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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" data-vue-meta-server-rendered> <head>   <script id="Cookiebot" src="https://consent.cookiebot.com/uc.js" data-cbid="011c3436-7d64-4a27-ac89-ad262dbcfb8f" type="text/javascript"></script>   <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-DTTE7J8M7F" data-cookieconsent="statistics"></script> <script data-cookieconsent="statistics"> window.gaDebug = false; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag() { if (window.gaDebug) { console.log("XXX gaDebug:", arguments); } dataLayer.push(arguments); } gtag('js', new Date()); (function () { try { var g = localStorage.getItem('ga_debug') || ''; window.gaDebug = (g == 'true'); } catch (e) { console.log("ga_debug error:", e); } gtag('config', 'G-DTTE7J8M7F', { 'debug_mode': window.gaDebug, 'send_page_view': false, // 'cookie_domain': 'none', }); })(); </script> <title>Cheng-Xiang Wang | IntechOpen</title> <meta data-vue-meta="ssr" charset="utf-8"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" rel="canonical" href="https://www.intechopen.com/profiles/115556"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="description" content="Cheng-Xiang Wang received the BSc and MEng degrees in Communication and Information Systems from Shandong University, China, in 1997 and 2000, respectively, and the PhD degree in Wireless Communications from Aalborg University, Denmark, in 2004. He has been with Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK since 2005, and became a Professor in Wireless Communications in 2011. He is also an Honorary Fellow of the University of Edinburgh, UK, a Chair Professor of Shandong University, and a Guest Professor of Southeast University, China. He was a Research Fellow at the University of Agder, Grimstad, Norway, from 2001-2005, a Visiting Researcher at Siemens AG-Mobile Phones, Munich, Germany, in 2004, and a Research Assistant at Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany, from 2000-2001. His current research interests focus on wireless channel measurements/modelling and (B)5G wireless communication networks, including green communications, cognitive radio networks, high mobility communication networks, massive MIMO, millimeter wave communications, and visible light communications. He has co-authored 2 books, 1 book chapter, and over 320 papers in refereed journals and conference proceedings. Prof. Wang has served as an editor for 9 international journals, including the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY (since 2011), IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS (since 2015), and the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS (2007--2009). He was the lead Guest Editor for the IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, Special Issue on Vehicular Communications and Networks. He was also a Guest Editor for the IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, Special Issue on Spectrum and Energy Efficient Design of Wireless Communication Networks and Special Issue on Airborne Communication Networks, and a Guest Editor for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIG DATA, Special Issue on Wireless Big Data. He has served as a Technical Program Committee (TPC) Member, TPC Chair, and General Chair for over 80 international conferences. He received 9 Best Paper Awards from IEEE Globecom 2010, IEEE ICCT 2011, ITST 2012, IEEE VTC 2013-Spring, IWCMC 2015, IWCMC 2016, IEEE/CIC ICCC 2016, and WPMC 2016. He is a Fellow of the IEEE, IET, and HEA. 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Contact our London head office or <a href="#" data-v-56230ffb>media team here</a></p> <a href="/page/careers-at-intechopen" class="drop-item" data-v-56230ffb>Careers</a> <p data-v-56230ffb>Our team is growing all the time, so we’re always on the lookout for smart people who want to help us reshape the world of scientific publishing.</p></div></div></div></div></header> <section data-v-6398190e data-v-b12e8fb2><div class="breadcrumbs" data-v-80d35b96 data-v-6398190e><div class="wrap" data-v-80d35b96><p data-v-80d35b96><a href="/" class="router-link-active" data-v-6398190e>Home</a> > <a href="/authors-and-editors" data-v-6398190e>Authors and editors</a></p></div></div> <div class="about" data-v-1e8be41d data-v-6398190e><div class="wrap" data-v-1e8be41d><div class="main" data-v-1e8be41d><h1 class="title" data-v-1e8be41d>Cheng-Xiang Wang</h1>  <div class="meta" data-v-1e8be41d> <span class="position" data-v-1e8be41d>Heriot-Watt University</span> <span class="position" data-v-1e8be41d>United Kingdom</span></div> <p class="description" data-v-1e8be41d>Cheng-Xiang Wang received the BSc and MEng degrees in Communication and Information Systems from Shandong University, China, in 1997 and 2000, respectively, and the PhD degree in Wireless Communications from Aalborg University, Denmark, in 2004. He has been with Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK since 2005, and became a Professor in Wireless Communications in 2011. He is also an Honorary Fellow of the University of Edinburgh, UK, a Chair Professor of Shandong University, and a Guest Professor of Southeast University, China. He was a Research Fellow at the University of Agder, Grimstad, Norway, from 2001-2005, a Visiting Researcher at Siemens AG-Mobile Phones, Munich, Germany, in 2004, and a Research Assistant at Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany, from 2000-2001. His current research interests focus on wireless channel measurements/modelling and (B)5G wireless communication networks, including green communications, cognitive radio networks, high mobility communication networks, massive MIMO, millimeter wave communications, and visible light communications. He has co-authored 2 books, 1 book chapter, and over 320 papers in refereed journals and conference proceedings. Prof. Wang has served as an editor for 9 international journals, including the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY (since 2011), IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS (since 2015), and the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS (2007--2009). He was the lead Guest Editor for the IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, Special Issue on Vehicular Communications and Networks. He was also a Guest Editor for the IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, Special Issue on Spectrum and Energy Efficient Design of Wireless Communication Networks and Special Issue on Airborne Communication Networks, and a Guest Editor for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIG DATA, Special Issue on Wireless Big Data. He has served as a Technical Program Committee (TPC) Member, TPC Chair, and General Chair for over 80 international conferences. He received 9 Best Paper Awards from IEEE Globecom 2010, IEEE ICCT 2011, ITST 2012, IEEE VTC 2013-Spring, IWCMC 2015, IWCMC 2016, IEEE/CIC ICCC 2016, and WPMC 2016. He is a Fellow of the IEEE, IET, and HEA. He is recognized as a Web of Science 2017 Highly Cited Researcher.</p></div> <div class="aside cf" data-v-1e8be41d><figure class="profile-img filter" data-v-65bf5c8f data-v-1e8be41d><span class="lazy-image ar2" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-65bf5c8f><img alt="Cheng-Xiang Wang" class="image cover-image-b40b" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span></figure>     </div></div></div> <section class="meta" data-v-433070ee data-v-6398190e><div class="inner" data-v-433070ee><p class="item" data-v-433070ee><span data-v-433070ee>1</span>books edited</p>   </div></section> <div class="latest-work" data-v-72926fc2 data-v-6398190e><div class="inner cf" data-v-72926fc2><div class="book-details" data-v-72926fc2><h3 class="title" data-v-72926fc2>Latest work with IntechOpen by Cheng-Xiang Wang</h3> <p class="description" data-v-72926fc2>Cognitive radio technologies are forms of wireless communication with many and varied applications. The contributions in this book will benefit researchers and engineers as they offer cutting-edge knowledge in the field. Subjects include uses of wideband voltage controlled oscillators, control planes for spectrum access and mobility in networks with heterogeneous frequency devices. Other chapters cover cognitive media access control and measurement methods for spectrum occupancy. In addition, there are contributions on delay analysis and channel selection in single-hop networks for delay-sensitive applications, the application of transmission security (TRANSEC) protocols to cognitive radio communication and the use of blind detection, parameters, estimation and the despreading of DS-CDMA signals in multirate, multiuser cognitive radio systems.</p> <a href="/books/2083" class="cta button-type-1" data-v-72926fc2>Go to the book</a></div> <div class="book-item" data-v-d25c7294 data-v-72926fc2><figure class="cover-wrap top" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-d25c7294><a href="/books/2083" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems" width="200" height="288.59" class="image cover-image-54b4" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" data-v-eb7322e6></rect> <text x="150" y="35" font-family="Arial" text-anchor="middle" fill="#fffad2" font-size="12" data-v-eb7322e6>IntechOpen</text> <g transform="translate(140, 220)" fill="#FFFAD2" data-v-eb7322e6><g transform="scale(0.7)" data-v-eb7322e6><path d="M18.4091275,7.09361268 L3.66754648,15.3478697 C2.61853239,15.939493 1.9668669,17.0549331 1.9668669,18.2588838 L1.9668669,33.0542958 L0.869542958,32.6455599 C0.346761268,32.4507676 -3.45070423e-05,31.9516232 -3.45070423e-05,31.3936444 L-3.45070423e-05,1.37079225 C-3.45070423e-05,0.417880282 0.94908169,-0.243792254 1.84298662,0.08575 L18.3356275,6.16347535 C18.7472965,6.3151338 18.791638,6.87932394 18.4091275,7.09361268 M38.2955359,22.6833768 C38.178212,23.1238592 37.8226169,23.4794542 37.382307,23.5967782 C36.3688352,23.8671408 35.4695817,22.9675423 35.7401169,21.9540704 C35.8576134,21.5139331 36.2132085,21.158338 36.6536908,21.0411866 C37.6666451,20.7715141 38.565381,21.6704225 38.2955359,22.6833768 M48.0927754,30.247493 C47.5629197,30.0078415 46.9350641,30.1798592 46.5494479,30.614993 L46.5221873,30.6455317 C45.2633704,32.0789542 43.7110711,33.1881831 41.9971063,33.9233556 C41.9917577,33.9255986 41.9971063,22.341757 41.9971063,22.341757 C41.9971063,13.8637218 35.1127789,6.99078169 26.6345711,6.99078169 C24.2718739,6.99078169 21.8610394,7.48388732 19.7830254,8.63297183 C17.9817577,9.62901761 7.46211338,15.5312746 4.66255704,17.1022077 C4.23846549,17.3401338 3.97845493,17.7871725 3.97845493,18.2733768 L3.97845493,47.5848662 C3.97845493,48.5941972 5.06456408,49.230507 5.9451838,48.7372289 L19.0174866,41.4119014 C19.4345042,41.1781162 19.6927894,40.7374613 19.6927894,40.2593662 L19.6927894,17.7378275 C19.6927894,17.2512782 20.0211239,16.8006162 20.5000817,16.7141761 C21.1293176,16.6008204 21.6765993,17.0811585 21.6765993,17.6893451 L21.6765993,22.2984507 L21.6821204,22.287581 C21.6821204,22.2912042 21.6817754,22.2948275 21.6817754,22.2984507 C21.6817754,30.752331 28.5590289,37.6295845 37.0127366,37.6295845 C37.7863845,37.6295845 38.5527859,37.5676444 39.3076275,37.4532535 L39.3076275,47.5686479 C39.3076275,48.3079613 39.9071873,48.9076937 40.6466732,48.9076937 C41.3859866,48.9076937 41.9853739,48.3079613 41.9853739,47.5686479 L41.9853739,36.796757 C44.484719,35.9396021 46.7488986,34.4454472 48.5267014,32.4212641 L48.5669021,32.3755423 C49.1533493,31.7199085 48.9746028,30.6460493 48.0927754,30.247493" data-v-eb7322e6></path></g></g></svg> <div class="text text-style-85b0" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems</span>   <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Cheng-Xiang Wang</span></div></a></figure> <h4 class="title" data-v-d25c7294><a href="/books/2083" data-v-d25c7294>Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems</a></h4> <p class="edited" data-v-d25c7294> Edited by <span data-v-d25c7294><a href="/profiles/115556" aria-current="page" class="router-link-exact-active router-link-active" data-v-d25c7294>Cheng-Xiang Wang</a> </span></p> </div></div></div>    </section> <footer data-v-e6aca418 data-v-b12e8fb2> <div class="footer" data-v-e6aca418><div class="inner" data-v-e6aca418><div class="footer-nav cf" data-v-e6aca418><div class="nav-box" data-v-e6aca418><a href="/" class="title router-link-active" data-v-e6aca418>Home</a> <a href="/news" class="title" data-v-e6aca418>News</a> <a href="/contact-us" class="title" data-v-e6aca418>Contact</a> <a href="/page/careers-at-intechopen" class="title" data-v-e6aca418>Careers</a> <a href="/sdg-hub" class="title" data-v-e6aca418>SDG Hub</a></div> <div class="nav-box" data-v-e6aca418> <a href="/about-intechopen" class="title" data-v-e6aca418>About</a> <a href="/authors-and-editors" class="link" data-v-e6aca418>Our Authors and Editors</a> <a href="/page/scientific-advisors" class="link" data-v-e6aca418>Scientific Advisors</a> <a href="/page/team" class="link" data-v-e6aca418>Team</a> <a href="/page/events" class="link" data-v-e6aca418>Events</a> <a 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While the program primarily targets young scientists, experienced scientists and professionals will also find value in these insightful discussions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe interviews were conducted by Alen Juginovic M.D. PhD, a physician and neuroscientist at Harvard Medical School, actively involved in organising events and initiatives to inspire the next generation of biomedical leaders.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EFeatured interviewees include:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cul\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EProf. Dr. Sir Richard J. Roberts, Nobel Prize laureate in Physiology or Medicine in 1993, from New England Biolabs, Ipswich, USA\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EProf. Carl-Henrik Heldin, former Chair at the Nobel Foundation, Uppsala University, Sweden\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EProf. Robert S. Langer, Institute Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EIvana Vodopivec, MD, PhD, Principal Medical Director at Roche, Switzerland\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EAdrijana Kekic, PhD, from the Center for Individualised Medicine at Mayo Clinic in Arizona, USA\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe interviews aim to motivate and guide scientists, particularly those at the beginning of their careers, by showcasing the journeys of accomplished scientists and the diverse paths they have taken to success.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThese interviews, along with other initiatives dedicated to supporting young researchers, will be available at the \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.intechopen.com\u002Frising-stars\\\"\u003ERising Stars Hub\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe Rising Stars program was launched in 2015 with a project supporting and promoting the work of young robotics researchers and PhD students. Today, the Hub serves as a valuable resource for all young and aspiring scientists seeking to make a mark in the world.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EVisit IntechOpen's \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.intechopen.com\u002Frising-stars\\\"\u003ERising Stars Hub\u003C\u002Fa\u003E today to get inspired.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\"}]","published":true,"mainMedia":{"caption":"","originalUrl":"\u002Fmedia\u002Foriginal\u002F410"}},"components":[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"\u003Cp\u003EWe are pleased to present a series of inspirational interviews for young researchers with some of today's leading scientists, ranging from a Nobel laureate to pioneers and innovators in various fields, including pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical leadership, and academia.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe interviews offer practical advice and emphasise the importance of mentorship and supporting young researchers in their scientific endeavours. While the program primarily targets young scientists, experienced scientists and professionals will also find value in these insightful discussions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe interviews were conducted by Alen Juginovic M.D. PhD, a physician and neuroscientist at Harvard Medical School, actively involved in organising events and initiatives to inspire the next generation of biomedical leaders.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EFeatured interviewees include:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cul\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EProf. Dr. Sir Richard J. Roberts, Nobel Prize laureate in Physiology or Medicine in 1993, from New England Biolabs, Ipswich, USA\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EProf. Carl-Henrik Heldin, former Chair at the Nobel Foundation, Uppsala University, Sweden\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EProf. Robert S. Langer, Institute Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EIvana Vodopivec, MD, PhD, Principal Medical Director at Roche, Switzerland\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EAdrijana Kekic, PhD, from the Center for Individualised Medicine at Mayo Clinic in Arizona, USA\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe interviews aim to motivate and guide scientists, particularly those at the beginning of their careers, by showcasing the journeys of accomplished scientists and the diverse paths they have taken to success.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThese interviews, along with other initiatives dedicated to supporting young researchers, will be available at the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.intechopen.com\u002Frising-stars\"\u003ERising Stars Hub\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe Rising Stars program was launched in 2015 with a project supporting and promoting the work of young robotics researchers and PhD students. Today, the Hub serves as a valuable resource for all young and aspiring scientists seeking to make a mark in the world.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EVisit IntechOpen's \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.intechopen.com\u002Frising-stars\"\u003ERising Stars Hub\u003C\u002Fa\u003E today to get inspired.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"}],"latestNews":[{"slug":"green-energy-and-environmental-technology-journal-supporting-the-un-sustainable-development-goals-20241105","title":"Green Energy and Environmental Technology Journal: Supporting the UN Sustainable Development Goals"},{"slug":"intechopen-signs-research4life-publishers-recommitment-20241029","title":"IntechOpen Signs Research4Life Publishers Recommitment"},{"slug":"intechopen-launches-open-science-hub-20241028","title":"IntechOpen Launches Open Science Hub"},{"slug":"2024-best-paper-award-from-the-ai-computer-science-and-robotics-technology-journal-20241004","title":"2024 Best Paper Award From the AI, Computer Science, and Robotics Technology Journal"},{"slug":"peer-review-week-2024-spotlight-an-interview-with-global-campus-co-founder-paul-tuinenburg-20240927","title":"Peer Review Week Spotlight: An Interview with Global Campus Co-Founder Paul Tuinenburg"},{"slug":"new-open-access-books-from-the-knowledge-unlatched-select-programme-2024-20240819","title":"New Open Access Books from the Knowledge Unlatched Select Programme 2024"},{"slug":"intechopen-presents-interviews-for-young-scientists-with-science-s-leading-minds-20240708","title":"IntechOpen Presents Interviews for Young Scientists with Science's Leading Minds"},{"slug":"recent-intechopen-book-series-launches-20240705","title":"Recent IntechOpen Book Series Launches"}]},"book":{"item":{"type":"book","id":"2508","leadTitle":null,"fullTitle":"Nonlinearity, Bifurcation and Chaos - Theory and Applications","title":"Nonlinearity, Bifurcation and Chaos","subtitle":"Theory and Applications","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","abstract":"Nonlinearity, Bifurcation and Chaos - Theory and Application is an edited book focused on&nbsp;introducing both theoretical and application oriented approaches in science and engineering. It&nbsp;contains 12 chapters, and is recommended for university teachers, scientists, researchers, engineers, as well as graduate and post-graduate students either working or interested in the field of&nbsp;nonlinearity, bifurcation and chaos.","isbn":null,"printIsbn":"978-953-51-0816-0","pdfIsbn":"978-953-51-5013-8","doi":"10.5772\u002F2888","price":139,"priceEur":155,"priceUsd":179,"priceCbs":null,"slug":"nonlinearity-bifurcation-and-chaos-theory-and-applications","numberOfPages":358,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isInWos":null,"isInBkci":false,"hash":"cce4e2af0e23321e7072373518985b63","bookSignature":"Jan Awrejcewicz and Peter Hagedorn","publishedDate":"October 24th 2012","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F2508.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F2508\u002F1718269855-731655198\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F2508\u002F1718269855-731655198\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","numberOfDownloads":35046,"numberOfViews":2335,"numberOfWosCitations":31,"numberOfCrossrefCitations":36,"numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook":6,"numberOfDimensionsCitations":68,"numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook":7,"hasAltmetrics":1,"totalAltmetricsMentions":1,"numberOfTotalCitations":135,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"dateEndFirstStepPublish":"February 1st 2012","dateEndSecondStepPublish":"February 1st 2012","dateEndThirdStepPublish":"May 1st 2012","dateEndFourthStepPublish":"July 1st 2012","dateEndFifthStepPublish":"September 1st 2012","currentStepOfPublishingProcess":5,"indexedIn":"1,2,3,4,5,6,7","editedByType":"Edited by","kuFlag":false,"sdgRelated":null,"featuredMarkup":null,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":false,"noAds":0,"editors":[{"id":"68338","title":"Prof.","name":"Jan","middleName":null,"surname":"Awrejcewicz","slug":"jan-awrejcewicz","fullName":"Jan Awrejcewicz","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F68338\u002F1717193896\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Full Professor, Head of the Department of Automation, Biomechanics and Mechatronics of Lodz University of Technology (Poland). Multiple doctor honoris causa, recipient of the Humboldt Award, member of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Author\u002Fco-author of over 780 journal and conference papers and 50 monographs. Editor of 28 books and 36 journal special issues. Principal investigator of numerous research grants. Member of Editorial Boards of 88 Journals (17 with IF). Organizer and Head of 14 International Conferences 'Dynamical Systems – Theory and Applications” (Lodz, 1992-2017) and 3 International Conferences 'Mechatronics: Ideas for Industrial Applications' (Warsaw, 2012; Lodz, 2014; Gdansk, 2015). 