</a> [in Polish] (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hEawXSP4AVwC">Viking Rus: Studies on the Presence of Scandinavians in Eastern Europe</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004138749" title="Special:BookSources/9004138749"><bdi>9004138749</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Viking+Rus%3A+Studies+on+the+Presence+of+Scandinavians+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9004138749&rft.aulast=Duczko&rft.aufirst=Wladyslaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhEawXSP4AVwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaripzanov2006" class="citation cs2">Garipzanov, Ildar (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2382954">"The Annals of St. Bertin (839) and Chacanus of the Rhos"</a>, Ruthenica, vol. 5, <a href="/wiki/NASU_Institute_of_History_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="NASU Institute of History of Ukraine">NASU Institute of History of Ukraine</a> (Instytut istoriï Ukraïny NAN Ukraïny), pp. 7–11, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54413298">54413298</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ruthenica&rft.atitle=The+Annals+of+St.+Bertin+%28839%29+and+Chacanus+of+the+Rhos&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=7-11&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54413298&rft.aulast=Garipzanov&rft.aufirst=Ildar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2382954&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGasparovRaevsky-Hughes2018" class="citation book cs1">Gasparov, Boris; Raevsky-Hughes, Olga (2018) [1993]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520302471/christianity-and-the-eastern-slavs-volume-i">Christianity and the Eastern Slavs, Volume I: Slavic Cultures in the Middle Ages</a>. University of California Press. p. 374.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+and+the+Eastern+Slavs%2C+Volume+I%3A+Slavic+Cultures+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=374&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Gasparov&rft.aufirst=Boris&rft.au=Raevsky-Hughes%2C+Olga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucpress.edu%2Fbook%2F9780520302471%2Fchristianity-and-the-eastern-slavs-volume-i&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hrushevsky, Mykhailo. History of Ukraine-Rus' in 9 volumes (1866–1934). Available online in Ukrainian as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://litopys.org.ua/hrushrus/iur.htm">"Історія України-Руси"</a> (1954–57). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ciuspress.com/about-author/?v=3e8d115eb4b3">Translated into English</a> (1997–2014). <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mykhailo_Hrushevsky" title="Mykhailo Hrushevsky">Hrushevsky, Mykhailo</a>. A History of Ukraine (1986 [1941]).</li></ul></li> <li>Ivan Katchanovski; <a href="/wiki/Zenon_Kohut" title="Zenon Kohut">Kohut, Zenon E.</a>; Nebesio, Bohdan Y.; and Yurkevich, Myroslav (2013). Historical Dictionary of Ukraine. Second edition.</li> <li>Kubicek, Paul. The History of Ukraine (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0313349207">excerpt and text search</a>.</li> <li>Kubijovyč, Volodymyr, ed. Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia; University of Toronto Press. 1963; 1188 pp.</li> <li>Liber, George. Total wars and the making of modern Ukraine, 1914–1954 (University of Toronto Press, 2016).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagocsi2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_R._Magocsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul R. Magocsi">Magocsi, Paul R.</a> (2010) [1996]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TA1zVKTTsXUC">A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples</a> (2nd rev. ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-1021-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-1021-7"><bdi>978-1-4426-1021-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ukraine%3A+The+Land+and+Its+Peoples&rft.place=Toronto&rft.edition=2nd+rev.&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-1021-7&rft.aulast=Magocsi&rft.aufirst=Paul+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTA1zVKTTsXUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Manning" title="Clarence Manning">Manning, Clarence</a>, The Story of the Ukraine. <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University_Press" title="Georgetown University Press">Georgetown University Press</a>, 1947: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/_Texts/MANSOU/home.html">Online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrowski2018" class="citation journal cs1">Ostrowski, Donald (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/css/52/1/article-p30_2.xml">"Was There a Riurikid Dynasty in Early Rus'?"</a>. Canadian-American Slavic Studies. 52 (1): 30–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22102396-05201009">10.1163/22102396-05201009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian-American+Slavic+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+There+a+Riurikid+Dynasty+in+Early+Rus%27%3F&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=30-49&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22102396-05201009&rft.aulast=Ostrowski&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fcss%2F52%2F1%2Farticle-p30_2.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephenson2000" class="citation book cs1">Stephenson, Paul (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ILiOI0UgxHoC&pg=PA56">Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77017-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77017-0"><bdi>978-0-521-77017-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 24 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium%27s+Balkan+Frontier%3A+A+Political+Study+of+the+Northern+Balkans%2C+900%E2%80%931204&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77017-0&rft.aulast=Stephenson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DILiOI0UgxHoC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurta2019" class="citation book cs1">Curta, Florin (8 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-sqiDwAAQBAJ">Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages (500-1300) (2 vols)</a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-39519-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-39519-0"><bdi>978-90-04-39519-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+Europe+in+the+Middle+Ages+%28500-1300%29+%282+vols%29&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2019-07-08&rft.isbn=978-90-04-39519-0&rft.aulast=Curta&rft.aufirst=Florin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-sqiDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatchanovskiKohutNesebioYurkevich2013" class="citation book cs1">Katchanovski, Ivan; <a href="/wiki/Zenon_Kohut" title="Zenon Kohut">Kohut, Zenon E.