Iraq - Federalism, Sectarianism, Autonomy

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Under a provisional constitution adopted by the party in 1970, Iraq was confirmed as a republic, with legislative power theoretically vested in an elected legislature but also in the party-run Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), without whose approval no law could be promulgated. Executive power rested with the president, who also served as the chairman of the RCC, supervised the cabinet ministers, and ostensibly reported to the RCC. Judicial power was also, in theory, vested in an independent judiciary. 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class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq">Iraq</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/Iraq">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref22922"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22922">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22923"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22923">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22924"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22924">Alluvial plains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232255"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref232255">Al-Jazīrah</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22926"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq#ref22926">Deserts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22927"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast">The northeast</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22928"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref22928">Drainage</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232256"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref232256">The Tigris-Euphrates river system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232257"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref232257">Irrigation and canals</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22929"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-northeast#ref22929">Soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22930"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate">Climate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22931"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate#ref22931">Plant and animal life</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22935"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate#ref22935">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22936"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Climate#ref22936">Ethnic groups</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232258"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs">Arabs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22937"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22937">Kurds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22938"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22938">Other minorities</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22939"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22939">Languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22940"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref22940">Religion</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232259"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Arabs#ref232259">Sunnis</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232260"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah">The Shiʿah</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232261"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232261">Religious minorities</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232262"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232262">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232263"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232263">Rural settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232264" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Shiah#ref232264">Urban settlement</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232265"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Baghdad">Baghdad</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232266"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Baghdad#ref232266">Regional centres</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Baghdad#ref22941">Demographic trends</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22942"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232267"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy#ref232267">Overview</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232268"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy#ref232268">Economic development</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232269"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Economy#ref232269">State control</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref22943">Resources and power</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232270"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref232270">Petroleum and natural gas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232271"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines">Oil pipelines</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232272"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines#ref232272">Other minerals and energy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232273"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines#ref232273">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Oil-pipelines#ref22946">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232274"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade#ref232274">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232275"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade#ref232275">Labour and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22947"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Trade#ref22947">Transportation and telecommunications</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22948"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22950"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref22950">Constitutional framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref22951">Local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref22952">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232276"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Government-and-society#ref232276">Political process</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Security">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232277"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Security#ref232277">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232278"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Security#ref232278">Housing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232279"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref22956"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education#ref22956">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232280"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education#ref232280">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232281"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Education#ref232281">Daily life and social customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232282"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts">The arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232283"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts#ref232283">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232284"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts#ref232284">Sports and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232285"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-arts#ref232285">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214199"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22882"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/History#ref22882">Iraq from c. 600 to 1055</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22883"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/History#ref22883">The Arab conquest and the early Islamic period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22884"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Abbasid-Caliphate">The Abbasid Caliphate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22885"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Buyid-period-932-1062">The Buyid period (932–1062)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22886"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Iraq-from-1055-to-1534">Iraq from 1055 to 