Iraq - Middle East, Tigris, Euphrates

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class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq">Iraq</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/Iraq">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref22922"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22922">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22923"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22923">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22924"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22924">Alluvial plains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232255"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref232255">Al-Jazīrah</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22926"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22926">Deserts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22927"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast">The northeast</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22928"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref22928">Drainage</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232256"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref232256">The Tigris-Euphrates river system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232257"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref232257">Irrigation and canals</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22929"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref22929">Soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22930"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate">Climate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22931"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate#ref22931">Plant and animal life</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22935"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate#ref22935">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22936"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate#ref22936">Ethnic groups</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232258"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs">Arabs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22937"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22937">Kurds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22938"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22938">Other minorities</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22939"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22939">Languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22940"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22940">Religion</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232259"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref232259">Sunnis</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232260"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah">The Shiʿah</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232261"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232261">Religious minorities</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232262"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232262">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232263"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232263">Rural settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232264" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232264">Urban settlement</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232265"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Baghdad">Baghdad</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232266"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Baghdad#ref232266">Regional centres</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Baghdad#ref22941">Demographic trends</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22942"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232267"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy#ref232267">Overview</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232268"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy#ref232268">Economic development</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232269"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy#ref232269">State control</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref22943">Resources and power</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232270"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref232270">Petroleum and natural gas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232271"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines">Oil pipelines</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232272"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines#ref232272">Other minerals and energy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232273"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines#ref232273">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines#ref22946">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232274"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade#ref232274">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232275"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade#ref232275">Labour and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22947"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade#ref22947">Transportation and telecommunications</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22948"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22950"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref22950">Constitutional framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref22951">Local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref22952">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232276"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref232276">Political process</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Security">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232277"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Security#ref232277">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232278"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Security#ref232278">Housing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232279"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22956"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education#ref22956">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232280"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education#ref232280">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232281"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education#ref232281">Daily life and social customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232282"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts">The arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232283"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts#ref232283">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232284"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts#ref232284">Sports and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232285"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts#ref232285">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214199"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22882"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/History#ref22882">Iraq from c. 600 to 1055</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22883"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/History#ref22883">The Arab conquest and the early Islamic period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22884"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Abbasid-Caliphate">The Abbasid Caliphate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22885"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Buyid-period-932-1062">The Buyid period (932–1062)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22886"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Iraq-from-1055-to-1534">Iraq from 1055 to 1534</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22887"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Iraq-from-1055-to-1534#ref22887">The Seljuqs (1055–1152)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22888"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-later-Abbasids-1152-1258">The later Abbasids (1152–1258)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22889"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-later-Abbasids-1152-1258#ref22889">The Mongol Il-Khans (1258–1335)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22890"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-later-Abbasids-1152-1258#ref22890">Il-Khanid successors (1335–1410)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22891"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Turkmen-1410-1508">The Turkmen (1410–1508)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22892"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Turkmen-1410-1508#ref22892">The Safavids (1508–34)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22893"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Turkmen-1410-1508#ref22893">Ottoman Iraq (1534–1918)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22894"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-16th-century-conquest-of-Iraq-and-the-regime-imposed-by-Suleyman-I">The 16th-century conquest of Iraq and the regime imposed by Süleyman I</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22895"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-16th-century-conquest-of-Iraq-and-the-regime-imposed-by-Suleyman-I#ref22895">The local despotisms in the 17th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22896"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-16th-century-conquest-of-Iraq-and-the-regime-imposed-by-Suleyman-I#ref22896">The 18th-century Mamluk regime</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22897"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-fall-of-the-Mamluks-and-the-consolidation-of-British-interests">The fall of the Mamluks and the consolidation of British interests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22898"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-fall-of-the-Mamluks-and-the-consolidation-of-British-interests#ref22898">Mid-19th-century Ottoman reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22899"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-governorship-of-Midhat-Pasa">The governorship of Midhat Paşa</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22900"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-governorship-of-Midhat-Pasa#ref22900">The end of Ottoman rule</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22901"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-governorship-of-Midhat-Pasa#ref22901">Iraq until the 1958 revolution</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22902"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/British-occupation-and-the-mandatory-regime">British occupation and the mandatory regime</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22903"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Independence-1932-39">Independence, 1932–39</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22904"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/World-War-II-and-British-intervention-1939-45">World War II and British intervention, 1939–45</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22905"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/World-War-II-and-British-intervention-1939-45#ref22905">Postwar reconstruction and social upheavals, 1945–58</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232286"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq">The Republic of Iraq</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22906" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq#ref22906">The 1958 revolution and its aftermath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref22907"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq#ref22907">Recurrence of military coups, 1963–68</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232287"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq#ref232287">Iraqi foreign policy, 1958–68</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22908" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-revolution-of-1968">The revolution of 1968</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232288"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-revolution-of-1968#ref232288">The second Baʿath government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232289"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-revolution-of-1968#ref232289">The revolution of 1968</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232290"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Foreign-policy-1968-80">Foreign policy 1968–80</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232291"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Foreign-policy-1968-80#ref232291">Economic development to 1980</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232292" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Iraq-under-Saddam-Hussein">Iraq under Saddam Hussein</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232293"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Iran-Iraq-War">The Iran-Iraq War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232294"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Iran-Iraq-War#ref232294">Postwar policies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232295"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Persian-Gulf-War">The Persian Gulf War</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref232296"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Persian-Gulf-War#ref232296">Causes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref232297"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Persian-Gulf-War#ref232297">The invasion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232298"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program">The UN embargo and oil-for-food program</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref339791" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program#ref339791">The Iraq War (2003–11) and its aftermath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349077"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program#ref349077">Post-9/11 tension and the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref339793"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program#ref339793">Rocky transition to civilian government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref310597"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL">U.S. withdrawal and the rise of the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref349078"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349078">Second term of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki and sectarian polarization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref349079"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349079">Fight against ISIL</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref349080" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349080">Postwar Iraq</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349081"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349081">2018 parliamentary elections and the premiership of Adel Abdul Mahdi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349082"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349082">Tishreen Movement: protests in 2019–20 against corruption and foreign interference</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349083"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349083">Premiership of Mustafa al-Kadhimi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Iraq">Facts & Stats</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/images-videos">Images</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/1728-050-FC0FCF9D/Flag-Iraq.