</a>; Nesebio, Bohdan Y.; Yurkevich, Myroslav (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC">Historical Dictionary of Ukraine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lanham,_Maryland" title="Lanham, Maryland">Lanham, Maryland</a>; <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>; <a href="/wiki/Plymouth" title="Plymouth">Plymouth</a>: Scarecrow Press. p. 992. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810878471" title="Special:BookSources/9780810878471"><bdi>9780810878471</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423152841/https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Ukraine&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland%3B+Toronto%3B+Plymouth&rft.pages=992&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780810878471&rft.aulast=Katchanovski&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rft.au=Kohut%2C+Zenon+E.&rft.au=Nesebio%2C+Bohdan+Y.&rft.au=Yurkevich%2C+Myroslav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-h6r57lDC4QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlokhy2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Serhii_Plokhy" title="Serhii Plokhy">Plokhy, Serhii</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pCdUmCWxwJ8C">The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1394-5892-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1394-5892-4"><bdi>978-1-1394-5892-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Slavic+Nations%3A+Premodern+Identities+in+Russia%2C+Ukraine%2C+and+Belarus&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-1394-5892-4&rft.aulast=Plokhy&rft.aufirst=Serhii&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpCdUmCWxwJ8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Plokhy, Serhii (2015). The Gates of Europe: A History of Ukraine. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4650-5091-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4650-5091-8"><bdi>978-0-4650-5091-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gates+of+Europe%3A+A+History+of+Ukraine&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-4650-5091-8&rft.aulast=Plokhy&rft.aufirst=Serhii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Reid, Anna. Borderland: A Journey Through the History of Ukraine (2003). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7538-0160-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7538-0160-4">0-7538-0160-4</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Snyder, Timothy D. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC">The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999</a>. Yale U.P. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-0586-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-0586-5"><bdi>978-0-3001-0586-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reconstruction+of+Nations%3A+Poland%2C+Ukraine%2C+Lithuania%2C+Belarus%2C+1569%E2%80%931999&rft.pub=Yale+U.P.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-3001-0586-5&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxSpEynLxJ1MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> pp. 105–216.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Orest_Subtelny" title="Orest Subtelny">Subtelny, Orest</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0">Ukraine: A History</a>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8390-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8390-6"><bdi>978-0-8020-8390-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine%3A+A+History&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-8390-6&rft.aulast=Subtelny&rft.aufirst=Orest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fukrainehistory00subt_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"> A Ukrainian translation is available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infoukes.com/ukremb/history/SUBTELNY/title.htm">online</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wilson_(historian)" title="Andrew Wilson (historian)">Wilson, Andrew</a>. The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation. Yale University Press; 2nd edition (2002). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3000-9309-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-3000-9309-8">0-3000-9309-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYekelchyk2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Serhy_Yekelchyk" title="Serhy Yekelchyk">Yekelchyk, Serhy</a> (2007). Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1953-0546-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1953-0546-3"><bdi>978-0-1953-0546-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/219616283">219616283</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine%3A+Birth+of+a+Modern+Nation&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F219616283&rft.isbn=978-0-1953-0546-3&rft.aulast=Yekelchyk&rft.aufirst=Serhy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMason2004" class="citation book cs1">Mason, Emma (2004). The house of Godwine : the history of a dynasty. London: Hambledon and London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85285-389-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85285-389-1"><bdi>1-85285-389-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51912953">51912953</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+house+of+Godwine+%3A+the+history+of+a+dynasty&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hambledon+and+London&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51912953&rft.isbn=1-85285-389-1&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=Emma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVernadsky1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Vernadsky" title="George Vernadsky">Vernadsky, George</a> (1970). The Mongols and Russia. A History of Russia, Volume III. New Haven: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mongols+and+Russia.