1534</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22887"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Iraq-from-1055-to-1534#ref22887">The Seljuqs (1055–1152)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22888"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-later-Abbasids-1152-1258">The later Abbasids (1152–1258)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22889"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-later-Abbasids-1152-1258#ref22889">The Mongol Il-Khans (1258–1335)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22890"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-later-Abbasids-1152-1258#ref22890">Il-Khanid successors (1335–1410)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22891"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Turkmen-1410-1508">The Turkmen (1410–1508)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22892"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Turkmen-1410-1508#ref22892">The Safavids (1508–34)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22893"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Turkmen-1410-1508#ref22893">Ottoman Iraq (1534–1918)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22894"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-16th-century-conquest-of-Iraq-and-the-regime-imposed-by-Suleyman-I">The 16th-century conquest of Iraq and the regime imposed by Süleyman I</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22895"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-16th-century-conquest-of-Iraq-and-the-regime-imposed-by-Suleyman-I#ref22895">The local despotisms in the 17th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22896"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-16th-century-conquest-of-Iraq-and-the-regime-imposed-by-Suleyman-I#ref22896">The 18th-century Mamluk regime</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22897"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-fall-of-the-Mamluks-and-the-consolidation-of-British-interests">The fall of the Mamluks and the consolidation of British interests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22898"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-fall-of-the-Mamluks-and-the-consolidation-of-British-interests#ref22898">Mid-19th-century Ottoman reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22899"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-governorship-of-Midhat-Pasa">The governorship of Midhat Paşa</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22900"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-governorship-of-Midhat-Pasa#ref22900">The end of Ottoman rule</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref22901"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-governorship-of-Midhat-Pasa#ref22901">Iraq until the 1958 revolution</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22902"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/British-occupation-and-the-mandatory-regime">British occupation and the mandatory regime</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22903"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Independence-1932-39">Independence, 1932–39</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22904"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/World-War-II-and-British-intervention-1939-45">World War II and British intervention, 1939–45</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22905"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/World-War-II-and-British-intervention-1939-45#ref22905">Postwar reconstruction and social upheavals, 1945–58</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref232286"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq">The Republic of Iraq</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22906" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq#ref22906">The 1958 revolution and its aftermath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref22907"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq#ref22907">Recurrence of military coups, 1963–68</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232287"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Republic-of-Iraq#ref232287">Iraqi foreign policy, 1958–68</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref22908" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-revolution-of-1968">The revolution of 1968</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232288"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-revolution-of-1968#ref232288">The second Baʿath government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232289"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-revolution-of-1968#ref232289">The revolution of 1968</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232290"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Foreign-policy-1968-80">Foreign policy 1968–80</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232291"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Foreign-policy-1968-80#ref232291">Economic development to 1980</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref232292" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/Iraq-under-Saddam-Hussein">Iraq under Saddam Hussein</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232293"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Iran-Iraq-War">The Iran-Iraq War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232294"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Iran-Iraq-War#ref232294">Postwar policies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232295"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Persian-Gulf-War">The Persian Gulf War</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref232296"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Persian-Gulf-War#ref232296">Causes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref232297"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-Persian-Gulf-War#ref232297">The invasion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref232298"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program">The UN embargo and oil-for-food program</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref339791" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program#ref339791">The Iraq War (2003–11) and its aftermath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349077"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program#ref349077">Post-9/11 tension and the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref339793"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/The-UN-embargo-and-oil-for-food-program#ref339793">Rocky transition to civilian government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref310597"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL">U.S. withdrawal and the rise of the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref349078"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349078">Second term of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki and sectarian polarization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref349079"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349079">Fight against ISIL</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref349080" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349080">Postwar Iraq</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349081"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349081">2018 parliamentary elections and the premiership of Adel Abdul Mahdi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349082"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349082">Tishreen Movement: protests in 2019–20 against corruption and foreign interference</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref349083"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/Iraq/U-S-withdrawal-and-the-rise-of-the-Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant-ISIL#ref349083">Premiership of Mustafa al-Kadhimi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Iraq">Facts & Stats</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/images-videos">Images</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/1728-050-FC0FCF9D/Flag-Iraq.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/61322" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/1728-004-EBF4B6FF/Flag-Iraq.jpg" alt="flag of Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="" 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alt="physical features of Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/77340-004-AE79A6AA/Dhows-Iraq-Shatt-al-Arab.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/71870" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/77340-004-AE79A6AA/Dhows-Iraq-Shatt-al-Arab.jpg" alt="dhows in the Shatt al-Arab, Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/30/1730-050-637ED31E/Euphrates-River-edge-Khan-al-Baghdadi-plateau-Iraq.