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</div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Causes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Problem_of_succession_and_civil_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problem_of_succession_and_civil_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Problem of succession and civil war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problem_of_succession_and_civil_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_disasters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_disasters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Natural disasters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_disasters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_invasions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_invasions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Foreign invasions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_invasions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Economic impact</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economic_impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economic impact subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economic_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Breakdown_of_the_internal_trade_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breakdown_of_the_internal_trade_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Breakdown of the internal trade network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breakdown_of_the_internal_trade_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Increased_militarization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Increased_militarization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Increased militarization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Increased_militarization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emperors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emperors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Emperors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Emperors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Emperors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Emperors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Non-dynastic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-dynastic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Non-dynastic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-dynastic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gordian_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gordian_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Gordian dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gordian_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-dynastic_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-dynastic_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Non-dynastic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-dynastic_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decian_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decian_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Decian dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decian_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-dynastic_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-dynastic_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Non-dynastic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-dynastic_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Valerian_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Valerian_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Valerian dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Valerian_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claudian_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claudian_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Claudian dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claudian_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-dynastic_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-dynastic_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Non-dynastic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-dynastic_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tacitan_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tacitan_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Tacitan dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tacitan_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-dynastic_5" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-dynastic_5"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10</span> <span>Non-dynastic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-dynastic_5-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caran_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caran_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.11</span> <span>Caran dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caran_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>General and cited references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Crisis of the Third Century</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">48 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krisis_van_die_Derde_Eeu" title="Krisis van die Derde Eeu – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Krisis van die Derde Eeu" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskrise_des_3._Jahrhunderts" title="Reichskrise des 3. Jahrhunderts – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Reichskrise des 3. Jahrhunderts" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB" title="أزمة القرن الثالث – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أزمة القرن الثالث" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_del_sieglu_III" title="Crisis del sieglu III – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Crisis del sieglu III" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9C%C3%A7%C3%BCnc%C3%BC_%C9%99sr_b%C3%B6hran%C4%B1" title="Üçüncü əsr böhranı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Üçüncü əsr böhranı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%81_%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%96_III_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%8F" title="Крызіс Рымскай імперыі III стагоддзя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Крызіс Рымскай імперыі III стагоддзя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Криза в Римската империя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Криза в Римската империя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarkiezh_Roma" title="Anarkiezh Roma – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Anarkiezh Roma" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisi_del_segle_III" title="Crisi del segle III – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Crisi del segle III" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krize_t%C5%99et%C3%ADho_stolet%C3%AD" title="Krize třetího století – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Krize třetího století" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskrise_des_3._Jahrhunderts" title="Reichskrise des 3. Jahrhunderts – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Reichskrise des 3. Jahrhunderts" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/3._sajandi_kriis" title="3. sajandi kriis – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="3. sajandi kriis" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%83%CE%B7_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_3%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B1" title="Κρίση του 3ου αιώνα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κρίση του 3ου αιώνα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_del_siglo_III" title="Crisis del siglo III – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Crisis del siglo III" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/III._mendeko_krisialdia" title="III. mendeko krisialdia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="III. mendeko krisialdia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%86_%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85" title="بحران قرن سوم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بحران قرن سوم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crise_du_troisi%C3%A8me_si%C3%A8cle" title="Crise du troisième siècle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Crise du troisième siècle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crise_do_s%C3%A9culo_III" title="Crise do século III – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Crise do século III" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%B0%EC%9D%B8_%ED%99%A9%EC%A0%9C_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="군인 황제 시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="군인 황제 시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D6%80%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A4_%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%B3%D5%A3%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AA%D5%A1%D5%B4" title="Երրորդ դարի ճգնաժամ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Երրորդ դարի ճգնաժամ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriza_3._stolje%C4%87a" title="Kriza 3. stoljeća – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kriza 3. stoljeća" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krisis_Abad_Ketiga" title="Krisis Abad Ketiga – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Krisis Abad Ketiga" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisi_del_III_secolo" title="Crisi del III secolo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Crisi del III secolo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%94_%D7%94-3" title="משבר המאה ה-3 – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="משבר המאה ה-3" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimen_tertii_saeculi" title="Discrimen tertii saeculi – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Discrimen tertii saeculi" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/III_am%C5%BEiaus_kriz%C4%97" title="III amžiaus krizė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="III amžiaus krizė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crise_de_la_Sentenio_Tre" title="Crise de la Sentenio Tre – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Crise de la Sentenio Tre" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5" title="तिसऱ्या शतकातील संकटपर्व – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="तिसऱ्या शतकातील संकटपर्व" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krisis_Abad_Ketiga" title="Krisis Abad Ketiga – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Krisis Abad Ketiga" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_van_de_derde_eeuw" title="Crisis van de derde eeuw – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Crisis van de derde eeuw" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/3%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80%E3%81%AE%E5%8D%B1%E6%A9%9F" title="3世紀の危機 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="3世紀の危機" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krisen_i_det_tredje_%C3%A5rhundret" title="Krisen i det tredje århundret – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Krisen i det tredje århundret" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisi_dau_s%C3%A8gle_III" title="Crisi dau sègle III – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Crisi dau sègle III" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kryzys_wieku_III" title="Kryzys wieku III – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kryzys wieku III" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crise_do_terceiro_s%C3%A9culo" title="Crise do terceiro século – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Crise do terceiro século" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_III_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Кризис Римской империи III века – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кризис Римской империи III века" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Crisis of the Third Century" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriza_tretjega_stoletja" title="Kriza tretjega stoletja – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kriza tretjega stoletja" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0_3._%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Криза 3. века – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Криза 3. века" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriza_3._vijeka" title="Kriza 3. vijeka – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kriza 3. vijeka" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/200-luvun_kriisi" title="200-luvun kriisi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="200-luvun kriisi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krisis_ng_Ikatlong_Siglo" title="Krisis ng Ikatlong Siglo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Krisis ng Ikatlong Siglo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88_3" title="วิกฤตการณ์คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 3 – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิกฤตการณ์คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 3" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9C%C3%A7%C3%BCnc%C3%BC_Y%C3%BCzy%C4%B1l_Krizi" title="Üçüncü Yüzyıl Krizi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Üçüncü Yüzyıl Krizi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0_III_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8F" title="Криза III століття – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Криза III століття" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B5%D8%AF%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تیسری صدی کا بحران – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تیسری صدی کا بحران" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%E1%BB%A7ng_ho%E1%BA%A3ng_th%E1%BA%BF_k%E1%BB%B7_th%E1%BB%A9_Ba" title="Khủng hoảng thế kỷ 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searchaux" style="display:none">Roman Imperial government crisis (235–285 AD)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Crisis of the Third Century</th></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/300px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/450px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/600px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="1213" /></a></span><br />The divided Empire in 271 AD. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#88ff88; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff7777; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff00; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>235–284 AD (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 49 years</span>)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Roman victory</li></ul></div> <ul><li>Emperor <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> conquers both the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empires</a></li> <li>Emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> puts an end to the civil war</li> <li>Start of the <a href="/wiki/Diocletianic_Persecution" title="Diocletianic Persecution">Diocletianic Persecution</a></li> <li>Beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> <div><ul><li>Reunification of the Palmyrene and Gallic Empires into the Roman Empire</li><li>Loss of parts of the <a href="/wiki/Agri_Decumates" title="Agri Decumates">Agri Decumates</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dacia" title="Roman Dacia">Dacia</a> abandoned</li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em"> <b><a href="/wiki/Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">Roman Breakaways</a></b><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carausian_revolt" title="Carausian revolt">Brittanic Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em"> <b><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></b><hr /><b><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Tribes">Germanic Tribes</a></b><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Alemanni" title="Alemanni">Alemanni</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Carpi_(people)" title="Carpi (people)">Carpians</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination"><b>X</b></a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudius II">Claudius II</a> <a href="/wiki/Death_by_natural_causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Death by natural causes"><b>#</b></a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination"><b>X</b></a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:33%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postumus" title="Postumus">Postumus</a> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination"><b>X</b></a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius_Marius" title="Marcus Aurelius Marius">Marius</a> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination"><b>X</b></a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Victorinus" title="Victorinus">Victorinus</a> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination"><b>X</b></a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tetricus_I" title="Tetricus I">Tetricus I</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></li></ul></div><hr /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination"><b>X</b></a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Antiochus" title="Septimius Antiochus">Antiochus</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:33%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a><hr /><a href="/wiki/Cniva" title="Cniva">Cniva</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Crisis of the Third Century</b>, also known as the <b>Military Anarchy</b><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the <b>Imperial Crisis</b> (235–284), was a period in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">Roman history</a> during which the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> had nearly collapsed under the combined pressure of repeated <a href="/wiki/Barbarian_invasions_into_the_Roman_Empire_of_the_3rd_century" title="Barbarian invasions into the Roman Empire of the 3rd century">foreign invasions</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">civil wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">economic disintegration</a>. At the height of the crisis, the Roman state had split into three distinct and competing polities. </p><p>The crisis began in 235 with the <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">assassination</a> of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a> by his own troops. During the following years, the empire saw <a href="/wiki/Barbarian_invasions_of_the_3rd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarian invasions of the 3rd century">barbarian invasions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migrations</a> into Roman territory, civil wars, <a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">peasant rebellions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_instability" class="mw-redirect" title="Political instability">political instability</a>, with multiple <a href="/wiki/Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">usurpers</a> competing for power. This led to the <a href="/wiki/Debasement" title="Debasement">debasement</a> of <a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">currency</a> and a breakdown in both <a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">trade networks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">economic productivity</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">Plague of Cyprian</a> contributing to the disorder. Roman armies became more reliant over time on the growing influence of the barbarian mercenaries known as <i><a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">foederati</a></i>. Roman commanders in the field, although nominally loyal to the state, became increasingly independent of Rome's central authority. </p><p>During the crisis, there were at least 26 claimants to the title of emperor, mostly prominent <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Roman generals</a>, who assumed imperial power over all or part of the empire. The same number of men became accepted by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> as emperor during this period and so became legitimate emperors. By 268, the empire had split into three competing states: the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a> (including the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman provinces</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britannia</a> and, briefly, <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a>); the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> (including