+A+History+of+Russia%2C+Volume+III.&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Vernadsky&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Topical_studies">Topical studies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Topical studies">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Kononenko, Konstantyn. Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic Relations between Ukraine and Russia, 1654–1917 (Marquette University Press 1958).</li> <li>Luckyj, George S. Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995 (1996).</li> <li>Shkandrij, Myroslav (2014). Ukrainian Nationalism: Politics, Ideology, and Literature, 1929–1956. Yale University Press – Studies the ideology and legacy of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, especially of Dmytro Dontsov, Olena Teliha, Leonid Mosendz, Oleh Olzhych, <a href="/wiki/Yurii_Lypa" title="Yurii Lypa">Yurii Lypa</a>, Ulas Samchuk, Yurii Klen, and Dokia Humenna.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1930s,_World_War_II">1930s, World War II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: 1930s, World War II">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Applebaum" title="Anne Applebaum">Applebaum, Anne</a> (2017). <a href="/wiki/Red_Famine:_Stalin%27s_War_on_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine">Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=51300">online review</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Boshyk, Yuri (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ukraineduringwor0000unse">Ukraine During World War II: History and Its Aftermath</a>. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-920862-37-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-920862-37-3"><bdi>0-920862-37-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine+During+World+War+II%3A+History+and+Its+Aftermath&rft.pub=Canadian+Institute+of+Ukrainian+Studies&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-920862-37-3&rft.aulast=Boshyk&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fukraineduringwor0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_C._Berkhoff" title="Karel C. Berkhoff">Berkhoff, Karel C.</a>, Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule. Harvard U. Press, 2004.</li> <li>Brandon, Ray, and <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Lower" title="Wendy Lower">Wendy Lower</a>, eds. (2008). The Shoah in Ukraine: History, Testimony, Memorialization. 378 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=24078">online review</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Conquest, Robert</a> (1986). <a href="/wiki/The_Harvest_of_Sorrow" title="The Harvest of Sorrow">The Harvest Of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivisation and the Terror-Famine</a></li> <li>Gross, Jan T. (1988). Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia</li> <li>Kostiuk, Hryhory (1960). Stalinist Rule in the Ukraine. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/_Texts/KOSSRU/home.html">Online</a>.</li> <li>Kudelia, Serhiy. (2013). "Choosing Violence in Irregular Wars: The Case of Anti-Soviet Insurgency in Western Ukraine", East European Politics and Societies 27#1 pp. 149–181.</li> <li>Lower, Wendy, (2005). Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine. University of North Carolina Press</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Manning" title="Clarence Manning">Manning, Clarence</a> (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/_Texts/MANUUS/home.htm">Ukraine under the Soviets</a>. New York: Bookman Associates.</li> <li>Narvselius, Eleonora (2012). "The 'Bandera Debate': The Contentious Legacy of World War II and Liberalization of Collective Memory in Western Ukraine", Canadian Slavonic Papers 54#3 pp. 469–490.</li> <li>Redlich, Shimon (2002). Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919–1945. Indiana University Press</li> <li>Zabarko, Boris, ed. (2005). Holocaust in the Ukraine. Mitchell Vallentine & Co.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent_history">Recent history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Recent history">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Aslund, Anders, and Michael McFaul. (2006). Revolution in Orange: The Origins of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Blaj, L. (2013). "Ukraine's Independence and Its Geostrategic Impact in Eastern Europe". Debatte: Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe. 21 (2–3): 165. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0965156X.2013.841797">10.1080/0965156X.2013.841797</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143454991">143454991</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Debatte%3A+Journal+of+Contemporary+Central+and+Eastern+Europe&rft.atitle=Ukraine%27s+Independence+and+Its+Geostrategic+Impact+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=165&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0965156X.2013.841797&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143454991%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Blaj&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Paul D'Anieri (1999). Politics and Society in Ukraine. Avalon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813335384" title="Special:BookSources/9780813335384"><bdi>9780813335384</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+and+Society+in+Ukraine&rft.pub=Avalon&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780813335384&rft.au=Paul+D%27Anieri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatoliy_Dimarov" title="Anatoliy Dimarov">Dimarov, Anatoliy</a> et al. A Hunger Most Cruel: The Human Face of the 1932–1933 Terror-Famine in Soviet Ukraine (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/096838997X">excerpt and text search</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askold_Krushelnycky" title="Askold Krushelnycky">Askold Krushelnycky</a>. An Orange Revolution: A Personal Journey Through Ukrainian History (2006). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-436-20623-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-436-20623-4">0-436-20623-4</a>. 320 pp.</li> <li>Kutaisov, Aleksandr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ukrainaby00kutauoft">Ukraina</a> (1918).</li> <li>Kuzio, Taras. Ukraine: State and Nation Building (1998). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-17195-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-17195-4">0-415-17195-4</a>.</li> <li>Luckyj, George S. Literary Politics in the Soviet Ukraine, 1917–1934 (1990). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-1081-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-1081-3">0-8223-1081-3</a>.</li> <li>Wanner, Catherine. Burden of Dreams: History and Identity in Post-Soviet Ukraine (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0271030011">excerpt and text search</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_and_memory">Historiography and memory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Historiography and memory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Slavic_studies_journals" title="List of Slavic studies journals">List of Slavic studies journals</a></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_von_Hagen" title="Mark von Hagen">von Hagen, Mark</a> (1995). "Does Ukraine Have a History?". <a href="/wiki/Slavic_Review" title="Slavic Review">Slavic Review</a>. 54 (3): 658–673. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2501741">10.2307/2501741</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-6779">0037-6779</a>. <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q113708200" class="extiw" title="d:Q113708200">Q113708200</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=Does+Ukraine+Have+a+History%3F&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=658-673&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2501741&rft.issn=0037-6779&rft.au=von+Hagen%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John-Paul_Himka" title="John-Paul Himka">Himka, John-Paul</a>. "The National and the Social in the Ukrainian Revolution of 1917-1920- The Historiographical Agenda". Archiv für Sozialgeschichte, vol. 34 (1994): 95–110.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Mykhailo_Hrushevskyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mykhailo Hrushevskyi">Hrushevskyi, Mykhailo</a> (1904). "The traditional scheme of 'Russian' history and the problem of a rational organization of the history of the East Slavs". Articles on Slavistics (in Ukrainian). 1, 2 (55, 2): 35–42, 355–364. <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28703759" class="extiw" title="d:Q28703759">Q28703759</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Articles+on+Slavistics&rft.atitle=The+traditional+scheme+of+%E2%80%98Russian%E2%80%99+history+and+the+problem+of+a+rational+organization+of+the+history+of+the+East+Slavs&rft.volume=1%2C+2&rft.issue=55%2C+2&rft.pages=35-42%2C+355-364&rft.date=1904&rft.au=Hrushevskyi%2C+Mykhailo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kasianov, Georgiy, and <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Ther" title="Philipp Ther">Philipp Ther</a>, eds. Laboratory of Transnational History: Ukraine and Recent Ukrainian Historiography (Central European University Press 2009). [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>].</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohdan_Krawchenko" title="Bohdan Krawchenko">Krawchenko, Bohdan</a>. "Ukrainian studies in Canada". Nationalities Papers 6.1 (1978): 26–43.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Serhii_Plokhy" title="Serhii Plokhy">Plokhy, Serhii</a>, ed. (2016). The Future of the Past: New Perspectives on Ukrainian History. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Ukrainian_Research_Institute" title="Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute">Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932650-16-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-932650-16-7"><bdi>978-1-932650-16-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q116456399" class="extiw" title="d:Q116456399">Q116456399</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+the+Past%3A+New+Perspectives+on+Ukrainian+History&rft.pub=Harvard+Ukrainian+Research+Institute&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-932650-16-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Serhii_Plokhy" title="Serhii Plokhy">Plokhy, Serhii</a> (2021). Quo Vadis Ukrainian History?. The Frontline: Essays on Ukraine's Past and Present. pp. 1–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2FJ.CTV2902B86.6">10.2307/J.CTV2902B86.6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-26882-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-26882-1"><bdi>978-0-674-26882-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q116456336" class="extiw" title="d:Q116456336">Q116456336</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quo+Vadis+Ukrainian+History%3F&rft.series=The+Frontline%3A+Essays+on+Ukraine%26%2339%3Bs+Past+and+Present&rft.pages=1-14&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2FJ.CTV2902B86.6&rft.isbn=978-0-674-26882-1&rft.au=Plokhy%2C+Serhii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Reid" title="Anna Reid">Reid, Anna</a>. "Putin's War on History: The Thousand-Year Struggle Over Ukraine" Foreign Affairs (May/June 2022) 101#1 pp. 54–63. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tribunecontentagency.com/article/putins-war-on-history-the-thousand-year-struggle-over-ukraine/">excerpt</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Smith-Peter, Susan (1 April 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jordanrussiacenter.org/news/what-do-scholars-of-russia-owe-ukraine-today/">"What do Scholars of Russia owe Ukraine?"