Iraq - Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein, Invasion

<!doctype html> <html lang="en" class="topic-desktop ui-ie7 ui-ie"> <head prefix="og: https://ogp.me/ns# fb: https://ogp.me/ns/fb#"> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130"> <link rel="preload" as="script" href="https://www.googletagservices.com/tag/js/gpt.js" /> <link rel="icon" href="/favicon.png" /> <meta name="description" content="Iraq - Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein, Invasion: Relations with Iran had grown increasingly strained after the shah was overthrown in 1979. Iraq recognized Iran’s new Shiʿi Islamic government, but the Iranian leaders would have nothing to do with the Baʿath regime, which they denounced as secular. Ruhollah Khomeini, the spiritual leader of the Iranian revolution, proclaimed his policy of “exporting the revolution,” and Iraq was high on the list of countries whose governments were to be overthrown and replaced by a replica of the Islamic regime in Iran. In addition, Iran still occupied three small pieces of territory along the Iran-Iraq border that were supposed to be" /> <meta name="keywords" content="Iraq, encyclopedia, encyclopeadia, britannica, article" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/The-Iran-Iraq-War" /> <title>Iraq - Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein, Invasion | Britannica</title> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel"> window.$UI = {}; window.Constants = {"LICENSE_URL": "/bps/license","DEFAULT_TEST_VERSION": "A","DEFAULT_STATE": "XX","QUIZ_URL": "/quiz","SPOTLIGHT_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/spotlight","CONTENT_TYPE_TEXT": "text/plain;charset=UTF-8","TOPIC_FACTS_DATA_URL": "/facts","QUIZ_BROWSE_IMAGE_QUIZZES": "images","TOPIC_MEDIA_PATH": "/images-videos","USER_PROFILE_URL": "/user","DEBUG_URL": "/debug","ONE_GOOD_FACT_URL": "/one-good-fact","ERROR_404_URL": "/error404","PROCON_CITED_IN_THE_NEWS_URL": "/procon/ProCon-in-the-News","PROCON_URL": "/procon","TOPIC_PAGE_CONTENT_AJAX_URL": "/topic-content/page","INFINITE_SCROLL_PREFIX_URL": "/scroll","TOPIC_TOP_QUESTION_BROWSE_URL": "/questions","CC_USD": "USD","domain": "britannica.com","SURVEY_URL": "/survey","CATEGORY_BROWSE_URL": "/browse","STORY_BROWSE_URL": "/stories","COUNTRY_US": "US","OPEN_MEDIA_OVERLAY_PARAMETER": "/media","NEWSLETTER_SUBSCRIPTION_URL": "/newsletter-subscription","MAINTENANCE_ERROR_URL": "https://maintenance.eb.com","IMARS_EDITOR_ID": "12365882","PROFILE_EB_EDITOR_URL": "/editor","WEB_INF_RESOURCES_PATH": "WEB-INF/resources","AI_ABOUT_PAGE_URL": "/about-britannica-ai","TOPIC_ADDITIONAL_INFO_PATH": "/additional-info","SUDOKU_GAME_URL": "/games/sudoku","CC_INR": "INR","ARTICLE_PRINT_URL": "/print/article","FIRST_EDITION_URL": "/subscriber/firstedition","WW1_PORTAL_URL": "/discover/World-War-I","MENDEL_COOKIE": "__mendel","DEMYSTIFIED_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/demystified","LIST_BROWSE_URL": "/list/browse","PROFILE_EXPERT_URL": "/contributor","ASSEMBLY_IMAGE_URL": "/image/assembly","DAY_IN_HISTORY_URL": "/on-this-day","DEFAULT_CURRENCY": "USD","CONTENT_TYPE_XML": "text/xml;charset=UTF-8","PORTAL_FINANCE_BROWSE_URL_PREFIX": "/money/browse","MONEY_IMARS_CATEGORY": "13000","AJAX_PREFIX_URL": "/ajax","TOPIC_BROWSE_URL": "/topic-browse","MARKETING_CONTENT": "/marketing-content","ENV_RUNTIME": "runtime","GALLERY_URL": "/gallery","topicUrlClassesList": "topic|animal|art|biography|event|place|plant|science|sports|technology|procon","CONTENT_TYPE_HTML": "text/html;charset=UTF-8","ENV_LOCAL": "override","MEDIA_OVERLAY_URL": "/media-overlay","CHATBOT_PAGE_URL": "/chatbot","NEWSLETTER_PAGE_URL": "/newsletters","ENV_DEV": "development","MEDIA_URL": "/media","TOPIC_TOP_QUESTION_URL": "/question","PORTAL_FINANCE_URL_PREFIX": "/money","PODCASTS_URL": "/podcasts","STAND_ALONE_VIDEO_URL": "/video","MORE_ON_THIS_DAY_URL": "/more-on-this-day","TOPIC_QUOTES_URL": "/quotes","SEARCH_PAGE_URL": "/search","PROCON_CLASS": "PROCON","KUSTOM_MENDEL_APPLICATION_ID": "1","TOPIC_CONTENT_AJAX_URL": "/topic-content/topic","ENV_BRANCH": "branch","ERROR_URL": "/error","MAIN_VERSION": "mainVersion","DEFAULT_S3_REGION": "US_EAST_1","TOPIC_COLLECTION_URL": "/summary","LOGINBOX_URL": "/auth/loginbox","ONE_GOOD_FACT_BROWSE_URL": "/one-good-fact/all-good-facts","QUIZ_BROWSE_URL": "/quiz/browse","BIO_BROWSE_URL": "/browse/biographies","LIST_URL": "/list","TIGHTROPE_QUIZ_URL": "/quiz/tightrope","ALPHA_BROWSE_URL": "/sitemap","CONTENT_TYPE_JSON": "application/json","DICTIONARY_URL": "/dictionary","COBRAND_IMAGE_URL": "/image/cobrand","PROCON_IN_THE_NEWS_URL": "/procon/pro-and-con-issues-in-the-news","PROCON_BROWSE_URL": "/procon","QUIZ_BROWSE_VOCAB_QUIZZES": "vocabulary-quizzes","SUBMISSION_URL": "/submission","EB_LOG_OUT": "/auth2/logout","ENV_PRODUCTION": "production","EXPLORE_PORTAL_URL": "/explore","TOPIC_AJAX_URL": "/ajax/topic","TOPIC_SUMMARY_BROWSE_URL": "/summaries","WTFACT_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/wtfact","VIDEO_CHANNEL_URL": "/videos","GALLERY_BROWSE_URL": "/gallery/browse","CACHE_URL": "/cache","PROCON_ABOUT_URL": "/procon/About-ProCon","COMPANION_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/companion","MEDIA_FOLDER": "/eb-media","SHOW_ALL_CONTRIBUTORS": "/additional-info#contributors","BRITANNICA_EDITORS_ID": "4419","ENV_CACHE_DISABLED": "mendelCache","CALCULATORS_BROWSE_URL": "/calculators","STORY_URL": "/story","DEFAULT_COUNTRY": "US","NAVBAR_URL": "/ajax/navbar","EB_LOGIN_URL": "/auth/eb-login","NEW_ARTICLES_URL": "/new-articles",}; window.CDN = "https://cdn.britannica.com"; window.CAM_LOGIN_URL = "https://cam.britannica.com"; window.CAM_SIGN_UP_URL = "https://cam.britannica.com/registration" window.Mendel = { "config" : { "domain": "britannica.com", "page": "Topic", "videoPlayerId": "UyMCoK2v", "sharedUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/The-Iran-Iraq-War", "amuselabsUrl": "https://cdn3.amuselabs.com", "resourcesPrefixUrl": "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/[url]?v=3.130.14", "date": 20241125, "userInfo": { "type": "ANONYMOUS" ,"currency": "AUUS" ,"country": "SG" ,"state": "XX" ,"timezone": "Asia/Singapore" ,"bcomId": "7782392946709054339" ,"hasAds": true ,"testVersion": "B" ,"adsTestVersion": "B" ,"consumerId": "" ,"instId": "" ,"consumerUserName": "" ,"instUserName": "" ,"cognito": null }, "tvs":{ "r":[25,25,25,25], "a": [25,25,25,25]}, "isLoggedInAsUser": false, "isPhone": false, "isDesktop": true, "logoutUrl": "/auth2/logout", "selfServiceUrl": "https://myaccount.britannica.com", "cdnUrl": "https://cdn.britannica.com", "chatbotApi": "https://www.britannica.com/chat-api", "fetchOffset": 800, "mendelCookieName": "__mendel", "mendelCookie": {"surveyShown":false,"visitedTopicId":293631,"currentDate":20241125}, "autocompleteToSearchPage": false,"topicUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq" ,"freeTopicReason": "PERMANENT_FREE_TOPIC" ,"topicId": 293631 ,"template": "DESKTOP" ,"type": "CORE" ,"hasToc": true ,"chatbotApi": "https://www.britannica.com/chat-api" ,"showPreview": false ,"infiniteScrollList": [{"p":34,"t":293631},{"p":3,"t":870845},{"p":3,"t":1963547},{"p":1,"t":325241},{"p":4,"t":1781371},{"p":1,"t":293527},{"p":1,"t":850855},{"p":1,"t":1784922},{"p":7,"t":343579},{"p":1,"t":405113}] ,"sequence": 31 ,"topics": {} }, "GA": {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":31,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} }; </script> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="1887621861548296"/ <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@britannica" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/1728-050-FC0FCF9D/Flag-Iraq.jpg" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Iraq - Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein, Invasion: Relations with Iran had grown increasingly strained after the shah was overthrown in 1979. Iraq recognized Iran’s new Shiʿi Islamic government, but the Iranian leaders would have nothing to do with the Baʿath regime, which they denounced as secular. Ruhollah Khomeini, the spiritual leader of the Iranian revolution, proclaimed his policy of “exporting the revolution,” and Iraq was high on the list of countries whose governments were to be overthrown and replaced by a replica of the Islamic regime in Iran. In addition, Iran still occupied three small pieces of territory along the Iran-Iraq border that were supposed to be"/> <meta property="og:type" content="ARTICLE"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Iraq - Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein, Invasion | Britannica"/> <meta property="og:description" content="Iraq - Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein, Invasion: Relations with Iran had grown increasingly strained after the shah was overthrown in 1979. Iraq recognized Iran’s new Shiʿi Islamic government, but the Iranian leaders would have nothing to do with the Baʿath regime, which they denounced as secular. Ruhollah Khomeini, the spiritual leader of the Iranian revolution, proclaimed his policy of “exporting the revolution,” and Iraq was high on the list of countries whose governments were to be overthrown and replaced by a replica of the Islamic regime in Iran. In addition, Iran still occupied three small pieces of territory along the Iran-Iraq border that were supposed to be"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclopedia Britannica" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq"/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/1728-050-FC0FCF9D/Flag-Iraq.jpg" /> <meta property="og:image:type" content="image/jpeg" /> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="init opengraph"> Mendel.openGraph = {"type":"ARTICLE","title":"Iraq - Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein, Invasion","description":"Iraq - Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein, Invasion: Relations with Iran had grown increasingly strained after the shah was overthrown in 1979. Iraq recognized Iran’s new Shiʿi Islamic government, but the Iranian leaders would have nothing to do with the Baʿath regime, which they denounced as secular. Ruhollah Khomeini, the spiritual leader of the Iranian revolution, proclaimed his policy of “exporting the revolution,” and Iraq was high on the list of countries whose governments were to be overthrown and replaced by a replica of the Islamic regime in Iran. In addition, Iran still occupied three small pieces of territory along the Iran-Iraq border that were supposed to be","imageUrl":"https://cdn.britannica.com/28/1728-050-FC0FCF9D/Flag-Iraq.jpg","imageType":"image/jpeg","pageUrl":"https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq"}</script> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/" > <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/icon?family=Material+Icons"> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/vendor-bundle.css?v=3.130.14" rel="stylesheet" /> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/mendel-css.css?v=3.130.14" rel="stylesheet" /> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.css?v=3.130.14" rel="stylesheet" /> <script type="text/javascript"> if (self !