the eastern provinces of <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria Palaestina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Aegyptus</a>); and, between them, the Italian-centered Roman Empire proper. </p><p>The reign of <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> (270–275) marks a turning point in the crisis period. Aurelian successfully reunited the empire by defeating the two breakaway states, and carried out a series of reforms which helped restore some measure of stability to the Roman economy. The crisis is said to have ended with <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Diocletian#Reforms" title="Diocletian">restructuring</a> of the Roman imperial government, economy and military. The last is seen as a pivotal moment in Roman history, signaling the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a>. </p><p>The crisis resulted in such profound changes in the empire's institutions, society, economic life, and <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Ancient Rome">religion</a> that it is increasingly seen by most historians as defining the transition between the <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">historical periods</a> of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">late antiquity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Alemanni#Conflicts_with_the_Roman_Empire" title="Alemanni">Alemanni § Conflicts with the Roman Empire</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="color:#ffffff; background:#b80049;text-align:center;">Roman imperial dynasties</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crisis of the Third Century</a></b></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="color:#000000; background:#E5E4E2; font-size: 110%;text-align:center;"> Chronology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;"> <div style="float:left;"><a href="/wiki/Barracks_emperor" title="Barracks emperor">Barracks Emperors</a></div> <div style="float:right;"><a href="/wiki/235" title="235">235</a>–<a href="/wiki/284" title="284">284</a></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;"> <div style="float:left;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gordian_dynasty" title="Gordian dynasty">Gordian dynasty</a></span></div> <div style="float:right;"><a href="/wiki/238" title="238">238</a>–<a href="/wiki/244" title="244">244</a></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;"> <div style="float:left;"><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Valerian_dynasty">Valerian dynasty</a></span></div> <div style="float:right;"><a href="/wiki/253" title="253">253</a>–<a href="/wiki/261" title="261">261</a></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;"> <div style="float:left;"><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Emperors</a></div> <div style="float:right;"><a href="/wiki/260" title="260">260</a>–<a href="/wiki/274" title="274">274</a></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;"> <div style="float:left;"><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Illyrian Emperors">Illyrian Emperors</a></div> <div style="float:right;"><a href="/wiki/268" title="268">268</a>–<a href="/wiki/284" title="284">284</a></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;"> <div style="float:left;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Caran_dynasty">Caran dynasty</a></div> <div style="float:right;"><a href="/wiki/282" title="282">282</a>–<a href="/wiki/285" title="285">285</a></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;"> <div style="float:left;"><a href="/wiki/Britannic_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Britannic Empire">Britannic Emperors</a></div> <div style="float:right;"><a href="/wiki/286" title="286">286</a>–<a href="/wiki/297" title="297">297</a></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:center;"> <table style="width:100%"><tbody><tr> <td style="width:50%;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;"><i>Preceded by</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a></td> <td style="width:50%;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;"><i>Followed by</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Template:Campaignbox Crisis of the Third Century"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Template 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href="/wiki/Battle_at_the_Harzhorn" title="Battle at the Harzhorn">Harzhorn</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(c.<span class="nowrap"> </span>235)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnus_(usurper)" title="Magnus (usurper)">Usurpation of Magnus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(c.<span class="nowrap"> </span>235)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartinus" title="Quartinus">Usurpation of Quartinus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(235)</li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Six_Emperors" title="Year of the Six Emperors">Year of the Six Emperors</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(238)</b> </p> <ul><li>Revolt of <a href="/wiki/Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a> & <a href="/wiki/Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(238)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carthage_(238)" title="Battle of Carthage (238)">Battle of Carthage</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(238)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Aquileia" title="Siege of Aquileia">Siege of Aquileia</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(238)</li> <li>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a> & <a href="/wiki/Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(238)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Carpi" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of the Carpi">Invasion of the Carpi</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(238–239)</li></ul> <p><b>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(238–244)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sabinianus_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabinianus Revolt">Sabinianus Revolt</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(240)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Hatra" title="Fall of Hatra">Fall of Hatra</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(241)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Resaena" title="Battle of Resaena">Resaena</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(243)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Misiche" title="Battle of Misiche">Misiche</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(244)</li></ul> <p><b>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(244–249)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Carpi" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of the Carpi">Invasion of the Carpi</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(245–247)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Games_of_248" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular Games of 248">Secular Games of 248</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(248)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponsianus" title="Sponsianus">Usurpation of Sponsianus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(240s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacatianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacatianus">Usurpation of Pacatianus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(248)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jotapianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Jotapianus">Usurpation of Jotapianus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(249)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silbannacus" title="Silbannacus">Usurpation of Silbannacus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(249<span class="nowrap"> </span>or<span class="nowrap"> </span>253)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decius%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Decius' Rebellion">Decius' Rebellion</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(249)</li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verona_(249)" title="Battle of Verona (249)">Verona</a> and death of Philip & <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_(Roman_emperor)" title="Philip II (Roman emperor)">Philip II</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(249)</li></ul> <p><b>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(249–251)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">Plague of Cyprian</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(250–270)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decian_persecution" title="Decian persecution">Decian persecution</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(250–251)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cniva" title="Cniva">Gothic invasion of Cniva</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(250–251)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpi_invasion_of_Dacia" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpi invasion of Dacia">Carpi invasion of Dacia</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(250)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis_ad_Istrum" title="Battle of Nicopolis ad Istrum">Nicopolis ad Istrum</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(250)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beroe" title="Battle of Beroe">Beroe</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(250)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Philippopolis_(250)" title="Siege of Philippopolis (250)">Philippopolis</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(250)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus_Julius_Priscus" title="Titus Julius Priscus">Usurpation of Julius Priscus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(251)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Abritus" title="Battle of Abritus">Abritus</a> and death of <a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herennius_Etruscus" title="Herennius Etruscus">Etruscus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(251)</li></ul> <p><b>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Trebonianus_Gallus" title="Trebonianus Gallus">Trebonianus Gallus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(251–253)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hostilian" title="Hostilian">Death of Hostilian</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(251)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariades%27_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Mariades' Revolt">Mariades' Revolt</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(252)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nisibis_(252)" title="Siege of Nisibis (252)">Nisibis</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(252)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barbalissos" title="Battle of Barbalissos">Barbalissos</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(253)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Interamna_Nahars" title="Battle of Interamna Nahars">Interamna Nahars</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(c<span class="nowrap"> </span>253)</li></ul> <p><b>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Aemilianus" title="Aemilianus">Aemilianus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(253)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Antioch_(253)" title="Siege of Antioch (253)">Antioch</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(253)</li></ul> <p><b>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(253–260)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Thessalonica_(254)" title="Siege of Thessalonica (254)">Thessalonica</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(254)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae_(254)" title="Battle of Thermopylae (254)">Thermopylae</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(254)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dura-Europos_(256)" title="Siege of Dura-Europos (256)">Dura-Europos</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(256)</li> <li>Gothic invasion (256–257)</li> <li>Invasion of Shapur (258)</li> <li>Invasion of the Alemanni (258–260 approx)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mediolanum" title="Battle of Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(259)</li> <li>Scythian invasion (259–260)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Edessa</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(260)</li></ul> <p><b>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(260–268)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Caesarea_Cappadocia_(260)" title="Siege of Caesarea Cappadocia (260)">Caesarea</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(260)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usurpation_of_Ingenuus" class="mw-redirect" title="Usurpation of Ingenuus">Usurpation of Ingenuus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(260)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usurpation_of_Regalianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Usurpation of Regalianus">Usurpation of Regalianus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(260)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrianus_Major" title="Macrianus Major">Usurpation of Macrianus Major</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(c.<span class="nowrap"> </span>259–261)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(260–274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Saloninus" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Saloninus">Death of Saloninus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(260)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roxolani" title="Roxolani">Roxolani Invasion of Pannonia</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(260)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Campaigns of Odaenathus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(260–267)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietus" title="Quietus">Usurpation of Quietus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(261)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balista" title="Balista">Usurpation of Balista</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(261)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valens_Thessalonicus" title="Valens Thessalonicus">Usurpation of Valens Thessalonicus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(261)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usurpation_of_Lucius_Calpurnius_Piso_Frugi" class="mw-redirect" title="Usurpation of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi">Usurpation of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(261)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usurpation_of_Macrianus_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Usurpation of Macrianus Minor">Usurpation of Macrianus Minor</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(261)<br /></li> <li>Pannonian Rebellion<span class="nowrap"> </span>(261)<br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usurpation_of_Mussius_Aemilianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Usurpation of Mussius Aemilianus">Usurpation of Mussius Aemilianus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(261–262)</li> <li>Postumus' Campaign against the Franks<span class="nowrap"> </span>(262)</li> <li>Postumus' Campaign against the Alamanni<span class="nowrap"> </span>(263)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(263)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (263)">Ctesiphon</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(263)</li> <li>Scythian Invasion<span class="nowrap"> </span>(265–266)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odaenathus#Assassination_theories" title="Odaenathus">Assassination of Odaenathus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(267)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maeonius" title="Maeonius">Usurpation of Maeonius</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(266–267)</li> <li>Scythian Invasion<span class="nowrap"> </span>(267–269)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herules" class="mw-redirect" title="Herules">Heruli Raids</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(267)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Athens_(267_AD)" title="Sack of Athens (267 AD)">Athens</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(267)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aureolus" title="Aureolus">Usurpation of Acilius Aureolus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(268)</li></ul> <p><b>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius Gothicus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(268–270)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laelianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Laelianus">Usurpation of Laelianus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(269)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius_Marius" title="Marcus Aurelius Marius">Reign of Marcus Aurelius Marius</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(269)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Augustodunum_Haeduorum" title="Siege of Augustodunum Haeduorum">Augustodunum Haeduorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naissus" title="Battle of Naissus">Naissus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(268/269)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Benacus" title="Battle of Lake Benacus">Lake Benacus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(268 or 269)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexippus" title="Dexippus">Capture of Athens</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(269)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(270–273)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Bostra" title="Sack of Bostra">Bostra</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(270)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_invasion_of_Egypt" title="Palmyrene invasion of Egypt">Palmyrene invasion of Egypt</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(270)</li> <li>Vandal Invasion<span class="nowrap"> </span>(270)</li></ul> <p><b>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(270–275)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victorinus_Junior" title="Victorinus Junior">Usurpation of Victorinus Junior</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(271)</li> <li>Junthungi Invasion<span class="nowrap"> </span>(271)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domitian_II" title="Domitian II">Domitian II</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(271)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetricus_I" title="Tetricus I">Tetricus I</a> & <a href="/wiki/Tetricus_II" title="Tetricus II">Tetricus II</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(271–274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felicissimus" title="Felicissimus">Rebellion of Felicissimus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(270s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Placentia_(271)" title="Battle of Placentia (271)">Placentia</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(271)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fano" title="Battle of Fano">Fano</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(271)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia_(271)" title="Battle of Pavia (271)">Pavia</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(271)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyana_(272)" title="Siege of Tyana (272)">Tyana</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(272)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Immae" title="Battle of Immae">Immae</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(272)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Emesa" title="Battle of Emesa">Emesa</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(272)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razing_of_Palmyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Razing of Palmyra">Razing of Palmyra</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(273)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faustinus" title="Faustinus">Usurpation of Faustinus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(c.