</a>. Jordan Center for the Advanced Study of Russia. Jordan Center for the Advanced Study of Russia. <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q116456099" class="extiw" title="d:Q116456099">Q116456099</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jordan+Center+for+the+Advanced+Study+of+Russia&rft.atitle=What+do+Scholars+of+Russia+owe+Ukraine%3F&rft.date=2022-04-01&rft.au=Smith-Peter%2C+Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjordanrussiacenter.org%2Fnews%2Fwhat-do-scholars-of-russia-owe-ukraine-today%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Orest_Subtelny" title="Orest Subtelny">Subtelny, Orest</a>. "The Current State of Ukrainian Historiography". Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 18 (1–2): 33–54. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0228-1635">0228-1635</a>. <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q116456077" class="extiw" title="d:Q116456077">Q116456077</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Ukrainian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Current+State+of+Ukrainian+Historiography&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=33-54&rft.issn=0228-1635&rft.au=Subtelny%2C+Orest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Velychenko, Stephen, National history as cultural process: a survey of the interpretations of Ukraine's past in Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian historical writing from the earliest times to 1914 (Edmonton, 1992).</li> <li>Velychenko, Stephen, Shaping identity in Eastern Europe and Russia: Soviet-Russian and Polish accounts of Ukrainian history, 1914–1991 (London, 1993).</li> <li>Verstiuk, Vladyslav. "Conceptual Issues in Studying the History of the Ukrainian Revolution". Journal of Ukrainian Studies 24.1 (1999): 5–20.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rex_A._Wade" title="Rex A. Wade">Wade, Rex A.</a>, "The Revolution At Ninety-(One): Anglo-American Historiography Of The Russian Revolution Of 1917", Journal of Modern Russian History and Historiography 1.1 (2008): vii-42.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serhy_Yekelchyk" title="Serhy Yekelchyk">Yekelchyk, Serhy</a>. "Studying the Blueprint for a Nation: Canadian Historiography of Modern Ukraine". East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies 5.1 (2018).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Teaching_and_study_guides">Teaching and study guides</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Teaching and study guides">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>John Vsetecka, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clioandthecontemporary.com/2022/07/03/let-ukraine-speak-integrating-ukraine-into-syllabi/">Integrating Scholarship on Ukraine into Classroom SyllabiLet Ukraine Speak: Integrating Scholarship on Ukraine into Classroom Syllabii</a>".</li> <li>Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://huri.harvard.edu/teaching-resources-list">Teaching and Studying Ukraine: List of Resources</a>".</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources_in_English">Primary sources in English</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Primary sources in English">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Luckyj, George S. Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995 (1996).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ukrainian_language">Ukrainian language</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Ukrainian language">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Essays on History on Ukraine. <ul><li>Volume 1 by Natalia Yakovenko, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050110172544/http://www.vesna.org.ua/txt/yakovenkon/znaid/index.html">"From the Earliest Times until the End of the 18th Century"</a>.</li> <li>Volume 2: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Ярослав Грицак (Yaroslav Hrytsak) (1996). Формування модерної української нації XIX-XX ст. (Formation of the Modern Ukrainian Nation in the late 19th–20th centuries). <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a>: Генеза (Heneza). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/966-504-150-9" title="Special:BookSources/966-504-150-9"><bdi>966-504-150-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F+%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%97+%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%97+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97+XIX-XX+%D1%81%D1%82.+%28Formation+of+the+Modern+Ukrainian+Nation+in+the+late+19th%E2%80%9320th+centuries%29&rft.place=Kyiv&rft.pub=%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0+%28Heneza%29&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=966-504-150-9&rft.au=%D0%AF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2+%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0%D0%BA+%28Yaroslav+Hrytsak%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Ukraine" class="Z3988">. Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050302102308/http://www.vesna.org.ua/txt/grytsakj/formuv/index.html">online</a>.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Tsvirkun, Alexander F.; Savelii, Valentin A. (2005). History of Ukraine. Kyiv: 7 class electronic textbooks.</li> <li>Alexander F. Tsvirkun (2010). E-learning course: History of Ukraine. Kyiv: Journal Auditorium.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wumag.kiev.ua/index2.php?param=pgs20031/4">"Briefly about Her Past and Present"</a>. Welcome to Ukraine | WU Magazine, 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160411070753/http://www.wumag.kiev.ua/index2.php?param=pgs20031%2F4">Archived</a> 11 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_Ukraine" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of Ukraine">History of Ukraine</a> at Wikimedia Commons <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Ukraine:_Primary_Documents">History of Ukraine: Primary Documents (weblist)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/home.html">History of Ukraine</a>: 10 complete books</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.day.kiev.ua/131109/">Ukrainian history overview</a> published in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Den%27&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Den' (page does not exist)">Den'</a> (in Ukrainian).