== top) { top.location = self.location; } // if ('scrollRestoration' in history) { history.scrollRestoration = 'manual'; } </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/at.js?v=3.130.14" async ></script> <script> dataLayer = []; </script> <script type="text/javascript">(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= '//www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-5W6NC8'); </script> <meta name="last-modified" content="2024-11-25" /> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"headline":"Iraq | History, Map, Flag, Population, & Facts","image":{"url":"https://cdn.britannica.com/28/1728-050-FC0FCF9D/Flag-Iraq.jpg","@type":"ImageObject"},"author":[{"name":"Gerald Henry Blake","url":"https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Gerald-Henry-Blake/3789","@type":"Person"},{"name":"Richard L. Chambers","url":"https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Richard-L-Chambers/3798","@type":"Person"}],"keywords":"Iraq","wordcount":43699,"url":"https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq","datePublished":"1999-07-26T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2024-11-25T00:00:00Z","description":"Iraq is a country in southwestern Asia. During ancient times, lands that now constitute Iraq were known as Mesopotamia. The modern nation-state of Iraq was created following World War I from the Ottoman provinces of Baghdad, Basra, and Mosul. The capital city is Baghdad.","publisher":{"name":"Encyclopedia Britannica","@type":"Organization","logo":{"url":"https://corporate.britannica.com/wp-content/themes/eb-corporate/_img/logo.png","@type":"ImageObject"}},"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"article"} </script></head> <body data-leg="B" class="new-topic topic-desktop first-page-false user-ANONYMOUS user-ads md-desktop leg-bb-ie">  <script>Mendel.config.adProvider='ay';</script> <script async src="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net/tag/js/gpt.js"></script> <script> window.googletag = window.googletag || {cmd: []}; googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.defineSlot('/15510053/CMP_1x1', [1, 1], 'div-gpt-ad-1709766812090-0').addService(googletag.pubads()); googletag.pubads().enableSingleRequest(); googletag.enableServices(); }); </script> <script async defer src="https://launchpad-wrapper.privacymanager.io/0ccc6fe8-1870-4ad8-b47b-6d029ac116fc/launchpad-liveramp.js"></script> <script async src="https://JRyhoywLYXNLYMAhs.ay.delivery/manager/JRyhoywLYXNLYMAhs" type="text/javascript" referrerpolicy="no-referrer-when-downgrade" ></script><div class="ie-warning d-flex align-items-center align-self-center justify-content-center site-alert bg-orange"> <div> You are using an <strong>outdated</strong> browser. Please <a class="text-white text-underscore" href="https://browsehappy.com/">upgrade your browser</a> to improve your experience and security. </div> </div> <script id="json-navbar-info" type="application/json"> {"topSectionLinks":[{"title":"Ask the Chatbot","url":"/chatbot","navbarId":"CHATBOT"},{"title":"Games & Quizzes","url":"/quiz/browse","navbarId":"QUIZZES"},{"title":"ProCon","url":"/procon","navbarId":"PROCON"},{"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society","navbarId":"HISTORY"},{"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech","navbarId":"SCIENCE"},{"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies","navbarId":"BIOS"},{"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature","navbarId":"ANIMALS"},{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel","selected":true,"navbarId":"GEOGRAPHY"},{"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture","navbarId":"ART"},{"title":"Money","url":"/money","navbarId":"MONEY"},{"title":"Videos","url":"/videos","navbarId":"VIDEOS"}],"selectedSuperCategory":{"id":4,"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"Geography-Travel","description":"Explore geography and travel; geographic regions; historical places; people of the world; countries, states, provinces, cities, and towns; languages; deserts, islands, mountains, plateaus; lakes, oceans, seas, rivers; national parks, tourist attractions","keywords":"geographic regions; historical places; people of the world; countries, states, provinces, cities, and towns; languages; deserts, islands, mountains, plateaus; lakes, oceans, seas, rivers; national parks, tourist attractions ","classId":"GEOGRAPHY","sortOrder":5},"selectedNavbarLink":{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel","selected":true,"navbarId":"GEOGRAPHY"}} </script> <script id="json-hamburger-menu" type="application/json"> {"britannicaMenu1":[{"title":"Home","url":"/"},{"title":"ProCon","url":"/procon"},{"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society"},{"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech"},{"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies"},{"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature"},{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel"},{"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture"},{"title":"Money","url":"/money"}],"britannicaMenu2":[{"title":"Games & Quizzes","url":"/quiz/browse"},{"title":"Videos","url":"/videos"},{"title":"On This Day","url":"/on-this-day"},{"title":"One Good Fact","url":"/one-good-fact"},{"title":"Dictionary","url":"/dictionary"},{"title":"New Articles","url":"/new-articles"}],"browseByCategory":[{"title":{"id":5,"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society"},"links":[{"title":"Lifestyles & Social Issues","url":"/browse/Lifestyles-Social-Issues"},{"title":"Philosophy & Religion","url":"/browse/Philosophy-Religion"},{"title":"Politics, Law & Government","url":"/browse/Politics-Law-Government"},{"title":"World History","url":"/browse/World-History"}]},{"title":{"id":6,"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech"},"links":[{"title":"Health & Medicine","url":"/browse/Health-Medicine"},{"title":"Science","url":"/browse/Science"},{"title":"Technology","url":"/browse/Technology"}]},{"title":{"id":3,"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies"},"links":[{"title":"Browse Biographies","url":"/browse/biographies"}]},{"title":{"id":1,"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature"},"links":[{"title":"Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates","url":"/browse/Birds-Reptiles-Vertebrates"},{"title":"Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates","url":"/browse/Bugs-Mollusks-Invertebrates"},{"title":"Environment","url":"/browse/Environment"},{"title":"Fossils & Geologic Time","url":"/browse/Fossil-Geologic-Time"},{"title":"Mammals","url":"/browse/Mammals"},{"title":"Plants","url":"/browse/Plants"}]},{"title":{"id":4,"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel"},"links":[{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/browse/Geography-Travel"}]},{"title":{"id":2,"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture"},"links":[{"title":"Entertainment & Pop Culture","url":"/browse/Entertainment-Pop-Culture"},{"title":"Literature","url":"/browse/Literature"},{"title":"Sports & Recreation","url":"/browse/Sports-Recreation"},{"title":"Visual Arts","url":"/browse/Visual-Arts"}]}],"browseByFeature":[{"title":"Companions","url":"/stories/companion"},{"title":"Demystified","url":"/stories/demystified"},{"title":"Image Galleries","url":"/gallery/browse"},{"title":"Lists","url":"/list/browse"},{"title":"Podcasts","url":"/podcasts"},{"title":"Spotlight","url":"/stories/spotlight"},{"title":"Summaries","url":"/summary"},{"title":"The Forum","url":"/stories/the-forum"},{"title":"Top Questions","url":"/question"},{"title":"#WTFact","url":"/stories/wtfact"}],"moreFromBritannica":[{"title":"Britannica Kids","url":"https://kids.britannica.com/","newTab":true}],"menuType":"DEFAULT"} </script> <header id="header" class="bg-navy-dark"> <div class="global-nav-top-bar"> <div class="grid gx-0 h-100 justify-content-between align-items-center container-lg mx-auto p-0 position-relative"> <div class="d-flex align-items-center"> <button class="d-flex align-items-center justify-self-start js-toggle js-toggle-hamburger btn btn-link link-white btn-sm rounded-0 p-10"> <div class="hamburger-tooltip"> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block font-24" id="nav-toggle" data-icon="menu"></em> </div> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block font-24 global-nav-search-icon" id="nav-search-icon" data-icon="search" ></em> </button> <a href="/" class="d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center ml-10"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png" alt="Encyclopedia Britannica" class="global-nav-logo global-nav-logo-left" /> </a> <div class="global-nav-top-search-bar global-nav-top-search-container global-nav-search-container" id="global-nav-top-search-bar"> <form method="get" action="/search" id="global-nav-search" class="md-search-form m-0 global-nav-search-bar-small"> <div class="search-box position-relative col-100"> <label class="sr-only" for="global-nav-search-query">Search Britannica</label> <input name="query" id="global-nav-search-query" placeholder="Search Britannica..." class="form-control form-control-lg rounded-lg font-16 search-query pl-20 pr-70 shadow-sm" maxlength="200" autocomplete="off" aria-label="Search Britannica" /> <button class="search-reset-btn btn btn-link px-10 position-absolute top-0 h-100 d-none" type="reset"> <em class="material-icons" data-icon="close"></em> </button> <button class="search-submit btn btn-link text-blue px-10 position-absolute top-0 right-0 h-100" type="submit" disabled> <span class="sr-only">Click here to search</span> <em class="material-icons search-icon" data-icon="search"></em> </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <a href="/" class="d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png" alt="Encyclopedia Britannica" class="global-nav-center global-nav-logo non-homepage-logo" /> </a> <form method="get" action="/search" id="global-nav-search" class="md-search-form m-0 global-nav-search-bar-small global-nav-center search global-nav-center-search-container"> <div class="search-box position-relative col-100"> <label class="sr-only" for="global-nav-search-query">Search Britannica</label> <input name="query" id="global-nav-search-query" placeholder="Search Britannica..." class="form-control form-control-lg rounded-lg font-16 search-query pl-20 pr-70 shadow-sm" maxlength="200" autocomplete="off" aria-label="Search Britannica" /> <button class="search-reset-btn btn btn-link px-10 position-absolute top-0 h-100 d-none" type="reset"> <em class="material-icons" data-icon="close"></em> </button> <button class="search-submit btn btn-link text-blue px-10 position-absolute top-0 right-0 h-100" type="submit" disabled> <span class="sr-only">Click here to