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Heston"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},"authors":[{"id":"574150","title":"M.Sc.","name":"Francesca","middleName":null,"surname":"Cioffi","fullName":"Francesca Cioffi","slug":"francesca-cioffi","email":"francescacioffi2@gmail.com","position":null,"institution":null},{"id":"579508","title":"Dr.","name":"Daniela","middleName":null,"surname":"Sgroi","fullName":"Daniela Sgroi","slug":"daniela-sgroi","email":"daniela.sgroi@aslroma3.it","position":null,"institution":null},{"id":"579509","title":"Dr.","name":"Tiziana","middleName":null,"surname":"Chiriaco","fullName":"Tiziana Chiriaco","slug":"tiziana-chiriaco","email":"tiziana.chiriaco@aslroma3.it","position":null,"institution":null},{"id":"579510","title":"Dr.","name":"Marina","middleName":null,"surname":"Cerbo","fullName":"Marina Cerbo","slug":"marina-cerbo","email":"cerbo93@gmail.com","position":null,"institution":null},{"id":"581307","title":"Dr.","name":"Francesca","middleName":null,"surname":"Milito","fullName":"Francesca Milito","slug":"francesca-milito","email":"direttoregenerale@aslroma3.it","position":null,"institution":{"name":"ASL Roma","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Italy"}}}]},"book":{"id":"1003687","title":"A Comprehensive Overview of Telemedicine","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"A Comprehensive Overview of Telemedicine","slug":null,"publishedDate":"November 20th 2024","bookSignature":"Thomas F. Heston and Charles R. Doarn","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y00000xzFKYQA2\u002F0015591_TrikoderCover%20%282023-06-30%2009%3A00%3A58%29.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":null,"editors":[{"id":"217926","title":"Dr.","name":"Thomas F.","middleName":null,"surname":"Heston","slug":"thomas-f.-heston","fullName":"Thomas F. Heston"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}}},"ofsBook":{"item":{"type":"book","id":"1004346","leadTitle":null,"title":"Glass Science - Innovations and Applications","subtitle":null,"reviewType":"peer-reviewed","abstract":"This book, \"Glass Science - Innovations and Applications,\" will delve into the intricate world of glass, exploring its properties, manufacturing techniques, and diverse applications. Glass, a versatile and essential material, has significantly evolved over the years. This book will aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest advancements in glass research, including smart glass technologies, nanotechnology applications, and bioactive glasses. Additionally, it will address the importance of glass recycling and sustainability in mitigating environmental impacts. By examining historical and cultural aspects, the book will offer a well-rounded perspective on glass. The aim will be to not only educate readers about the scientific and technological advancements in glass but also to inspire new research and innovative applications in various fields. This book will be an invaluable resource for researchers, industry professionals, educators, and anyone interested in the science and art of glass. Through detailed chapters, it will aim to serve as a comprehensive resource in the dynamic and continually advancing field of glass science.","isbn":"978-1-83634-097-3","printIsbn":"978-1-83634-098-0","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83634-099-7","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1005958","price":0,"priceEur":null,"priceUsd":null,"oapfPrice":1400,"slug":null,"numberOfPages":0,"isOpenForSubmission":true,"isSalesforceBook":true,"isNomenclature":false,"hash":"d296f8e85be70935abf4d5013bcaaef5","bookSignature":"Prof. Helena Cristina Vasconcelos","publishedDate":null,"coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc0000084zLdIAI\u002F0016250_TrikoderCover%20%282024-07-01%2007%3A02%3A32%29.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004346\u002F1726575550-1067887067\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004346\u002F1726575550-1067887067\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":null,"cdnWebCoverURL300":null,"cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004346\u002F1730296049-427416130\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004346\u002F1730296049-427416130\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","keywords":"Thermal Properties, Optical Properties, Glass Melting, Annealing, Quality Control, Medical Applications, Smart Glass, Bioactive Glass, Glass-Ceramics, Recycling Methods, Waste Management, Cultural Significance","numberOfDownloads":null,"numberOfWosCitations":null,"numberOfCrossrefCitations":0,"numberOfDimensionsCitations":0,"numberOfTotalCitations":0,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"dateEndFirstStepPublish":"November 6th 2024","dateEndSecondStepPublish":"December 9th 2024","dateEndThirdStepPublish":"February 5th 2025","dateEndFourthStepPublish":"April 26th 2025","dateEndFifthStepPublish":"June 25th 2025","dateConfirmationOfParticipation":"December 4th 2024","remainingDaysToSecondStep":"12 days","secondStepPassed":false,"areRegistrationsClosed":false,"currentStepOfPublishingProcess":2,"editedByType":null,"kuFlag":false,"sdgRelated":false,"biosketch":"An accomplished researcher and professor specializing in optical glass materials, fluorescence, and photonics, with numerous publications, international collaborations, and prestigious awards. As a research member of the Laboratory for Instrumentation, Biomedical Engineering, and Radiation Physics (LIBPhys), Dr. Vasconcelos' research interests primarily focus on oxide thin films produced by DC reactive sputtering.","equalEditorOneBiosketch":null,"equalEditorTwoBiosketch":null,"equalEditorThreeBiosketch":null,"coeditorOneBiosketch":null,"coeditorTwoBiosketch":null,"coeditorThreeBiosketch":null,"coeditorFourBiosketch":null,"coeditorFiveBiosketch":null,"isPublished":false,"isDeactivated":false,"editors":[{"id":"93646","title":"Prof.","name":"Helena","middleName":"Cristina","surname":"Vasconcelos","slug":"helena-vasconcelos","fullName":"Helena Vasconcelos","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F93646\u002F1719464176\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Helena Cristina Vasconcelos is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Science and Technology of the University of the Azores in Portugal. She has an extensive academic background, including a 5-year bachelor’s degree in Physics and Materials Engineering obtained in 1990 and a Ph.D. in Materials Engineering completed in 1999.\r\nShe is also a research member of the Laboratory for Instrumentation, Biomedical Engineering, and Radiation Physics (LIBPhys), FCT-NOVA, Nova University of Lisbon, Portugal. Helena's research interests primarily focus on oxide thin films produced by DC reactive sputtering. She has a strong background in optical glass materials, fluorescence, and photonics. Her expertise in these areas has resulted in numerous publications in reputable journals and presentations at leading conferences.","institutionString":null,"countryString":null,"position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"7","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"0","institution":{"name":"University of the Azores","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Portugal"}}}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":null,"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"assistantEditorOne":null,"assistantEditorTwo":null,"assistantEditorThree":null,"assistantEditorFour":null,"assistantEditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"158","title":"Metals and Nonmetals","slug":"metals-and-nonmetals"}],"chapters":null,"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"subseries":{"id":"1003780","series":{"id":"1003779","title":"Materials Science","issn":"3049-8856","editor":{"id":"470403","name":"Chonghe","middleName":null,"surname":"Li","fullName":"Chonghe Li","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F470403\u002F1708607081\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Shanghai University","country":{"name":"China"}}}}},"personalPublishingAssistant":{"id":"1001041","firstName":"Dominik","lastName":"Samardzija","middleName":null,"title":"Mr.","imageUrl":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.123\u002Fauthor.svg","email":"dominik@info.intechopen.com","biography":null},"_preview":0},"regionStatistics":[{"id":"1","name":"Southern Europe","contributorCount":21370},{"id":"2","name":"Northern Europe","contributorCount":6960},{"id":"3","name":"Western Europe","contributorCount":10652},{"id":"4","name":"Northern America","contributorCount":17996},{"id":"5","name":"Eastern Asia","contributorCount":20252},{"id":"6","name":"Australia and New Zealand","contributorCount":2718}],"intechStatistics":{"openAccessBooks":"7,200","internationalAuthorsAndEditors":"192,000","downloads":"210M","deliversInCountries":"154","authorsAmongMostCitedScientists":"TOP 1%","authorsAndEditorsFromTopUniversities":"14%"}},"ofsBook_old1":{"item":{},"relatedBooks":[]},"chapter":{"item":{"type":"chapter","id":"64420","title":"Medicinal Plants for Treatment of Prevalent Diseases","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.82049","slug":"medicinal-plants-for-treatment-of-prevalent-diseases","body":"\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E1. Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003ETraditional medicine is still recognized as the preferred primary health care system in many communities, with over 60% of the world’s population and about 80% in developing countries depending directly on medicinal plants for their medical purposes [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This is due to a number of reasons including affordability, accessibility and low cost [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EThe use of plants to cure several kinds of human diseases has a long history. Various parts of plants such as leaf, stem, bark, root, etc. are being used to prevent, allay symptoms or revert abnormalities back to normal. Since the practice of “herbal remedies” does not adhere strictly to facts accrued using scientific approaches, orthodox medicine sees “herbal medicines” as an alternative medicine. However, most of the pharmaceutical products currently dispensed by physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis and quinine. Modern medicine today utilizes active compounds isolated from higher plants, and about 80% of these active ingredients indicate a positive correlation between their modern therapeutic use and the traditional uses [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003EThe search for, and use of drugs and dietary supplements obtained from plants have increased in recent years. Scientist such as pharmacologists, microbiologists, botanists, and phytochemists are combing the Earth for phytochemicals and clues that could be developed into medicines for various diseases treatment. This study therefore reviewed electronic database (Google Scholar, SciFinder, PubMed, etc.) for medicinal plants that have potent activity in treating some prevalent and common ailments like malaria, diarrhea, tuberculosis, pneumonia and asthma.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Medicinal plants with demonstrated anti-malarial activity\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003EMalaria is one of the world’s most important parasitic disease and a leading cause of death especially in developing countries [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It is endemic in about 100 developing countries, leading to about 1.2 million estimated deaths each year in Africa [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], with pregnant women and children below 5 years being mostly affected [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A wide range of medicinal plants is employed for the treatment of malaria, since majority of the people who get infected cannot afford the existing expensive orthodox medicines [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The problem of resistance to existing antimalarial agents by parasite has necessitated the search for new and potent agents, and the focus of researchers is on natural products especially medicinal plants since active compounds like quinine and artemisinin were isolated from plants and have been lead compounds for antimalarial drug development [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Various medicinal plants have been investigated for their anti-malarial activity and some with demonstrated potent \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E activity have been reviewed below.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.1 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECryptolepis sanguinolenta\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. sanguinolenta\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Lindl.) Schlechter (Apocynaceae) is known by Ghanaians as ‘Ghana quinine’ and specifically by the Asantes and Ewes as ‘Nibima’ and ‘Kadze,’ respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It is a twining and scrambling thin-stemmed shrub, indigenous to Africa, with much ethno-medicinal importance and interest in the West African sub-region [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It is used traditionally for the treatment of malaria, upper respiratory and urinary tract infections, diarrhea, hypertension and as cicatrizant of wounds [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The ethanolic and aqueous extracts of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. sanguinolenta\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E exhibited an \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E antiplasmodial activity against multi-drug resistance \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EPlasmodium falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (K1) strain, with all the extracts inhibiting 90% of parasite growth at concentrations below 23 μg\u002FmL. The ethanolic roots and leaves extracts showed potent activity with IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 0.895 ± 0.02 and 3.01 ± 0.02 μg\u002FmL, respectively. While the aqueous roots and leaves extracts had IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 2.32 ± 0.3 and 13.5 ± 0.7 μg\u002FmL, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Evaluating the clinical efficacy of a tea bag formulation of the root of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. sanguinolenta\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in patients with uncomplicated malaria showed that within 72 h, Fifty percent (50%) of the patients had their \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E parasitaemia cleared, and all patients, by Day 7. By Day 3, all presenting symptoms such as fever, chills, nausea and vomiting were completely no more. The overall cure rate when one tea bag of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. sanguinolenta\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E was taken three times a day for 5 days was 93.5%, due to two cases of recrudescence on Days 21 and 28 [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.2 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ETerminalia ivorensis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. ivorensis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E A. Chev. belongs to the family Combretaceae and is commonly known as ‘black afara’ and by the Asantes as ‘amire.’ It is a large deciduous forest tree of 15–46 m high, normally grown as timber plantation in many tropical countries [\u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In traditional medicine, various parts of the plant is used to treat malaria, yellow fever, pile, stomach ulcer, wounds and other infections [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A study by Komlaga et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] revealed an active \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E antiplasmodial activity of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. ivorensis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E aqueous leaf extract, against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E chloroquine-sensitive (3D7) and chloroquine resistant (W2) strains with IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 0.64 ± 0.14 and 10.52 ± 3.55 μg\u002FmL, respectively. The ethanolic stem bark extract also showed an \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E antimalarial activity against chloroquine-resistant strains of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E with an IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 6.949 μg\u002FmL [\u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.3 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EElaeis guineensis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p8\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EE. guineensis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Jacq (Arecaceae), popularly known as oil palm is a monocotyledonous plant which belongs to the coccoid group of palms. It grows up to 15 m high with a lifetime of over 100 years and occurs throughout the tropical rainforest belt of West Africa [\u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EE. guineensis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E is commonly used for treating gonorrhea, rheumatism, headache, wounds [\u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. An \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E anti-plasmodial assay revealed that, the ethanolic extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EE. guineensis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E leaves has potent antimalarial activity with IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 1.195 μg\u002FmL, against chloroquine-resistant \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.4 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EPhyllanthus emblica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p9\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. emblica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E L. of the family Euphorbiaceae is a deciduous medium-sized plant (10–18 m high), native to tropical south eastern Asia and widely distributed in most subtropical and tropical countries. It is commonly known as Indian gooseberry, rich in vitamin C, minerals and amino acids which helps to build up lost vitality and vigor [\u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Various parts of the plant is used traditionally for the treatment of diarrhea, inflammation, diabetes, jaundice, cough, asthma, peptic ulcer, skin diseases, leprosy, intermittent fevers, headache, anemia, dizziness, snakebite and scorpion-sting [\u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In an SYBR green I-based fluorescence assay to assess the anti-plasmodial potential of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. emblica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, the methanol leaf extract exhibited potent activity against CQ-sensitive (3D7) and CQ-resistant (Dd2 and INDO) strains of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E with IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 3.125, 4.8 and 5 μg\u002FmL, respectively. Also the ethyl acetate leaf extract showed activity with IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 7.25, 15 and 9 μg\u002FmL against 3D7, Dd2 and INDO \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E strains, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.5 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ESyzygium aromaticum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. aromaticum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (L.) Merril. & Perry, syn. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EEugenia caryophyllata\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, an ancient and valuable spice is a member of the family Myrtaceae and is commonly known as clove. It is mostly used as a spice to flavor all kinds of foods and has other medicinal values including anthelmintic, anti-asthma and other allergic disorders, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral and anti-parasitic properties [\u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A study by Bagavan et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], revealed the antimalarial activity of methanol extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. aromaticum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E flower buds with IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 6.25, 9.5 and 10 μg\u002FmL against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E CQ-sensitive (3D7) and CQ-resistant (Dd2 and INDO) strains, respectively.