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/61322" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/1728-004-EBF4B6FF/Flag-Iraq.jpg" alt="flag of Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="" 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alt="physical features of Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/77340-004-AE79A6AA/Dhows-Iraq-Shatt-al-Arab.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/71870" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/77340-004-AE79A6AA/Dhows-Iraq-Shatt-al-Arab.jpg" alt="dhows in the Shatt al-Arab, Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/30/1730-050-637ED31E/Euphrates-River-edge-Khan-al-Baghdadi-plateau-Iraq.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/67399" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/30/1730-004-20208AF4/Euphrates-River-edge-Khan-al-Baghdadi-plateau-Iraq.jpg" alt="Euphrates River at Khān al-Baghdādī, Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/21/161621-050-C6AB7DD7/Tigris-River-Baghdad-Iraq.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/171867" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" 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Author of <i>The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Hugh Kennedy</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/John-E-Woods/3898" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">John E. Woods</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of Middle Eastern History, University of Chicago. Author of <i>The Aqquyunlu: Clan, Confederation, and Empire.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> John E. Woods</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-02-16T00:00:00CST" >Feb 16, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/293631/2fbeb9d10600c20d942091da63ae3978" rel="nofollow">Turkish opposition party delegation meets with Kurdish leader in Iraq as part of PKK peace efforts</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 16, 2025, 8:43 AM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/293631/b0d50283d7ebd28020790d212df2ad44" rel="nofollow">France's Macron urges Syria's interim government to join a US-led coalition fighting extremists</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 13, 2025, 1:41 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/293631/7c24cd456c56014a20853b53ffc4d4d9" rel="nofollow">Iraq's top court throws out challenge to new laws, including one increasing Islamic courts authority</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 11, 2025, 7:45 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/293631/53d93cacd16cd9e49965a2ed7015aa9e" rel="nofollow">Historic landmarks in Iraq's Mosul are reopening as the city heals from Islamic State devastation</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 6, 2025, 7:46 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/293631/5750d01104cf650b8ef0853dabb2e5a2" rel="nofollow">Tulsi Gabbard, Trump's pick to oversee US spy agencies, grilled about Snowden, Syria and Russia</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Jan. 30, 2025, 2:49 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="2" id="ref232286">  <section data-level="3" id="ref22906"> <h2 class="h3">The 1958 revolution and its aftermath</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Despite the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">country’s</a> material progress, the monarchy failed to win public support and, in particular, the confidence of the younger generation. Before the revolution, Iraq lacked an <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="enlightened" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/enlightened" data-type="MW">enlightened</a> leadership capable of achieving progress and inspiring public confidence. The new generation offered such leadership, but the older leaders resisted and embarked on an unpopular <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/foreign-policy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">foreign policy</a>, including an alliance with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Britain</a> through participation in the <span id="ref315967"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Central-Treaty-Organization" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Baghdad Pact</a> and opposition to the establishment of the <span id="ref315968"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Arab-Republic" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United Arab Republic</a> (U.A.R.) by Egypt and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Syria" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Syria</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The failure of younger civilians to obtain power aroused the concern of some young military officers who, required by military <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="discipline" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/discipline" data-type="MW">discipline</a> to take no part in politics, called themselves the Free Officers and began to organize in small groups and to lay down revolutionary plans. The number of Free Officers was relatively small, but there was a considerably larger group of sympathizers. The officers worked in cells, and the identities of the participants were kept secret. Only the Central Organization, which supplied the movement’s leadership, was known to all the Free Officers. The Central Organization was composed of 14 officers, headed by<span id="ref315969"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abd-al-Karim-Qasim" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ʿAbd al-Karīm Qāsim</a>, the group’s highest-ranking member.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Of the several plots proposed, that laid down by Qāsim and his close collaborator <span id="ref315970"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abd-al-Salam-Arif" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ʿAbd al-Salām ʿĀrif</a> proved the most appropriate. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/general-staff" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">general staff</a> issued an order to the brigade in which ʿĀrif served to proceed to Jordan in July 1958 to reinforce Jordanian forces against <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="alleged" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alleged" data-type="MW">alleged</a> threats by Israel. Brigadier Qāsim, in command of another brigade, was to protect the troops going to Jordan. He and ʿĀrif agreed that, as the brigade proceeding to Jordan passed through <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Baghdad" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Baghdad</a>, it would capture the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/city" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">city</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">On July 14 the revolutionary forces captured the capital, declared the downfall of the monarchy, and proclaimed a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/republic-government" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">republic</a>. The leading members of the royal house, including the king and the crown prince, were executed, and <span id="ref315971"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nuri-as-Said" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nuri al-Said</a> was killed. Qāsim, head of the revolutionary force, formed a cabinet, over which he presided, and appointed himself commander of the national forces. He also assumed the portfolio of defense minister and appointed ʿĀrif minister of the interior and deputy commander of the national forces. A Council of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Sovereignty" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Sovereignty" data-type="MW">Sovereignty</a>, composed of three persons, was to act as head of state.