search</span> <em class="material-icons search-icon" data-icon="search"></em> </button> </div> </form> <div class="col-35 col-sm-auto text-right order-3 mr-lg-15 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-end"> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block"> <SPAN class="marketing-HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_DESKTOP2 marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_DESKTOP2"><a href="https://subscription.britannica.com/subscribe?partnerCode=BP_Black_Friday_AUUS" class="subscribe-link btn btn-sm btn-outline-white-orange py-5 mr-10" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> Subscribe </a></SPAN></div> <div class="d-inline-block d-md-none mr-5 mr-sm-10"> <SPAN class="marketing-HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_MOBILE marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_MOBILE"><a href="https://subscription.britannica.com/subscribe?partnerCode=BP_Black_Friday_AUUS" class="subscribe-link btn btn-xs btn-orange-dark p-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> Subscribe </a></SPAN></div> <button class="js-toggle-user-dropdown js-toggle btn btn-sm btn-link link-white rounded-0 px-md-15 pl-5 pr-5"> <span class="d-none d-md-inline-block mr-5">Login</span> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block d-md-none font-16 font-sm-20" data-icon="account_circle"></em> <div class="d-none dropdown-menu-subscription-link">https://subscription.britannica.com/subscribe?partnerCode=BP_Black_Friday_AUUS</div> <em class="material-icons inactive-icon d-inline-block font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_down"></em> <em class="material-icons active-icon d-inline-block font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_up"></em> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-none hamburger-menu-subscription-link"><DIV class="marketing-HAMBURGER_MENU_CTA marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HAMBURGER_MENU_CTA"><a href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=hamburger-menu&utm_campaign=black-friday-2024" class="subscribe-link btn btn-sm btn-orange py-5" target="_blank"> Subscribe <span class="d-none d-md-inline"> Now</span> </a></DIV></div> <div id="global-nav-react"> <div class="d-none"> <ul> <li><a href="/">Home</a></li> <li><a href="/procon">ProCon</a></li> <li><a href="/History-Society">History & Society</a></li> <li><a href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a></li> <li><a href="/Biographies">Biographies</a></li> <li><a href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/money">Money</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="/quiz/browse">Games & Quizzes</a></li> <li><a href="/videos">Videos</a></li> <li><a href="/on-this-day">On This Day</a></li> <li><a href="/one-good-fact">One Good Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/dictionary">Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/new-articles">New Articles</a></li> </ul> <a href="/History-Society">History & Society</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Lifestyles-Social-Issues">Lifestyles & Social Issues</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Philosophy-Religion">Philosophy & Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Politics-Law-Government">Politics, Law & Government</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/World-History">World History</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Health-Medicine">Health & Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Technology">Technology</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Biographies">Biographies</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/biographies">Browse Biographies</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Birds-Reptiles-Vertebrates">Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Bugs-Mollusks-Invertebrates">Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Environment">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Fossil-Geologic-Time">Fossils & Geologic Time</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Mammals">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Plants">Plants</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Entertainment-Pop-Culture">Entertainment & Pop Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Sports-Recreation">Sports & Recreation</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Visual-Arts">Visual Arts</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="/stories/companion">Companions</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/demystified">Demystified</a></li> <li><a href="/gallery/browse">Image Galleries</a></li> <li><a href="/list/browse">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/podcasts">Podcasts</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/spotlight">Spotlight</a></li> <li><a href="/summary">Summaries</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/the-forum">The Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/question">Top Questions</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/wtfact">#WTFact</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="https://kids.britannica.com/">Britannica Kids</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </header> <div class="bg-navy-dark"> <div class="container-lg p-0 d-flex justify-content-center global-nav-categories-bar overflow-hidden"> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 global-nav-slider category-snap-slider"> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex font-14 overflow-hidden text-nowrap mx-5"> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-CHATBOT " href="/chatbot">Ask the Chatbot</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-QUIZZES " href="/quiz/browse">Games & Quizzes</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-PROCON " href="/procon">ProCon</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-HISTORY " href="/History-Society">History & Society</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-SCIENCE " href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-BIOS " href="/Biographies">Biographies</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-ANIMALS " href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-GEOGRAPHY selected selected" href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-ART " href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-MONEY " href="/money">Money</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-VIDEOS " href="/videos">Videos</a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <main> <div class="md-page-wrapper"> <div id="content" class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="293631"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq">Iraq</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/Iraq">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref22922"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22922">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22923"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22923">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22924"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22924">Alluvial plains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232255"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref232255">Al-Jazīrah</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22926"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22926">Deserts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22927"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast">The northeast</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22928"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref22928">Drainage</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232256"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref232256">The Tigris-Euphrates river system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232257"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref232257">Irrigation and canals</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22929"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref22929">Soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22930"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate">Climate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22931"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate#ref22931">Plant and animal life</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22935"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate#ref22935">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22936"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate#ref22936">Ethnic groups</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232258"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs">Arabs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22937"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22937">Kurds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22938"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22938">Other minorities</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22939"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22939">Languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22940"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22940">Religion</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232259"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref232259">Sunnis</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232260"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah">The Shiʿah</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232261"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232261">Religious minorities</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232262"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232262">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232263"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232263">Rural settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232264" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232264">Urban settlement</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232265"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Baghdad">Baghdad</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232266"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Baghdad#ref232266">Regional centres</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Baghdad#ref22941">Demographic trends</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22942"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232267"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy#ref232267">Overview</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232268"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy#ref232268">Economic development</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232269"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy#ref232269">State control</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref22943">Resources