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_7_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.6 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EGoniothalamus marcanii\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EG. tamirensis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Pierre ex Finet & Gagnep is an accepted synonym for the species and is from the family Annonaceae. It occurs naturally in tropical and subtropical parts of Southeast Asia. 80%-EtOH extracts showed an in vitro antimalarial activity (IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E = 6.3 μg\u002FmL) against the drug resistant K1 strain of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.7 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECasearia sylvestris\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p12\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. sylvestris\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E var. lingua (Cambess.) Eichler, (Salicaceae) is an evergreen shrub or small tree with long, slender branches and a very dense globose crown. Usually 4–6 m tall, but can grow up to 20 m high, with wide distribution throughout South America. It has been employed in traditional medicine for treating snake bites, wounds, inflammation, fevers, gastric ulcers and diarrhea [\u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The hexane extracts of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. sylvestris\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E stem wood, stem bark, root bark, leaf and root wood as well as ethanol extract of the root bark, exhibited potent \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E antiplasmodial activity against chloroquine-resistance FcB1\u002FColombia \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E strain with IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E values of 0.9 ± 0.2, 1.0 ± 0.4, 1.2 ± 0.4, 1.3 ± 0.1, 2.3 ± 0.5 and 7.7 ± 1.1 μg\u002FmL, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.8 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECupania vernalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. vernalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Cambess. (Sapindaceae) is a semi-deciduous tree with elongated and dense crown, which can grow up to 10–22 m tall. It can be found in almost all forest formations in Brazil, South America, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia. The tree serves as source of tannins and wood locally, and in traditional medicine as diuretic, stimulant, expectorant, natural surfactant, sedative and for treating stomach-ache and dermatitis [\u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The hexane and ethanol leaf extracts showed active antimalarial activity against chloroquine-resistance (FcB1\u002FColombia) \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E with IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 0.9 ± 0.3 and 6.6 ± 0.2 μg\u002FmL, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_10_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.9 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EXylopia emarginata\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EX. emarginata\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Mart. is a species of plant in the Annonaceae family. It is native to Cerrado vegetation in Brazil. It is an evergreen tree with a very narrow, almost columnar crown which can grow up to 10–20 m tall and 30–40 cm in diameter. It usually grows in large clusters, forming a homogeneous mass. It is a species characteristic of swamp forest, and does not grow in the driest places. It is used as a condiment in food, a carminative and aphrodisiac in traditional medicine [\u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EX. emarginata\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E hexane root bark and stem bark extracts were able to inhibit \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (chloroquine-resistance FcB1\u002FColombia strains) with IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 4.9 ± 0.2 and 5.2 ± 0.4 μg\u002FmL, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_11_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.10 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EXylopia aromatic\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EX. aromatica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Lam.) Mart. belongs to the family Annonaceae and the accepted name is \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EX. xylopioides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. It is a tree native to Cerrado grassland vegetation, particularly in the states of Goiás and Minas Gerais, in eastern Brazil. It is a medium-sized tree with long, hanging branches that can make the crown look like a Christmas tree. Leaves are alternate, narrow, pointed, in a flat plane and arranged regularly along the branches. It is a common roadside and farmland species of the Pacific slope, not in the forest [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The root wood and root bark hexane extracts demonstrated an \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E antimalarial activity against chloroquine-resistance (FcB1\u002FColombia) strains of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E with IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 4.7 ± 0.9 and 6.8 ± 0.6 μg\u002FmL, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_12_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.11 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAspidosperma macrocarpon\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p16\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. macrocarpon\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Mart. (Apocynaceae) is a deciduous tree with an open crown growing up to 3–25 m tall and 25-35 cm in diameter. It is a timber tree, native to Brazil, Venezuela, Bolivia, Paraguay and Peru. Traditionally, it is employed in the treatment of fever [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E antiplasmodial study of the ethanol extract revealed an effective activity against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (chloroquine-resistance FcB1\u002FColombia) with an IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 4.9 ± 1.1 μg\u002FmL [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_13_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.12 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAzadirachta indica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. indica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E A. Juss is commonly known as neem tree or Indian lilac and belongs to the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is an evergreen, fast-growing tree that can reach a height of 15–20 m with few of them growing up to 35–40 m, but in severe drought it may shed most of its leaves or nearly all leaves. It is typically grown in tropical and semi-tropical regions. Neem is effective against certain fungi that infect humans and hence used to treat skin diseases like eczema, psoriasis [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The 80% methanol leaf extract showed \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E anti-plasmodial activity against chloroquine and pyrimethamine sensitive, 3D7 strain, and chloroquine resistant and pyrimethamine sensitive, Dd2 strain, with IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 5.8 and 1.7 μg\u002FmL, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_14_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.13 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EHarrisonia abyssinica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EH. abyssinica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Oliv. of the family Rutaceae, is a spiny, evergreen shrub that branches from the base and can become a spreading or much-branched tree. It usually grows up to 6–13 m tall and commonly found in Tropical Africa, in the areas of Sierra Leone, Cameroon, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Angola, Zambia and Mozambique [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The methanolic stem bark extract inhibited chloroquine resistant \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E strain Dd2, with IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E value of 4.7 ± 0.113 while in chloroquine sensitive \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. falciparum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E strain 3D7, the IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E value was 10 ± 0.114 μg\u002FmL [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_15_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.14 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EMaytenus senegalensis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p19\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. senegalensis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Lam. Exell which belongs to the family Celastraceae is an African shrubs or trees widely distributed throughout Central and South America, Southeast Asia, Micronesia and Australasia, the Indian Ocean and Africa, growing up to 15 m high with spines up to 7 cm long. Traditionally, it is an anti-inflammatory herbal drug and is useful in treating toothaches [\u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The stem bark methanol extract showed anti-plasmodial activity with IC\u003Csub\u003E50\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of 3.9 and 10 μg\u002FmL when treated \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E on chloroquine sensitive, 3D7 and chloroquine resistant, Dd2 strains, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_17\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Medicinal plants with demonstrated activity against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EVibrio cholera\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003ECholera is an acute intestinal disease caused by a facultative anaerobic, Gram-negative, comma-shaped rod bacterium, known as \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. cholerae\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. Cholera is a life threatening disease transmitted by the fecal-oral route. The organisms adhere to and colonize the small bowel within a short incubation period, where they secrete cholera enterotoxin leading to severe and watery diarrhea accompanied with vomiting, dehydration and eventually death if not treated promptly [\u003Ca href=\"#B37\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Various antibiotics have been effective for the treatment of cholera; however, the worldwide problem of microbial resistance to existing antimicrobial medicines has led to most antibiotic failure. Researchers are therefore shifting their focus to natural products, especially medicinal plant, with effective antimicrobial properties. Some medicinal plants with potent anti-cholera activity are reviewed below.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_17_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.1 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ETerminalia chebula\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. chebula\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Retz. (Combretaceae) commonly known as black or chebulic myrobalan is a medium to large deciduous tree growing up to 30 m tall, with a trunk of 1 m in diameter. It leaves are oval, alternate to subopposite in arrangement and is a native to South Asia, from India and Nepal east to southwest China, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Vietnam. Traditionally, it has been used for treatment of indigestion, diarrhea and diabetes [\u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The plant extract used to treat Cholera worked effectively against the strains of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. cholera\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E the causative agent. The methanol fruit extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. chebula\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E had strong bactericidal activity with MIC ranging from 0.125 to 1.5 mg\u002FmL and MBC ranging from 0.25 to 2 mg\u002FmL, against multi-drug resistance strains of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. cholerae\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (serotypes O1, O139, and non-O1, non-O139) [\u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_18_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.2 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ESyzygium cumini\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. cumini\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (L.) Skeels (Myrtaceae), known as Jam is an evergreen tropical tree, native to the Indian Subcontinent, adjoining regions of Southeast Asia, China and Queensland. It Grows up to 30 m and can live more than 100 years, with a dense foliage which provides shade and is grown just for its ornamental value. The leaves are pinkish when young, and changes to dark green with a yellow midrib as they mature [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The seeds have traditionally been used to treat diarrhea, dysentery, piles, indigestion and diabetes. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. cumini\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E methanol seed extract exhibited a bactericidal anti-cholera activity against multi-drug resistance strains of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. cholerae\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (serotypes O1, O139, and non-O1, non-O139), with MICs and MBCs ranging from 1.25–3 mg\u002FmL [\u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Also Sharma et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] reported the \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E anti-vibrio activity of the ethanolic stem bark extract against different strains of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. cholera\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E with MICS ranging from 2.5 to 20 mg\u002FmL.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_19_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.3 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ESaraca indica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. indica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E auct. L. commonly known as Asoka-tree or Ashok is a plant belonging to the Detarioideae subfamily of the Fabaceae family. Asoka tree is an evergreen tree with a spreading crown which can grow up to 24 m tall and 34 cm in diameter. The original plant specimen came from Java. Some traditional uses of the plant include treatment of dyspepsia, fever, burning sensation, colic, ulcers, menorrhagia, leucorrhoea, pimples [\u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. indica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E evoked strong bactericidal activity against different strains of multi-drug resistance \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. cholera\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, with MBCs ranging from 1 to 4 mg\u002FmL [\u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A study by Sharma et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] also showed the anti-vibrio potential of the ethanolic stem bark extract, with MICs range of 2.5–10 mg\u002FmL against 13 strains of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. cholera\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_20_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.4 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EButea monosperma\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EB. monosperma\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Lam.) Taub. (Papilionaceae) is a native to tropical and sub-tropical parts of the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia, ranging across India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia and western Indonesia. Common names include flame-of-the-forest and bastard teak. It is a medium-sized dry season-deciduous tree, growing to 15 m tall. Leaves are pinnate, with (8–16 cm) petiole and three leaflets of 10–20 cm long. Its flowers are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of ulcer, inflammation, hepatic disorder and eye diseases [\u003Ca href=\"#B43\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The methanol flower extract showed anti-cholera activity with MIC and MBC ranging from 1.75 to 5 mg\u002FmL against different strains of multi-drug resistance \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. cholera\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_21_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.5 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EEuphorbia serpens\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EE. serpens\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Kunth is a member of the Euphorbiaceae family. It is native to South America but it can be found on most continents as an introduced species and often a weed. This is an annual herb forming a mat of prostrate stems [\u003Ca href=\"#B44\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E44\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Purified bioactive fraction of aqueous extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EE. serpens\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E exhibited an anti-Vibrio activity at a Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of 3.92 mg\u002FmL [\u003Ca href=\"#B45\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_22_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.6 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAcacia farnesiana\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p26\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EVachellia farnesiana\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, also known as \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. farnesiana\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (L.) Willd, commonly known as sweet acacia or needle bush, is a species of shrub or small tree in the legume family, Fabaceae. The species grows to a height of 4.6–9.1 m and grows multiple trunks. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. farnesiana\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E has been used in Colombia to treat malaria, in the Philippines the leaves are traditionally rubbed on the skin to treat skin diseases in livestock. In Malaysia, an infusion of the plant’s flowers and leaves is mixed with turmeric for post-partum treatment [\u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The bark methanolic extract revealed a potent bactericidal activity against two strains of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. cholera\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, O139 (AI-1837) and O1 (569-B) with MBCs of 0.5 ± 0.1 and 0.9 ± 0.1, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_23_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.7 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EArtemisia ludoviciana\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. ludoviciana\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Nutt.) White sagebrush of the family Asteraceae is native to North America where it is widespread across most of the United States, Canada and Mexico. It is a rhizomatous perennial plant growing to height of 0.33–1 m. Medicinally, it is used for dermatological purposes and for treating cold [\u003Ca href=\"#B48\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The anti-cholera activity of the methanol whole plant extract was effective and bactericidal against O139 (AI-1837) and O1 (569-B) \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. cholera\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E strains. The minimum bactericidal concentrations against the two strains were 0.7 ± 0.2 and 1 ± 0.3, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_24_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.8 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EOcimum basilicum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EO. basilicum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (L.) Basil (Lamiaceae) can be found in Tropical Asia. It is a perennial growing up to 0.5 m tall and by 0.3 m in diameter. Medicinally it is used for the treatment of fever, colds, influenza, poor digestion, nausea, abdominal cramps, gastro-enteritis, migraine, insomnia, depression and exhaustion [\u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The methanol whole plant extract exhibited a bactericidal activity against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. cholera\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E O139 (AI-1837) and O1 (569-B) strains with MBCs of 2 ± 0.6 and 3 ± 0.5, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_25_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.9 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EOpuntia ficus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EO. ficus-indica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (L.) of the family Cactaceae is species of cactus that has long been domesticated. It is commonly known as prickly pear or Nopal cactus. It originated from Mexico and cultivated in other parts of the world including Mediterranean Basin, Middle East and northern Africa [\u003Ca href=\"#B50\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A study by Sánchez et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], revealed the anti-cholera activity of the methanol cladode extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EO. ficus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, with minimum bactericidal concentrations against O139 (AI-1837) and O1 (569-B) \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. cholera\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E strains to be 3 ± 0.05 and 3 ± 0.1, respectively.