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">A provisional constitution declared that Iraq formed an <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="integral" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/integral" data-type="MW">integral</a> part “of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arab" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Arab</a> nation” and that “Arabs and Kurds are considered partners in this homeland.” Iraq was declared a republic and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Islam</a> the religion of the state; all executive and legislative powers were entrusted to the Sovereignty Council and the cabinet. It soon became clear, however, that power rested in Qāsim’s hands, supported by the army.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Conflicts among the officers developed, first between Qāsim and ʿĀrif and then between Qāsim and his supporters. ʿĀrif championed the pan-Arab cause and advocated Iraq’s union with the U.A.R. Qāsim rallied the forces against Arab unity—Kurds, communists, and others—and stressed Iraq’s own identity and internal unity. ʿĀrif was dropped from power in October, but in 1959 Qāsim’s power was threatened by other factions. He tried to divert public attention to foreign affairs by advancing Iraq’s claim to <span id="ref315972"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Kuwait" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kuwait</a>’s sovereignty in June 1961. This brought him into conflict not only with Britain and Kuwait but also with the other Arab countries. He opened negotiations with the Iraq Petroleum Company to increase Iraq’s share of the royalties, but his extreme demands caused negotiations to break down in 1961. Public Law 80 was enacted to prohibit the granting of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="concessions" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/concessions" data-type="MW">concessions</a> to any foreign company and to transfer control over all matters connected with oil to the Iraq National Oil Company (INOC).</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">By 1963 Qāsim had become isolated internally as well as externally; he had survived several assassination attempts (a participant in one such attack was young <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saddam-Hussein" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Saddam Hussein</a>), and the only <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/great-power" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">great power</a> with which he remained friendly was the Soviet Union. When one faction of the army, in cooperation with one Arab nationalist group—the Iraqi regional branch of the Arab Socialist <span id="ref315973"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Baath-Party" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Baʿath</a> (“Revivalist” or “Renaissance”) Party—started a rebellion in February 1963, the regime suddenly collapsed, and Qāsim was executed.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="4" id="ref22907"> <h2 class="h4">Recurrence of military coups, 1963–68</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The military faction that brought about the collapse of the Qāsim regime preferred to remain behind the scenes rather than assume direct responsibility. The Baʿath Party, a group of young activists who advocated Arab <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="nationalism" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nationalism" data-type="MW">nationalism</a> and socialism, was entrusted with power. Baʿath leaders invited ʿAbd al-Salām ʿĀrif to assume the presidency. A National Council for Revolutionary Command (NCRC), composed of civilian and military leaders, was established to assume legislative and executive powers. The premiership was entrusted to Colonel <span id="ref315974"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ahmad-Hasan-al-Bakr" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Bakr</a>, a Baʿathist officer.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Some of the Baʿath leaders wanted to carry out Baʿath socialist ideas; others advised more caution. A compromise was finally reached in which the party’s goals—Arab unity, freedom, and socialism—were reaffirmed in principle, but it was decided to adopt a transitional program. Industrialization and economic development were stressed, and the role of the middle class was recognized. The dissension among Baʿath leaders, however, soon led to the collapse of the regime. President ʿĀrif, whose powers initially had been restricted by the Baʿath leaders, rallied the military forces to his side. In November 1963 he placed the leaders of the Baʿath Party under arrest and took control, becoming, in both fact and name, the real ruler of the country. In May 1964 a new provisional constitution was <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="promulgated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/promulgated" data-type="MW">promulgated</a> in which the principles of Arab unity and socialism were adopted, and in July the banks and a number of the country’s industries were nationalized.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The idea of Arab socialism attracted only a small group in Iraq, and ʿĀrif began to discover its unfavourable effects on the country. ʿĀrif himself had never been a believer in socialism, but he had adopted it under the influence of Egypt. The adverse influence of nationalization gave him an excuse to replace the group that supported socialism with others who would pay attention to the reality of Iraq’s economic conditions. Nor had ʿĀrif been happy with the group of officers who had elevated him to power. He began to prepare the way to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="entrusting" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/entrusting" data-type="EB">entrusting</a> power to civilian hands willing to be guided by him as chief executive.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In September 1965 ʿĀrif invited <span id="ref315975"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abd-al-Rahman-al-Bazzaz" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ʿAbd al-Raḥman al-Bazzāz</a>, a distinguished lawyer, diplomat, and writer on Arab nationalism, to form a new government. Al-Bazzāz did not feel that he should abolish Arab socialism, but he offered to increase production and create a balance between the public and private sectors.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">ʿĀrif died suddenly in a helicopter crash in April 1966. Even before his death, Premier al-Bazzāz, known for his opposition to military interference in politics, had begun to talk about the need to hold elections for a representative assembly. Military officers pressured the new president, <span id="ref315976"></span>ʿAbd al-Raḥman ʿĀrif, elder brother of the late president, to remove al-Bazzāz, and the cabinet resigned in August 1966. Power remained in military hands, but factionalism in the army was accentuated and leadership frequently changed. The Arab defeat in the <span id="ref315977"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Arab-Israeli-wars" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Arab-Israeli War</a> of 1967, in which Iraq took only a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="nominal" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nominal" data-type="MW">nominal</a> role, led to intense unrest within the country and within the party. The Baʿath, joined by other opposition leaders, called for the formation of a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/coalition-government" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">coalition government</a> and general elections for a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/National-Assembly-historical-French-parliament" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">National Assembly</a>. President ʿĀrif paid no attention to their demands.