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ukraine_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ukraine_topics" title="Template:Ukraine topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ukraine_topics" title="Template talk:Ukraine topics"><abbr 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<li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">East Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuyaba" title="Kuyaba">Kuyaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Principality of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia%E2%80%93Volhynia" title="Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia">Galicia–Volhynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiev_Voivodeship" title="Kiev Voivodeship">Kiev Voivodeship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaporozhian_Cossacks" title="Zaporozhian Cossacks">Zaporozhian Cossacks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zaporozhian_Sich" title="Zaporozhian Sich">Sich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Hetmanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pereiaslav_Agreement" title="Pereiaslav Agreement">Pereiaslav Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_War_of_Independence" title="Ukrainian War of Independence">Revolution and War of Independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukrainian People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_State" title="Ukrainian State">Ukrainian State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="West Ukrainian People's Republic">West Ukrainian People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovshchina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ukraine" title="Reichskommissariat Ukraine">Reichskommissariat Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_National_Committee" title="Ukrainian National Committee">Ukrainian National Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian SSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front (World War II)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Volhynia massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_Ukraine" title="Declaration of Independence of Ukraine">Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Revolution" title="Orange Revolution">Orange Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_Dignity" title="Revolution of Dignity">Revolution of Dignity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Outline of the Russo-Ukrainian War">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_pro-Russian_unrest_in_Ukraine" title="2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine">2014 pro-Russian unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea by Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas" title="War in Donbas">War in Donbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Ukraine" title="History of Christianity in Ukraine">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Ukraine" title="Economy of Ukraine">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Ukraine" title="Armed Forces of Ukraine">Military</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Ukraine" title="Geography of Ukraine">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_Ukraine" title="National parks of Ukraine">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Network_of_Biosphere_Reserves_in_Europe_and_North_America#Ukraine" title="World Network of Biosphere Reserves in Europe and North America">Biosphere reserves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine">Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nature_reserves_of_Ukraine" title="List of nature reserves of Ukraine">Nature reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populated_places_in_Ukraine" title="Populated places in Ukraine">Populated places</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Ukraine" title="List of cities in Ukraine">Cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_longest_rivers_of_Ukraine" title="List of longest rivers of Ukraine">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Ukraine" title="List of mountains in Ukraine">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_in_Ukraine" title="List of waterfalls in Ukraine">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Ukraine" title="List of islands of Ukraine">Islands and sandbars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Ukraine" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Ukraine">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Ukraine" title="Wildlife of Ukraine">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Ukraine" title="Politics of Ukraine">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Ukraine" title="Administrative divisions of Ukraine">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Ukraine" title="Constitution of Ukraine">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Ukraine" title="Flag of Ukraine">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Ukraine" title="President of Ukraine">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verkhovna_Rada" title="Verkhovna Rada">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ukraine" title="Government of Ukraine">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign relations of Ukraine">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Ukraine" title="Armed Forces of Ukraine">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_Ukraine" title="Political parties in Ukraine">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Ukraine" title="Elections in Ukraine">Elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Ukraine" title="Judiciary of Ukraine">Judiciary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Ukraine" title="Law of Ukraine">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Ukraine)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Ukraine)">Law enforcement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine%E2%80%93European_Union_relations" title="Ukraine–European Union relations">Ukraine–European Union relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Ukraine–NATO