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/67399" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/30/1730-004-20208AF4/Euphrates-River-edge-Khan-al-Baghdadi-plateau-Iraq.jpg" alt="Euphrates River at Khān al-Baghdādī, Iraq" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/21/161621-050-C6AB7DD7/Tigris-River-Baghdad-Iraq.jpg" data-href="/media/1/293631/171867" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/iraq/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">globalEDGE - Iraq</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/iraq/" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - Iraq</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Iraq/345710" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Iraq - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Iraq/275087" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Iraq - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: ʿIraq, Al-ʿIrāq, Al-Jumhūrīyyah al-ʿIrāqīyyah, Republic of Iraq</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Richard-L-Chambers/3798" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Richard L. Chambers</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Associate Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, University of Chicago. Coeditor of and contributor to <i>Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Richard L. Chambers</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/John-E-Woods/3898" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">John E. Woods</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of Middle Eastern History, University of Chicago. Author of <i>The Aqquyunlu: Clan, Confederation, and Empire.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> John E. Woods</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-02-16T00:00:00CST" >Feb 16, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/293631/2fbeb9d10600c20d942091da63ae3978" rel="nofollow">Turkish opposition party delegation meets with Kurdish leader in Iraq as part of PKK peace efforts</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 16, 2025, 8:43 AM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/293631/b0d50283d7ebd28020790d212df2ad44" rel="nofollow">France's Macron urges Syria's interim government to join a US-led coalition fighting extremists</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 13, 2025, 1:41 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/293631/7c24cd456c56014a20853b53ffc4d4d9" rel="nofollow">Iraq's top court throws out challenge to new laws, including one increasing Islamic courts authority</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 11, 2025, 7:45 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/293631/53d93cacd16cd9e49965a2ed7015aa9e" rel="nofollow">Historic landmarks in Iraq's Mosul are reopening as the city heals from Islamic State devastation</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 6, 2025, 7:46 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/293631/5750d01104cf650b8ef0853dabb2e5a2" rel="nofollow">Tulsi Gabbard, Trump's pick to oversee US spy agencies, grilled about Snowden, Syria and Russia</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Jan. 30, 2025, 2:49 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><span class="marker h5"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref22948">  <section data-level="2" id="ref22950"> <h2 class="h2">Constitutional framework</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">From 1968 to 2003 Iraq was ruled by the <span id="ref941117"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Baath-Party" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Baʿath</a> (Arabic: “Renaissance”) Party. Under a provisional constitution adopted by the party in 1970, Iraq was confirmed as a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/republic-government" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">republic</a>, with legislative power theoretically vested in an elected legislature but also in the party-run <span id="ref63992"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Revolutionary-Command-Council-Iraqi-government" class="md-crosslink ">Revolutionary Command Council</a> (RCC), without whose approval no law could be <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="promulgated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/promulgated" data-type="MW">promulgated</a>. Executive power rested with the president, who also served as the chairman of the RCC, supervised the cabinet ministers, and ostensibly reported to the RCC. Judicial power was also, in theory, vested in an independent judiciary. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/political-system" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">political system</a>, however, operated with little reference to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constitutional" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitutional" data-type="MW">constitutional</a> provisions, and from 1979 to 2003 Pres. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saddam-Hussein" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Saddam Hussein</a> wielded virtually unlimited power.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Following the overthrow of the Baʿath government in 2003, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">United States</a> and its coalition allies established the <span id="ref793587"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Coalition-Provisional-Authority" class="md-crosslink ">Coalition Provisional Authority</a> (CPA), headed by a senior American diplomat. In July the CPA appointed the 25-member <span id="ref941118"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iraqi-Governing-Council" class="md-crosslink ">Iraqi Governing Council</a> (IGC), which assumed limited governing functions. The IGC approved an <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="interim" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/interim" data-type="MW">interim</a> constitution in March 2004, and a permanent constitution was approved by a national <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="plebiscite" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/plebiscite" data-type="MW">plebiscite</a> in October 2005. This document established Iraq as a federal state in which limited authority—over matters such as defense, foreign affairs, and customs regulations—was vested in the national government. A variety of issues (e.g., general planning, education, and health care) are shared <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="competencies" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/competencies" data-type="MW">competencies</a>, and other issues are treated at the discretion of the district and regional <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constituencies" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constituencies" data-type="MW">constituencies</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The constitution is in many ways the framework for a fairly typical <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/parliamentary-system" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">parliamentary democracy</a>. The president is the head of state, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/prime-minister" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">prime minister</a> is the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/head-of-government" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">head of government</a>, and the constitution provides for two deliberative bodies, the <span id="ref935718"></span>Council of Representatives (Majlis al-Nawwāb) and the Council of Union (Majlis al-Ittiḥād). The judiciary is free and independent of the executive and the legislature.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The president, who is nominated by the Council of Representatives and who is limited to two four-year terms, holds what is largely a ceremonial position. The head of state presides over state ceremonies, receives ambassadors, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="endorses" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/endorses" data-type="MW">endorses</a> treaties and laws, and awards medals and honours. The president also calls upon the leading party in legislative elections to form a government (the executive), which consists of the prime minister and the cabinet and which, in turn, must seek the approval of the Council of Representatives to assume power. The executive is responsible for setting policy and for the day-to-day running of the government. The executive also may propose legislation to the Council of Representatives.