<span class="nowrap"> </span>273)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ch%C3%A2lons_(274)" title="Battle of Châlons (274)">Châlons</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(274)</li></ul> <p><b>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Tacitus_(emperor)" title="Tacitus (emperor)">Tacitus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(275-276)</b> </p> <ul><li>Gothic Invasion<span class="nowrap"> </span>(276-277)</li></ul> <p><b>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Probus_(emperor)" title="Probus (emperor)">Probus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(276-282)</b> </p> <ul><li>Vandal Invasion<span class="nowrap"> </span>(276-278)</li> <li>Sarmatian Invasion<span class="nowrap"> </span>(278)</li> <li>Usurpation of <a href="/wiki/Bonosus_(usurper)" title="Bonosus (usurper)">Bonosus</a> & <a href="/wiki/Proculus" title="Proculus">Proculus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(280)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Saturninus" title="Julius Saturninus">Usurpation of Julius Saturninus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(280)</li></ul> <p><b>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(282-283)</b> </p> <ul><li>Carus' invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(283)</li></ul> <p><b>Reign of <a href="/wiki/Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(283-285)</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julian_of_Pannonia" title="Julian of Pannonia">Usurpation of Julian of Pannonia</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(284-285)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Margus" title="Battle of the Margus">Margum</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>(285)</li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The army required larger and larger bribes to remain loyal.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> raised the pay of legionaries, and gave substantial <i><a href="/wiki/Donativum" title="Donativum">donativum</a></i> to the troops.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large and ongoing increase in military expenditure caused problems for all of his successors.<sup id="cite_ref-spek_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spek-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His son <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> raised the annual pay and lavished many benefits on the army in accordance with the advice of his father to keep their loyalty,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and considered dividing the empire into eastern and western sectors with his brother <a href="/wiki/Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a> to reduce the conflict in their co-rule. But with the major influence of their mother, <a href="/wiki/Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a>, this division of the empire was not possible.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Instead of warring in foreign lands, the Roman empire was increasingly put on the defensive by marauding enemies and civil wars. This cut off the essential source of income gained from plundering enemy countries, while opening up the Roman countryside to economic devastation from looters both foreign and domestic. Frequent civil wars contributed to depletion of the army's manpower, and drafting replacement soldiers strained the labour force further. Fighting on multiple fronts, increasing size and pay of the army, increasing cost of transport, populist "<a href="/wiki/Bread_and_circuses" title="Bread and circuses">bread and circuses</a>" political campaigns, inefficient and corrupt tax collection, unorganised budgeting, and paying off foreign nations for peace all contributed to financial crisis. The emperors responded by confiscating assets and supplies to combat the deficit.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The situation of the Roman Empire became dire in 235. Many <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legions</a> had been defeated during a previous campaign against <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> raiding across the borders, while the emperor <a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a> had been focused primarily on the dangers from the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empire</a>. Leading his troops personally, the emperor resorted to diplomacy and accepting tribute to pacify the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_chieftain" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic chieftain">Germanic chieftains</a> quickly, rather than military conquest. According to <a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a> this cost Severus Alexander the respect of his troops, who may have felt that more severe punishment was required for the tribes that had intruded on Rome's territory.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The troops assassinated Severus Alexander and proclaimed the new emperor to be <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus Thrax</a>, commander of one of the legions present. </p><p>Maximinus was the first of the <a href="/wiki/Barracks_emperor" title="Barracks emperor">barracks emperors</a> – rulers who were elevated by the troops without having any political experience, a supporting faction, distinguished ancestors, or a hereditary claim to the imperial throne. As their rule rested on military might and generalship, they operated as <a href="/wiki/Warlord" title="Warlord">warlords</a> reliant on the army to maintain power. Maximinus continued the campaigns in <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a> but struggled to exert his authority over the whole empire. The Senate was displeased at having to accept a peasant as Emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This precipitated the chaotic <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Six_Emperors" title="Year of the Six Emperors">Year of the Six Emperors</a> during which all of the original claimants were killed: in 238 a revolt broke out in Africa led by <a href="/wiki/Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was soon supported by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this was quickly defeated with Gordian II killed and Gordian I committing suicide. The Senate, fearing Imperial wrath,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> raised two of their own as co-Emperors, <a href="/wiki/Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a>, with Gordian I's grandson <a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a> as <i>Caesar</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maximinus marched on Rome but was assassinated by his <a href="/wiki/Legio_II_Parthica" title="Legio II Parthica">Legio II Parthica</a>, and subsequently Pupienus and Balbinus were murdered by the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>. </p><p>In the following years, numerous <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Roman generals</a> fought each other for control of the empire and neglected their duties of defending it from invasion. There were frequent raids across the <a href="/wiki/Limes_Germanicus" title="Limes Germanicus">Rhine and Danube frontier</a> by foreign tribes, including the <a href="/wiki/Carpians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpians">Carpians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alamanni" class="mw-redirect" title="Alamanni">Alamanni</a>, and attacks from <a href="/wiki/Sassanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanids">Sassanids</a> in the east. <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">Climate changes</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> disrupted the agriculture of what is now the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, forcing tribes residing in the region to migrate into Roman lands.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further disruption arose in 251, when the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">Plague of Cyprian</a> (possibly <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>) broke out. This plague caused large-scale death, severely weakening the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Zosimus_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zosimus-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The situation was worsened in 260 when the emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> was captured in battle by the Sassanids (he later died in captivity). </p><p>Throughout the period, numerous <a href="/wiki/Usurper" title="Usurper">usurpers</a> claimed the imperial throne. In the absence of a strong central authority, the empire broke into three competing states. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman provinces</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> broke off to form the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a> in 260. The eastern provinces of <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aegyptus_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegyptus (Roman province)">Aegyptus</a> also became independent as the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> in 267. The remaining provinces, centered on Italy, stayed under a single ruler but now faced threats on every side.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg/240px-Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg/360px-Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg/480px-Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5120" data-file-height="3938" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Gothic</a> raids in the 3rd century</figcaption></figure> <p>An invasion of Macedonia and Greece by <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, who had been displaced from their lands on the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, was defeated by emperor <a href="/wiki/Claudius_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudius II">Claudius II Gothicus</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naissus" title="Battle of Naissus">Battle of Naissus</a> in 268 or 269. Historians see this victory as the turning point of the crisis. In its aftermath, a series of tough, energetic barracks emperors were able to reassert central authority. Further victories by Claudius Gothicus drove back the <a href="/wiki/Alamanni" class="mw-redirect" title="Alamanni">Alamanni</a> and recovered Hispania from the Gallic Empire. He died of the plague in 270 and was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a>, who had commanded the cavalry at Naissus. Aurelian reigned (270–275) through the worst of the crisis, gradually restoring the empire. He defeated the Vandals, <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a>, Palmyrene Empire, and finally the remainder of the Gallic Empire. By late 274, the Roman Empire had been reunited into a single entity. However, Aurelian was assassinated in 275, sparking a further series of competing emperors with short reigns. The situation did not stabilize until <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, himself a barracks emperor, took power in 284.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More than a century would pass before Rome again lost military ascendancy over its external enemies. However, dozens of formerly thriving cities, especially in the Western Empire, had been ruined. Their populations dead or dispersed, these cities could not be rebuilt, due to the economic breakdown caused by constant warfare. The economy was also crippled by the breakdown in trading networks and the debasement of the currency. Major cities and towns, including Rome itself, had not needed fortifications for many centuries, but now surrounded themselves with thick <a href="/wiki/Defensive_wall" title="Defensive wall">walls</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fundamental problems with the empire still remained. The right of imperial succession had never been clearly defined, which was a factor in the continuous civil wars as competing factions in the military, Senate, and other parties put forward their favored candidate for emperor. The sheer size of the empire, which had been an issue since the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> three centuries earlier, continued to make it difficult for a single ruler to effectively counter multiple threats at the same time. These continuing problems were addressed by the radical reforms of Diocletian, who broke the cycle of usurpation. He began by sharing his rule with a colleague, then formally established the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a> of four co-emperors in 293.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However the trend of civil war would continue after the abdication of Diocletian in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_wars_of_the_Tetrarchy" title="Civil wars of the Tetrarchy">Civil wars of the Tetrarchy</a> (306–324) until the rise of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> as sole Emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empire survived <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">until 476 in the West</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">until 1453 in the East</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Problem_of_succession_and_civil_war">Problem of succession and civil war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Problem of succession and civil war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> there were no clear rules for the imperial succession, largely because the empire maintained the facade of a republic.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the early Principate, the process for becoming an emperor relied on a combination of proclamation by the Senate, popular approval, and acceptance by the army, in particular the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>. A family connection to a previous emperor was beneficial, but it did not determine the issue in the way a formal system of <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_succession" class="mw-redirect" title="Hereditary succession">hereditary succession</a> would. From the <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a> onwards there was sometimes tension between the Senate's preferred choice and the army. As the Senatorial class declined in political influence and more generals were recruited from the provinces, this tension increased. </p><p>Whenever the succession appeared uncertain, there was an incentive for any general with support of a sizable army to attempt to seize power, sparking civil war. The most recent example of this prior to the Crisis was the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Five_Emperors" title="Year of the Five Emperors">Year of the Five Emperors</a> which resulted in the victory of <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>. After the overthrow of the Severan dynasty, for the rest of the 3rd century, Rome was ruled by a series of generals, coming into power through frequent civil wars which devastated the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_disasters">Natural disasters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Natural disasters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first and most immediately disastrous of the natural disasters that the Roman Empire faced during the Third Century was the plague. The <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a> that preceded the Crisis of the Third Century sapped manpower from Roman armies and proved disastrous for the <a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Roman economy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 249 to 262, the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">Plague of Cyprian</a> devastated the Roman Empire to such a degree that some cities, such as the <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">city of Alexandria</a>, experienced a 62% decline in population.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These plagues greatly hindered the Roman Empire's ability to ward off barbarian invasions but also factored into problems such as <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>, with many farms becoming abandoned and unproductive.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second and longer-term natural disaster that took place during the third century was the increased variability of weather. Drier summers meant less <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_productivity" title="Agricultural productivity">agricultural productivity</a> and more extreme weather events led to agricultural instability. This could also have contributed to the increased barbarian pressure on Roman borders, as they too would have experienced the detrimental effects of climate change and sought to push inward to more productive areas of the Mediterranean region.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_invasions">Foreign invasions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Foreign invasions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Barbarian_invasions_of_the_3rd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarian invasions of the 3rd century">Barbarian invasions of the 3rd century</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barbarian_invasions_from_3rd_century.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Barbarian_invasions_from_3rd_century.png/270px-Barbarian_invasions_from_3rd_century.png" decoding="async" width="270" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Barbarian_invasions_from_3rd_century.png/405px-Barbarian_invasions_from_3rd_century.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Barbarian_invasions_from_3rd_century.png/540px-Barbarian_invasions_from_3rd_century.png 2x" data-file-width="1596" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_invasions_of_the_3rd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarian invasions of the 3rd century">Barbarian invasions against the Roman Empire in the 3rd century</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Barbarian invasions came in the wake of civil war, plague, and famine. Distress caused in part by the changing climate led various barbarian tribes to push into Roman territory. Other tribes coalesced into more formidable entities (notably the <a href="/wiki/Alemanni" title="Alemanni">Alamanni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>), or were pushed out of their former territories by more dangerous peoples such as the <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> did not appear west of the Volga for another century). Eventually, the frontiers were stabilized by the <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_emperors" title="Illyrian emperors">Illyrian Emperors</a>. However, barbarian migrations into the empire continued in greater and greater numbers. Though these migrants were initially closely monitored and assimilated, later tribes eventually entered the Roman Empire <i>en masse</i> with their weapons, giving only token recognition of Roman authority.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The defensive battles that Rome had to endure on the Danube since the 230s, however, paled in comparison to the threat the empire faced in the East. There, <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Persia">Sassanid Persia</a> represented a far greater danger to Rome than the isolated attacks of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic tribe">Germanic tribes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sassanids had in 224 and 226 overthrown the Parthian Arsacids, and the Persian King <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>, who also wanted to prove his legitimacy through military successes, had already penetrated into Roman territory at the time of <a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a>, probably taking the strategically important cities of <a href="/wiki/Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carrhae" class="mw-redirect" title="Carrhae">Carrhae</a> in 235/236.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_impact">Economic impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Economic impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Special:EditPage/Crisis of the Third Century">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_(284-305_d.C.)_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_%28284-305_d.C.%29_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006_%28cropped%29.jpg/200px-Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_%28284-305_d.C.%29_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_%28284-305_d.C.%29_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_%28284-305_d.C.%29_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_%28284-305_d.C.%29_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006_%28cropped%29.jpg/400px-Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_%28284-305_d.C.