relations">Ukraine–NATO relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Ukraine" title="Economy of Ukraine">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_hryvnia" title="Ukrainian hryvnia">Hryvnia (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Ukraine" title="Banking in Ukraine">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_exchanges_in_Ukraine" title="Stock exchanges in Ukraine">Stock exchanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Ukraine" title="Energy in Ukraine">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_in_Ukraine" title="Electricity in Ukraine">Electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Ukraine" title="Science and technology in Ukraine">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ukraine" title="Telecommunications in Ukraine">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Ukraine" title="Tourism in Ukraine">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Ukraine" title="Transport in Ukraine">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Ukraine" title="Category:Society of Ukraine">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ukraine" title="Education in Ukraine">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Ukraine" title="Corruption in Ukraine">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality_in_Ukraine" title="Gender inequality in Ukraine">Gender inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Ukraine" title="Health in Ukraine">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Ukraine" title="Abortion in Ukraine">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Ukraine" title="HIV/AIDS in Ukraine">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">Swine flu pandemic</a> (2009-10)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ukraine" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Ukraine">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Ukraine" title="Crime in Ukraine">Crime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_Ukraine" title="Suicide in Ukraine">suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Ukraine" title="Human rights in Ukraine">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_Ukraine" title="Freedom of the press in Ukraine">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Ukraine">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Ukraine" title="Human trafficking in Ukraine">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Ukraine" title="Languages of Ukraine">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minorities_in_Ukraine" title="Minorities in Ukraine">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Ukraine" title="Prostitution in Ukraine">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ukraine" title="Religion in Ukraine">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Ukraine" title="Culture of Ukraine">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukrainian_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ukrainian animation">Animation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_architecture" title="Ukrainian architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Architecture of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_baroque" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian baroque">Baroque</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_of_Ukraine" title="Arts of Ukraine">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Ukraine" title="Cinema of Ukraine">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_cuisine" title="Ukrainian cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_wine" title="Ukrainian wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cultural icons <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandura" title="Bandura">Bandura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borscht" title="Borscht">Borscht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_fairy_tale" title="Ukrainian fairy tale">Kazka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kobzar" title="Kobzar">Kobzar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pysanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Pysanka">Pysanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rushnyk" title="Rushnyk">Rushnyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyshyvanka" title="Vyshyvanka">Vyshyvanka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_dance" title="Ukrainian dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_folklore" title="Ukrainian folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Ukraine" title="Public holidays in Ukraine">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_Cultural_Heritage_of_Ukraine" title="Intangible Cultural Heritage of Ukraine">Intangible Cultural Heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_literature" title="Ukrainian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Ukraine" title="Mass media in Ukraine">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Ukraine" title="Music of Ukraine">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opera_in_Ukraine" title="Opera in Ukraine">Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Ukraine" title="Sport in Ukraine">Sport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Ukraine" title="Demographics of Ukraine">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainian people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus' people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruthenians" title="Ruthenians">Ruthenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_diaspora" title="Ukrainian diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_refugee_crisis_(2022%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian refugee crisis (2022–present)">Refugees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigration to Ukraine">Immigration to Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censuses_in_Ukraine" title="Censuses in Ukraine">Censuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ukraine" title="Women in Ukraine">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Ukraine" title="Outline of