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Council of Representatives does not have a set number of seats but is based on a formula of one representative for every 100,000 citizens. Ministers serve four-year terms and sit in session for eight months per year. The council’s functions include enacting federal laws, monitoring the performance of the prime minister and the president, ratifying foreign treaties, and approving appointments; in addition, it has the authority to declare war.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The constitution is very brief on the issue of the <span id="ref935723"></span>Council of Union, the structure, duties, and powers of which apparently will be left to later legislation. The constitution only notes that this body will include representatives of the regions and governorates, suggesting that it will likely take the form of an upper house.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref22951"> <h2 class="h2">Local government</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Iraq is divided for administrative purposes into 18 <em>muḥāfaẓāt</em> (governorates), 3 of which <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constitute" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitute" data-type="MW">constitute</a> the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="autonomous" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/autonomous" data-type="MW">autonomous</a> <span id="ref793589"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kurdistan-Region" class="md-crosslink ">Kurdistan Region</a>. Each governorate has a governor, or <em>muḥāfiẓ</em>, appointed by the president. The governorates are divided into 91 <em>aqḍiyyah</em> (districts), headed by district officers, and each district is divided into <em>nāḥiyāt</em> (tracts), headed by directors. Altogether, there are 141 tracts in Iraq. Towns and cities have their own municipal councils, each of which is directed by a mayor. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Baghdad" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Baghdad</a> has special status and its own governor. The Kurdish Autonomous Region was formed by government decree in 1974, but in reality it attained <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="autonomy" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/autonomy" data-type="MW">autonomy</a> only with the help of coalition forces following the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Persian-Gulf-War" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Persian Gulf War</a>. It is governed by an elected 50-member legislative council. The Kurdistan Region was ratified under the 2005 constitution, which also authorizes the establishment of future regions in other parts of Iraq as part of a federal state.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref22952"> <h2 class="h2">Justice</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Judicial affairs in Iraq are administered by the <span id="ref941119"></span>Supreme Judicial Council, which nominates the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="justices" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/justices" data-type="MW">justices</a> of the <span id="ref941120"></span>Supreme Court, the national prosecutor, and other high judicial officials for approval by the Council of Representatives. Members of the Supreme Court are required to be experts in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/civil-law-Romano-Germanic" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">civil law</a> and Muslim <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/canon-law" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">canon law</a> and are appointed by two-thirds majority of the legislature. In addition to interpreting the constitution and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="adjudicating" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/adjudicating" data-type="MW">adjudicating</a> legal issues at the national level, the Supreme Court also settles disputes over legal issues between national government and lower jurisdictions. During the Baʿath era the judiciary was generally bypassed, and the regime instituted a wide variety of exceptional courts whose authority <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="circumvented" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/circumvented" data-type="MW">circumvented</a> the constitution. The establishment of such courts is clearly proscribed under the 2005 constitution. All additional courts are to be established by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/due-process" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">due process</a> of law.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref232276"> <h2 class="h2">Political process</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Baʿath Party was a self-styled socialist and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arab" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Arab</a> nationalist party once connected with the ruling Baʿath Party in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Syria" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Syria</a>, although the two parties were often at odds. After the Baʿath Party came to power, Iraq became effectively a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/one-party-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">one-party state</a>, with all governing institutions nominally espousing the Baʿath <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ideology" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ideology" data-type="MW">ideology</a>. In 1973 the <span id="ref63994"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iraqi-Communist-Party" class="md-crosslink ">Iraqi Communist Party</a> (ICP) agreed to join a Baʿath-dominated National Progressive Front, and in 1974 a group of Kurdish political parties, including the <span id="ref63995"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kurdish-Democratic-Party" class="md-crosslink ">Kurdish Democratic Party</a> (KDP), joined. In 1979, after the ICP had suffered serious disagreements with the Baʿath leadership and a bloody purge, it left the Front, and it was subsequently outlawed by the government. In addition to the ICP, several other opposition parties were outlawed by the Baʿath. The best known among them are the KDP, the <span id="ref793788"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Patriotic-Union-of-Kurdistan" class="md-crosslink ">Patriotic Union of Kurdistan</a> (PUK), and two <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Shiʿi</a> religious parties: the <span id="ref1141605"></span>Islamic Daʿwah Party and the Supreme Council of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Iranian-Revolution" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Islamic Revolution</a> in Iraq (known since 2007 as the <span id="ref1141604"></span>Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq). Another group, the Iraqi National Congress, received strong, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="albeit" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/albeit" data-type="MW">albeit</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="intermittent" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intermittent" data-type="MW">intermittent</a>, support from the U.S. government during the 1990s. All operated outside Iraq or in areas of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">country</a> not under government control.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Following the Persian Gulf War, the KDP and the PUK, although often at odds with one another, operated in the Kurdish Autonomous Region with relative freedom and remained largely unhindered by the government. In the rest of Iraq, however, isolation and the UN embargo further consolidated power in the hands of the government. Following the overthrow of the Baʿathists in 2003, a number of small political parties arose, and the major expatriate parties resumed operations domestically. The Sadrist Movement, led by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muqtada-al-Sadr" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Muqtada al-Sadr</a>, a Shiʿi cleric strongly opposed to the presence of foreign troops in Iraq, emerged as another powerful Shiʿi party.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":11,"pagesTotal":34,"pageId":293631,"pageLength":1171,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.9"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.9' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"A","adLeg":"A","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":11,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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