%29_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="608" data-file-height="788" /></a><figcaption>Emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>. With his rise to power in 284, the Crisis of the Third Century ended and gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Internally, the empire faced <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">hyperinflation</a> caused by years of coinage <a href="/wiki/Devaluation" title="Devaluation">devaluation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This had started earlier under the <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan emperors</a> who enlarged the army by one quarter,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a self-published source. (February 2020)">self-published source?</span></a></i>]</sup> and doubled the base pay of legionaries. As each of the short-lived emperors took power, they needed ways to raise money quickly to pay the military's "accession bonus" and the easiest way to do so was by inflating the coinage severely, a process made possible by debasing the coinage with bronze and copper. </p><p>This resulted in runaway rises in prices, and by the time Diocletian came to power, the old coinage of the Roman Empire had nearly collapsed. Some taxes were collected in kind and values often were notional, in <a href="/wiki/Bullion" title="Bullion">bullion</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> coinage. <a href="/wiki/Real_versus_nominal_value" title="Real versus nominal value">Real values</a> continued to be figured in gold coinage, but the silver coin, the denarius, used for 300 years, was gone (1 pound of gold = 40 gold <a href="/wiki/Aureus" title="Aureus">aurei</a> = 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">denarii</a> = 4,000 <a href="/wiki/Sestertius" title="Sestertius">sestertii</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This currency had almost no value by the end of the third century, and trade was carried out without retail coinage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breakdown_of_the_internal_trade_network">Breakdown of the internal trade network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Breakdown of the internal trade network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most profound and lasting effects of the Crisis of the Third Century was the disruption of Rome's extensive internal trade network. Ever since the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a>, starting with <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, the empire's economy had depended in large part on trade between Mediterranean ports and across the extensive road systems to the Empire's interior. Merchants could travel from one end of the empire to the other in relative safety within a few weeks, moving agricultural goods produced in the provinces to the cities, and manufactured goods produced by the great cities of the East to the more rural provinces. </p><p>Large estates produced cash crops for export and used the resulting revenues to import food and urban manufactured goods. This resulted in a great deal of economic interdependence among the empire's inhabitants. The historian Henry St. Lawrence Beaufort Moss describes the situation as it stood before the crisis: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Along these roads passed an ever-increasing traffic, not only of troops and officials but of traders, merchandise and even tourists. An interchange of goods between the various provinces rapidly developed, which soon reached a scale unprecedented in the previous history and not repeated until a few centuries ago. Metals mined in the uplands of Western Europe, hides, fleeces, and livestock from the pastoral districts of Britain, Spain, and the shores of the Black Sea, wine and oil from Provence and Aquitaine, timber, pitch and wax from South Russia and northern Anatolia, <a href="/wiki/Dried_fruit" title="Dried fruit">dried fruits</a> from Syria, marble from the Aegean coasts, and – most important of all – grain from the wheat-growing districts of North Africa, Egypt, and the Danube Valley for the needs of the great cities; all these commodities, under the influence of a highly organized system of transport and marketing, moved freely from one corner of the Empire to the other.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>With the onset of the Crisis of the Third Century, however, this vast internal trade network broke down. The widespread civil unrest made it no longer safe for merchants to travel as they once had, and the financial crisis that struck made exchange very difficult with the debased currency. This produced profound changes that, in many ways, foreshadowed the very decentralized economic character of the coming <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Large landowners, no longer able to successfully export their crops over long distances, began producing food for subsistence and local barter. Rather than import manufactured goods from the empire's great urban areas, they began to manufacture many goods locally, often on their own estates, thus beginning the self-sufficient "house economy" that would become commonplace in later centuries, reaching its final form in the <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manorialism</a> of the Middle Ages. The common, free people of the Roman cities, meanwhile, began to move out into the countryside in search of food and better protection.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Made desperate by economic necessity, many of these former city dwellers, as well as many small farmers, were forced to give up hard-earned basic civil rights in order to receive protection from large land-holders. In doing so, they became a half-free class of Roman citizen known as <i><a href="/wiki/Colonus_(person)" title="Colonus (person)">coloni</a></i>. They were tied to the land, and in later Imperial law, their status was made hereditary. This provided an early model for <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>, the origins of medieval <a href="/wiki/Feudal_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal society">feudal society</a> and of the medieval peasantry. The decline in commerce between the imperial provinces put them on a path toward increased self-sufficiency. Large landowners, who had become more self-sufficient, became less mindful of Rome's central authority, particularly in the Western Empire, and were downright hostile toward its tax collectors. The measure of wealth at this time began to have less to do with wielding urban civil authority and more to do with controlling large agricultural estates in rural regions since this guaranteed access to the only economic resource of real value – agricultural land and the crops it produced. The common people of the empire lost economic and political status to the land-holding nobility, and the commercial middle classes waned along with their trade-derived livelihoods. The Crisis of the Third Century thus marked the beginning of a long gradual process that would transform the ancient world of classical antiquity into the medieval one of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, although the burdens on the population increased, especially the lower strata of the population, this cannot be generalized to the whole empire, especially since living conditions were not uniform. Although the structural integrity of the economy suffered from the military conflicts of that time and the inflationary episode of the 270s, it did not collapse, especially because of the complex regional differences. Recent research has shown that there were regions that prospered even further, such as Egypt, Africa and Hispania. But even for Asia Minor, which was directly affected by attacks, no general decline can be observed.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While commerce and the overall economy flourished in several regions, with several provinces not affected by hostilities, other provinces experienced some serious problems, as evidenced by personal <a href="/wiki/Hoards" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoards">hoards</a> in the northwestern provinces of the empire. However, there can be no talk of a general economic crisis throughout the whole of Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even the Roman cities began to change in character. The large cities of classical antiquity slowly gave way to the smaller, <a href="/wiki/Walled_city" class="mw-redirect" title="Walled city">walled cities</a> that became common in the Middle Ages. These changes were not restricted to the third century, but took place slowly over a long period, and were punctuated with many temporary reversals. In spite of extensive reforms by later emperors, however, the Roman trade network was never able to fully recover to what it had been during the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a> (27 BC – AD 180). This economic decline was far more noticeable and important in the western part of the empire, which was also invaded by barbarian tribes several times during the century. Hence, the balance of power clearly shifted eastward during this period, as evidenced by the choice of Diocletian to rule from <a href="/wiki/Nicomedia" title="Nicomedia">Nicomedia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, putting his second in command, <a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>. This would have a considerable impact on the later development of the empire with a richer, more stable <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">eastern empire</a> surviving the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">end of Roman rule in the west</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While imperial revenues fell, imperial expenses rose sharply. More soldiers, greater proportions of cavalry, and the ruinous expense of walling in cities all added to the toll. Goods and services previously paid for by the government were now demanded in addition to monetary taxes. The empire suffered from a crippling labour shortage. The steady exodus of both rich and poor from the cities and now-unprofitable professions forced <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> to use compulsion; conscription was made universal, most trades were made hereditary, and workers could not legally leave their jobs or travel elsewhere to seek better-paying ones. This included the unwanted middle-class civil service positions and under Constantine, the military. Constantine also tried to provide social programs for the poor to reduce the labour shortage.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Increased_militarization">Increased militarization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Increased militarization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All the <a href="/wiki/Barracks_emperor" title="Barracks emperor">barracks emperors</a> based their power on the military and on the soldiers of the field armies, not on the Praetorians in Rome. Thus, Rome lost its role as the political center of the empire during the third century, although it remained ideologically important. In order to legitimize and secure their rule, the emperors of the third century needed above all military successes.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The centre of decision-making shifted away from Rome and to wherever the emperor was with his armies, typically, in the east. This led to the transfer of the capital to the four cities Milan, Trier, Nicomedia, and Sirmium, and then to Constantinople. The Senate ceased to be the main governing organ and instead members of the equestrian class who filled the military officer corps became increasingly prominent.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emperors">Emperors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Emperors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors#Crisis_of_the_Third_Century_(235–284)" title="List of Roman emperors">List of Roman emperors § Crisis of the Third Century (235–284)</a></div> <p>Several emperors who rose to power through acclamation of their troops attempted to create stability by giving their descendants the title of <i><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></i> and so making them co-emperors who later succeeded to the throne after their death or on some occasions their relatives managed to become an emperor immediately after their death. This led to the creation of several brief dynasties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-dynastic">Non-dynastic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Non-dynastic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:1200px;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:100px;">Portrait </th> <th style="width:200px;">Name </th> <th style="width:100px;">Birth </th> <th style="width:300px;">Succession </th> <th style="width:150px;">Reign </th> <th style="width:200px;">Death </th> <th style="width:150px;">Time in office </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Maximinus_Thrax_Musei_Capitolini_MC473_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Maximinus_Thrax_Musei_Capitolini_MC473_%28cropped%29.jpg/75px-Maximinus_Thrax_Musei_Capitolini_MC473_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Maximinus_Thrax_Musei_Capitolini_MC473_%28cropped%29.jpg/113px-Maximinus_Thrax_Musei_Capitolini_MC473_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Maximinus_Thrax_Musei_Capitolini_MC473_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Maximinus_Thrax_Musei_Capitolini_MC473_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="730" data-file-height="972" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus Thrax</a> <br /> <small>CAESAR GAIVS IVLIVS VERVS <b>MAXIMINVS</b> AVGVSTVS </small> </td> <td>c. AD 173, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Thrace">Thracia</a> </td> <td>Proclaimed emperor by Pannonian legions after <a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a>'s assassination </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> March 235 – June 238 </td> <td>June AD 238 (aged 65)<br /> Assassinated by his own troops </td> <td>3 years </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gordian_dynasty">Gordian dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Gordian dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gordian_dynasty" title="Gordian dynasty">Gordian dynasty</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:1200px;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:100px;">Portrait </th> <th style="width:200px;">Name </th> <th style="width:100px;">Birth </th> <th style="width:300px;">Succession </th> <th style="width:150px;">Reign </th> <th style="width:200px;">Death </th> <th style="width:150px;">Time in office </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gordian_I_Musei_Capitolini_MC475.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Gordian_I_Musei_Capitolini_MC475.jpg/100px-Gordian_I_Musei_Capitolini_MC475.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Gordian_I_Musei_Capitolini_MC475.jpg/150px-Gordian_I_Musei_Capitolini_MC475.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Gordian_I_Musei_Capitolini_MC475.jpg/200px-Gordian_I_Musei_Capitolini_MC475.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1720" data-file-height="2590" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a></b> <br /><small>CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS <b>GORDIANVS</b> SEMPRONIANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS</small> </td> <td>c. AD 159, <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a>? </td> <td>Proclaimed emperor, whilst Pro-consul in Africa, during a revolt against <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximinus I">Maximinus Thrax</a>. Ruled jointly with his son <a href="/wiki/Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a>, and in opposition to Maximinus. Technically a usurper, but retrospectively legitimized by the accession of <a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a> </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> March – April 238 </td> <td>April AD 238 <br /> Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of <a href="/wiki/Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a> </td> <td>22 days </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GordianusIIsest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/GordianusIIsest.jpg/100px-GordianusIIsest.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/GordianusIIsest.jpg/150px-GordianusIIsest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/GordianusIIsest.jpg/200px-GordianusIIsest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="299" data-file-height="299" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS <b>GORDIANVS</b> SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS</small> </td> <td>c. AD 192, ? </td> <td>Proclaimed emperor, alongside father <a href="/wiki/Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a>, in opposition to <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximinus I">Maximinus</a> by act of the Senate </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> March – April 238 </td> <td>April AD 238 <br /> Killed during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carthage_(238)" title="Battle of Carthage (238)">Battle of Carthage</a>, fighting a pro-<a href="/wiki/Maximinus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximinus I">Maximinus</a> army </td> <td>22 days </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pupienus_Musei_Capitolini_MC477.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Pupienus_Musei_Capitolini_MC477.jpg/100px-Pupienus_Musei_Capitolini_MC477.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Pupienus_Musei_Capitolini_MC477.jpg/150px-Pupienus_Musei_Capitolini_MC477.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Pupienus_Musei_Capitolini_MC477.jpg/200px-Pupienus_Musei_Capitolini_MC477.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1750" data-file-height="2650" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a> (non-dynastic) <br /> <small>CAESAR MARCVS CLODIVS <b>PVPIENVS MAXIMVS</b> AVGVSTVS</small> </td> <td>c. AD 178, ? </td> <td>Proclaimed joint emperor with <a href="/wiki/Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a> in opposition to <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximinus I">Maximinus</a> </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> April – July 238 </td> <td>July 29, AD 238 <br />Assassinated by the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a> </td> <td>99 days </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balbinus_Hermitage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Balbinus_Hermitage.jpg/100px-Balbinus_Hermitage.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Balbinus_Hermitage.jpg/150px-Balbinus_Hermitage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Balbinus_Hermitage.jpg/200px-Balbinus_Hermitage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2632" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a> (non-dynastic) <br /> <small>CAESAR DECIMVS CAELIVS CALVINVS <b>BALBINVS</b> PIVS AVGVSTVS</small> </td> <td>? </td> <td>Proclaimed joint emperor with <a href="/wiki/Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a> after death of <a href="/wiki/Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">II</a>, in opposition to <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximinus I">Maximinus</a> </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> April – July 238 </td> <td>July 29, AD 238 <br /> Assassinated by <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a> </td> <td>99 days </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_Gordianus_III_Louvre_Ma1063.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Bust_Gordianus_III_Louvre_Ma1063.jpg/100px-Bust_Gordianus_III_Louvre_Ma1063.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Bust_Gordianus_III_Louvre_Ma1063.jpg/150px-Bust_Gordianus_III_Louvre_Ma1063.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Bust_Gordianus_III_Louvre_Ma1063.jpg/200px-Bust_Gordianus_III_Louvre_Ma1063.