Iraq - Mandate, British, Revolt

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Shortly after Iraq’s admission to the League, Nuri al-Said, who had been prime minister since 1930, resigned. After an interim administration, King Fayṣal invited Rashīd ʿAlī al-Gaylānī, one of the opposition leaders, to form a new government. 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Since conflict between Iraq’s political leaders centred essentially on how to end the mandate rather than on the right of independence, King Fayṣal sought the cooperation of opposition leaders after independence. Shortly after Iraq’s admission to the League, Nuri al-Said, who had been prime minister since 1930, resigned. After an interim administration, King Fayṣal invited Rashīd ʿAlī al-Gaylānī, one of the opposition leaders, to form a new government. For a short while it seemed that all the country’s leaders would close ranks and devote"/> <meta property="og:type" content="ARTICLE"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Iraq - Mandate, British, Revolt | Britannica"/> <meta property="og:description" content="Iraq - Mandate, British, Revolt: On October 3, 1932, Iraq was admitted to the League of Nations as an independent state. Since conflict between Iraq’s political leaders centred essentially on how to end the mandate rather than on the right of independence, King Fayṣal sought the cooperation of opposition leaders after independence. Shortly after Iraq’s admission to the League, Nuri al-Said, who had been prime minister since 1930, resigned. After an interim administration, King Fayṣal invited Rashīd ʿAlī al-Gaylānī, one of the opposition leaders, to form a new government. For a short while it seemed that all the country’s leaders would close ranks and devote"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclopedia Britannica" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq"/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/1728-050-FC0FCF9D/Flag-Iraq.jpg" /> <meta property="og:image:type" content="image/jpeg" /> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="init opengraph"> Mendel.openGraph = {"type":"ARTICLE","title":"Iraq - Mandate, British, Revolt","description":"Iraq - Mandate, British, Revolt: On October 3, 1932, Iraq was admitted to the League of Nations as an independent state. Since conflict between Iraq’s political leaders centred essentially on how to end the mandate rather than on the right of independence, King Fayṣal sought the cooperation of opposition leaders after independence. Shortly after Iraq’s admission to the League, Nuri al-Said, who had been prime minister since 1930, resigned. After an interim administration, King Fayṣal invited Rashīd ʿAlī al-Gaylānī, one of the opposition leaders, to form a new government. 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data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq">Iraq</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/Iraq">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref22922"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22922">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22923"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22923">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22924"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22924">Alluvial plains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232255"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref232255">Al-Jazīrah</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22926"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22926">Deserts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22927"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast">The northeast</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22928"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref22928">Drainage</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232256"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref232256">The Tigris-Euphrates river system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232257"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref232257">Irrigation and canals</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22929"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref22929">Soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22930"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate">Climate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22931"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate#ref22931">Plant and animal life</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22935"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate#ref22935">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22936"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate#ref22936">Ethnic groups</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232258"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs">Arabs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22937"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22937">Kurds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22938"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22938">Other minorities</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22939"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22939">Languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22940"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22940">Religion</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232259"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref232259">Sunnis</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232260"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah">The Shiʿah</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232261"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232261">Religious minorities</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232262"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232262">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232263"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232263">Rural settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232264" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232264">Urban settlement</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232265"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Baghdad">Baghdad</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232266"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Baghdad#ref232266">Regional centres</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Baghdad#ref22941">Demographic trends</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22942"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232267"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy#ref232267">Overview</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232268"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy#ref232268">Economic development</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232269"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy#ref232269">State control</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref22943">Resources and power</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232270"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref232270">Petroleum and natural gas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232271"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines">Oil pipelines</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232272"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines#ref232272">Other minerals and energy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232273"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines#ref232273">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines#ref22946">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232274"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade#ref232274">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232275"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade#ref232275">Labour and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22947"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade#ref22947">Transportation