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_26_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.10 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ELawsonia inermis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EL. inermis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Linn. (Apocynaceae) commonly known in India as Henna is a flowering plant and the sole species of the genus Lawsonia. It is a tall shrub or small tree, standing 1.8–7.6 m tall, glabrous and multi-branched, with spine-tipped branchlets. The henna plant is native to northern Africa, western and southern Asia, northern Australia, and thrives well in semi-arid zones and tropical areas. It is useful medicinally for burning sensation, leprosy, skin diseases, amenorrhoea, and dysmenorrhea and as abortifacient [\u003Ca href=\"#B51\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The ethanolic leaf extract exhibited an \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E anti-vibrio activity with MICs ranging from 2.5 to 10 mg\u002FmL against 13 strains of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. cholera\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_28\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Medicinal plants with demonstrated anti-tuberculosis activity\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p31\"\u003ETuberculosis (TB) is an airborne infectious disease which does not only affect the lungs but also other parts of the body such as the brain and spine [\u003Ca href=\"#B52\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E52\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The main cause of TB is \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EMycobacterium tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. Other \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E complex that causes TB include \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. bovis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. africanum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. canetti\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. microti\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B53\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E53\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The predominant symptoms of active TB are fever, night sweat, weight loss and chronic cough with blood containing sputum. However, most TB infections are latent which may progress into active disease if left untreated [\u003Ca href=\"#B52\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E52\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Treatment of TB is very tedious and requires a long course with multiple antibiotics involved. However, this fastidious bacteria have become resistant to most antibiotics, and hence researchers are working tirelessly to come up with new and effective products especially from natural products such as medicinal plant. Some medicinal plants that have been investigated to possess active anti-tuberculosis activity are reviewed below.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_28_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.1 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAnogeissus leiocarpa\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p32\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. leiocarpa\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Combretaceae) commonly called African birch is a tall deciduous tree which is indigenous to the savannas of tropical Africa. Traditionally, its stem and root barks are used to treat gonorrhea, worm infestation, cough, asthma and tuberculosis [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The susceptibility of clinical isolates of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E to the methanolic extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. leiocarpa\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E was investigated using the broth dilution method. The results demonstrated anti-mycobacterial property (MIC 78 μg\u002FmL). \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. leiocarpa\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E fraction showed an increased anti-mycobacterial activity (MIC 7.8 μg\u002FmL) [\u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_29_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.2 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ETerminalia avicennioides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p33\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. avicennioides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Combretaceae) is a tree commonly found in West Africa. Its root bark, fruit and mistletoes are used traditionally to treat diarrhea, hemoptysis, sore throat, TB, asthma and cough [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E antibacterial studies using broth dilution method of methanolic extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. avicennioides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E showed a significant anti-mycobacterial activity (MIC 78 μg\u002FmL) against clinical isolates of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. tuberculosis.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E The n-hexane and ethyl acetate fractions obtained from the crude methanol extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. avicennioides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E showed inhibitory activity (MIC 200 and 625 μg\u002FmL, respectively) against attenuated strains of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. bovis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. A further study of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. avicennioides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E fraction obtained demonstrated anti-mycobacterial activity (MIC 4.7 μg\u002FmL) [\u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_30_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.3 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECapparis brassii\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p34\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. brassii\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Capparidaceae), the narrow-leaf caper bush is distributed in the coastal forest and mixed woodland from tropical West Africa to South-East Africa. The root bark is used to treat TB in folk medicine [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The methanol extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. brassii\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E has demonstrated some level of anti-mycobacterial activity (MIC 1.25 mg\u002FmL) against clinically isolated strains of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_31_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.4 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECombretum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p35\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECombretum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Combretaceae) commonly called the bush willows has about 370 species of shrubs and trees, predominant in southern and tropical Africa, Madagascar, Asia and tropical America. Traditionally, its root and stem barks are used to treat cough, bronchitis and TB [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The methanol extract exhibited anti-mycobacterial activity (MIC 1.25 mg\u002FmL) against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E clinical isolates when evaluated in vitro using the broth microdilution method [\u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_32_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.5 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ESolanum torvum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p36\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. torvum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Solanaceae) also called turkey berry is an upright bushy and spiny perennial plant which is native to the Caribbean, southern Mexico, tropical and central America. However, it is also widely naturalized in the warmer and coastal regions of New South Wales, northern and eastern Australia, tropical Africa, Asia, Papua New Guinea, South-Eastern USA and on several pacific islands. The juice from this plant is used for the treatment of fever, sore throat, dropsy, rheumatism, gonorrhea, stomach ache, chest ailment, and asthma, while leaves and fruits can also be used to control a wide range of microbial activity [\u003Ca href=\"#B56\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E56\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The crude leave extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. torvum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E has demonstrated a significant inhibitory activity against two stains of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (H37Ra and H37Rv) with MIC of 156.3 and 1250 μg\u002FmL, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_33_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.6 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EGalenia africana\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p37\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EG. africana\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Aizoaceae) is an upright green to yellow-green aromatic woody perennial shrublet commonly found on the western and southern edges of Karoo [\u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The ethanolic extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EG. africana\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E demonstrated anti-mycobacterial activity (MIC 1.2 mg\u002FmL) against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. tuberculosis.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E A further study of flavone, 5,7,2′-trihydroxyflavone which was isolated from \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EG. africana\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E showed an increased activity (MIC 0.1 mg\u002FmL) against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B58\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E58\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_34_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.7 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAllium sativum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p38\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. sativum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Amaryllidaceae) popularly called garlic is a bulbous plant, native to northern and eastern Iran and Central Asia [\u003Ca href=\"#B59\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E59\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], however, garlic can grow in the wild and in places where it has become naturalized. During World War I and II, garlic was used as an antiseptic to prevent gangrene [\u003Ca href=\"#B60\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E60\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Aside its reported nutritional value, garlic can demonstrate antimicrobial effect at temperature as high as 120°C. The aqueous and ethanolic extracts of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. sativum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E has shown anti-tuberculosis activity (MIC 0.05 and 0.1 mg\u002FmL, respectively) against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, H37Ra via the use of Microplate Alamar Blue Assay (MABA) [\u003Ca href=\"#B61\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A study by Gupta et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B62\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E62\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] also showed the inhibitory activity of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. sativum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E against multidrug resistant isolates DKU-156 and JAL-1236, as well as sensitive \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E H37Ra with percentage inhibition of 72, 72 and 63%, respectively.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_35_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.8 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAllium cepa\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p39\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. cepa\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E commonly called onions is from the family Liliaceae. Onions have several pharmacological activity such as antidiabetic, antioxidant, anticancer, cardiovascular, antimicrobial and others [\u003Ca href=\"#B63\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E63\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The minimum inhibitory concentration by which the ethanolic and aqueous extracts of the tissue of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. cepa\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E inhibited the growth of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E H37Ra was recorded to be 0.1 mg\u002FmL for both extracts [\u003Ca href=\"#B61\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Another \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E study showed a 79% proportion of inhibition of aqueous extract of the bulb of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. cepa\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E against MDR isolate JAL-1236 [\u003Ca href=\"#B62\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E62\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_36_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.9 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECinnamomum verum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p40\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. verum,\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (formerly \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. zeylanicum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E) of the family Lauraceae, commonly known as cinnamon tree is an evergreen small tropical plant native to Sri Lanka, it is also cultivated in Madagascar and Seychelles on commercial scale [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Its anti-tuberculosis activity reported by Sivakumar and Jayaraman, [\u003Ca href=\"#B61\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] revealed that, the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the bark of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. verum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E exhibited anti-mycobacterial activity (MIC 0.1 and 0.2 mg\u002FmL, respectively) against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E H37Ra.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_37_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.10 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAcalypha indica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p41\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. indica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E popularly known as Indian nettle is from the family Euphorbiaceae. In Africa, it is distributed in Nigeria, from eastern part of Sudan to Somalia and south through DR Congo and East Africa to Southern Africa. It also occurs in South-East Asia, India, Oceania and widely in the Indian Ocean islands. Traditionally, it is used as an antifungal and antibacterial agent for both human and plant pathogens. It is also used as an expectorant to treat pneumonia and asthma [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein-vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E study of the aqueous leave extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. indica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E against MDR isolate DKU-156, JAL-1236 and sensitive \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EM. tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E H37Rv, demonstrated 95, 68 and 68% inhibition, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B62\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E62\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_39\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Medicinal plants with demonstrated activity against pneumonia\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p42\"\u003EPneumonia is a respiratory tract infection characterized by the inflammation of one or both lungs as a results of the accumulation of pus in the alveoli. Pneumonia which can be caused by bacteria, viruses or fungi can be mild, severe or life threatening. Bacterial pneumonia can be caused by \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EStreptococcus pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E which is the commonest cause, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EStaphylococcus aureus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EMoraxella catarrhalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EKlebsiella pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EHaemophilus influenza\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EChlamydophila pneumonia\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ELegionella pneumophila\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EPneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (PCP) is a fungal pneumonia commonly found in immunocompromised patients. Viral pneumonia can also be caused by adenovirus, Varicella zoster, Influenza virus and respiratory syncytial virus [\u003Ca href=\"#B64\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E64\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B65\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E65\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Traditionally, medicinal plants have been employed for treating pneumonia and hence the need to prove, scientifically, their folkloric uses. Researchers have investigated such plant, and below is a review on some of the reported plants with demonstrated activity.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_39_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.1 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EEchinops adenocaulos\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p43\"\u003EIn Ethiopian herbal medicine, members of the genus \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EEchinops\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E from family Asteraceae are used for the treatment of diarrhea, intestinal worm infestation, hemorrhoids, migraine and different forms of infections [\u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Zamzam water extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EE. adenocaulos\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E demonstrated an antibacterial activity against multidrug resistance \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.781 mg\u002FmL [\u003Ca href=\"#B67\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E67\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_40_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.2 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EVerbascum fruticulosum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p44\"\u003EVarious species of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EVerbascum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, of the family Scrophulariaceae, have been used to treat pulmonary diseases in traditional medicine as a results of its antibacterial activity against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EKlebsiella pneumonia\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EStaphylococcus aureus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B68\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E68\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vitro\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E antimicrobial activity of aqueous extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EV. fruticulosum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E against multidrug resistant clinical isolate of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E showed a high antibacterial activity with MIC value of 0.195 mg\u002FmL [\u003Ca href=\"#B67\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E67\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_41_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.3 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EParietaria judaica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p45\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. judaica\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E commonly known as pellitory of wall from family Urticaceae has been valued for its use as a diuretic, balm for wounds and burns and also as a soother for chronic cough in herbal medicine [\u003Ca href=\"#B69\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E69\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The micro-broth dilution method was used to study the inhibitory activity of aqueous extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. Judaica.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E The extract was able to inhibit multidrug resistant \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. pneumonia\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E at an MIC value of 3.125 mg\u002FmL [\u003Ca href=\"#B67\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E67\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_42_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.4 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EUrtica urens\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p46\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EU. urens\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E commonly known as dwarf nettle or annual nettle from family Urticaceae is used medicinally for the treatment of pulmonary diseases [\u003Ca href=\"#B70\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E70\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A study by Saleh Fares et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B67\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E67\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] on the inhibitory activity of the aqueous extract of this plant against multidrug resistant clinical isolates of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, using micro-broth dilution method, gave an MIC of 6.25 mg\u002FmL. This illustrates its potential to be used as medicine in the treatment pneumonia caused by multidrug resistant \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. pneumoniae.