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="3750" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS <b>GORDIANVS</b> AVGVSTVS</small> </td> <td>January 20, AD 225, <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> </td> <td>Proclaimed emperor by supporters of <a href="/wiki/Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">II</a>, then by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">caesar</a></i> with <a href="/wiki/Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a> until July AD 238. Grandson of Gordian I </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> July 238 – February 244 </td> <td>February 11, AD 244 <br /> Unknown; possibly murdered on orders of <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip I</a> </td> <td>5 years, 7 months </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-dynastic_2">Non-dynastic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Non-dynastic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:1200px;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:100px;">Portrait </th> <th style="width:200px;">Name </th> <th style="width:100px;">Birth </th> <th style="width:300px;">Succession </th> <th style="width:150px;">Reign </th> <th style="width:200px;">Death </th> <th style="width:150px;">Time in office </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_of_emperor_Philippus_Arabus_-_Hermitage_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bust_of_emperor_Philippus_Arabus_-_Hermitage_Museum.jpg/100px-Bust_of_emperor_Philippus_Arabus_-_Hermitage_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bust_of_emperor_Philippus_Arabus_-_Hermitage_Museum.jpg/150px-Bust_of_emperor_Philippus_Arabus_-_Hermitage_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bust_of_emperor_Philippus_Arabus_-_Hermitage_Museum.jpg/200px-Bust_of_emperor_Philippus_Arabus_-_Hermitage_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1384" data-file-height="1924" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR MARCVS IVLIVS <b>PHILIPPVS</b> AVGVSTVS</small> <br /> <br /><i>with</i> <b><a href="/wiki/Philippus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippus II">Philip II</a></b> <p><small>MARCVS IVLIVS SEVERVS <b>PHILLIPVS</b></small> <small>AVGVSTVS</small> </p> </td> <td>c. AD 204, <a href="/wiki/Shahba" title="Shahba">Shahba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Prefect" class="mw-redirect" title="Praetorian Prefect">Praetorian Prefect</a> to Gordian III, took power after his death; made his son Philip II co-emperor in summer AD 247 </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> February 244 – September 249 </td> <td>September/October AD 249 (aged 45)<br /> Killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verona_(249)" title="Battle of Verona (249)">Battle of Verona</a> by Decius </td> <td>5 years, 7 months </td></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Silbannacus-1_obvers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Silbannacus-1_obvers.jpg/100px-Silbannacus-1_obvers.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Silbannacus-1_obvers.jpg/150px-Silbannacus-1_obvers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Silbannacus-1_obvers.jpg/200px-Silbannacus-1_obvers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="358" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Silbannacus" title="Silbannacus">Silbannacus</a></b> <p><small>IMPERATOR MAR. SILBANNACHVS AVGVSTVS</small> </p> </td> <td>? </td> <td>Unknown, but he may have been a usurper. </td> <td>Unknown, possibly between c. 238 and c. 260 </td> <td>? </td> <td>Unknown, likely very short </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decian_dynasty">Decian dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Decian dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:1200px;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:100px;">Portrait </th> <th style="width:200px;">Name </th> <th style="width:100px;">Birth </th> <th style="width:300px;">Succession </th> <th style="width:150px;">Reign </th> <th style="width:200px;">Death </th> <th style="width:150px;">Time in office </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emperor_Traianus_Decius_(Mary_Harrsch).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Emperor_Traianus_Decius_%28Mary_Harrsch%29.jpg/100px-Emperor_Traianus_Decius_%28Mary_Harrsch%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Emperor_Traianus_Decius_%28Mary_Harrsch%29.jpg/150px-Emperor_Traianus_Decius_%28Mary_Harrsch%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Emperor_Traianus_Decius_%28Mary_Harrsch%29.jpg/200px-Emperor_Traianus_Decius_%28Mary_Harrsch%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Trajan_Decius" class="mw-redirect" title="Trajan Decius">Trajan Decius</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR GAIVS MESSIVS QVINTVS <b>TRAIANVS DECIVS</b> AVGVSTVS</small> <br /> <br /><i>with</i> <b><a href="/wiki/Herennius_Etruscus" title="Herennius Etruscus">Herennius Etruscus</a></b> </td> <td>c. AD 201, <a href="/wiki/Budalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Budalia">Budalia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pannonia_Inferior" title="Pannonia Inferior">Pannonia Inferior</a> </td> <td>Governor under <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip I</a>; proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions then defeating and killing Philip in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verona_(249)" title="Battle of Verona (249)">Battle of Verona</a>; made his son <a href="/wiki/Herennius_Etruscus" title="Herennius Etruscus">Herennius Etruscus</a> co-emperor in early AD 251 </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> September 249 – June 251 </td> <td>June AD 251 <br /> Both killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Abrittus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Abrittus">Battle of Abrittus</a> fighting against the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> </td> <td>2 years </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sestertius_Hostilian-s2771.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Sestertius_Hostilian-s2771.jpg/100px-Sestertius_Hostilian-s2771.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Sestertius_Hostilian-s2771.jpg/150px-Sestertius_Hostilian-s2771.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Sestertius_Hostilian-s2771.jpg/200px-Sestertius_Hostilian-s2771.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="378" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Hostilian" title="Hostilian">Hostilian</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR CAIVS VALENS <b>HOSTILIANVS</b> MESSIVS QVINTVS AVGVSTVS</small> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sirmium" title="Sirmium">Sirmium</a> </td> <td>Son of <a href="/wiki/Trajan_Decius" class="mw-redirect" title="Trajan Decius">Trajan Decius</a>, accepted as heir by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a> </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> June 251 – late 251 </td> <td>September/October AD 251 <br /> Natural causes (<a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">plague</a>) </td> <td>4–5 months </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-dynastic_3">Non-dynastic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Non-dynastic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:1200px;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:100px;">Portrait </th> <th style="width:200px;">Name </th> <th style="width:100px;">Birth </th> <th style="width:300px;">Succession </th> <th style="width:150px;">Reign </th> <th style="width:200px;">Death </th> <th style="width:150px;">Time in office </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Antakya_Archaeology_Museum_Emperor_Trebonianus_Gallus_bust_sept_2019_6079.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Antakya_Archaeology_Museum_Emperor_Trebonianus_Gallus_bust_sept_2019_6079.jpg/99px-Antakya_Archaeology_Museum_Emperor_Trebonianus_Gallus_bust_sept_2019_6079.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Antakya_Archaeology_Museum_Emperor_Trebonianus_Gallus_bust_sept_2019_6079.jpg/149px-Antakya_Archaeology_Museum_Emperor_Trebonianus_Gallus_bust_sept_2019_6079.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Antakya_Archaeology_Museum_Emperor_Trebonianus_Gallus_bust_sept_2019_6079.jpg/199px-Antakya_Archaeology_Museum_Emperor_Trebonianus_Gallus_bust_sept_2019_6079.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1067" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trebonianus_Gallus" title="Trebonianus Gallus">Trebonianus Gallus</a> <br /> <small>CAESAR GAIVS VIBIVS <b>TREBONIANVS GALLVS</b> AVGVSTVS</small> <br /> <br /><i>with</i> <a href="/wiki/Volusianus" title="Volusianus">Volusianus</a> <p><small>GAIVS VIBIVS <b>VOLVSIANVS</b> AVGVSTVS</small> </p> </td> <td>AD 206, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italia</a> </td> <td>Governor of <a href="/wiki/Moesia_Superior" class="mw-redirect" title="Moesia Superior">Moesia Superior</a>, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Decius's death (and in opposition to Hostilian); made his son Volusianus co-emperor in late AD 251. </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> June 251 – August 253 </td> <td>August AD 253 (aged 47)<br /> Assassinated by their own troops, in favor of <a href="/wiki/Aemilian" class="mw-redirect" title="Aemilian">Aemilian</a> </td> <td>2 years </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aemilian1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Aemilian1.jpg/100px-Aemilian1.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Aemilian1.jpg/150px-Aemilian1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Aemilian1.jpg/200px-Aemilian1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="400" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aemilian" class="mw-redirect" title="Aemilian">Aemilian</a> <br /> <small>CAESAR MARCVS AEMILIVS <b>AEMILIANVS</b> AVGVSTVS</small> </td> <td>c. AD 207 or 213 <a href="/wiki/Africa_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa Province">Africa</a> </td> <td>Governor of <a href="/wiki/Moesia_Superior" class="mw-redirect" title="Moesia Superior">Moesia Superior</a>, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after defeating the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>; accepted as emperor after death of Gallus </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> August – October 253 </td> <td>September/October AD 253 (aged 40 or 46)<br /> Assassinated by his own troops, in favor of Valerian </td> <td>2 months </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Valerian_dynasty">Valerian dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Valerian dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:1200px;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:100px;">Portrait </th> <th style="width:200px;">Name </th> <th style="width:100px;">Birth </th> <th style="width:300px;">Succession </th> <th style="width:150px;">Reign </th> <th style="width:200px;">Death </th> <th style="width:150px;">Time in office </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Valerianus_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN3387.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Valerianus_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN3387.jpg/100px-Valerianus_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN3387.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Valerianus_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN3387.jpg/150px-Valerianus_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN3387.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Valerianus_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN3387.jpg/200px-Valerianus_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN3387.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="5000" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS <b>VALERIANVS</b> AVGVSTVS</small> </td> <td>c. AD 195 </td> <td>Governor of <a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raetia" title="Raetia">Raetia</a>, proclaimed emperor by Rhine legions after death of <a href="/wiki/Trebonianus_Gallus" title="Trebonianus Gallus">Gallus</a>; accepted as emperor after death of <a href="/wiki/Aemilian" class="mw-redirect" title="Aemilian">Aemilian</a> </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> October 253 – 260 </td> <td>After AD 260 <br /> Captured in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Battle of Edessa</a> against <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Persians</a>, died in captivity </td> <td>7 years </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gallienus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Gallienus.jpg/100px-Gallienus.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Gallienus.jpg/150px-Gallienus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Gallienus.jpg/200px-Gallienus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1356" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS EGNATIVS <b>GALLIENVS</b> AVGVSTVS</small> <br /> <br /><i>with</i> <b><a href="/wiki/Saloninus" title="Saloninus">Saloninus</a></b> </td> <td>AD 218 </td> <td>Son of <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a>, made co-emperor in AD 253; his son <a href="/wiki/Saloninus" title="Saloninus">Saloninus</a> is very briefly co-emperor in c. July 260 before assassination by <a href="/wiki/Postumus" title="Postumus">Postumus</a> </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> October 253 – September 268 </td> <td>September AD 268 <br /> Murdered at <a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a> by his own commanders </td> <td>15 years </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claudian_dynasty">Claudian dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Claudian dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:1200px;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:100px;">Portrait </th> <th style="width:200px;">Name </th> <th style="width:100px;">Birth </th> <th style="width:300px;">Succession </th> <th style="width:150px;">Reign </th> <th style="width:200px;">Death </th> <th style="width:150px;">Time in office </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ClaudiusGothicusSC265569.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/ClaudiusGothicusSC265569.jpg/100px-ClaudiusGothicusSC265569.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/ClaudiusGothicusSC265569.jpg/150px-ClaudiusGothicusSC265569.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/ClaudiusGothicusSC265569.jpg/200px-ClaudiusGothicusSC265569.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1315" data-file-height="1268" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Claudius_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudius II">Claudius II</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS <b>CLAVDIVS</b> AVGVSTVS </small> </td> <td>May 10, AD 210, <a href="/wiki/Sirmium" title="Sirmium">Sirmium</a> </td> <td>Victorious general at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naissus" title="Battle of Naissus">Battle of Naissus</a>, seized power after Gallienus's death According to <a href="/wiki/Epitome_de_Caesaribus" title="Epitome de Caesaribus">Epitome de Caesaribus</a> he was a bastard son of <a href="/wiki/Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a> </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> September 268 – January/April 270 </td> <td>January/April AD 270 (aged 60)<br /> Natural causes (<a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">plague</a>) </td> <td>1 year, 4–7 months </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Aureus_Quintillus_(obverse).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Aureus_Quintillus_%28obverse%29.jpg/100px-Aureus_Quintillus_%28obverse%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Aureus_Quintillus_%28obverse%29.jpg/150px-Aureus_Quintillus_%28obverse%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Aureus_Quintillus_%28obverse%29.jpg/200px-Aureus_Quintillus_%28obverse%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="355" data-file-height="332" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Quintillus" title="Quintillus">Quintillus</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CLAVDIVS <b>QVINTILLVS</b> AVGVSTVS </small> </td> <td>c. AD 210, <a href="/wiki/Sirmium" title="Sirmium">Sirmium</a> </td> <td>Brother of Claudius II, seized power after his death </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> April–May (?) 270 </td> <td>AD 270 (aged around 60)<br /> Unclear; possibly suicide or murder </td> <td>17–77 days </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-dynastic_4">Non-dynastic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Non-dynastic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:1200px;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:100px;">Portrait </th> <th style="width:200px;">Name </th> <th style="width:100px;">Birth </th> <th style="width:300px;">Succession </th> <th style="width:150px;">Reign </th> <th style="width:200px;">Death </th> <th style="width:150px;">Time in office </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:AURELIANUS_RIC_V_15_(Rome)_and_182_(Siscia)-765588_(obverse).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/AURELIANUS_RIC_V_15_%28Rome%29_and_182_%28Siscia%29-765588_%28obverse%29.jpg/100px-AURELIANUS_RIC_V_15_%28Rome%29_and_182_%28Siscia%29-765588_%28obverse%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/AURELIANUS_RIC_V_15_%28Rome%29_and_182_%28Siscia%29-765588_%28obverse%29.jpg/150px-AURELIANUS_RIC_V_15_%28Rome%29_and_182_%28Siscia%29-765588_%28obverse%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/AURELIANUS_RIC_V_15_%28Rome%29_and_182_%28Siscia%29-765588_%28obverse%29.jpg/200px-AURELIANUS_RIC_V_15_%28Rome%29_and_182_%28Siscia%29-765588_%28obverse%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="246" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> <br /> <small>CAESAR LVCIVS DOMITIVS <b>AVRELIANVS</b> AVGVSTVS </small> </td> <td>September 9, AD 214/AD 215, <a href="/wiki/Sirmium" title="Sirmium">Sirmium</a> </td> <td>Proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Claudius II's death, in opposition to Quintillus </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> May 270 – October 275 </td> <td>September AD 275 (aged 60–61)<br /> Assassinated by <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a> </td> <td>5 years </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tacitan_dynasty">Tacitan dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Tacitan dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:1200px;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:100px;">Portrait </th> <th style="width:200px;">Name </th> <th style="width:100px;">Birth </th> <th style="width:300px;">Succession </th> <th style="width:150px;">Reign </th> <th style="width:200px;">Death </th> <th style="width:150px;">Time in office </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EmpereurTacite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/EmpereurTacite.jpg/100px-EmpereurTacite.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/EmpereurTacite.jpg/150px-EmpereurTacite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/EmpereurTacite.jpg/200px-EmpereurTacite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Tacitus_(emperor)" title="Tacitus (emperor)">Tacitus</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR MARCVS CLAVDIVS <b>TACITVS</b> AVGVSTVS </small> </td> <td>c. 200, <a href="/wiki/Terni" title="Terni">Interamna Nahars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italia</a> </td> <td>Elected by the Senate to replace Aurelian, after a short <a href="/wiki/Interregnum" title="Interregnum">interregnum</a> </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> December 275 – June 276 </td> <td>June AD 276 (aged 76)<br /> Natural causes (fever), possibly assassinated </td> <td>9 months </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Aureus_Florianus_Ticinum_(obverse).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Aureus_Florianus_Ticinum_%28obverse%29.jpg/100px-Aureus_Florianus_Ticinum_%28obverse%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Aureus_Florianus_Ticinum_%28obverse%29.jpg/150px-Aureus_Florianus_Ticinum_%28obverse%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Aureus_Florianus_Ticinum_%28obverse%29.jpg/200px-Aureus_Florianus_Ticinum_%28obverse%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Florianus" title="Florianus">Florianus</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR MARCVS ANNIVS <b>FLORIANVS</b> AVGVSTVS </small> </td> <td>? </td> <td>Brother of Tacitus, elected by the army in the west to replace him </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> June 276 – September 276 </td> <td>September? AD 276 (aged ?)<br /> Assassinated by his own troops, in favor of Probus </td> <td>3 months </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-dynastic_5">Non-dynastic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Non-dynastic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:1200px;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:100px;">Portrait </th> <th style="width:200px;">Name </th> <th style="width:100px;">Birth </th> <th style="width:300px;">Succession </th> <th style="width:150px;">Reign </th> <th style="width:200px;">Death </th> <th style="width:150px;">Time in office </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Probus_Musei_Capitolini_MC493.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Probus_Musei_Capitolini_MC493.jpg/100px-Probus_Musei_Capitolini_MC493.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Probus_Musei_Capitolini_MC493.jpg/150px-Probus_Musei_Capitolini_MC493.