and power</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232270"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref232270">Petroleum and natural gas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232271"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines">Oil pipelines</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232272"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines#ref232272">Other minerals and energy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232273"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines#ref232273">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines#ref22946">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232274"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade#ref232274">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232275"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade#ref232275">Labour and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22947"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade#ref22947">Transportation and telecommunications</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22948"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22950"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref22950">Constitutional framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref22951">Local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref22952">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232276"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref232276">Political process</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Security">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232277"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Security#ref232277">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232278"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Security#ref232278">Housing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232279"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22956"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education#ref22956">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232280"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education#ref232280">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232281"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education#ref232281">Daily life and social customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232282"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts">The arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232283"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts#ref232283">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232284"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts#ref232284">Sports and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232285"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts#ref232285">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214199"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22882"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/History#ref22882">Iraq from c. 600 to 1055</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22883"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/History#ref22883">The Arab conquest and the early Islamic period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22884"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Abbasid-Caliphate">The Abbasid Caliphate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22885"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Buyid-period-932-1062">The Buyid period (932–1062)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22886"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Iraq-from-1055-to-1534">Iraq from 1055 to 1534</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22887"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Iraq-from-1055-to-1534#ref22887">The Seljuqs (1055–1152)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22888"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-later-Abbasids-1152-1258">The later Abbasids (1152–1258)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22889"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-later-Abbasids-1152-1258#ref22889">The Mongol Il-Khans (1258–1335)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22890"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-later-Abbasids-1152-1258#ref22890">Il-Khanid successors (1335–1410)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22891"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Turkmen-1410-1508">The Turkmen (1410–1508)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22892"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Turkmen-1410-1508#ref22892">The Safavids (1508–34)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22893"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Turkmen-1410-1508#ref22893">Ottoman Iraq (1534–1918)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22894"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-16th-century-conquest-of-Iraq-and-the-regime-imposed-by-Suleyman-I">The 16th-century conquest of Iraq and the regime imposed by Süleyman I</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22895"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-16th-century-conquest-of-Iraq-and-the-regime-imposed-by-Suleyman-I#ref22895">The local despotisms in the 17th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22896"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-16th-century-conquest-of-Iraq-and-the-regime-imposed-by-Suleyman-I#ref22896">The 18th-century Mamluk regime</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22897"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-fall-of-the-Mamluks-and-the-consolidation-of-British-interests">The fall of the Mamluks and the consolidation of British interests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22898"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-fall-of-the-Mamluks-and-the-consolidation-of-British-interests#ref22898">Mid-19th-century Ottoman reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22899"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-governorship-of-Midhat-Pasa">The governorship of Midhat Paşa</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22900"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-governorship-of-Midhat-Pasa#ref22900">The end of Ottoman rule</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22901"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-governorship-of-Midhat-Pasa#ref22901">Iraq until the 1958 revolution</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22902"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/British-occupation-and-the-mandatory-regime">British occupation and the mandatory regime</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22903"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Independence-1932-39">Independence, 1932–39</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22904"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/World-War-II-and-British-intervention-1939-45">World War II and British intervention, 1939–45</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22905"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/World-War-II-and-British-intervention-1939-45#ref22905">Postwar reconstruction and social upheavals, 1945–58</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232286"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq">The Republic of Iraq</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22906" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq#ref22906">The 1958 revolution and its aftermath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref22907"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq#ref22907">Recurrence of military coups, 1963–68</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232287"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq#ref232287">Iraqi foreign policy, 1958–68</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22908" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-revolution-of-1968">The revolution of 1968</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232288"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-revolution-of-1968#ref232288">The second Baʿath government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232289"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-revolution-of-1968#ref232289">The revolution of 1968</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232290"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Foreign-policy-1968-80">Foreign policy 1968–80</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232291"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Foreign-policy-1968-80#ref232291">Economic development to 1980</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232292" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Iraq-under-Saddam-Hussein">Iraq under Saddam Hussein</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232293"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Iran-Iraq-War">The Iran-Iraq War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232294"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Iran-Iraq-War#ref232294">Postwar policies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232295"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Persian-Gulf-War">The Persian Gulf War</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref232296"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Persian-Gulf-War#ref232296">Causes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref232297"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Persian-Gulf-War#ref232297">The invasion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232298"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program">The UN embargo and oil-for-food program</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref339791" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program#ref339791">The Iraq War (2003–11) and its aftermath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349077"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program#ref349077">Post-9/11 tension and the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref339793"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program#ref339793">Rocky transition to civilian government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref310597"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL">U.S. withdrawal and the rise of the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref349078"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349078">Second term of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki and sectarian polarization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref349079"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349079">Fight against ISIL</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref349080" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349080">Postwar Iraq</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349081"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349081">2018 parliamentary elections and the premiership of Adel Abdul Mahdi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349082"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349082">Tishreen Movement: protests in 2019–20 against corruption and foreign interference</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349083"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349083">Premiership of Mustafa al-Kadhimi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Iraq">Facts & Stats</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/images-videos">Images</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/1728-050-FC0FCF9D/Flag-Iraq.