Ukraine">Outline</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ukraine" title="Category:Ukraine">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ukraine" title="Portal:Ukraine">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_current_European_countries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:European_history_by_country" title="Template:European history by country"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:European_history_by_country" title="Template talk:European history by country"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:European_history_by_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:European history by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_current_European_countries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of current European countries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albania" title="History of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Armenia" title="History of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria" title="History of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Azerbaijan" title="History of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belarus" title="History of Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belgium" title="History of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="History of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria" title="History of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Croatia" title="History of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonia" title="History of Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finland" title="History of Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hungary" title="History of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iceland" title="History of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="History of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latvia" title="History of Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Luxembourg" title="History of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malta" title="History of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moldova" title="History of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Monaco" title="History of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montenegro" title="History of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Macedonia" title="History of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Norway" title="History of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal" title="History of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Romania" title="History of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Marino" title="History of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbia" title="History of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovakia" title="History of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovenia" title="History of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain" title="History of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden" title="History of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Switzerland" title="History of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vatican_City" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Abkhazia" title="History of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kosovo" title="History of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Transnistria" title="History of Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_%C3%85land" title="History of Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Faroe_Islands" title="History of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar" title="History of Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guernsey" title="History of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="History of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jersey" title="History of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Svalbard" title="History of Svalbard">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210701#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210701#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210701#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85139343">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007558404805171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\H\I\historyofukraine">Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&oldid=1259337166">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Ukraine&oldid=1259337166</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Ukraine" title="Category:History of Ukraine">History of Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ukrainian_studies" title="Category:Ukrainian studies">Ukrainian studies</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_reference_errors" 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1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 12,\n [\"Cite Q\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 66,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 30,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 68,\n [\"Commons\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:History Of Ukraine\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 2,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"European history by country\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 7,\n [\"Further information\"] = 1,\n [\"GBurl\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvtxt\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Ukraine\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 19,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 1,\n [\"Ill\"] = 2,\n [\"Inlang\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Langx\"] = 2,\n [\"Legend\"] = 4,\n [\"Main\"] = 31,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"R\"] = 4,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 2,\n [\"See also\"] = 14,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 17,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 2,\n [\"Split section\"] = 1,\n [\"Ukraine topics\"] = 1,\n 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