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Probus_Musei_Capitolini_MC493.jpg/200px-Probus_Musei_Capitolini_MC493.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1770" data-file-height="2700" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Probus_(emperor)" title="Probus (emperor)">Probus</a> <br /> <small>CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS <b>PROBVS</b> AVGVSTVS </small> </td> <td>AD 232, <a href="/wiki/Sirmium" title="Sirmium">Sirmium</a> </td> <td>Governor of the eastern provinces, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions in opposition to <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Annius_Florianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Annius Florianus">Florian</a> </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> September 276 – September AD 282 </td> <td>September/ October AD 282 (aged 50)<br /> Assassinated by his own troops, in favor of <a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a> </td> <td>6 years </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caran_dynasty">Caran dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Caran dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:1200px;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:100px;">Portrait </th> <th style="width:200px;">Name </th> <th style="width:100px;">Birth </th> <th style="width:300px;">Succession </th> <th style="width:150px;">Reign </th> <th style="width:200px;">Death </th> <th style="width:150px;">Time in office </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carusinc2955obverse.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Carusinc2955obverse.png/100px-Carusinc2955obverse.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Carusinc2955obverse.png/150px-Carusinc2955obverse.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Carusinc2955obverse.png/200px-Carusinc2955obverse.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="502" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS <b>CARVS</b> AVGVSTVS </small> </td> <td>c. AD 230, <a href="/wiki/Narbo" class="mw-redirect" title="Narbo">Narbo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Gallia Narbonensis</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Prefect" class="mw-redirect" title="Praetorian Prefect">Praetorian Prefect</a> to <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius_Probus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aurelius Probus">Probus</a>; seized power either before or after Probus was murdered; made his son <a href="/wiki/Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a> co-emperor in early AD 283 </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> September 282 – July/August 283 </td> <td>July/August AD 283 <br /> Natural causes? (Possibly killed by lightning) </td> <td>10–11 months </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NumerianusAntoninianus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/NumerianusAntoninianus.jpg/100px-NumerianusAntoninianus.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/NumerianusAntoninianus.jpg/150px-NumerianusAntoninianus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/NumerianusAntoninianus.jpg/200px-NumerianusAntoninianus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="240" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Numerian" title="Numerian">Numerian</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS NVMERIVS <b>NVMERIANVS</b> AVGVSTVS </small> </td> <td>? </td> <td>Son of <a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a>, succeeded him jointly with his brother <a href="/wiki/Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a> </td> <td><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> July/August 283 – November 284 </td> <td>AD 284 <br /> Unclear; possibly assassinated </td> <td>1 year </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Montemartini_-_Carino_1030439.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Montemartini_-_Carino_1030439.JPG/100px-Montemartini_-_Carino_1030439.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Montemartini_-_Carino_1030439.JPG/150px-Montemartini_-_Carino_1030439.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Montemartini_-_Carino_1030439.JPG/200px-Montemartini_-_Carino_1030439.JPG 2x" data-file-width="947" data-file-height="1349" /></a></span> </td> <td><b><a href="/wiki/Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a></b> <br /> <small>CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS <b>CARINVS</b> AVGVSTVS </small> </td> <td>? </td> <td>Son of <a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a>, ruled shortly with him and then with his brother <a href="/wiki/Numerian" title="Numerian">Numerian</a> </td> <td>Spring 283– July 285 </td> <td>July AD 285 <br /> Died in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Margus" title="Battle of the Margus">Battle of the Margus</a> </td> <td>2 years </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sengoku_period" title="Sengoku period">Sengoku period</a> – a similar period in Japanese history</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Kingdoms period">Three Kingdoms period</a> – similar periods in Chinese history (the latter roughly contemporaneous with the Crisis of the Third Century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jublains_archeological_site" title="Jublains archeological site">Jublains archeological site</a> documents some effects of the crisis in what is now western France</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_invasions_of_the_3rd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarian invasions of the 3rd century">Barbarian invasions of the 3rd century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Roman_Empire" title="Low Roman Empire">Low Roman Empire</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Adriatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adriatic">Adriatic</a>-<a href="/wiki/Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian</a>-centered</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFvan_Sickle1930" class="citation journal cs1">van Sickle, C. E. (1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/VANPIT-16">"Particularism in the Roman Empire during the Military Anarchy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Philology" title="American Journal of Philology">American Journal of Philology</a></i>. <b>51</b> (4): 343–357. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F289894">10.2307/289894</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/289894">289894</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Philology&rft.atitle=Particularism+in+the+Roman+Empire+during+the+Military+Anarchy&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=343-357&rft.date=1930&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F289894&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F289894%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=van+Sickle&rft.aufirst=C.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FVANPIT-16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1971" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Peter Robert Lamont (1971). <i>The World of Late Antiquity</i>. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0500320228" title="Special:BookSources/978-0500320228"><bdi>978-0500320228</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=London&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0500320228&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Peter+Robert+Lamont&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter2004" class="citation book cs1">Potter, David Stone (2004). <i>The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395 Routledge history of the ancient world</i>. Psychology Press. pp. 85, 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415100588" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415100588"><bdi>978-0415100588</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire+at+Bay%2C+AD+180%E2%80%93395+Routledge+history+of+the+ancient+world&rft.pages=85%2C+167&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0415100588&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=David+Stone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/numismatics/severus.html">"Septimius Severus:Legionary Denarius"</a>. Penelope.uchicago.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Septimius+Severus%3ALegionary+Denarius&rft.pub=Penelope.uchicago.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2F~grout%2Fencyclopaedia_romana%2Fmiscellanea%2Fnumismatics%2Fseverus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth W. Harl, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5yPDL0EykeAC&dq=septimius%20severus%20legion%20pay&pg=PA216">Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Part 700</a></i>, p. 216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-spek-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-spek_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/R.J._van_der_Spek" class="mw-redirect" title="R.J. van der Spek">R.J. van der Spek</a>, Lukas De Blois (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PDV8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA272"><i>An Introduction to the Ancient World</i>, p. 272</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170730064823/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PDV8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA272#">Archived</a> 2017-07-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1996" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Michael (1996). <i>The Severans: the Changed Roman Empire</i>. Psychology Press. p. 42.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Severans%3A+the+Changed+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunstan2011" class="citation book cs1">Dunstan, William, E. (2011). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientrome00duns"><i>Ancient Rome</i></a></span>. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientrome00duns/page/n439">405</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6832-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6832-7"><bdi>978-0-7425-6832-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=405&rft.pub=Lanham%3A+Rowman+and+Littlefield&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-6832-7&rft.aulast=Dunstan&rft.aufirst=William%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientrome00duns&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:7_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoatwrightGargolaTalbert2004" class="citation book cs1">Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro; Gargola, Daniel J; Talbert, Richard J. A. (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romansfromvillag00boat_0/page/413"><i>The Romans, from village to empire</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romansfromvillag00boat_0/page/413">413</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511875-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511875-9"><bdi>978-0-19-511875-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Romans%2C+from+village+to+empire&rft.pages=413&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511875-9&rft.aulast=Boatwright&rft.aufirst=Mary+Taliaferro&rft.au=Gargola%2C+Daniel+J&rft.au=Talbert%2C+Richard+J.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fromansfromvillag00boat_0%2Fpage%2F413&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:5_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2009" class="citation book cs1">Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howromefelldeath0000gold/page/70"><i>How Rome Fell: death of a superpower</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howromefelldeath0000gold/page/70">70</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16426-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16426-8"><bdi>978-0-300-16426-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Rome+Fell%3A+death+of+a+superpower&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=New+Haven%3A+Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-300-16426-8&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhowromefelldeath0000gold%2Fpage%2F70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlaric_Watson2004" class="citation book cs1">Alaric Watson (2004). <i>Aurelian and the Third Century</i>. Routledge. pp. 11–13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134908156" title="Special:BookSources/1134908156"><bdi>1134908156</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aurelian+and+the+Third+Century&rft.pages=11-13&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1134908156&rft.au=Alaric+Watson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">" Herodian says "in their opinion, Alexander showed no honourable intention to pursue the war and preferred a life of ease, when he should have marched out to punish the Germans for their previous insolence" (Herodian vi.7.10).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern, Pat <i>The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine</i>, Routledge, 2001, p. 64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern, Pat <i>The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine</i>, Routledge, 2001, p. 66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Joannes Zonaras</a>, Compendium of History <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080521191250/http://www.ancientsites.com/aw/Post/1049415">extract: <i>Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284</i></a> 12:16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern, Pat <i>The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine</i>, Routledge, 2001, p. 67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/maxthrax.htm">Meckler, Michael L., <i>Maximinus Thrax (235–238 A.D.)</i>, <i>De Imperatoribus Romanis</i></a> (1997)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern, Pat (2011-02-17). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/thirdcenturycrisis_article_01.shtml">Third Century Crisis of the Roman Empire</a>". BBC History, 17 February 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zosimus-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zosimus_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZosimus1814" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a> (1814) [translation originally printed]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus01_book1.htm"><i>The New History, Book 1</i></a>. (scanned and published online by Roger Pearse). London: Green and Chaplin. pp. 16, 21, 31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-04-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+History%2C+Book+1&rft.place=London&rft.pages=16%2C+21%2C+31&rft.pub=Green+and+Chaplin&rft.date=1814&rft.au=Zosimus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tertullian.org%2Ffathers%2Fzosimus01_book1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherman2006" class="citation book cs1">Sherman, Irwin W. (2006). <i>The power of plagues by Irwin W. Sherman</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781555816483" title="Special:BookSources/9781555816483"><bdi>9781555816483</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+power+of+plagues+by+Irwin+W.+Sherman&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781555816483&rft.aulast=Sherman&rft.aufirst=Irwin+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brewminate.com/romes-imperial-crisis-of-the-third-century/">"Rome's Imperial Crisis of the Third Century"</a>. <i>Brewminate: A Bold Blend of News and Ideas</i>. 2019-04-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brewminate%3A+A+Bold+Blend+of+News+and+Ideas&rft.atitle=Rome%27s+Imperial+Crisis+of+the+Third+Century&rft.date=2019-04-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrewminate.com%2Fromes-imperial-crisis-of-the-third-century%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1985" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Stephen (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VnxoAAAAMAAJ"><i>Diocletian and the Roman Recovery</i></a>. London: B.T. Batsford. pp. 41–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7134-4605-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7134-4605-6"><bdi>0-7134-4605-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diocletian+and+the+Roman+Recovery&rft.place=London&rft.pages=41-45&rft.pub=B.T.+Batsford&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-7134-4605-6&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVnxoAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG._M._Rogers1988" class="citation journal cs1">G. M. Rogers (December 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.37879%2Fbelleten.1988.1509">"The Crisis of the Third Century A.D."</a> <i>Belleten</i>. <b>52</b> (205): 1509–1526. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.37879%2Fbelleten.1988.1509">10.37879/belleten.1988.1509</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252492735">252492735</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Belleten&rft.atitle=The+Crisis+of+the+Third+Century+A.D.&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=205&rft.pages=1509-1526&rft.date=1988-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.37879%2Fbelleten.1988.1509&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A252492735%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=G.+M.+Rogers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.37879%252Fbelleten.1988.1509&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kolb, Frank (1987). Diocletian und die Erste Tetrarchie. Improvisation oder Experiment in der Organisation monarchischer Herrschaft?, Berlin: de Gruyter. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-010934-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-010934-4">978-3-11-010934-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacMullen, Ramsay. Constantine. New York: Dial Press, 1969. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7099-4685-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7099-4685-6">0-7099-4685-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181112225212/https://www.armstrong.edu/history-journal/history-journal-res-publica-restituta-republic-and-princeps-in-the-early-ro">"Res Publica Restituta? Republic and Princeps in the Early Roman Empire – Armstrong Undergraduate Journal of History"</a>. <i>www.armstrong.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.armstrong.edu/history-journal/history-journal-res-publica-restituta-republic-and-princeps-in-the-early-ro">the original</a> on 2018-11-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-10-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Solving+the+Mystery+of+an+Ancient+Roman+Plague&rft.date=2017-11-01&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Kyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fscience%2Farchive%2F2017%2F11%2Fsolving-the-mystery-of-an-ancient-roman-plague%2F543528%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBüntgenTegelNicolussiMcCormick2011" class="citation journal cs1">Büntgen, Ulf; Tegel, Willy; Nicolussi, Kurt; McCormick, Michael; Frank, David; Trouet, Valerie; Kaplan, Jed; Herzig, Franz; Heussner, Karl-Uwe; Wanner, Heinz; Luterbacher, Jürg; Esper, Jan (13 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1197175">"2500 Years of European Climate Variability and Human Susceptibility"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>331</b> (6017): 578–582. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...331..578B">2011Sci...331..578B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1197175">10.1126/science.1197175</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21233349">21233349</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=2500+Years+of+European+Climate+Variability+and+Human+Susceptibility&rft.volume=331&rft.issue=6017&rft.pages=578-582&rft.date=2011-01-13&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21233349&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1197175&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Sci...331..578B&rft.aulast=B%C3%BCntgen&rft.aufirst=Ulf&rft.au=Tegel%2C+Willy&rft.au=Nicolussi%2C+Kurt&rft.au=McCormick%2C+Michael&rft.au=Frank%2C+David&rft.au=Trouet%2C+Valerie&rft.au=Kaplan%2C+Jed&rft.au=Herzig%2C+Franz&rft.au=Heussner%2C+Karl-Uwe&rft.au=Wanner%2C+Heinz&rft.au=Luterbacher%2C+J%C3%BCrg&rft.au=Esper%2C+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1197175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNigel.2006" class="citation book cs1">Nigel., Rodgers (2006). <i>Roman Empire</i>. Dodge, Hazel. London: Lorenz Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0754816027" title="Special:BookSources/978-0754816027"><bdi>978-0754816027</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/62177842">62177842</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Lorenz+Books&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62177842&rft.isbn=978-0754816027&rft.aulast=Nigel.