and telecommunications</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22948"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22950"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref22950">Constitutional framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref22951">Local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref22952">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232276"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref232276">Political process</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Security">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232277"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Security#ref232277">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232278"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Security#ref232278">Housing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232279"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22956"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education#ref22956">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232280"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education#ref232280">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232281"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education#ref232281">Daily life and social customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232282"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts">The arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232283"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts#ref232283">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232284"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts#ref232284">Sports and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232285"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts#ref232285">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214199"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22882"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/History#ref22882">Iraq from c. 600 to 1055</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22883"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/History#ref22883">The Arab conquest and the early Islamic period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22884"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Abbasid-Caliphate">The Abbasid Caliphate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22885"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Buyid-period-932-1062">The Buyid period (932–1062)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22886"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Iraq-from-1055-to-1534">Iraq from 1055 to 1534</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22887"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Iraq-from-1055-to-1534#ref22887">The Seljuqs (1055–1152)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22888"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-later-Abbasids-1152-1258">The later Abbasids (1152–1258)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22889"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-later-Abbasids-1152-1258#ref22889">The Mongol Il-Khans (1258–1335)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22890"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-later-Abbasids-1152-1258#ref22890">Il-Khanid successors (1335–1410)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22891"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Turkmen-1410-1508">The Turkmen (1410–1508)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22892"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Turkmen-1410-1508#ref22892">The Safavids (1508–34)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22893"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Turkmen-1410-1508#ref22893">Ottoman Iraq (1534–1918)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22894"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-16th-century-conquest-of-Iraq-and-the-regime-imposed-by-Suleyman-I">The 16th-century conquest of Iraq and the regime imposed by Süleyman I</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22895"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-16th-century-conquest-of-Iraq-and-the-regime-imposed-by-Suleyman-I#ref22895">The local despotisms in the 17th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22896"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-16th-century-conquest-of-Iraq-and-the-regime-imposed-by-Suleyman-I#ref22896">The 18th-century Mamluk regime</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22897"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-fall-of-the-Mamluks-and-the-consolidation-of-British-interests">The fall of the Mamluks and the consolidation of British interests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22898"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-fall-of-the-Mamluks-and-the-consolidation-of-British-interests#ref22898">Mid-19th-century Ottoman reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22899"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-governorship-of-Midhat-Pasa">The governorship of Midhat Paşa</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22900"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-governorship-of-Midhat-Pasa#ref22900">The end of Ottoman rule</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22901"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-governorship-of-Midhat-Pasa#ref22901">Iraq until the 1958 revolution</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22902"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/British-occupation-and-the-mandatory-regime">British occupation and the mandatory regime</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22903"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Independence-1932-39">Independence, 1932–39</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22904"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/World-War-II-and-British-intervention-1939-45">World War II and British intervention, 1939–45</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22905"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/World-War-II-and-British-intervention-1939-45#ref22905">Postwar reconstruction and social upheavals, 1945–58</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232286"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq">The Republic of Iraq</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22906" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq#ref22906">The 1958 revolution and its aftermath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref22907"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq#ref22907">Recurrence of military coups, 1963–68</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232287"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq#ref232287">Iraqi foreign policy, 1958–68</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22908" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-revolution-of-1968">The revolution of 1968</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232288"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-revolution-of-1968#ref232288">The second Baʿath government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232289"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-revolution-of-1968#ref232289">The revolution of 1968</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232290"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Foreign-policy-1968-80">Foreign policy 1968–80</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232291"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Foreign-policy-1968-80#ref232291">Economic development to 1980</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232292" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Iraq-under-Saddam-Hussein">Iraq under Saddam Hussein</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232293"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Iran-Iraq-War">The Iran-Iraq War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232294"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Iran-Iraq-War#ref232294">Postwar