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/61322" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/1728-004-EBF4B6FF/Flag-Iraq.jpg" alt="flag of Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="" data-href="/media/1/293631/151425" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <em class="material-icons md-48" data-icon="volume_up"></em> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/29/1729-050-B2DDFD1A/Iraq.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/2034" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/29/1729-004-AC685C4D/Iraq.jpg" alt="Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/68/183668-050-042D45AF/World-Data-Locator-Map-Iraq.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/208639" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/68/183668-004-4E261550/World-Data-Locator-Map-Iraq.jpg" alt="Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/31/1731-050-E5DE29A0/Iraq-map-features-locator.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/61324" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/31/1731-004-B263717D/Iraq-map-features-locator.jpg" alt="physical features of Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/77340-004-AE79A6AA/Dhows-Iraq-Shatt-al-Arab.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/71870" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/77340-004-AE79A6AA/Dhows-Iraq-Shatt-al-Arab.jpg" alt="dhows in the Shatt al-Arab, Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/30/1730-050-637ED31E/Euphrates-River-edge-Khan-al-Baghdadi-plateau-Iraq.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/67399" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/30/1730-004-20208AF4/Euphrates-River-edge-Khan-al-Baghdadi-plateau-Iraq.jpg" alt="Euphrates River at Khān al-Baghdādī, Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/21/161621-050-C6AB7DD7/Tigris-River-Baghdad-Iraq.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/171867" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/21/161621-004-D4E3C07A/Tigris-River-Baghdad-Iraq.jpg" alt="Tigris River in Baghdad" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/64/5964-050-389377B7/pigs-housing-marshland-Tigris-rivers-Iraq-Euphrates.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/60183" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/64/5964-004-1E1ADC40/pigs-housing-marshland-Tigris-rivers-Iraq-Euphrates.jpg" alt="marshland in southern Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="" data-href="/media/1/293631/225508" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/35/184335-049-D72F73A1/World-Data-ethnic-composition-pie-chart-Iraq.jpg" alt="Iraq: Ethnic composition" height="50" /> </a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-student-links"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> For Students </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/summary/Iraq"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/images/shared/default3.png?v=3.130.14" class="default " height="200" width="200"/> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/summary/Iraq" >Iraq summary</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-related-quizzes"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Quizzes </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/the-country-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/129640-131-0EB20858/Flags-countries-world-flags-Country-blog-geography-2009.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Flags of all countries of the world. Flags of the world. National flags. Country flags. Hompepage blog 2009, history and society, geography and travel, explore discovery" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/the-country-quiz" >The Country Quiz</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-area-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/95/168695-131-11055CC5/Geography-Something-globe-Europe-Eurasia-Africa.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="7:023 Geography: Think of Something Big, globe showing Africa, Europe, and Eurasia" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-area-quiz" >Which Country Is Larger By Area? Quiz</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-population-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/91/142291-131-1FF39F2D/Flags-world-blue-sky-Countries-Globalization-relations-2010.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Flags of the world against blue sky. Countries, International. Globalization, global relations, Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, Poland, Palestine, Japan. Homepage 2010, arts and entertainment, history and society" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-population-quiz" >Which Country Is Larger By Population? Quiz</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/64/244164-131-C5EE8DAB/nation-flags-world-map.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Flags of all nations of the world. Grouping of various country flags on a world map." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-quiz" >Which Country Is Larger? Quiz</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/guess-the-country-by-its-neighbors-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/247338-131-37776892/passport-visas-stamps-world-map.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Opened passport with visas, stamps, seals, world map. (travel, tourism)" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/guess-the-country-by-its-neighbors-quiz" >Guess the Country by Its Neighbors Quiz</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-related-questions"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 pb-0 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-15"> Related Questions </div> <ul> <li class="link-gray-900 mb-15"><a class="" href="/question/How-did-Saddam-Hussein-influence-the-world">How did Saddam Hussein influence the world?</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-read-next"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Read Next </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/25th-anniversary-of-operation-desert-storm"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/30/127130-131-3FFB4959/oil-wells-aircraft-fire-soldiers-Kuwaiti-Iraqi-1991.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="USAF aircraft of the 4th Fighter Wing (F-16, F-15C and F-15E) fly over Kuwaiti oil fires, set by the retreating Iraqi army as part of a scorched earth policy during Operation Desert Storm in 1991. Gulf War, Operation Desert Storm, Desert Shield." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/25th-anniversary-of-operation-desert-storm" >25th Anniversary of Operation Desert Storm</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-discover"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Discover </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/all-119-references-in-we-didnt-start-the-fire-explained"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/04/79904-131-6DCAD337/Elizabeth-II-speech-throne-Parliament-state-opening-1958.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Queen Elizabeth II addresses at opening of Parliament. (Date unknown on photo, but may be 1958, the first time the opening of Parliament was filmed.)" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/all-119-references-in-we-didnt-start-the-fire-explained" >All 119 References in “We Didn’t Start the Fire,” Explained</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/7-female-firsts-in-us-politics"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/91/61891-131-AF35D0B4/Frances-Perkins.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Frances Perkins, c. 1939-1945" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/7-female-firsts-in-us-politics" >7 Female Firsts in U.S. Politics</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/14-tough-questions-answered"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/91/219491-131-8BCF8E53/human-Inuit-skull.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="A human Inuit skull in a stone chambered cairn in Ilulissat in Greenland. These ancient graves are pre christian and are at least 2000" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/14-tough-questions-answered" >14 Tough Questions Answered</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/10-famous-artworks-by-leonardo-da-vinci"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/06/200006-131-ABB681CF/Leonardo-da-Vinci-Italian-Renaissance-Florence-Engraving-1500.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Italian Renaissance painter from Florence. Engraving by Cosomo Colombini (d. 1812) after a Leonardo self portrait. Ca. 1500." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/10-famous-artworks-by-leonardo-da-vinci" >10 Famous Artworks by Leonardo da Vinci</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/why-is-the-mona-lisa-so-famous"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/24/189624-131-BAF1184D/Mona-Lisa-oil-wood-panel-Leonardo-da.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Mona Lisa, oil on wood panel by Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1503-06; in the Louvre, Paris, France. 77 x 53 cm." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/why-is-the-mona-lisa-so-famous" >Why Is the <em>Mona Lisa</em> So Famous?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/americas-5-most-notorious-cold-cases-including-one-you-may-have-thought-was-already-solved"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/71/196471-131-8FEA8DDD/Daily-Police-Bulletin-Elizabeth-Short-Black-Dahlia-January-1947.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Los Angeles Police Department wanted flyer on Elizabeth Short, aka the "Black Dahlia," who was brutally murdered in January 1947. The FBI supported the Los Angeles Police Department in the case, including by identifying Short through her fingerprints that" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/americas-5-most-notorious-cold-cases-including-one-you-may-have-thought-was-already-solved" >America’s 5 Most Notorious Cold Cases (Including One You May Have Thought Was Already Solved)</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/do-the-relics-of-saint-nicholas-really-emit-a-holy-substance"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/43/219343-131-10977916/Tomb-Saint-Nicholas-Basilica-di-San-Nicola-Italy.