&rft.aufirst=Rodgers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josef Wiesehöfer: Das Reich der Sāsāniden, in Klaus Peter Johne, Udo Hartmann, Thomas Gerhardt, Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser: Krise und Transformation des Römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. (235–284) 2008, p. 531ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erich Kettenhofen: Die Eroberung von Nisibis und Karrhai durch die Sāsāniden in der Zeit Kaiser Maximins, AD 235/236. In: Iranica Antiqua 30 (1995), pp. 159–177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessinsider.com/how-currency-debasement-contributed-to-fall-of-rome-2016-2">"This infographic shows how currency debasement contributed to the fall of Rome"</a>. <i>Business Insider</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011080246/http://www.businessinsider.com/how-currency-debasement-contributed-to-fall-of-rome-2016-2">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-10-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-10-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=This+infographic+shows+how+currency+debasement+contributed+to+the+fall+of+Rome&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fhow-currency-debasement-contributed-to-fall-of-rome-2016-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlichy2012" class="citation book cs1">Flichy, Thomas (28 September 2012). <i>Financial crises and renewal of empires</i>. Lulu.com. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781291097337" title="Special:BookSources/9781291097337"><bdi>9781291097337</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Financial+crises+and+renewal+of+empires&rft.pub=Lulu.com&rft.date=2012-09-28&rft.isbn=9781291097337&rft.aulast=Flichy&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="This reference citation appears to be to a self-published source. (February 2020)">self-published source</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_St._Lawrence_Beaufort_Moss1935" class="citation book cs1">Henry St. Lawrence Beaufort Moss (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/birthofthemiddle027632mbp"><i>The Birth of the Middle Ages 395–814</i></a>. London: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/birthofthemiddle027632mbp/page/n140">1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+the+Middle+Ages+395%E2%80%93814&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1935&rft.au=Henry+St.+Lawrence+Beaufort+Moss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbirthofthemiddle027632mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. St. L. B. Moss, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/birthofthemiddle027632mbp"><i>The Birth of the Middle Ages</i></a> (Clarendon Press, 1935, reprint Oxford University Press, 2000) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-500260-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-500260-1">0-19-500260-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. St. L. B. Moss, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/birthofthemiddle027632mbp"><i>The Birth of the Middle Ages</i></a> (Clarendon Press, 1935, reprint Oxford University Press, 2000) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-500260-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-500260-1">0-19-500260-1</a> pp. 29–30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. St. L. B. Moss, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/birthofthemiddle027632mbp"><i>The Birth of the Middle Ages</i></a> (Clarendon Press, 1935, reprint Oxford University Press, 2000) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-500260-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-500260-1">0-19-500260-1</a> pp. 26, 28–29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuffing2006" class="citation book cs1">Ruffing, Kai (2006). <i>Deleto paene imperio Romano: Transformationsprozesse des Römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert und ihre Rezeption in der Neuzeit</i>. Stuttgart: Steiner. p. 223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-515-08941-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-515-08941-8"><bdi>978-3-515-08941-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/180946164">180946164</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deleto+paene+imperio+Romano%3A+Transformationsprozesse+des+R%C3%B6mischen+Reiches+im+3.+Jahrhundert+und+ihre+Rezeption+in+der+Neuzeit&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pages=223&rft.pub=Steiner&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F180946164&rft.isbn=978-3-515-08941-8&rft.aulast=Ruffing&rft.aufirst=Kai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHekster,_Olivier.2008" class="citation book cs1">Hekster, Olivier. (2008). <i>Rome and its Empire, AD 193–284</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-2992-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-2992-3"><bdi>978-0-7486-2992-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/271165910">271165910</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+its+Empire%2C+AD+193%E2%80%93284&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F271165910&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-2992-3&rft.au=Hekster%2C+Olivier.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. St. L. B. Moss, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/birthofthemiddle027632mbp"><i>The Birth of the Middle Ages</i></a> (Clarendon Press, 1935, reprint Oxford University Press, January 2000) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-500260-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-500260-1">0-19-500260-1</a> pp. 7, 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Tainter1988" class="citation book cs1">Joseph Tainter (1988). <i>The Collapse of Complex Societies</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/052138673X" title="Special:BookSources/052138673X"><bdi>052138673X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collapse+of+Complex+Societies&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=052138673X&rft.au=Joseph+Tainter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohneHartmannGerhardt2008" class="citation book cs1">Johne, Klaus-Peter; Hartmann, Udo; Gerhardt, Thomas (2008). <i>Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser: Krise und Transformation des Römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. (235–284)</i>. Rome: Akademie Verlag. p. 1026. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3050045290" title="Special:BookSources/978-3050045290"><bdi>978-3050045290</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Zeit+der+Soldatenkaiser%3A+Krise+und+Transformation+des+R%C3%B6mischen+Reiches+im+3.+Jahrhundert+n.+Chr.+%28235%E2%80%93284%29&rft.place=Rome&rft.pages=1026&rft.pub=Akademie+Verlag&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3050045290&rft.aulast=Johne&rft.aufirst=Klaus-Peter&rft.au=Hartmann%2C+Udo&rft.au=Gerhardt%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlaric_Watson2004" class="citation book cs1">Alaric Watson (2004). <i>Aurelian and the Third Century</i>. Routledge. pp. 14–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134908156" title="Special:BookSources/1134908156"><bdi>1134908156</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aurelian+and+the+Third+Century&rft.pages=14-15&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1134908156&rft.au=Alaric+Watson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: General and cited references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2009" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Larry (2009). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediamone00alle"><i>The Encyclopedia of Money</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Santa_Barbara,_California" title="Santa Barbara, California">Santa Barbara, CA</a>: <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediamone00alle/page/n364">346</a>–348. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1598842517" title="Special:BookSources/978-1598842517"><bdi>978-1598842517</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Money&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pages=346-348&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1598842517&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediamone00alle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1997" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Glyn (1997) [1994]. <i>A History of Money: From Ancient Times to the Present Day</i> (Reprint ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cardiff" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wales_Press" title="University of Wales Press">University of Wales Press</a>. pp. 95–99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0708313510" title="Special:BookSources/978-0708313510"><bdi>978-0708313510</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Money%3A+From+Ancient+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pages=95-99&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0708313510&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Glyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrisis+of+the+Third+Century" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Olivier Hekster, <i>Rome and Its Empire, AD 193–284</i> (Edinburgh, 2008). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B7486%2B2303%2B7" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+7486+2303+7">978 0 7486 2303 7</a>.</li> <li>Klaus-Peter Johne (ed.), <i>Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser</i> (Akademie Verlag, Berlin 2008).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Lot" title="Ferdinand Lot">Lot, Ferdinand</a>. <i>End of the Ancient World and the Beginnings of the Middle Ages</i> (Harper Torchbooks Printing, New York, 1961. First English printing by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1931).</li> <li>Moss, H. St. L. B. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/birthofthemiddle027632mbp"><i>The Birth of the Middle Ages</i></a> (Clarendon Press, 1935, reprint Oxford University Press, January 2000). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-500260-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-500260-1">0-19-500260-1</a>.</li> <li>Watson, Alaric. <i>Aurelian and the Third Century</i> (Taylor & Francis, 2004) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-30187-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-30187-4">0-415-30187-4</a></li> <li>White, John F. <i>Restorer of the World: The Roman Emperor Aurelian</i> (Spellmount, 2004) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86227-250-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-86227-250-6">1-86227-250-6</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_the_Third_Century&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050526035139/http://www.accla.org/actaaccla/kramer.html">Crisis of the Third Century</a>, Hugh Kramer.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060819181741/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/imgs/map15.html">Map</a>, University of Calgary.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060717182740/http://isthmia.osu.edu/teg/50501/4.htm">The Crisis of the Third Century</a>, OSU.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Roman_wars" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Template:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Template talk:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Roman_wars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">Ancient Roman wars</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Wars of the<br />Roman Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman conquest of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Etruscan_Wars" title="Roman–Etruscan Wars">Roman–Etruscan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman-Aequian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-Aequian wars">Roman-Aequian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Latin_wars" title="Roman–Latin wars">Roman–Latin wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Hernici" title="Roman conquest of the Hernici">Roman–Hernician wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Volscian_wars" title="Roman–Volscian wars">Roman–Volscian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Sabine_wars" title="Roman–Sabine wars">Roman–Sabine wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnite_Wars" title="Samnite Wars">Samnite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9387_BC)" title="Social War (91–87 BC)">Social War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Gallic_wars" title="Roman–Gallic wars">Roman–Gallic wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyro-Roman_Wars" title="Illyro-Roman Wars">Illyro-Roman Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Macedonian_War" title="First Macedonian War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Macedonian_War" title="Second Macedonian War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" title="Fourth Macedonian War">Fourth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_war" title="Roman–Seleucid war">Roman–Seleucid war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_War" title="Galatian War">Galatian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_Wars" title="Celtiberian Wars">Celtiberian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_War" title="Lusitanian War">Lusitanian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numantine_War" title="Numantine War">Numantine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sertorian_War" title="Sertorian War">Sertorian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_Wars" title="Cantabrian Wars">Cantabrian Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_War" title="Achaean War">Achaean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jugurthine_War" title="Jugurthine War">Jugurthine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servile_Wars" title="Servile Wars">Servile Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Servile_War" title="First Servile War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Servile_War" title="Second Servile War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Octavianum" title="Bellum Octavianum">Bellum Octavianum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_civil_war" title="Sulla's civil war">Sulla's civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mithridatic_War" title="Second Mithridatic War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Third Mithridatic War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" title="Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain">Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">Caesar's civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Mutina" title="War of Mutina">War of Mutina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberators%27_civil_war" title="Liberators' civil war">Liberators' civil war</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Siculum" title="Bellum Siculum">Bellum Siculum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perusine_War" title="Perusine War">Perusine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Actium" title="War of Actium">War of Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Wars of the<br />Roman Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_warfare_between_the_Romans_and_Germanic_peoples" title="Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples">Germanic wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(376%E2%80%93382)" title="Gothic War (376–382)">Gothic War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest of Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boudican_revolt" title="Boudican revolt">Boudican revolt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_58%E2%80%9363" title="Roman–Parthian War of 58–63">Armenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Civil war of 69</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domitian%27s_Dacian_War" title="Domitian's Dacian War">Domitian's Dacian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars" title="Trajan's Dacian Wars">Trajan's Dacian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil wars of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Wars of the fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">Military history of ancient Rome</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this 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href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Financial_crises" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Financial_crises" title="Template:Financial crises"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Financial_crises" title="Template talk:Financial crises"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Financial_crises" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Financial crises"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Financial_crises" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crises</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bank_run" title="Bank run">Bank run</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Commodity_price_shocks" title="Commodity price shocks">Commodity price shocks</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Credit_crunch" title="Credit crunch">Credit crunch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Credit_cycle" title="Credit cycle">Credit cycle</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Currency_crisis" title="Currency crisis">Currency crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Debt_crisis" title="Debt crisis">Debt crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Energy_crisis" title="Energy crisis">Energy crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Financial_contagion" title="Financial contagion">Financial contagion</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Social_contagion" title="Social contagion">Social contagion</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Flash_crash" title="Flash crash">Flash crash</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">Hyperinflation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Liquidity_crisis" title="Liquidity crisis">Liquidity crisis</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Accounting_liquidity" title="Accounting liquidity">Accounting</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Liquid_capital" title="Liquid capital">Capital</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Funding_liquidity" title="Funding liquidity">Funding</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Market_liquidity" title="Market liquidity">Market</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Minsky_moment" title="Minsky moment">Minsky moment</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Social_crisis" title="Social crisis">Social crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stock_market_crash" title="Stock market crash">Stock market crash</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-<a href="/wiki/Commercial_revolution" title="Commercial revolution">1000</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_33" title="Financial crisis of 33">Financial crisis of 33 CE</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crisis of the Third Century</a> (235–284 CE)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_revolution" title="Commercial revolution">Commercial revolution</a><br />(1000–1760)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Great_Bullion_Famine" title="Great Bullion Famine">Great Bullion Famine</a> (c. 1400–c. 1500)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Debasement" title="The Great Debasement">The Great Debasement</a> (1544–1551)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Financial_history_of_the_Dutch_Republic" title="Financial history of the Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic stock market crashes</a> (c. 1600–1760)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Kipper_und_Wipper" title="Kipper und Wipper">Kipper und Wipper</a></i> (1621–1623)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tulip_mania" title="Tulip mania">Tulip mania crash</a> (1637)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Company" title="South Sea Company">South Sea bubble crash</a> (1720)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Company" title="Mississippi Company">Mississippi bubble crash</a> (1720)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">1st Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1760–1840)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_banking_crisis_of_1763" title="Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763">Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Bubble_of_1769" title="Bengal