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_43_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.5 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EBeta vulgaris\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p47\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EB. vulgaris\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E popularly known as sugar beet from family Amaranthaceae is a sugar producing plant. Sugar-producing plants contain bioactive compounds, which are active against microbes and hence are able to protect the sugar from fermenting or from undergoing any alteration [\u003Ca href=\"#B71\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E71\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The study of the antimicrobial activity of the crude ethanolic leaf (lamina and midrib) extracts as well as fractions (n-hexane and chloroform) against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EK. pneumonia,\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E showed zones of growth inhibition at different concentrations tested. At 1 mg\u002F12 μL, the lamina and midrib crude extracts recorded 19 and 9 mm inhibition zone. The chloroform lamina and midrib fraction recorded 12 and 14 mm at concentration 1 mg\u002F6 μL, while at concentration 1 mg\u002F12 μL, their inhibition zones were 15 and 20 mm, respectively. Also the n-hexane lamina and midrib fractions had 20 and 16 mm inhibition zones (1 mg\u002F6 μL),while 36 and 32 mm zones of inhibition (1 mg\u002F12 μL) were recorded, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B72\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E72\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_45\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E6. Medicinal plants with demonstrated anti-asthmatic activity\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p48\"\u003EAsthma is a complex inflammatory disease and congestive respiratory disorder brought about by airway narrowing. It symptoms may include episodic wheezing, cough and chest tightness resulting in airflow block. It leads to changes in the levels of eosinophils, mast cells, lymphocytes, cytokines and other inflammatory cell products. There is increased prevalence worldwide especially in industrialized countries and among children with increased morbidity and mortality rate [\u003Ca href=\"#B73\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E73\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B74\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Medicinal plants have been screened for properties that enhance their activity as anti-asthmatic agents, since current medications have adverse side effects. Few of such plants with demonstrated activity are reviewed below.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_45_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E6.1 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECurcuma longa\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p49\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. longa L.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial flowering plant of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae. It is native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, and requires temperatures between 20 and 30°C and a considerable amount of annual rainfall to thrive. Methanolic extracts (curcumin-II at 200 mg\u002Fkg and curcumin-I at 100 mg\u002Fkg) of the finger rhizomes of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. longa\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E reduced significantly (P < 0.01) estimated white blood cells count in ovalbumin (OVA) sensitized Wistar rat models for both long and short term. At a higher dosage, curcumin-II (200 mg\u002Fkg) tends to protect intact mast cells from degranulation [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This suggests that curcumin can be used as complementary medicine in the treatment of Asthma.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_46_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E6.2 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAerva lanata\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p50\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. lanata\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (L.) A. L. Juss. ex Schult (Amaranthaceae) is a perennial herb, frequently becoming more or less woody at the base. The stems can be erect to prostrate, sometimes scrambling or climbing into other plants for support. It is widespread in the tropics and subtropics of Africa through Asia to the Philippines and New Guinea. It is used traditionally for treating cough, sore throat, indigestion, wounds, and diabetics and as a vermifuge for children [\u003Ca href=\"#B75\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E75\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The ethanol extract of aerial parts of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EA. lanata\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E at 100 μg\u002FmL significantly (***p < 0.01) exhibited percentage decreased contraction in the isolated goat tracheal chain preparation model. Also in clonidine induced mast cell degranulation, the extract at 30 and 60 mg\u002Fkg administered orally, showed percentage protection of 64.2 and 68.9%, respectively [\u003Ca href=\"#B76\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E76\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_47_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E6.3 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECynodon dactylon\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p51\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. dactylon\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (L.) Pers, of the family Poaceae is a short-lived, prostrate, perennial grass. It is widely naturalized in the temperate to tropical zones of Europe, Africa, Asia, the Pacific and the Americas. Its habitat is along roadsides and in exposed rocky or sandy sites. It use in traditional medicine to stop bleeding in minor injuries, for weak vision and eye disorders, piles, asthma, tumors among others [\u003Ca href=\"#B77\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E77\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The findings of Savali et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B78\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E78\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], indicated that isolated \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. dactylon\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E compound was potent and has significant (p < 0.01 and p < 0.001) inhibitory effect on compound 48\u002F80 induced anaphylactic reaction and mast cell activation. Also, compound 48\u002F80 induced increased level of nitric oxide in rat serum and rat peritoneal mast cells were significantly inhibited.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_48_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E6.4 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EPiper betle\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p52\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. betle\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E L. (Piperaceae) commonly referred to as Betel pepper, is an evergreen climbing shrub producing woody stems, 5–20 m long, and distributed in Southeast Asia—probably originally from Malaysia. It is traditionally used to cure cough, cold, pruritis, asthma and rheumatism [\u003Ca href=\"#B79\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Ethanol and aqueous extract of leaves at doses 100 and 200 mg\u002Fkg possesses anti-asthmatic activity on histamine induced bronchoconstriction in guinea pig and histamine induced dose dependent contraction of guinea pig tracheal chain [\u003Ca href=\"#B80\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E80\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_49_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E6.5 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ELepidium sativum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p53\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EL. sativum L\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. (Brassicaceae) also referred to as Garden cress is a profusely-branched, erect, annual plant growing up to 80 cm tall [\u003Ca href=\"#B81\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E81\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It commonly grown in many regions of Saudi Arabia and the Eastern Province. The seeds are used to cure bronchitis, asthma, cough, and useful as abortifacient, antibacterial, aphrodisiac, diuretic, expectorant, gastrointestinal stimulant, gastroprotective, laxative and stomachic [\u003Ca href=\"#B82\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E82\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The bronchodilatory effect of ethanolic seed extract and ethyl acetate, n-butanol and methanol fractions, against histamine and acetylcholine induced acute bronchospasm in guinea pigs, exhibited significant inhibition of bronchospasm, with n-butanol fraction showing a significant (p < 0.001) protection comparable to the reference standards used in the study [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Rehman et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B84\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E84\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] also confirmed the bronchodilatory effect of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EL. sativum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E crude extract by investigating the various pathways for its activity in airway disorders. It was revealed that, the extract’s activity was mediated through a combination of anticholinergic, Ca\u003Csup\u003E++\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E antagonist and phosphodiesterase inhibitory pathways.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_50_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E6.6 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECurculigo orchioides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p54\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. orchioides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Gaertn. (Hypoxidaceae) is a stemless evergreen perennial herb producing a cluster of leaves from the roots and spreading to form a clump. It grows up to 50 cm tall. It ranges from East Asia—South China, Japan, Indian subcontinent, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, New Guinea, W. Pacific. Alcoholic extract of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. orchioides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E rhizomes at doses (100–400 mg\u002Fkg) shows mast cell stabilizing and antihistaminic activity on Compound 48\u002F80-induced mast cell degranulation and systemic anaphylaxis [\u003Ca href=\"#B85\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E85\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Also Pandit et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B86\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E86\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] established the usefulness of the ethanol extract in treating asthma, as it was reported to exhibit significant relaxant effect (p < 0.01) at concentrations 100 and 25 μg\u002FmL in isolated goat tracheal chain and isolated guinea pig ileum preparations respectively. In an \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ein vivo\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E study using histamine induced bronchoconstriction in guinea pigs, egg albumin induced passive paw anaphylaxis in rats and haloperidol-induced catalepsy in mice, there was significant (p < 0.01) protection at lower doses. Again, maximum increase in leucocytes and lymphocytes (99%) and maximum decrease in eosinophils up to 0% at dose 375 mg\u002Fkg p.o. was reported in milk-induced total leukocytes and differential leukocyte counts.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_51_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E6.7 \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECasuarina equisetifolia\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p55\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. equisetifolia\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E L. (Casuarinaceae) also commonly known as Common Ru, is an evergreen tree with a finely branched, feathery crown usually growing from 6 to 35 m and 20–100 cm in diameter. The tree is widely planted throughout the tropics, and ranges from East Asia to Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Australia and the Pacific [\u003Ca href=\"#B87\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E87\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The methanol extract of wood and bark (10–80 mcg\u002FmL) exhibited a significant dose dependent (p < 0.05) antihistaminic activity by inhibiting the histamine induced contraction of trachea. The wood extract (100 mg\u002Fkg, i.p.) significantly reduced clonidine induced catalepsy (p < 0.05) and mast cell degranulation (p < 0.001) [\u003Ca href=\"#B88\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E88\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_53\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E7. Conclusion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p56\"\u003EAll the plants reviewed exhibited potent activity confirming their various traditional uses and their ability to treat prevalent diseases. There is therefore the need to subject these plants to further studies, by isolating active compounds which can be processed into new and potent medicines and the need to study their mechanisms of action.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"medicinal plants, malaria, diarrhea, tuberculosis, asthma","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpdfs\u002F64420.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fsource\u002Fxml\u002F64420.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F64420\u002F1672030574\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F64420","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F64420","cdnMediaBaseUrl":null,"totalDownloads":5793,"totalViews":13203,"totalCrossrefCites":27,"totalDimensionsCites":59,"totalAltmetricsMentions":1,"introChapter":null,"impactScore":29,"impactScorePercentile":100,"impactScoreQuartile":4,"hasAltmetrics":1,"dateSubmitted":"July 20th 2018","dateReviewed":"October 15th 2018","datePrePublished":"January 17th 2019","datePublished":"June 19th 2019","dateFinished":"November 16th 2018","readingETA":"0","abstract":"This chapter focuses on reviewing publications on medicinal plants used in the treatment of common diseases such as malaria, cholera, pneumonia, tuberculosis and asthma. Traditional medicine is still recognized as the preferred primary health care system in many rural communities, due to a number of reasons including affordability and effectiveness. The review concentrated on current literature on medicinal plants, highlighting on information about ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology. The search for publications on medicinal plants with scientifically proven efficacy was carried out using electronic databases such as Science Direct, Google Scholar, SciFinder and PubMed. In all, about 46 species of different families with potent biological and pharmacological activities were reviewed. All the plants reviewed exhibited potent activity confirming their various traditional uses and their ability to treat prevalent diseases.","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F64420","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F64420","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"8290","type":"book","title":"Pharmacognosy","subtitle":"Medicinal Plants","fullTitle":"Pharmacognosy - Medicinal Plants","slug":"pharmacognosy-medicinal-plants","publishedDate":"June 19th 2019","bookSignature":"Shagufta Perveen and Areej Al-Taweel","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F8290.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8290\u002F1713442318-1611617692\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8290\u002F1713442318-1611617692\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8290\u002F1718277803-427612097\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8290\u002F1718277803-427612097\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8290\u002F1718114071-1987189078\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8290\u002F1718114071-1987189078\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":"Edited by","isbn":"978-1-83880-611-8","price":139,"printIsbn":"978-1-83880-610-1","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83880-874-7","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","numberOfWosCitations":67,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"192992","title":"Prof.","name":"Shagufta","middleName":null,"surname":"Perveen","slug":"shagufta-perveen","fullName":"Shagufta Perveen"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":{"id":"192994","title":"Dr.","name":"Areej","middleName":null,"surname":"Al-Taweel","slug":"areej-al-taweel","fullName":"Areej Al-Taweel"},"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"1200"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"chapters":[{"id":"66977","type":"chapter","title":"Introductory Chapter: Pharmacognosy","slug":"introductory-chapter-pharmacognosy","totalDownloads":2414,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"signatures":"Shagufta Perveen and Areej Mohammad Al-Taweel","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","authors":[{"id":"192992","title":"Prof.","name":"Shagufta","middleName":null,"surname":"Perveen","fullName":"Shagufta Perveen","slug":"shagufta-perveen"}]},{"id":"65477","type":"chapter","title":"Role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Past, Present, and Future","slug":"role-of-medicinal-and-aromatic-plants-past-present-and-future","totalDownloads":3976,"totalCrossrefCites":35,"signatures":"Maiko Inoue, Shinichiro Hayashi and Lyle E. 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Medicinal plants with demonstrated anti-malarial activity","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2_2","title":"2.1 Cryptolepis sanguinolenta","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_3_2","title":"2.2 Terminalia ivorensis","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_4_2","title":"2.3 Elaeis guineensis","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_5_2","title":"2.4 Phyllanthus emblica","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_6_2","title":"2.5 Syzygium aromaticum","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_7_2","title":"2.6 Goniothalamus marcanii","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_8_2","title":"2.7 Casearia sylvestris","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_9_2","title":"2.8 Cupania vernalis","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_10_2","title":"2.9 Xylopia emarginata","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_11_2","title":"2.10 Xylopia aromatic","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_12_2","title":"2.11 Aspidosperma macrocarpon","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_13_2","title":"2.12 Azadirachta indica","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_14_2","title":"2.13 Harrisonia abyssinica","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_15_2","title":"2.14 Maytenus senegalensis","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_17","title":"3. Medicinal plants with demonstrated activity against Vibrio cholera","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_17_2","title":"3.1 Terminalia chebula","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_18_2","title":"3.2 Syzygium cumini","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_19_2","title":"3.3 Saraca indica","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_20_2","title":"3.4 Butea monosperma","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_21_2","title":"3.5 Euphorbia serpens","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_22_2","title":"3.6 Acacia farnesiana","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_23_2","title":"3.7 Artemisia ludoviciana","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_24_2","title":"3.8 Ocimum basilicum","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_25_2","title":"3.9 Opuntia ficus","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_26_2","title":"3.10 Lawsonia inermis","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_28","title":"4. Medicinal plants with demonstrated anti-tuberculosis activity","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_28_2","title":"4.1 Anogeissus leiocarpa","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_29_2","title":"4.2 Terminalia avicennioides","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_30_2","title":"4.3 Capparis brassii","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_31_2","title":"4.4 Combretum spp.","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_32_2","title":"4.5 Solanum torvum","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_33_2","title":"4.6 Galenia africana","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_34_2","title":"4.7 Allium sativum","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_35_2","title":"4.8 Allium cepa","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_36_2","title":"4.9 Cinnamomum verum","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_37_2","title":"4.10 Acalypha indica","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_39","title":"5. Medicinal plants with demonstrated activity against pneumonia","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_39_2","title":"5.1 Echinops adenocaulos","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_40_2","title":"5.2 Verbascum fruticulosum","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_41_2","title":"5.3 Parietaria judaica","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_42_2","title":"5.4 Urtica urens","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_43_2","title":"5.5 Beta vulgaris","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_45","title":"6. Medicinal plants with demonstrated anti-asthmatic activity","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_45_2","title":"6.1 Curcuma longa","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_46_2","title":"6.2 Aerva lanata","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_47_2","title":"6.3 Cynodon dactylon","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_48_2","title":"6.4 Piper betle","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_49_2","title":"6.5 Lepidium sativum","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_50_2","title":"6.6 Curculigo orchioides","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_51_2","title":"6.7 Casuarina equisetifolia","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_53","title":"7. Conclusion","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003EShrestha PM, Dhillion SS. Medicinal plant diversity and use in the highlands of Dolakha district, Nepal. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2003;\u003Cbold\u003E86\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(1):81-96\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B2","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B2\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003EAsase A, Kokubun T, Grayer RJ, Kite G, Simmonds MSJ, Oteng-Yeboah AA, et al. Chemical constituents and antimicrobial activity of medicinal plants from Ghana: \u003Citalic\u003ECassia sieberiana\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E, \u003Citalic\u003EHaematostaphis barteri\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E, \u003Citalic\u003EMitragyna inermis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E and \u003Citalic\u003EPseudocedrela kotschyi\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E. 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Hussein","authors":[{"id":"223529","title":"Prof.","name":"Ahmed","middleName":null,"surname":"Abdelfattah Hussein","fullName":"Ahmed Abdelfattah Hussein","slug":"ahmed-abdelfattah-hussein"}]},{"id":"60083","title":"Terpenes as Potential Antimalarial Drugs","slug":"terpenes-as-potential-antimalarial-drugs","signatures":"Heloisa Berti Gabriel, Rodrigo AC Sussmann, Emila A Kimura, Adriana Alejandra Marin Rodriguez, Ignasi Bofill Verdaguer, Gabriela Carolina Fernandes Leite and Alejandro Miguel Katzin","authors":[{"id":"39593","title":"Prof.","name":"Alejandro","middleName":"Miguel","surname":"Katzin","fullName":"Alejandro Katzin","slug":"alejandro-katzin"},{"id":"56485","title":"Dr.","name":"Emila A","middleName":null,"surname":"Kimura","fullName":"Emila A Kimura","slug":"emila-a-kimura"},{"id":"223652","title":"Dr.","name":"Rodrigo A.C","middleName":null,"surname":"Sussman","fullName":"Rodrigo A.C Sussman","slug":"rodrigo-a.c-sussman"},{"id":"223654","title":"Dr.","name":"Heloisa Berti","middleName":null,"surname":"Gabriel","fullName":"Heloisa Berti Gabriel","slug":"heloisa-berti-gabriel"},{"id":"223655","title":"MSc.","name":"Adriana Alejandra","middleName":null,"surname":"Marin Rodriguez","fullName":"Adriana Alejandra Marin Rodriguez","slug":"adriana-alejandra-marin-rodriguez"},{"id":"223656","title":"Mr.","name":"Ignasi Bonfill","middleName":null,"surname":"Verdaguer","fullName":"Ignasi Bonfill Verdaguer","slug":"ignasi-bonfill-verdaguer"},{"id":"223657","title":"Ms.","name":"Gabriela Carolina","middleName":null,"surname":"Fernandes Leite","fullName":"Gabriela Carolina Fernandes Leite","slug":"gabriela-carolina-fernandes-leite"}]},{"id":"59143","title":"Terpenes from Natural Products with Potential Anti-Inflammatory Activity","slug":"terpenes-from-natural-products-with-potential-anti-inflammatory-activity","signatures":"Roberto José Serrano Vega, Nimsi Campos Xolalpa, Angel Josabad Alonso Castro, Cuauhtémoc Pérez González, Julia Pérez Ramos and Salud Pérez Gutiérrez","authors":[{"id":"224593","title":"Dr.","name":"Salud","middleName":null,"surname":"Pérez-Gutiérrez","fullName":"Salud Pérez-Gutiérrez","slug":"salud-perez-gutierrez"},{"id":"287822","title":"Dr.","name":"Roberto José","middleName":null,"surname":"Serrano-Vega","fullName":"Roberto José Serrano-Vega","slug":"roberto-jose-serrano-vega"},{"id":"287823","title":"Dr.","name":"Nimsi","middleName":null,"surname":"Campos-Xolalpa","fullName":"Nimsi Campos-Xolalpa","slug":"nimsi-campos-xolalpa"},{"id":"287824","title":"Dr.","name":"Angel Josabad","middleName":null,"surname":"Alonso Castro","fullName":"Angel Josabad Alonso Castro","slug":"angel-josabad-alonso-castro"},{"id":"287825","title":"Dr.","name":"Cuauhtemoc","middleName":null,"surname":"Pérez-González","fullName":"Cuauhtemoc Pérez-González","slug":"cuauhtemoc-perez-gonzalez"},{"id":"287826","title":"Dr.","name":"Julia","middleName":null,"surname":"Pérez-Ramos","fullName":"Julia Pérez-Ramos","slug":"julia-perez-ramos"}]},{"id":"61289","title":"Recent Developments in Selected Sesquiterpenes: Molecular Rearrangements, Biosynthesis, and Structural Relationship among Congeners","slug":"recent-developments-in-selected-sesquiterpenes-molecular-rearrangements-biosynthesis-and-structural-","signatures":"Shashikumar K. Paknikar and Kamlesh Pai Fondekar","authors":[{"id":"228070","title":"Dr.","name":"Shashikumar","middleName":null,"surname":"Paknikar","fullName":"Shashikumar Paknikar","slug":"shashikumar-paknikar"},{"id":"229458","title":"Dr.","name":"Kamlesh Pai","middleName":null,"surname":"Fondekar","fullName":"Kamlesh Pai Fondekar","slug":"kamlesh-pai-fondekar"}]},{"id":"64312","title":"Diterpenes from Different Fungal Sources and Their 13C-NMR Data","slug":"diterpenes-from-different-fungal-sources-and-their-13c-nmr-data","signatures":"Fozia Farhat, Arneeb Tariq, Annam Zikrea and Riffat Nasim Fatima","authors":[{"id":"250029","title":"Dr.","name":"Fozia","middleName":null,"surname":"Farhat","fullName":"Fozia Farhat","slug":"fozia-farhat"},{"id":"255159","title":"Dr.","name":"Riffat","middleName":null,"surname":"Nasim Fatima","fullName":"Riffat Nasim Fatima","slug":"riffat-nasim-fatima"},{"id":"255449","title":"Ms.","name":"Arneeb","middleName":null,"surname":"Tariq","fullName":"Arneeb Tariq","slug":"arneeb-tariq"},{"id":"255450","title":"Ms.","name":"Annam","middleName":null,"surname":"Zikrea","fullName":"Annam Zikrea","slug":"annam-zikrea"}]}]}],"publishedBooks":[],"publishedBooksByAuthor":[]},"onlineFirst":{"chapter":{"type":"chapter","id":"1176391","title":"Public Management of Risks and Threats in the Conditions of the Martial Law of the European State","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1004455","slug":null,"body":"\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E1. Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003EThe main tasks facing the Ukrainian state today are preserving sovereignty; ensuring economic, resource, civil, and food security; accelerating European and Euro-Atlantic integration; restoring sustainable and dynamic economic development; restoring a decent standard of living and security of citizens; increasing the effectiveness of the state administration system, and regional and local development under martial law. The resolution of these and other issues largely depends on the effective legal regulation of the functioning of the mechanisms and tools of state administration as a whole and its basis – ensuring the management of the development of territories, especially in the sphere of life support.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EIn the conditions of martial law, there is a negative trend of increasing the aggressive influence of an external threat (the war of the Russian Federation against Ukraine) on the system of public administration in Ukraine, in particular, on the effectiveness of the functioning of the organizational and legal mechanisms of resource provision for economic development, which were practically not adapted to the conditions of martial law in the state and needed prompt regulatory settlement and adjustment. This work is carried out by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine 24\u002F7. A list of laws and resolutions are adopted under martial law [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003EWe note that risks and threats to the entire system of management and economic (resource) security in particular emphasize the assessment of vulnerable component mechanisms and tools of the system of public (state and local) management and administration in the conditions of martial law in Ukraine. We believe that these components are significant structural disparities, monopoly and closure of certain industries, obstacles to the development of the military and defense sectors, underestimation of civil protection of the population and territories, unresolved energy and technological dependence of the economy on the Russian Federation, uncontrolled outflow of material and financial resources outside of Ukraine, activity of shadow structures, presence of enemy agents of the Russian Federation, absence of a professional school of public management and administration, and others.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003EIt is clear that, today, the domestic system of public management of national, regional, and local development needs latest approaches to the reality of Russian military aggression on the territory of Ukraine, which in turn actualizes the research, development, and introduction into domestic practice of foreign experience (initiatives) based on modern management approaches in the conditions of martial law, especially with regard to the development of communities in terms of resource livelihoods.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003EWe agree with the opinion of a well-known expert that the Ukrainians managed to defeat and oust the Russians from the territories they have now captured. There are several reasons for this, − writes the American philosopher Francis Fukuyama in his column for \u003Ca href=\"americanpurpose.com\"\u003Eamericanpurpose.com\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, where he analyzes the causes of aggression and the path to the destruction of the Russian Federation. As early as March 10, 2022, F. Fukuyama published the article “Preparation for Defeat,” in which he claims that Russia may be moving toward complete defeat in its war in Ukraine. At the time, the material attracted considerable attention in the world, and many people decided that the author was very optimistic. Most of this prediction was confirmed today. In fact, the Russians were defeated in their attempts to conquer Kyiv and retreated from northern Ukraine in the beginning of April.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003EToday, in the socio-economic literature, there is no single system of classification of risks and threats of managerial activity, but on the contrary, there are many approaches that, for the most part, determine only the purpose and individual tasks of management. Taking into account the shortcomings of the already developed classifications of risks, as well as analyzing the peculiarities of the methodology of developing classifications, we consider it necessary to carry out an analysis of the system of public management of risks and threats in the conditions of martial law in Ukraine.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Public administration: theory and risks of use\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p8\"\u003EThe field of science-public management is formed from a set of economic, legal phenomena and social relations in society, which characterize the sphere of interaction between the state and man (society) as an object of management and self-management at the local level.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p9\"\u003EThe main thing that makes up the content of public administration is the most important functions of the state as an institution of public administration, the interaction of regularities (laws) and the principles of their implementation, scientific justification of the need for state policies as the basis of management, and implementation of local self-government. Functional analysis of the state’s management activities, the organization of government bodies as a political and legal institution of the managing society, and the corresponding organizational, legal, and social anti-crisis relations formed at all management levels, is a subject of public management, in particular, in the conditions of martial law in the state.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003EIn general, management is goal setting (conscious, foreseen, and thought out), organization and regulation of human interaction related to one’s own social, collective, and group life activities, which is carried out both directly (in forms of self-management) and through specially created institutions (institutes).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003EModern public administration relies on state power and is supported and ensured by it in terms of achieving goals and anti-crisis development of the entire economic system. Public management extends to the entire society in the direction of state restrictions on activity (management) and local development, in particular during martial law and the subsequent restoration of territories. It is the state through legislative activity that establishes basic, general, and typical rules (norms) of people’s behavior. This is especially important in the conditions of martial law.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p12\"\u003EThe state provides public management with regulation mechanisms and tools. Unlike other types of management, public management cannot become real without a system and mechanisms for implementing specific policies. We believe that public administration differs from state administration in that it uses all the possibilities of the rule of law, thanks to the use of existing mechanisms, laws, and control of society over all bodies of state power and effective local self-government.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003EManagement as a specific phenomenon begins when there is a conscious public principle, interest and knowledge, goals and will, energy and human activity in any interconnections, relationships, and .processes.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003EPublic administration is formed by people for conscious self-regulation of their life activities and has the same importance for ensuring their needs and interests as family and property, morality and law, production method and the state, knowledge and information, and so on. All these determine the dependence of management on the state of society, ideals, and values.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003EAt different historical moments, management is reproduced by the corresponding society, “takes” its essence from it, realizes its capabilities, and is characterized and developed according to the level of its development.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p16\"\u003EPublic administration is one of the most complex and responsible spheres of intellectual and practical activity of people and society. This is an area on which the well-being of the country and, ultimately, the fate of every person depends to a large extent. In management, everything comes from the person and is oriented toward him [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003EThat is why, public administration in society arose, which is always relevant, as society is an open system because nothing in it is given once and for all, is not unchanging, and absolutely stable. Personal and social relationships are reproduced daily. Without it, chaos, anarchy, and decay ensue. In conditions of openness, management serves as the most important social institution of self-preservation and self-renewal.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003EWe believe that it is not entirely correct to define management as an action or only influence in society. Its more adequate concept is the category of “relationships,” which defines the main thing in management because it influences the consciousness, behavior, activity of people, and their mutual relations.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. A new stage in the formation of anti-war state administration\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p19\"\u003EThe martial state of our country’s development is complicated by the objective necessity of the urgent implementation of a set of urgent measures in all spheres of Ukrainian society, in particular, state (state and local self-government) administration. Today, the dominant role is occupied by the task of scientific substantiation of the functioning (adaptation) of the integral system of state administration in the conditions of martial law, and its priority is the system of personnel life support.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003EResearch positions of scientists regarding the theoretical understanding of “public administration” have different interpretations and completely polar views. Some authors interpret public management as the influence of a separate subject of management, endowed with public power, on a certain object for the purpose of any results of social relations. Others, such as rule-making, administrative, economic-control, organizational-legal, and other activities, are carried out on the basis of developed regulations, rules, and procedures. The third is how to manage a specific situation together with relationship partners.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003ELet us consider the evolution of state administration with the traditional separation of separate periods of time (stages), which specify the mechanisms and tools of a specific model of administration that is used in this period in the state.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003EStage 1 (from 1880 to 1920) is the initial study of state management.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003EThe time of the initial stage 1, the study of public administration itself, was 40 years. Famous researchers of this stage are V. Wilson, M. Weber, A. Fayol, and others. The essence of public administration as a separate scientific direction was first investigated by V. Wilson. His scientific research proved that there are differences between other sciences, including political science, law, and the science of public administration. Thus, V. Wilson noted that the purpose of this science is the study of specific activities and directions of influence of the authorities, as well as managerial actions to carry out this work with minimal costs and as efficiently as possible. His research was aimed at identifying and analyzing the principles of public administration. He attributed to them the separation of political and management issues, comparative analysis of business and policy structures, research of the civil service, and improvement of its efficiency by using the experience of managing business structures in the work of state bodies.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003EThe functioning of all public administration systems is carried out in such a way that every civil servant who is empowered and has a certain competence and responsibility, regardless of whether he is a high-ranking manager or a junior specialist in the ministry, has the power of decision and establishes the universal, public focus of this management decision. Therefore, the decision made on the spot should remain the main and predominant tool in the field of management, which combines the political and managerial vector of the development of social relations in the state. In our opinion, it is important that such relations are the object of state administration and reveal their social significance. Our analysis of the first stage of the development of public administration proved that it is based on a comparative analysis of the contradiction “politics\u002Fmanagement,” and research in this area made it possible to reveal the interdependence of the development of politics and management.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003EStage 2 took place (from 1920 to 1950) the theory of management at the microlevel or individual economic entity. Economic relations in the space of contacts of private and public economic sectors were investigated. This stage took place at the level of 30 years. R. Simon, D. Waldo, M. Follet, E. Mayo, A. Maslow, and others became prominent representatives of this period.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p26\"\u003EAt this stage, an interesting school of “human relations” developed. M. Follet, E. Mayo, and A. Maslow became the main researchers in this direction. The researchers focused their own research on the behavior of individuals and their activities in the organization.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003EAt this stage, a general theory of management was formulated, which exists within the framework of the interaction of the private and public sectors, in particular, the principles of enterprise management, which have significant differences from state management, were studied.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003EStage 3 (from 1950 to 1990) is a study of state policies and necessary management in a separate sphere of social relations. At this stage of the development of the theory of public administration, the works of P. Aucoin, F. Thompson, D. Truman, K. Hood, and others are of greatest interest. We believe that the researchers used effective directions, methods, and tools that were borrowed from the nonstate sector of the economy (real competition, hiring and contract systems, approaches to making the management decision itself, and the formation and implementation of state policies by increasing the efficiency of free decision-making). Mechanisms of adaptive ability to respond to a constantly changing environment, formation of orientation to developing strategy and policy, etc., were also investigated.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003EDuring this period, the concept of “new public management” was formed in the 1980s and was realized by a combination of market management mechanisms and management ideas and technologies of business entities of the private sector of the economy. According to this concept, executive authorities are perceived as economic entities that achieve results and provide management services to the population.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003EAlso, the analysis of stage 3 proved that there was a real vector and separate tendencies to research the essence of modern public administration using socio-psychological and behavioral approaches, as well as the use of market laws and principles in the system and mechanisms of public administration.