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="The tomb of Saint Nicholas in the crypt of the Basilica di San Nicola, Bari, Apulia, Italy" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/do-the-relics-of-saint-nicholas-really-emit-a-holy-substance" >Do the Relics of Saint Nicholas Really Emit a Holy Substance?</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button class="drawerToggle btn position-sticky border btn-xs btn-white btn-circle rounded-sm d-none d-lg-flex " type="button" aria-label="Toggle Drawer"> <em class="material-icons font-18 text-blue" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="col"> <div class="h-100 ml-0 pr-lg-0 "> <div class="h-100 grid gx-0 gx-lg-20"> <div class="h-100 col-sm"> <div class="h-100 infinite-pagination-container d-flex flex-column position-relative"> <div class="position-absolute top-0 h-100 w-100"> <div class="toc-sticky-header d-none d-lg-none bg-gray-50 px-10 px-sm-30 position-sticky w-100 "> <div class="toc-sticky-header-inner-container align-items-center d-flex mx-auto h-100 w-100"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-sm btn-white text-blue border-2 border-gray-100 gtm-mobile-toc-header-button js-sections-button d-lg-none p-10"> <em class="material-icons my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Contents </button> <div class="header-ai-ask-button-placeholder"></div> <div class="header-ai-summarize-button-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="grey-box w-100 grey-box-top"> <div class="grey-box-content mx-auto w-100"> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context" : "https://schema.org", "@type" : "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement" : [ { "@type" : "ListItem", "position" : 1, "item" : { "@id" : "https://www.britannica.com/browse/Geography-Travel", "name": "Geography & Travel" } } , { "@type" : "ListItem", "position" : 2, "item" : { "@id" : "https://www.britannica.com/browse/Countries-of-the-World", "name": "Countries of the World" } } ] } </script> <nav class="breadcrumb mt-20"> <span class="breadcrumb-item "> <a class="link-gray-600" href="/browse/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a> </span> <span class="breadcrumb-item "> <a class="link-gray-600" href="/browse/Countries-of-the-World">Countries of the World</a> </span> </nav> <div class="page2ref-true topic-content topic-type-COUNTRY" data-student-article="false"> <script class="page-description-json" type="application/json"> { "url": "/place/Iraq/The-Iran-Iraq-War", "shareUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq", "browserTitle": "Iraq - Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein, Invasion", "firstTopicPage": false, "topicId":293631 } </script> <div class="reading-channel"> <div class="topic-header"> <div class="d-flex align-items-top justify-content-between"> <div class="d-flex flex-column"> <div> <div> <h2 class="h4">The <span id="ref315991"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Iran-Iraq-War" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Iran-Iraq War</a></h2></div> <div class="in-container"> <em class="material-icons in-arrow" data-icon="subdirectory_arrow_right"></em> <span class="in-bc">in</span><a class="in-link" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq">Iraq</a> <span class="in-bc">in</span><a class="in-link" href="/place/Iraq/History">History</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-none d-sm-flex flex-row"> <div class="mr-10 mb-15"> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="d-none d-sm-block md-topic-tools qa-action-buttons mb-15" data-topic-id="293631"> <button class="js-tooltip btn btn-sm btn-outline-blue border pr-10 border-2" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="more_vert"></em> More Actions </button> <div class="md-more-popover popover popover-sm p-0 font-14 z-1"> <div> <button class="js-print-modal-button js-modal gtm-topic-tool btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=293631] .md-print-modal" > <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="print"></em> Print </button> <div class="md-print-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10">print</em> Print </div> <div class="mt-20 mb-10"> Please select which sections you would like to print: </div> <form action="/print/article/293631" method="post" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> <div class="print-box-items"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li><label><input class="mr-10" type="checkbox" name="sequence[]" value="0">Table Of Contents</label></li> </ul> </div> <input type="submit" class="btn btn-blue md-disabled" value="Print" /> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-modal qa-cite-modal-button btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=293631] .md-cite-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="verified"></em> Cite </button> <div class="md-cite-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom mb-15"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10">verified</em>Cite </div> <div class="font-serif"> While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. </div> <div class="label mt-20 mb-10">Select Citation Style</div> <select class="js-citation-format-select form-select"> <option selected value="mla">MLA</option> <option value="apa">APA</option> <option value="chicago">Chicago Manual of Style</option> </select> <div class="citation font-serif border rounded p-15 mt-20" data-authors="Gerald Henry Blake, Richard L. Chambers, Hugh Kennedy, John E. Woods, Majid Khadduri" data-title="Iraq" data-published-date="25 Nov. 2024" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq" > <div class="citation-text"></div> </div> <button class="js-copy-citation-button mt-20 btn btn-xs btn-outline-blue border shadow-sm pr-10" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="file_copy"></em> <span class="js-citation-status-text">Copy Citation</span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-share-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=293631] .md-share-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="share"></em> Share </button> <div class="md-share-modal size-lg d-none qa-share-modal"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10" data-icon="share"></em> Share </div> <div class="label my-20">Share to social media</div> <div class="md-social-toolbar-circle d-flex align-items-start inverted" data-value="share" title="Iraq" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq" > <a class="social-icon facebook justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>Facebook</span></a> <a class="social-icon x justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="x" href="https://x.com/britannica" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>X</span></a> </div> <div class="label pt-20 mt-20 mb-5 border-top">URL</div> <a class="font-serif text-truncate d-inline-block" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq">https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq</a> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-feedback-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal=".md-feedback-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="message"></em> Feedback </button> </div> <div> <button class="qa-external-website-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=293631] .md-websites-modal"> <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 mr-5" data-icon="link"></em> External Websites </button> </div> </div> <div class="md-feedback-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom"> Feedback </div> <form method="post" action="/submission/feedback/293631"> <div class="my-20"> Corrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/iraq/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">globalEDGE - Iraq</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/iraq/" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - Iraq</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://edition.cnn.com/2013/10/30/world/meast/iraq-history-fast-facts/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">CNN - Iraq Fast Facts</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Iraq/345710" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Iraq - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Iraq/275087" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Iraq - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: ʿIraq, Al-ʿIrāq, Al-Jumhūrīyyah al-ʿIrāqīyyah, Republic of Iraq</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Gerald-Henry-Blake/3789" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Gerald Henry Blake</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Reader in Geography, University of Durham, England; Director, International Boundaries Research Unit. Coauthor of <i>The Cambridge Atlas of the Middle East and North Africa; The Middle East: A Geographical...</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Gerald Henry Blake</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Richard-L-Chambers/3798" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Richard L. Chambers</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Associate Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, University of Chicago. Coeditor of and contributor to <i>Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Richard L. Chambers</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-25T00:00:00CST" >Nov 25, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2024/11/25/an-islamic-state-network-that-wanted-to-reach-europe-has-been-dismantled-in-cote-d-ivoire-and-madagascar_6734016_4.html" rel="nofollow">Islamic State network that wanted to reach Europe dismantled in Côte d'Ivoire and Madagascar</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 24, 2024, 2:05 PM ET (Le Monde) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.scmp.com/magazines/style/entertainment/article/3287712/who-jimmy-mccain-man-who-blasted-donald-trump-over-arlington-national-cemetery-scuffle-son-ex" rel="nofollow">Who is Jimmy McCain, and why did he blast Trump following a cemetery scuffle?