Bubble of 1769">Bengal bubble crash</a> (1769–1784)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/British_credit_crisis_of_1772%E2%80%931773" title="British credit crisis of 1772–1773">British credit crisis of 1772–1773</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Financial_history_of_the_Dutch_Republic" title="Financial history of the Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic financial collapse</a> (c. 1780–1795)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Copper_Panic_of_1789" title="Copper Panic of 1789">Copper Panic of 1789</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1792" title="Panic of 1792">Panic of 1792</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1796%E2%80%931797" title="Panic of 1796–1797">Panic of 1796–1797</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Danish_state_bankruptcy_of_1813" title="Danish state bankruptcy of 1813">Danish state bankruptcy of 1813</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Commodity_price_shocks" title="Commodity price shocks">Post-Napoleonic Irish grain price and land use shocks</a> (1815–1816)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1819" title="Panic of 1819">Panic of 1819</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1825" title="Panic of 1825">Panic of 1825</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1840–1870</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/European_potato_failure" title="European potato failure">European potato failure</a> (1845–1856)</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Irish Famine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Highland_Potato_Famine" title="Highland Potato Famine">Highland Potato Famine</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1847" title="Panic of 1847">Panic of 1847</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1857" title="Panic of 1857">Panic of 1857</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1866" title="Panic of 1866">Panic of 1866</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(1869)" title="Black Friday (1869)">Black Friday</a> (1869)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">2nd Industrial Revolution</a><br />(1870–1914)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1873" title="Panic of 1873">Panic of 1873</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paris_Bourse_crash_of_1882" title="Paris Bourse crash of 1882">Paris Bourse crash of 1882</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1884" title="Panic of 1884">Panic of 1884</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arendal_crash" title="Arendal crash">Arendal crash</a> (1886)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Baring_crisis" title="Baring crisis">Baring crisis</a> (1890)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Encilhamento" title="Encilhamento">Encilhamento</a> (1890–1893)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Australian_banking_crisis_of_1893" title="Australian banking crisis of 1893">Australian banking crisis of 1893</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Monday_(1894)" title="Black Monday (1894)">Black Monday</a> (1894)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1896" title="Panic of 1896">Panic of 1896</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1901" title="Panic of 1901">Panic of 1901</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1907" title="Panic of 1907">Panic of 1907</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_rubber_stock_market_crisis" title="Shanghai rubber stock market crisis">Shanghai rubber stock market crisis</a> (1910)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1910%E2%80%9311" title="Panic of 1910–11">Panic of 1910–11</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_1914" title="Financial crisis of 1914">Financial crisis of 1914</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a><br />(1918–1939)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_early_Soviet_Russia" title="Hyperinflation in early Soviet Russia">Early Soviet hyperinflation</a> (1917–1924)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic hyperinflation</a> (1921–1923)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_financial_crisis" title="Shōwa financial crisis">Shōwa financial crisis</a> (1927)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1930" title="Panic of 1930">Panic of 1930</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">Chinese hyperinflation</a> (1937-1950)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Wartime period</a><br />(1939–1945)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Greece" title="Hyperinflation in Greece">Greek hyperinflation</a> (1941–1946)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">Chinese hyperinflation</a> (1937-1950)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post–WWII expansion</a><br />(1945–1973)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_peng%C5%91#Hyperinflation" title="Hungarian pengő">Hungarian pengő hyperinflation</a> (1945–1946)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Slide_of_1962" title="Kennedy Slide of 1962">Kennedy Slide of 1962</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=1963%E2%80%931965_Indonesian_hyperinflation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1963–1965 Indonesian hyperinflation (page does not exist)">1963–1965 Indonesian hyperinflation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">Chinese hyperinflation</a> (1937-1950)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stagflation" title="Stagflation">Great Inflation</a><br />(1973–1982)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1970s_energy_crisis" title="1970s energy crisis">1970s energy crisis</a> (1973–1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931974_stock_market_crash" title="1973–1974 stock market crash">1973–1974 stock market crash</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_banking_crisis_of_1973%E2%80%931975" title="Secondary banking crisis of 1973–1975">Secondary banking crisis of 1973–1975</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Steel_crisis" title="Steel crisis">Steel crisis</a> (1973–1982)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_debt_crisis" title="Latin American debt crisis">Latin American debt crisis</a> (1975–1982)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1976_sterling_crisis" title="1976 sterling crisis">1976 British currency crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1979_oil_crisis" title="1979 oil crisis">1979 oil crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Brazil" title="Hyperinflation in Brazil">Brazilian hyperinflation</a> (1980–1982)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Moderation" title="Great Moderation">Great Moderation</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Great_Regression" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Regression">Great Regression</a><br />(1982–2007)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Brazil" title="Hyperinflation in Brazil">Brazilian hyperinflation</a> (1982–1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Souk_Al-Manakh_stock_market_crash" title="Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash">Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash</a> (1982)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_1982" title="Crisis of 1982">Chilean crisis of 1982</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1983_Israel_bank_stock_crisis" title="1983 Israel bank stock crisis">1983 Israel bank stock crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Saturday_(1983)" title="Black Saturday (1983)">Black Saturday (1983)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Savings_and_loan_crisis" title="Savings and loan crisis">Savings and loan crisis</a> (1986–1995)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cameroonian_economic_crisis" title="Cameroonian economic crisis">Cameroonian economic crisis</a> (1987–2000s)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Monday_(1987)" title="Black Monday (1987)">Black Monday (1987)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1988%E2%80%931992_Norwegian_banking_crisis" title="1988–1992 Norwegian banking crisis">1988–1992 Norwegian banking crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_asset_price_bubble" title="Japanese asset price bubble">Japanese asset price bubble crash</a> (1990–1992)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_banking_crisis" title="Rhode Island banking crisis">Rhode Island banking crisis</a> (1990–1992)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1991_Indian_economic_crisis" title="1991 Indian economic crisis">1991 Indian economic crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sweden_financial_crisis_1990%E2%80%931994" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweden financial crisis 1990–1994">1990s Swedish financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1990s_Finnish_banking_crisis" title="1990s Finnish banking crisis">1990s Finnish banking crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Armenian_energy_crisis_of_1990s" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian energy crisis of 1990s">1990s Armenian energy crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Special_Period" title="Special Period">Cuban Special Period</a> (1991–2000)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Wednesday" title="Black Wednesday">Black Wednesday (1992 Sterling crisis)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Hyperinflation in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslav hyperinflation</a> (1992–1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1994_bond_market_crisis" title="1994 bond market crisis">1994 bond market crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_banking_crisis_of_1994" title="Venezuelan banking crisis of 1994">Venezuelan banking crisis of 1994</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mexican_peso_crisis" title="Mexican peso crisis">Mexican peso crisis</a> (1994–1996)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/October_27,_1997,_mini-crash" title="October 27, 1997, mini-crash">October 1997 mini-crash</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1998_Russian_financial_crisis" title="1998 Russian financial crisis">1998 Russian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1998%E2%80%931999_Ecuador_economic_crisis" title="1998–1999 Ecuador economic crisis">1998–1999 Ecuador economic crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1998%E2%80%932002_Argentine_great_depression" title="1998–2002 Argentine great depression">1998–2002 Argentine great depression</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samba_effect" title="Samba effect">Samba effect</a> (1999)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dot-com_bubble" title="Dot-com bubble">Dot-com bubble crash</a> (2000–2004)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Economic_effects_of_the_September_11_attacks" title="Economic effects of the September 11 attacks">9/11 stock market crash</a> (2001)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2001_Turkish_economic_crisis" title="2001 Turkish economic crisis">2001 Turkish economic crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_American_economic_crisis_of_2002" title="South American economic crisis of 2002">South American economic crisis of 2002</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stock_market_downturn_of_2002" title="Stock market downturn of 2002">Stock market downturn of 2002</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2002_Uruguay_banking_crisis" title="2002 Uruguay banking crisis">2002 Uruguay banking crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2003_Myanmar_banking_crisis" title="2003 Myanmar banking crisis">2003 Myanmar banking crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2000s_energy_crisis" title="2000s energy crisis">2000s energy crisis</a> (2003–2008)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2004_Argentine_energy_crisis" title="2004 Argentine energy crisis">2004 Argentine energy crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_stock_bubble_of_2007" title="Chinese stock bubble of 2007">2007 Chinese stock bubble crash</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Zimbabwe" title="Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwean hyperinflation</a> (2007–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a><br />(2007–2009)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_September_2008" title="Global financial crisis in September 2008">September 2008</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_October_2008" title="Global financial crisis in October 2008">October 2008</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_November_2008" title="Global financial crisis in November 2008">November 2008</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_December_2008" title="Global financial crisis in December 2008">December 2008</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_crisis_in_2009" title="Global financial crisis in 2009">2009</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Subprime_mortgage_crisis" title="Subprime mortgage crisis">Subprime mortgage crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2000s_United_States_housing_market_correction" title="2000s United States housing market correction">2000s U.S. housing market correction</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_bear_market_of_2007%E2%80%932009" title="United States bear market of 2007–2009">U.S. bear market of 2007–2009</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008_Latvian_financial_crisis" title="2008 Latvian financial crisis">2008 Latvian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932009_Belgian_financial_crisis" title="2008–2009 Belgian financial crisis">2008–2009 Belgian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_Russia" title="Great Recession in Russia">2008–2009 Russian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932009_Ukrainian_financial_crisis" title="2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis">2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932011_Icelandic_financial_crisis" title="2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis">2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Post-2008_Irish_banking_crisis" title="Post-2008 Irish banking crisis">2008–2011 Irish banking crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932014_Spanish_financial_crisis" title="2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis">2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Blue_Monday_Crash_2009" title="Blue Monday Crash 2009">Blue Monday Crash 2009</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greek_government-debt_crisis" title="Greek government-debt crisis">Greek government-debt crisis</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a><br />(2009–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dubai_World" title="Dubai World">2009 Dubai debt standstill</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_banking_crisis_of_2009%E2%80%932010" title="Venezuelan banking crisis of 2009–2010">Venezuelan banking crisis of 2009–2010</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2010%E2%80%932014_Portuguese_financial_crisis" title="2010–2014 Portuguese financial crisis">2010–2014 Portuguese financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Energy_crisis_in_Venezuela" title="Energy crisis in Venezuela">Energy crisis in Venezuela</a> (2010–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">Syrian economic crisis</a> (2011–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/August_2011_stock_markets_fall" title="August 2011 stock markets fall">August 2011 stock markets fall</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2011_Bangladesh_share_market_scam" title="2011 Bangladesh share market scam">2011 Bangladesh share market scam</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2012%E2%80%932013_Cypriot_financial_crisis" title="2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis">2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Banking_Liquidity_Crisis_of_2013" title="Chinese Banking Liquidity Crisis of 2013">2013 Chinese banking liquidity crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2013%E2%80%93present_economic_crisis_in_Venezuela" title="2013–present economic crisis in Venezuela">Venezuela economic crisis</a> (2013–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2014_Brazilian_economic_crisis" title="2014 Brazilian economic crisis">2014–2016 Brazilian economic crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_government-debt_crisis" title="Puerto Rican government-debt crisis">Puerto Rican government-debt crisis</a> (2014–2022)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Russian_financial_crisis_(2014%E2%80%932016)" title="Russian financial crisis (2014–2016)">Russian financial crisis (2014–2016)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2015_Nepal_blockade" title="2015 Nepal blockade">2015 Nepal blockade</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_Chinese_stock_market_turbulence" title="2015–2016 Chinese stock market turbulence">2015–2016 Chinese stock market turbulence</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2015%E2%80%932016_stock_market_selloff" title="2015–2016 stock market selloff">2015–2016 stock market selloff</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Economic_effects_of_Brexit" title="Economic effects of Brexit">Brexit stock market crash</a> (2016)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_Venezuela" title="Hyperinflation in Venezuela">Venezuelan hyperinflation</a> (2016–2022)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2017_Sri_Lankan_fuel_crisis" title="2017 Sri Lankan fuel crisis">2017 Sri Lankan fuel crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ghana_banking_crisis" title="Ghana banking crisis">Ghana banking crisis</a> (2017–2018)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Turkish_economic_crisis_(2018%E2%80%93current)" title="Turkish economic crisis (2018–current)">Turkish economic crisis</a> (2018–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_liquidity_crisis" title="Lebanese liquidity crisis">Lebanese liquidity crisis</a> (2019–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019%E2%80%93present)" title="Sri Lankan economic crisis (2019–present)">Sri Lankan economic crisis</a> (2019–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Financial_market_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Financial market impact of the COVID-19 pandemic">Financial market impact</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2020_stock_market_crash" title="2020 stock market crash">2020 stock market crash</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Early_2020s_recession" class="mw-redirect" title="Early 2020s recession">Recession</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_property_sector_crisis_(2020%E2%80%93present)" title="Chinese property sector crisis (2020–present)">Chinese property sector crisis</a> (2020–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932023_inflation_surge" title="2021–2023 inflation surge">2021–2023 inflation surge</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Economic impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian financial crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_economic_crisis_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="Pakistani economic crisis (2022–present)">Pakistani economic crisis</a> (2022–present)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2022_stock_market_decline" title="2022 stock market decline">2022 stock market decline</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_economic_crisis_(2022%E2%80%93present)" title="German economic crisis (2022–present)">2022–2024 German economic crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2023_United_States_banking_crisis" title="2023 United States banking crisis">2023 United States banking crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2023%E2%80%932024_Egyptian_financial_crisis" title="2023–2024 Egyptian financial crisis">2023–2024 Egyptian financial crisis</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_banking_crises" title="List of banking crises">List of banking crises</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_crises" title="List of economic crises">List of economic crises</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_debt_crises" title="List of sovereign debt crises">List of sovereign debt crises</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_stock_market_crashes_and_bear_markets" title="List of stock market crashes and bear markets">List of stock market crashes and bear markets</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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