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p31\"\u003EStage 4 (from 1990 to 2000) is the direction of “renewed management.” For 10 years, the research stage of public administration continued. The following scientists and practitioners were engaged in this: T. Gebler, D. Osborn, P. Plastrik and others. Scientists studied state administration itself from the point of view of the effective conditions of business entities.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p32\"\u003EIt is important that such an “economic approach” to the functioning of the management system in the state involves the use of market laws for the effective functioning of bureaucratic structures in order to increase the efficiency of their work and achieve the best indicators in the ratio of costs and results of activities in the field of public administration.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p33\"\u003EThe study of this stage of the formation of public administration finds ways of fundamental changes in the understanding of the goals of public administration and the transition from minimum requirements to the maximum result of the activity of the state administration system, which, in addition to solving the main tasks, provides for the performance of many additional functions, particularly aimed at improving the quality of human life.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p34\"\u003EStage 5 (from 2000 to 2022) is the direction of “increasing the effectiveness of public administration.” The beginning of the XXI century laid the foundation for research in the field of public administration, which continued until the beginning of the Russian-Ukrainian war in Europe. Representatives of this direction were R. Brittany, M. Kartel, L. Jacobson, and others. We believe that, in this period, directions and mechanisms for improving the efficiency of public authorities and the quality of administrative services provided by the state are being investigated in the context of the development of democracy and society, which receive priority and special social significance. During this stage, there were studies of modern communication, which mainly characterized the interaction between representatives of state and private structures. In this regard, such research contributed to the adoption of socially significant decisions and made it possible to implement the functions of reforming the public administration system based on European management practice.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p35\"\u003EWithin this stage, the concept of efficiency is often used in connection with the concepts of effectiveness, productivity, and efficiency of functioning. As for public administration, efficiency is usually associated with the achievement of the goals of public authority, the completeness and quality of the state’s performance of its main functions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p36\"\u003EIn addition, here is stage 6 (from February 24, 2022, to the present) which the direction of anti-crisis or military public administration and testing of the system under the conditions of martial law in Ukraine. The beginning of 2022 is marked by the beginning of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and the beginning of a war in the center of Europe. Perhaps, this stage is still in its infancy, but it is important from the point of view of public administration in the sphere of protecting sovereignty and democratic values around the world [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p37\"\u003EThus, the analysis of the modern stage of public administration research showed the relevance of the formation of a new concept of public administration, which is based on the public and especially the anti-war character of government in the state.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Economic security of the state, stimulation, and support of public administration\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p38\"\u003EThe main tasks facing the Ukrainian state today are preserving sovereignty; ensuring economic, resource, civil, and food security; accelerating European and Euro-Atlantic integration; restoring sustainable and dynamic economic development; restoring a decent standard of living and security of citizens; and increasing the effectiveness of the public administration system (state, regional, and local) under martial law. The resolution of these and other issues largely depends on the effective legal regulation of the functioning of the mechanisms and tools of public administration as a whole and its basis – ensuring the management of the development of territories, especially in the sphere of life support.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p39\"\u003EIn the conditions of martial law, there is a negative trend of increasing the aggressive influence of an external threat (the war of the Russian Federation against Ukraine) on the system of public administration in Ukraine, in particular, on the effectiveness of the functioning of the organizational and legal mechanisms of resource provision for economic development, which were practically not adapted to the conditions of martial law in the state and needed prompt regulatory settlement and adjustment. This work is carried out by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine 24\u002F7.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p40\"\u003EIt should be noted that risks and threats to the entire management system emphasize the assessment of vulnerable component mechanisms and tools of the system of public management and administration under the conditions of martial law in Ukraine. We believe that these components are significant structural disparities, monopoly and closure of certain industries, obstacles to the development of the military and defense sectors, underestimation of civil protection of the population and territories, unresolved energy and technological dependence of the economy on the Russian Federation, uncontrolled outflow of material and financial resources outside of Ukraine, the activity of shadow structures, the presence of enemy agents of the Russian Federation, the absence of a professional school of public management and administration, and others.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p41\"\u003EIt is clear that, today, the domestic system of public management of national, regional, and local development needs the latest approaches to the reality of Russian military aggression on the territory of Ukraine, which in turn actualizes the research, development, and introduction into domestic practice of foreign experience (initiatives) based on modern management approaches in the conditions of martial law.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p42\"\u003ERussia’s military aggression against Ukraine is unprecedented in terms of duration, scale, and devastating economic consequences. The Iran-Iraq war of the 1980s lasted almost 8 years and cost the Iraqi economy $452.6 billion (seven GDPs of the country at that time). Russia’s five-day military aggression against Georgia in 2008 cost the latter about 23% of GDP (2 billion euros). Japan lost a quarter of its national wealth and a third of its production capacity in World War II [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p43\"\u003EAccording to preliminary estimates by experts, the economy of Ukraine lost up to 50% of the production capacities of enterprises in strategic industries, most of which were located in the east of Ukraine. The result of active hostilities was the disruption of both external and internal economic relations, the destruction of the country’s housing stock, the destruction of production, social, and service infrastructure, and the blocking of seaports and other logistics channels. More than 80% of Ukrainian enterprises have reduced or stopped their activities. The fall in economic activity caused a reduction in tax revenues to the budget, limiting the government’s ability to implement independent recovery policies.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p44\"\u003EAccording to the estimates of the Ministry of Economy of Ukraine, the gross domestic product of our country will decrease by 30.4% in 2022, which, although it is the largest drop in the recent history of Ukraine, is significantly less than the forecast level of international financial organizations (45–50%).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p45\"\u003ECritical to the country’s further recovery and development are humanitarian risks associated with the loss of human capital and redistribution of labor within the country and loss of household income and livelihoods. According to United Nations estimates, as of January 17, 2023, the number of Ukrainian refugees registered for temporary protection in European countries reached 4.9 million people, of whom only a third expressed hope to return.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p46\"\u003EAs the beginning of the full-scale Russian invasion, almost 4.8 million internally displaced persons have been officially registered in Ukraine, the increase of this socially vulnerable category of citizens causes significant pressure on the system of administration of public services.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p47\"\u003EUnemployment in the country increased sharply (from 9.9 to 30% according to the ILO methodology), adding to the imbalance of regional labor markets.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p48\"\u003EThe Ukrainian state was able to avoid the most negative and pessimistic scenarios not only thanks to the unprecedented support of partner countries, which, according to the estimates of the National Bank of Ukraine, reached 120 billion dollars in 2022, of which 28 billion dollars was directed to finance the needs of the budget of Ukraine, but also due to the capacity of the public administration system, the stability of the institutions built over the years of systemic reforms.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p49\"\u003EThere are the following systemic factors that ensured the effective functioning of public administration mechanisms and tools during the war:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p50\"\u003EDeveloped economic system – entrepreneurial initiative, resource-based and network interaction, and lack of hierarchical centralized management of processes of redistribution of public resources made it possible to respond promptly to the challenges of wartime.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p51\"\u003EDeveloped communications – a flexible system of transport, trade, information, and telecommunications ties preserved the “connectivity” of the country, mitigated the humanitarian crisis, and facilitated the coordination of actions of state and public institutions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p52\"\u003EDecentralization of public power – the broad powers of competent communities provided an opportunity to strengthen the defense capacity of the state.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p53\"\u003EA developed civil society – the volunteer movement and a high level of self-organization of society became the basis of the stability of basic social systems.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p54\"\u003EHigh level of openness of public administration – economic, political, and civil communications with foreign partners established in previous years made it possible to quickly attract help from the international community in financial (grants and loans), economic (material aid), humanitarian (humanitarian goods, programs support of refugees, and treatment of servicemen), and military (provision of weapons, ammunition, ammunition, and training of servicemen) spheres.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p55\"\u003EDigitalization – the level of digitalization of the spheres of state administration achieved before the start of the full-scale war enabled the effectiveness of public authorities and the performance of duties vital for the functioning of the country.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p56\"\u003EThe institutional nature of such factors makes it possible to consider them as characteristic features of the public administration system that has developed in Ukraine as a result of the entire previous period of social changes. In particular, due to Russia’s full-scale military aggression in Ukraine, the International Monetary Fund has worsened the forecast for the growth of the world economy. The IMF expects the world economy to grow by 3.6% in 2022 and 2023. This is a sharp slowdown compared to 6.1% growth in 2021.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p57\"\u003EIt should be noted that the macroeconomic trends of the state’s development (2024–2030), which are in the forecasts of the Ukrainian government and international financial organizations are still not very positive. The probability of Ukraine’s victory in the war against Russia is the end of 2024 - the beginning of 2025 [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p58\"\u003EThe Ukrainian economy reached the bottom of its decline in April–May 2022, and since then, despite any intensity of shelling of its territory, it has shown a slow but stable trend of recovery of the main macroeconomic indicators. Thus, Ukraine’s GDP in US dollars, which fell from $200 to $158 billion in the first year of the war, will rise to $170 billion in the second year, which will be the starting point for dynamic recovery. Investment, employment, savings, foreign and domestic trade show identical dynamics, improving steadily since summer 2022, despite ongoing large-scale hostilities. And we, as before, observe this improvement in 2023 as well. Absolutely all macroeconomic indicators show that Ukraine has already passed the bottom of its economic crisis related to the war.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p59\"\u003EAt a conference in the Swiss city of Lugano, Ukraine announced the necessary amount of investment for recovery and received a positive response from representatives of the USA, the EU, and international financial organizations regarding potential sources of funding. This amount is ~$750 billion, of which ~200–300 billion is planned to be raised through partnership grants and borrowings in 2023–2025, and in 2026–2032, another $50 billion in 2024–2025 and $200 billion are expected in the form of private investments. In the first 3 years after the end of the war, partner aid is mainly expected, and in 2026–2032, on the contrary, the focus shifts to private investments. Briefly summarizing all the factors listed above, he considers a highly probable scenario in which Ukraine will “catch up” with its pre-war economic development trajectory by 2030. At the same time, the country will maintain double-digit growth figures for the next eight post-war years. By 2030, the indicative GDP figures are expected to be $440 billion, and the average salary is $1150.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Directions of ensuring management in the field of human life risks\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p60\"\u003EAccidents, catastrophes, which are accompanied by deaths, injuries, shortening of life expectancy, and damage to health and the natural environment are the consequences of the manifestation of hazards, in particular, the management system. There is always the problem of assessing these consequences. The quantification of damages caused by the danger depends on many factors, for example, the number of people who were in the danger zone, the amount, and quality of material values that were there, natural resources, etc.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p61\"\u003EEach type of damage has its own quantitative expression. For example, the number of dead, wounded or sick, the area of the infected territory, the area of the forest that burned, the value of the destroyed buildings, etc.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p62\"\u003EThe first quantitative method of determining damage is value-based, that is, determining damage in monetary terms. The second, universal, most widespread assessment of danger is risk. It can also be called a factor of potential danger. The concept of “risk” is “perceived possibility of danger.” Obviously, the definition “perceived probability of danger” should also be considered more accurate.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p63\"\u003ERisk is a quantitative assessment of danger. It is the ratio of the number of certain undesirable realized consequences (n) to the maximum possible number of them (N1) for a specific period of time: R = n\u002FN, that is, it is the frequency of realization of dangers. It is a companion of any human activity.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p64\"\u003EThe above formula allows you to calculate the dimensions of an individual, group, and general risk. When assessing the general risk, the value N determines the maximum number of all events, and when assessing the group risk, the maximum number of events in a specific social group was selected from the total number based on a certain characteristic. The group can include people belonging to the same profession, age, and gender; the group can consist of one class of economic activity subjects [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p65\"\u003EAccording to the degree of admissibility for society, the risk is neglected, acceptable, marginally permissible, and excessive. Negligible risk has such a small level that it is within the permissible deviations of the natural level. Acceptable is the level of risk that the public can calmly accept, taking into account the technical, economic and social possibilities at this stage of the development of civilization. The maximum acceptable risk is the largest risk that cannot be exceeded, regardless of the expected result. Excessive risk is characterized by an extremely high level, which in the vast majority of cases leads to negative consequences.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p66\"\u003EToday, it is practically impossible to achieve a zero level of risk, that is, absolute safety. Absolute security cannot be guaranteed to any person regardless of their lifestyle and social status. We live because we avoid danger every day.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p67\"\u003EThe demand for absolute security, attractive for its humanity, can turn into a tragedy for people. At this stage of society’s development, the neglected risk is also impossible to achieve given the technical and economic prerequisites for this. Therefore, the modern concept of life safety is based on achieving an acceptable risk. The essence of the idea of the concept of “tolerable risk” is to try to create such a low level of risk that society perceives at the moment. Tolerable risk combines technical, economic, social, and political aspects and is a certain compromise between the level of security and the possibilities of its achievement.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p68\"\u003EThe analysis of scientists’ approaches to the definition of the concept of “risk” allows us to form signs by which its meaning is perceived. According to the first sign – possibility and probability of loss of resources – risk is characterized by possible success or loss of part of resources, losses, and lack of income in alternative developments of certain management actions. That is, in this aspect, risk is considered the result of an action and its consequence, which is determined by the influence of uncertainty factors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p69\"\u003EJ.M. Keynes generally interprets risk as a part of the value associated with possible losses caused by an unforeseen change in market prices, excessive operation of equipment, or destructive consequences of disasters.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p70\"\u003EIn our opinion, risk is an objective characteristic of activity that accompanies any management decisions in conditions of uncertainty and is measured by the probability of not obtaining the expected results. That is, the results of risky decisions cannot be equated with a threat or danger, the action of which causes the deterioration of the system. Favorable conditions make it possible to obtain a result, to achieve the set goals, and only with a negative coincidence of circumstances, an undesirable result is possible.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p71\"\u003EAs for the study of the content of the concepts of “threat” and “danger,” the scientific literature allows us to come to a conclusion about the lack of clear definition of these concepts. “Danger” and “threat” are identified by some scientists; some define danger as a form of threat, and others define a threat as a stage or form of danger A number of researchers emphasize the consequences of threats and dangers, defining them as the action of factors, phenomena, events that cause an undesirable state of the enterprise, losses, damage, and so on.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p72\"\u003ESo, from the author’s point of view, a threat is a cause, phenomenon, event, or condition that can prevent the achievement of management goals and objectives. The situation becomes dangerous when the threat takes real forms of manifestation. That is, danger is a concrete form of manifestation of a threat, the destructive influence of which is fully realized and indisputable.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p73\"\u003EReturning to the results of the research on the content of risk, it is necessary to note its role in determining threats and dangers in the field of public administration.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p74\"\u003EComparing the above concepts of risk and threat, it is possible to note that they are closely related. If a threat is a probable possibility of an obstacle to the goals and tasks of public administration, then the risk measures, evaluates this threat, and gives an idea about the mathematical expression of the probability of the occurrence of such obstacles.