</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 9:03 PM ET (South China Morning Post) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/now/video/israel-kills-hezbollah-leader-who-planned-attack-on-u-s-soldiers-in-iraq-225267781984" rel="nofollow">Israel kills Hezbollah leader who planned attack on U.S. soldiers in Iraq</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 2:41 PM ET (NBC) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/israel-kills-hezbollah-leader-planned-elaborate-attack-us-soldiers-ira-rcna181315" rel="nofollow">Israel kills Hezbollah leader who planned elaborate attack on U.S. soldiers in Iraq</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 8:05 AM ET (NBC) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/293631/916d50a7b465ccfea1aeb13bb91064b3" rel="nofollow">Should women be allowed to fight on the front lines? Trump’s defense pick reignites the debate</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 18, 2024, 1:45 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="4" id="ref232293">  <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Relations with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iran" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Iran</a> had grown increasingly strained after the shah was overthrown in 1979. Iraq recognized Iran’s new <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Shiʿi</a> Islamic government, but the Iranian leaders would have nothing to do with the Baʿath regime, which they denounced as <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="secular" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/secular" data-type="MW">secular</a>. <span id="ref315992"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ruhollah-Khomeini" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ruhollah Khomeini</a>, the spiritual leader of the Iranian revolution, proclaimed his policy of “exporting the revolution,” and Iraq was high on the list of countries whose governments were to be overthrown and replaced by a replica of the Islamic regime in Iran. In addition, Iran still occupied three small pieces of territory along the Iran-Iraq border that were supposed to be returned to Iraq under the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/treaty" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">treaty</a> of 1975.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Baʿath government was highly sensitive to the Islamic threat, not merely because it was a secular regime but because the ruling elite, despite some earnest efforts at enfranchisement, consisted mainly of Sunni Arabs. By the late 1970s <span id="ref793762"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Shiʿis</a> made up an overall majority in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Baath-Party" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Baʿath Party</a>, but members of that sect were a minority in the party’s middle and upper levels. In the late 1980s Shiʿis still <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constituted" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constituted" data-type="MW">constituted</a> only about one-fifth of all army general officers, and Shiʿi representation in the upper echelons of the internal security services was even lower. On the whole, Shiʿis remained aloof from the regime. This estrangement was attributable in large part to the socioeconomic gap between Sunnis and Shiʿis—the vast majority of Shiʿis being poor—but it was also a result of the regime’s desire to control fully every walk of life. This included persistent attempts to control Shiʿi religious life—including education in madrasahs (religious colleges)—a situation objectionable to traditional Shiʿis and to Iraq’s influential Shiʿi clergy, who maintained close ties with colleagues in Iran.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">As long as the secular, Westernized shah ruled over Iran, traditional Iraqi Shiʿis remained politically <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="quiescent" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/quiescent" data-type="MW">quiescent</a>. When Khomeini came to power in February 1979, however, his example inspired many Shiʿis in Iraq to engage in greater political activism. Mass pro-Khomeini demonstrations and guerrilla activity became regular occurrences. The man who encouraged these activities, and in whom many saw an Iraqi Khomeini, was the young and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="charismatic" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/charismatic" data-type="MW">charismatic</a> <span id="ref794450"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ayatollah-Muhammad-Baqir-al-Sadr" class="md-crosslink ">Ayatollah Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr</a>. The regime cracked down on the Shiʿi movement with great ferocity, and hundreds were executed, some 10,000 were imprisoned, and tens of thousands were driven across the border into Iran. In April 1980 Saddam ordered the execution of Sadr and his sister; by July demonstrations had ceased, and guerrilla activity had come to a virtual halt.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Still, the Baʿath regime feared that as long as Khomeini was in power, his Islamic revolution could serve as a source of inspiration for Shiʿi revolutionaries in Iraq. Further, Saddam saw an assassination attempt against <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tariq-Aziz" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tariq Aziz</a>, the foreign minister and the president’s close associate, by a Shiʿi activist as an insult directed against him personally. Under normal circumstances such developments would likely never have led to war, but Khomeini had isolated himself from the international <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="community" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/community" data-type="MW">community</a> and had crippled his own armed forces through extensive purges of the shah’s officers’ corps. In addition, when Khomeini came to power in Iran, Iraq had a large, well-organized, and well-equipped military and a fast-growing economy. No less important, it enjoyed friendly relations with most of its neighbours, and all its armed forces had since been recalled to within its own borders.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">It was those conditions that convinced Saddam he could win a blitz war against the less-organized and internationally isolated Iran, despite the latter’s greater size and superior natural and human resources. In doing this, the Iraqi leader’s likely goals were to remove Khomeini from power and replace his regime with one more friendly to Iraq, demarcate the border (particularly along the Shaṭṭ al-ʿArab) in Iraq’s favour, secure <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="autonomy" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/autonomy" data-type="MW">autonomy</a> for Khūzestān (an oil-rich region in southwestern Iran inhabited largely by ethnic Arabs) under some Iraqi tutelage, and give Iraq hegemonic power in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Persian-Gulf" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Persian Gulf</a>.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Beginning in 1979, border clashes began to occur frequently, and Saddam announced in September 1980 that he was <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="abrogating" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/abrogating" data-type="MW">abrogating</a> the 1975 agreements because they had been violated by Iran. Within days, Iraqi forces invaded Iran. At the same time, Iraq bombed Iranian air bases and other strategic targets. In the week following the invasion, the UN Security Council called for a cease-fire and appealed to Iran and Iraq to settle their dispute peacefully. The Iraqi president replied, saying that Iraq would accept a cease-fire provided Iran did as well. Iran’s response, however, was negative. The war thus continued and in succeeding years was extended to the gulf area. It has been aptly called the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Persian-Gulf-War" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Gulf War</a>. (The hostilities of 1991 and 2003 have also been called Gulf wars.)</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Iraqi advance into Iran was stopped in November 1980. There followed a stalemate that continued until September 1981, when Iran, which had rejected further attempts at mediation, began a series of successful offensives. By May 1982 the Iraqis had been driven from most of the captured territory. Iranian forces, having liberated the Iranian <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/city" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">city</a> of Khorramshahr and having lifted the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="siege" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/siege" data-type="EB">siege</a> of Ābādān, began to penetrate into Iraq’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Basra" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Al-Baṣrah</a> province. During 1982–87 they threatened the city of Basra and occupied Majnūn Island and the Fāw (Fao) peninsula. In its unsuccessful attempts to liberate the Fāw peninsula during February–March 1986, Iraq suffered horrific casualties. The Iranian attacks on Al-Baṣrah were repulsed with heavy casualties on both sides. Iraq countered in the so-called tanker war by bombing Iranian oil terminals in the gulf, especially on <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kharg-Island" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Khārk Island</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In 1987 the military balance began to favour Iraq, which had raised an army of some one million and, while Iran remained largely isolated from the international community, had obtained state-of-the-art arms from France and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Soviet Union</a>, including thousands of artillery pieces, tanks, and armoured personnel carriers and hundreds of combat aircraft. This arsenal (enormous for a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">country</a> of some 18 million inhabitants) was <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="bolstered" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bolstered" data-type="MW">bolstered</a> by the addition of substantial quantities of chemical weapons, which the regime acquired or produced throughout the 1980s. At the same time, Iraq committed substantial resources in an attempt to develop or purchase other <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/weapon-of-mass-destruction" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">weapons of mass destruction</a> (WMD), including biological and nuclear arms.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Relations with the <span id="ref793784"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United States</a>, which had resumed in 1984, began to improve. In 1987 the United States agreed to reflag 11 Kuwaiti tankers and escort them in international waters through the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Strait-of-Hormuz" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Strait of Hormuz</a>. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Britain</a> and France also escorted tankers carrying their own flags. Although a U.S. destroyer was inadvertently attacked by an Iraqi bomber in May 1987, the United States supported Iraq, both diplomatically at the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">United Nations</a> and militarily by providing information about Iranian military movements in the gulf area. In October 1987 and April 1988, U.S. forces attacked Iranian ships and oil platforms.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In July 1987 the UN <span id="ref793763"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations-Security-Council" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Security Council</a> had unanimously passed <span id="ref794476"></span>Resolution 598, urging Iraq and Iran to accept a cease-fire, withdraw their forces to internationally recognized boundaries, and settle their frontier disputes by negotiations held under UN <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="auspices" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/auspices" data-type="MW">auspices</a>. Iraq agreed to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="abide" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/abide" data-type="MW">abide</a> by the terms if Iran <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="reciprocated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/reciprocated" data-type="MW">reciprocated</a>. Iran, however, demanded <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="amendments" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/amendments" data-type="MW">amendments</a> condemning Iraq as the aggressor in the war (which would have held them liable for paying war reparations) and calling on all foreign navies to leave the gulf.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the northeastern provinces Iranian forces, in cooperation with Iraqi <span id="ref793764"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kurd" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kurds</a>, threatened the area from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kirkuk" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kirkūk</a> to the Turkish border and penetrated to the Iraqi towns of Hājj ʿUmrān and Ḥalabjah. They met with stiff resistance in the north, however. Using <span id="ref794469"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/chemical-weapon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">chemical weapons</a>, Iraqi forces inflicted heavy casualties on Kurdish civilians in and around Ḥalabjah in March 1988.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Military operations in the gulf resumed, and in April 1988 Iraq—this time using chemical weapons against the Iranian troops—recaptured the Fāw peninsula. Later it liberated the districts of Salamcha and Majnūn, and in July Iraqi forces once again penetrated deep into Iran. It became clear that Iran’s military position in the gulf had become <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="untenable" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/untenable" data-type="MW">untenable</a>, and it accepted Resolution 598, which came into force on August 20, 1988. The war had been one of the most destructive conflicts of the late 20th century. Hundreds of thousands had died, and large areas of western Iran and southeastern Iraq had been devastated.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">When the foreign ministers of Iraq and Iran met for the first time in Geneva in August 1988 and later in 1989, there was no progress on how Resolution 598 was to be <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="implemented" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/implemented" data-type="MW">implemented</a>. Iraq demanded the full exchange of prisoners as the first step, while Iran insisted that withdrawing Iraqi forces from Iran should precede the exchange of prisoners. (The last prisoners were not exchanged until 2003, as many Iraqi Shiʿis had been fearful of returning home.) The border dispute remained an ongoing point of friction between the two countries, even though Iran eventually allowed Iraq to make limited use of the Shaṭṭ al-ʿArab. In 1990 Iraq implied that it was ready to return to the 1975 agreement, but nothing came of the overture. Occasional diplomatic <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="initiatives" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/initiatives" data-type="MW">initiatives</a> were afterward interlaced with small-scale military incidents along the border. Each country supported opposition groups that worked against the rival’s government. Iraq sheltered the Mojāhedīn-e Khalq—an Iranian extremist group—and Iran lent support to various Iraqi Shiʿi groups. Guerrilla attacks and terrorist incidents were frequent in the years after the war.</p><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref232294"> <h2 class="h4">Postwar policies</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD14 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Articles 47 to 56 of the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="interim" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/interim" data-type="MW">interim</a> Iraqi constitution provided for a legislative assembly, and—in an effort to garner popular support during the war—elections (the first in postrevolutionary Iraq) were held in June 1980. The new <span id="ref793765"></span>National Assembly <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="convened" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/convened" data-type="MW">convened</a> 10 days later, and subsequent elections were held in 1984 and 1989. Regardless, the Assembly was vested with little power. Only those supporting the Baʿath revolution were allowed to stand for office, and in disputes between the Assembly and the RCC, the latter’s decisions were final. Moreover, after Saddam’s rise to the presidency, the RCC itself had become increasingly irrelevant and eventually served as little more than a rubber stamp for the president’s decisions. Within the Baʿath Party meaningful political debate did continue, but only on topics selected by the president, and all presidential decisions were final.</p><span class="marker MOD14 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD15 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">After the cease-fire, Iraq began a program of reconstruction, concentrating on the areas that had suffered most during the war, but the country had little ready cash. Iraq, now deeply in debt, continued to spend large sums on armaments, and inflation and unemployment soared. To relieve social pressures, the government made it easier for people to travel abroad, but few were able to take advantage of this policy. In addition, the government promised to open the political process by allowing multiparty elections and greater press freedoms. The draft constitution prepared in late 1989 was scrutinized by the RCC before it reached the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/National-Assembly-historical-French-parliament" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">National Assembly</a> for approval and was about to be submitted to a public <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="plebiscite" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/plebiscite" data-type="MW">plebiscite</a> when Iraq invaded Kuwait. Thereafter, the entire democratic plan was shelved.</p><span class="marker MOD15 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD16 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">To <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="enhance" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/enhance" data-type="MW">enhance</a> Iraq’s position in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arab" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Arab</a> world, Saddam had begun to negotiate a set of bilateral agreements with his neighbours. Early in 1989 he had concluded nonaggression pacts with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Saudi Arabia</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bahrain" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Bahrain</a>. He also had established the Arab Cooperation Council with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Jordan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Jordan</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Egypt</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Yemen</a> to promote economic and cultural development.</p><span class="marker MOD16 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD17 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Peace negotiations with Iran had not brought about a settlement, and Saddam—despite Iraq’s overwhelming military edge over Iran—continued to purchase weapons. Iraq’s rearmament program included expensive programs to develop missiles and chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons. <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Criticism" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Criticism" data-type="MW">Criticism</a> in the West of Iraq’s record on <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-rights" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">human rights</a> and the county’s acquisition of sensitive <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/military-technology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">military technology</a> prompted Saddam to make highly inflammatory speeches about the hostile Western attitude. In April 1990 he warned that if <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Israel" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Israel</a> ever again attacked Iraq (as that country had attacked and destroyed Iraq’s Osiraq-Tammuz nuclear plant in 1981), he would retaliate with chemical weapons. This threat was later extended to include an attack by Israel on any Arab state, and Saddam soon began to suggest that Iraq’s eventual goal was to defeat Israel and capture Jerusalem. These declarations were the first indications that the Iraqi regime had wider territorial <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="aspirations" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aspirations" data-type="MW">aspirations</a> and portended the invasion of <span id="ref315993"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kuwait" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kuwait</a> less than a year later.</p><span class="marker MOD17 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":31,"pagesTotal":34,"pageId":293631,"pageLength":2048,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":31,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

CINXE.COM

Iraq - Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein, Invasion | Britannica