policies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232295"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Persian-Gulf-War">The Persian Gulf War</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref232296"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Persian-Gulf-War#ref232296">Causes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref232297"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Persian-Gulf-War#ref232297">The invasion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232298"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program">The UN embargo and oil-for-food program</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref339791" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program#ref339791">The Iraq War (2003–11) and its aftermath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349077"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program#ref349077">Post-9/11 tension and the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref339793"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program#ref339793">Rocky transition to civilian government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref310597"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL">U.S. withdrawal and the rise of the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref349078"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349078">Second term of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki and sectarian polarization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref349079"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349079">Fight against ISIL</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref349080" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349080">Postwar Iraq</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349081"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349081">2018 parliamentary elections and the premiership of Adel Abdul Mahdi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349082"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349082">Tishreen Movement: protests in 2019–20 against corruption and foreign interference</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349083"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349083">Premiership of Mustafa al-Kadhimi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Iraq">Facts & Stats</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/images-videos">Images</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> 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Author of <i>The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Hugh Kennedy</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Gerald-Henry-Blake/3789" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Gerald Henry Blake</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Reader in Geography, University of Durham, England; Director, International Boundaries Research Unit. Coauthor of <i>The Cambridge Atlas of the Middle East and North Africa; The Middle East: A Geographical...</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Gerald Henry Blake</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-24T00:00:00CST" >Nov 24, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.scmp.com/magazines/style/entertainment/article/3287712/who-jimmy-mccain-man-who-blasted-donald-trump-over-arlington-national-cemetery-scuffle-son-ex" rel="nofollow">Who is Jimmy McCain, and why did he blast Trump following a cemetery scuffle?</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 9:03 PM ET (South China Morning Post) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/now/video/israel-kills-hezbollah-leader-who-planned-attack-on-u-s-soldiers-in-iraq-225267781984" rel="nofollow">Israel kills Hezbollah leader who planned attack on U.S. soldiers in Iraq</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 2:41 PM ET (NBC) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/israel-kills-hezbollah-leader-planned-elaborate-attack-us-soldiers-ira-rcna181315" rel="nofollow">Israel kills Hezbollah leader who planned elaborate attack on U.S. soldiers in Iraq</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 8:05 AM ET (NBC) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/293631/916d50a7b465ccfea1aeb13bb91064b3" rel="nofollow">Should women be allowed to fight on the front lines? Trump’s defense pick reignites the debate</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 18, 2024, 1:45 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/293631/1cfe2bf20531d8a1b51f35342121840d" rel="nofollow">Court-martialed military veteran sentenced to over 4 years in prison for Capitol riot attack</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 18, 2024, 1:17 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3" id="ref22903">  <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">On October 3, 1932, Iraq was admitted to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/League-of-Nations" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">League of Nations</a> as an independent state. Since conflict between Iraq’s political leaders centred essentially on how to end the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/mandate-League-of-Nations" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">mandate</a> rather than on the right of independence, King Fayṣal sought the cooperation of opposition leaders after independence. Shortly after Iraq’s admission to the League, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nuri-as-Said" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Nuri al-Said</a>, who had been <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/prime-minister" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">prime minister</a> since 1930, resigned. After an <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="interim" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/interim" data-type="MW">interim</a> administration, King Fayṣal invited <span id="ref315951"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rashid-Ali-al-Gaylani" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Rashīd ʿAlī al-Gaylānī</a>, one of the opposition leaders, to form a new government. For a short while it seemed that all the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">country’s</a> leaders would close ranks and devote all their efforts to internal reforms.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">But internal dissension soon developed. The first incident was the <span id="ref315952"></span>Assyrian uprising of 1933. The Assyrians, a small <span id="ref315953"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nestorianism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Christian</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="community" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/community" data-type="MW">community</a> living in Mosul province, were given <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="assurances" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/assurances" data-type="MW">assurances</a> of security by both <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Britain</a> and Iraq. When the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="mandate" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mandate" data-type="MW">mandate</a> was ended, the Assyrians began to feel insecure and demanded new assurances. Matters came to a head in the summer of 1933 when King Fayṣal was in Europe. The opposition, now in power, wanted to impress the public through a high-handed policy toward a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/minority" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">minority group</a>. In clashes with the Iraqi troops, several hundred Assyrians were brutally killed. The incident was brought to the attention of the League of Nations less than a year after Iraq had given assurances that it would protect minority rights. Had King Fayṣal been in the country, he likely would have <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="counseled" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/counseled" data-type="MW">counseled</a> moderation. Upon his hasty return to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Baghdad" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Baghdad</a>, he found deep-seated divisions and a situation beyond his control. Suffering from heart trouble, he returned to Switzerland, where he died in September 1933. The Assyrian incident brought about the fall of Rashīd <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ali-Muslim-caliph" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">ʿAlī</a> and his replacement by a moderate government.