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref232287"> <h2 class="h4">Iraqi foreign policy, 1958–68</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Following the 1958 revolution, President Qāsim steered his country’s foreign policy gradually away from the sphere of Western influence—and close ties with the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United Kingdom</a>—toward closer relations with the <span id="ref793626"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Soviet Union</a>. In 1959 Iraq officially left the pro-Western Baghdad Pact, but, though the Qāsim government came to depend on Soviet weapons and received some economic aid, it retained lively commercial ties with the West. Further, because Qāsim recruited among the <span id="ref793619"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iraqi-Communist-Party" class="md-crosslink ">Iraqi Communist Party</a> for support and because he moved far closer to the Soviet Union diplomatically, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United States</a> grew to see in him a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="would-be" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/would-be" data-type="EB">would-be</a> communist. However, despite a growing dispute with the Western oil companies over their investments in Iraq (stemming from Qāsim’s demand of a greater share of the proceeds) and steps by the government that limited oil company activities in Iraq, Qāsim carefully refrained from nationalizing Iraq’s oil industry. Also, fearing <span id="ref793620"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Egypt" class="md-crosslink ">Egyptian</a> domination, as had happened in the Syrian province of the U.A.R., Qāsim rejected the courtship of Egyptian Pres. <span id="ref793633"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gamal-Abdel-Nasser" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> and refused a merger with Egypt. This led the two <span id="ref793621"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Free-Officers" class="md-crosslink ">Free Officers</a>’ regimes—as the Egyptian regime was also termed—into a conflict that greatly embarrassed the Soviet Union and occasionally forced it to take sides.</p><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD14 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">This also strongly influenced Qāsim’s approach to <span id="ref793622"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Israel" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Israel</a>. While he paid lip service to anti-Zionist <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="sentiments" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sentiments" data-type="MW">sentiments</a> in Iraq, there was no way that he and Nasser could <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="collaborate" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/collaborate" data-type="MW">collaborate</a> against Israel, and tension with the Hāshimite monarchy of <span id="ref793623"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Jordan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jordan</a> made it impossible for him to send an expeditionary force to Jordan, even had he wanted to do so. On the Israeli side this fact was fully appreciated at the time. Relations with pro-Western <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iran" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Iran</a> were tense also, but the two countries avoided a direct military confrontation.</p><span class="marker MOD14 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD15 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Qāsim’s relations with most of the Arab world worsened after Iraq left the <span id="ref793624"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arab-League" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Arab League</a> in 1961 in protest against the organization’s support for Kuwait’s independence. Iraq had continued to press its claims to Kuwaiti territory in the 1940s and ’50s (largely over the islands of Būbiyān and Warbah), but not until the Qāsim regime did it forward a serious claim of overall sovereignty. In 1963, after Qāsim’s <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="demise" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/demise" data-type="MW">demise</a>, Kuwait came to an agreement with Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Bakr—who was then Iraq’s prime minister—confirming Kuwait’s independence and resolving all border issues; however, once again the agreement failed to be ratified, this time by Iraq’s president, <span id="ref793625"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abd-al-Salam-Arif" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ʿAbd al-Salām ʿĀrif</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD15 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD16 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Baʿath-ʿĀrif regime (February–November 1963) had little time for foreign policy formulation, as the various party factions were far too busy fighting one another. Having killed thousands of communists and their supporters, however, the Baʿath regime completely alienated the Soviet Union, and Soviet weapons shipments stopped. The regime also alienated <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Egypt</a> by rejecting the U.A.R. merger. Of all the Arab countries, only relations with Syria, again independent and now also under Baʿath rule, remained cordial.</p><span class="marker MOD16 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD17 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">During the regimes of the ʿĀrif brothers (1963–68), Iraq remained essentially within the Soviet sphere of influence, but in early 1967 there were signs of a limited rapprochement with the West. Iraq’s Arab relations improved greatly, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="albeit" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/albeit" data-type="MW">albeit</a> at the expense of Iraqi independence. ʿAbd al-Salām ʿĀrif reversed the country’s policy toward Nasser’s government in Egypt, in effect turning Iraq into an Egyptian satellite. Although it was Nasser who now rejected Iraq’s request for unification, relations between the two countries became extremely close. ʿAbd al-Salām’s policy toward Israel mimicked that of Egypt, and, when tensions along the Israeli-Egyptian border grew to the dangerous proportions that led to the <span id="ref793627"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Six-Day-War" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Six-Day War</a> of June 1967, the Iraqi leader dispatched an armoured brigade to Jordan. Events moved too fast, however, and most of the brigade was destroyed by the Israeli <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/air-force" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">air force</a> before it could reach the front line.</p><span class="marker MOD17 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> </section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":27,"pagesTotal":34,"pageId":293631,"pageLength":1869,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.9"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.9' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":27,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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