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Fayṣal was succeeded by his son, King <span id="ref315954"></span>Ghāzī (1933–39), who was young and inexperienced—a situation that gave political leaders an opportunity to compete for power. Without political parties to channel their activities through <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constitutional" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitutional" data-type="MW">constitutional</a> processes, politicians resorted to extraconstitutional, or violent, methods. One method was to embarrass those in power by press attacks, palace intrigues, or incidents that would cause cabinet dissension and force the prime minister to resign. The first five governmental changes after independence, from 1932 to 1934, were produced by these methods.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Another tactic was to incite tribal uprisings in areas where there were tribal chiefs unfriendly to the group in power. Tribes, though habitually opposed to authority, had been brought under control and remained relatively quiet after 1932. When opposition leaders began to incite them against the government in 1934, however, they rebelled and caused the fall of three governments from 1934 to 1935.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">A third method was military intervention. The opposition would try to obtain the loyalty of army officers, plan a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/coup-detat" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">coup d’état</a>, and force those in power to resign. This method, often resorted to by the opposition, proved to be the most dangerous because, once the army intervened in politics, it became increasingly difficult to reestablish civilian rule. From 1936 until 1941, when it was defeated in a war with Britain, the army dominated domestic politics. (The army again intervened in 1958 and remained the dominant force in politics until the rise of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Baath-Party" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Baʿath Party</a> 10 years later.)</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Two different sets of opposition leaders produced the first military coup, in 1936. The first group, led by <span id="ref315955"></span>Ḥikmat Sulaymān, was a faction of old politicians who sought power by violent methods. The other was the Ahālī group, composed mainly of young men who advocated socialism and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="democracy" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/democracy" data-type="MW">democracy</a> and sought to carry out reform programs. It was Ḥikmat Sulaymān, however, who urged General <span id="ref315956"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bakr-Sidqi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bakr Ṣidqī</a>, commander of an army division, to stage a surprise attack on Baghdad in cooperation with another military commander and forced the cabinet to resign. Apparently, King Ghāzī was also disenchanted with the group in power and so allowed the government to resign. Ḥikmat Sulaymān became prime minister in October 1936, and Bakr Ṣidqī was appointed chief of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/general-staff" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">general staff</a>. Neither the Ahālī group nor Ḥikmat Sulaymān could improve social conditions, however, because the army gradually dominated the political scene. Supported by opposition leaders, a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="dissident" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/dissident" data-type="EB">dissident</a> military faction assassinated Bakr Ṣidqī, but civilian rule was not reestablished. This first military coup introduced a new factor in politics. Lack of leadership after the assassination of Bakr Ṣidqī left the army divided, while jealousy among leading army officers induced each faction to support a different set of civilian leaders. The army became virtually the deciding factor in cabinet changes and remained so until 1941.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Despite political instability, material progress continued during King Ghāzī’s short reign. Oil had been discovered near <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kirkuk" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kirkūk</a> in 1927, and, by the outbreak of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">World War II</a>, oil <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="revenue" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/revenue" data-type="EB">revenue</a> had begun to play an important role in domestic spending and added a new facet to Iraq’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-relations" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">foreign relations</a>. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Al-Kut" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Al-Kūt</a> irrigation project, begun in 1934, was completed, and other projects, to be financed by oil royalties, were planned. The pipelines from the Kirkūk oil fields to the Mediterranean were opened in 1935. The railroads, still under British control, were purchased in 1935, and the Baʿījī-Tal Küçük section, the only missing railway link between the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Persian-Gulf" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Persian Gulf</a> and Europe, was completed in 1938. There was also a noticeable increase in construction, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/international-trade" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">foreign trade</a>, and educational facilities. Several disputes with neighbouring countries were settled, including one over the boundary with <span id="ref794449"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Syria" class="md-crosslink ">Syria</a>, which was concluded in Iraq’s favour; Iraq thereafter possessed the Sinjār Mountains. A nonaggression pact, called the <span id="ref315957"></span>Saʿdābād Pact, between <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Turkey" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Turkey</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iran" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Iran</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Afghanistan</a>, and Iraq was signed in 1937. In 1939, shortly before the outbreak of World War II, King Ghāzī was killed in a car accident, and his son <span id="ref315958"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Faisal-II" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Fayṣal II</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="ascended" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/ascended" data-type="EB">ascended</a> the throne. As Fayṣal was only four years old, his uncle, Emir <span id="ref315959"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abd-al-Ilah" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ʿAbd al-Ilāh</a>, was appointed regent and served in this capacity for the next 14 years.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":25,"pagesTotal":34,"pageId":293631,"pageLength":1021,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"A","adLeg":"A","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":25,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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