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p75\"\u003EGiven that risk accompanies any management activity, threats are also an invariable attribute of the entire management system in the state. The degree of threat and its transition into a form of danger for management, in our opinion, is characterized by the level of risk, which, in turn, is determined by the probability of occurrence and the impact on management activities. That is, at an acceptable level of risk, the negative influence of external and internal environmental factors is considered a threat to activity, and when a critical level of risk is reached, the threat takes the form of danger.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p76\"\u003ENote that there is a direct dependence of the level of risk on the probability of negative events and the impact on management activities, but for each type of risk (each negative change in factors of the external and internal environment), the trajectory of the level of risk will have an individual form, which must be determined on the basis of mathematical modeling.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p77\"\u003EThus, risks and threats in the field of public administration are of a constant nature with different levels, and the danger arises only when this level of critical importance is reached.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p78\"\u003EThe variety of threats in the activity of a modern enterprise determines the need to systematize them according to certain key features, which will make it possible to timely diagnose them, assess them, and apply measures to overcome them or adapt to their impact.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p79\"\u003EThe study of the essence of threats, their differences, and common features with risks and dangers, the proposed classification of threats, and their detailed description makes it possible to form a basis for diagnosing negative impacts from the stage of occurrence to overcoming. The system of tracking and assessing the characteristic signs of threats, their dynamics, and composition, is a necessary task of the management: a continuous process of identifying early signs of threats allows timely response to negative trends, preventing the spread of their impact on the companys activities or, in the absence of the possibility of prevention, “mitigating” their negative effect.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p80\"\u003EAs for the content of the concepts “risk,” “threat,” and “danger,” certain differences in their understanding can be distinguished: risk is an objective characteristic of the enterprise’s activity, which accompanies any management decisions in conditions of uncertainty and is measured by the probability of not obtaining the expected results; threat causes, phenomena, events, and conditions that can prevent the achievement of goals and objectives of economic entities; danger is a specific form of manifestation of a threat, the destructive effect of which on the activity of the enterprise is fully realized and indisputable.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p81\"\u003EThreats and risks are indispensable attributes of management activity. The danger arises when the level of risk of critical importance of the entire system of public management and regulation in the state is reached.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p82\"\u003EOur conducted research allows us to state that risk in the field of public administration is a rather broad concept, a specific subject of scientific research that has its own status. In order to give a reasonable definition, it is necessary to find out what, in fact, is a risk in the field of public relations in public administration.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p83\"\u003EWe believe that the objectivity of risk in the field of public administration is that it exists as a result of objectivity, inherent in management categories of conflict, uncertainty, vagueness, lack of comprehensive information at the time of assessment, and making certain management decisions. In turn, it is possible to distinguish and take into account several types of uncertainty and the socio-economic risk caused by it: (1) uncertainty of goals and criteria and, therefore, the need to take into account multicriteria in the processes of evaluation, management, decision-making; (2) lack of data, in particular quantitative data, which are necessary at the time of decision-making to calculate quantitative estimates of relevant indicators; (3) lack of time to make scientifically based decisions; (4) uncertainty of the actions of counterparties and competitors; (5) the ambiguity of estimates of forecasts of the development of the controlled object and the socio-economic environment.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p84\"\u003EThe subjectivity of risk is caused by the fact that real people with their own experience, psychology, interests, tastes, manner of behavior, propensity or aversion to risk, etc., are involved in public activities. Thus, the objective-subjective nature of risk is determined by the fact that it is generated by processes of both subjective and objective nature, that is, those whose existence does not depend on the will and consciousness of people. As a subject of scientific research, the category “risk” should have its own object, subject, and sources of origin. The analysis of scientific literature devoted to the theoretical aspects of risk research made it possible to generalize the definition of such concepts. The object of risk can be understood as a public system and administration, and it is impossible to evaluate the effectiveness and conditions of its functioning in the future in exhaustive completeness and with necessary accuracy. A risk subject can be understood as a person or a team that is interested in the results of risk object management and has the appropriate competence to manage and make relevant decisions regarding the risk object. Under the sources of the origin of risk are meant factors, processes, and phenomena that cause uncertainty and conflict.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p85\"\u003EThe study of the practical activities of subjects of public management activity gives reasons to claim that the main sources of the origin of risks include the following: (1) spontaneity of natural processes and phenomena, natural disasters; (2) randomness; (3) clash of conflicting interests; (4) uncertainty; (5) incompleteness, insufficient information about the object, process, phenomenon to which the management decision relates; (6) limitation, insufficiency of material, financial, labor, and other resources needed for making and implementing management decisions; (7) the impossibility of unambiguous knowledge of the object at the existing levels and methods of scientific knowledge; (8) inevitable differences in mechanisms and tools, intentions, assessments, stereotypes, behavior, and so on [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p86\"\u003EIt is advisable to consider the risk in both historical and managerial aspects. As a historical category, risk is a possible danger perceived by a person, as risk is historically connected with the entire course of social development. As society develops, namely, with the emergence of commodity-money relations, risk becomes a category of economics and management. In the event of a risk, subjects of economic activity can receive three types of economic results: negative (loss), zero (neutral), and positive (profit). It should be noted that risk, like any economic category, manifests itself through functions. In particular, the economic literature distinguishes such risk functions as innovative, regulatory (constructive and destructive), compensatory (stabilizing), precautionary, control, and so on.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p87\"\u003EProbably, that is why, there is no single system of classification of management risks in the literature on public administration, but on the contrary, there are many approaches, which, for the most part, are determined by the purpose and tasks of the activity.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p88\"\u003EHaving analyzed such a structural characteristic as the nature of accounting, we can claim that risks are divided into external and internal. External risks are understood to be risks that are not directly related to the public activities of the governing bodies of an individual country and the country as a whole.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p89\"\u003EIn turn, in the structure of external risks, the following subtypes can be distinguished, namely, risks of the management system in the country – risks associated with the internationalization of the economies of countries, which can lead to the instability of state power, the state system and legislation, ineffective public policy, sharp polarization of the interests of various social groups of the country, etc.; force majeure – risks associated with war, floods, earthquakes, storms and other natural disasters, revolutions, coups, strikes, etc., which interfere with the effectiveness of public administration; transfer – risks associated with the impossibility of transferring funds to the creditor’s country due to currency restrictions in the borrower’s country; tax – risks associated with a possible reduction in budget revenues as a result of a change in tax policy or the size of tax rates in individual countries.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p90\"\u003EInternal risks are understood as the risks that arise as a result of the activities of the national governing bodies of a certain country and the country as a whole. Analyzing management activity, it is possible to distinguish subtypes of internal risks, namely, resource risks, caused by the lack of a margin of safety in relation to resources in the event of a change in the situation, which leads to a deficit in the state’s economic system; organizational – risks caused by deficiencies in work organization, which include errors in planning and design, deficiencies in work coordination, weak regulation, incorrect supply strategy, errors in the selection and placement of personnel, disorganized marketing activities, and unstable financial position; and social – risks caused by the assessment of loyalty risks, that is, the attitude to work, the quality of the workforce, etc. Also, the most important group, in our opinion, are the risks of public management, which are grouped by such a classification feature as the nature of the consequences of using mechanisms and tools in the field of management.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p91\"\u003EWe note that the risk of public management is a category that characterizes relations between management subjects regarding their perception of objectively existing uncertainties and conflicts in management, decision-making, and evaluation, which are complicated by possible threats and unused opportunities. As for the classification of risks in public activity, according to the results of the research, in accordance with the practical and methodological tasks of determining their types, it is possible to predict the existence of a classification of risks based on the following characteristics: (1) time of occurrence; (2) nature of accounting; and (3) the nature of the consequences.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p92\"\u003EThe classification of risk management mechanisms in public activity involves the allocation of two groups of such groups: (1) traditional, which in turn, is divided into contractual and classical-calculated ones and (2) unconventional, divided into regulatory (financial and economic) and institutional mechanisms. Therefore, public administration encourages the emancipation of the creative activity of the individual and synergy of the activity of the community and society. The development of the conceptual and categorical apparatus and conceptual ideas of public administration is the basis for the identification of risk patterns, which is a component of the modern theory of public administration.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E6. Conclusions and prospects for further research\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p93\"\u003EThe analysis and research carried out in the article allow us to draw the following conclusions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p94\"\u003EUnder the conditions of martial law in Ukraine and updating the processes of public management of measures of emergency situations, risks and threats are carried out taking into account a clear algorithm and comprehensively from a legal point of view. Mostly, such management and regulation are ensured and concentrated in the fields of administrative, environmental, and labor law.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p95\"\u003EWe consider it a task of the scientific field of public administration, and it is necessary to carry out a thorough analysis and monitoring of modern features of the legal evolution of domestic legislation in relation to the public sphere in the conditions of martial law.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p96\"\u003EIt should be noted that, in the process of solving the problem of maintaining and ensuring the safety of social relations and citizens from an organizational and legal point of view, the leading countries of the world gradually improved their own legislation regarding emergency (military) situations – from the development and adoption of legislation regulating actions in the conditions of the occurrence and development of specific cases of danger before the adoption of separate laws regulating general conceptual actions during the war.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p97\"\u003EIn recent years, many events and meetings have been held in Ukraine aimed at improving the ideology (concept) of public administration in emergency situations, but it was quite difficult to foresee an open war on the territory of Ukraine with the Russian Federation. Such measures were conditioned by the fact that the issues of safety and protection of the population, as well as economic and cultural objects from the occurrence and development of emergency situations, risks, and threats, were almost not perceived as a component of state security, with the recognition of the priority of the protection of the population and territories from various threats, which may arise during the long-term development of the entire system in the state, in contrast to solving the problems of defense, which is focused specifically on wartime. Thus, at the current military stage of the development of Ukraine’s economy, a search is being made for a rational management model for providing protection, taking into account the effective and functional principle of response on the part of the state in the conditions of the occurrence and development of emergency situations, instead of using the usual industry principle, which was previously used in the public administration system.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p98\"\u003EIt should be noted that the modern formation of the public administration system in the conditions of martial law in Ukraine is accompanied by the presence of a significant number of conflicts of legislation focused on the regulation of emergency situations, as well as the actual functioning of the system of forecasting, prevention, detection, and neutralization of emergency situations at the state level, particularly in the direction of the use of anti-crisis mechanisms and tools of public administration in the state.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p99\"\u003EThe public administration system of Ukraine is doomed to function for a long time under constant pressure caused by the aggressive policy of the Russian Federation, which increases and diversifies the levers of destructive influence on economic development in Ukraine. The long-term nature of the threats generated by the aggressive course of the Russian Federation makes it impossible to build good-neighborly bilateral relations.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p100\"\u003EWe note that, in such a situation, it is necessary to provide favorable conditions for the development of the economy after martial law on a resource basis, to provide a favorable environment for investment and entrepreneurship, a stable basis for financial stability, effective tools for the state to implement its social functions under conditions of permanently high risks of external military threats, and unpredictable hybrid impacts of various types and levels. The relevant policy should focus on overcoming the key obstacles to the country’s strategically oriented development caused by the consequences of the Russian military aggression.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p101\"\u003EPublic policy priorities should be (1) development of the potential of the real sector of the economy, overcoming export and import dependence on the Russian Federation; (2) implementation of structural transformation of old industrial regions with modernization of traditional sectors of the economy to restore (within economic expediency) their competitiveness on world markets; (3) implementation of the European industrial policy toolkit, strengthening of Ukraine’s subjectivity as a partner of the EU; (4) increasing directions of implementation of the integration of the Ukrainian transport system into European and international projects; (5) a sharp decrease in the level of dependence on trade with the Russian Federation in goods and services in strategic and strategic areas of the national economy; (6) closure of Russian markets; (7) improvement and renewal of the Association Agreement with the EU, particularly in the field of Ukraine’s integration into the EU’s single energy market; (8) the introduction of real tax benefits for the transformation of small mining towns, provided for by the Law of Ukraine “On Amendments to the Tax Code of Ukraine and other legislative acts of Ukraine on ensuring the balance of budget revenues” dated November 30, 2021, no. 1914-IX; (9) reforming management mechanisms and tools to ensure the national interests of Ukraine and prevent economic and civil security risks; (10) formation of a system of information collection and processing and formation of a modern database on temporarily occupied territories; (11) accumulation of information about the actions of the Russian Federation regarding the undermining of the sovereignty of Ukraine in the economic and other spheres, development of compensation mechanisms for losses; and (12) institutional improvement of sanctions policy, particularly, its legislative support, elimination of identified shortcomings in this area with the aim of improving the interaction between state bodies and civil society, creating favorable conditions for effective response to existing and potential threats to the national security of Ukraine.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p102\"\u003EIn the context of the analysis of post-war development priorities, intermunicipal and inter-regional cooperation can be considered as a powerful resource tool, which should solve the triple task of the national level: to promote the reintegration and consolidation of the country, to ensure the infrastructural integrity of the country, capitalization, mobilization, and optimization of the use of regional resources as the main source of economic reproduction of Ukraine.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p103\"\u003EThus, the analysis of the current state, risks, and threats of the public administration system in relation to issues of improvement of anti-crisis mechanisms gives grounds for the conclusion that an imperfect system of legal regulation is currently operating in Ukraine, a sufficiently formal and categorical principle is dominant in accordance with the legislative norms of the pre-war state. While the regulatory system itself has a very complex structure and practically does not meet the military needs of the state. Therefore, the complexity of the object of legal regulation and the variety of problems create certain risks and threats, complications in the adjustment of legal norms in wartime. As a result, there are disagreements in different laws on the same issue, which complicates the possibility of their direct application in the field of resource provision during martial law and the period of further reproduction. A lot is being done today in this direction, and the experts of the Institute of Legislation are actively participating and providing proposals for amendments to the legislation in the conditions of martial law.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p104\"\u003EIn our opinion and the opinion of experts-scientists, the rule-making work in this area still has reserves and is still proceeding by solving individual issues, without the necessary degree of generalization, which leads to contradictory trends in the process of legal regulation of public management and administration issues in the conditions of martial law in Ukraine. The sustainability of relations in this area is made impossible by the numerous changes that were constantly made to the current laws and other normative legal acts and by the lack of adaptation to the martial law. This leads to the need for a thorough study (monitoring) of the problems of legal regulation of public management and administration issues, in particular, issues related to the organization of the implementation of their functions by the relevant bodies, particularly ensuring the process of formation and use of all anti-crisis potential in the conditions of martial law and the subsequent recovery of the economy of Ukraine after the Victory over Russia.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_7\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003EAdditional information\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p105\"\u003EORCID 0000-0002-4545-612X.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"public administration,regional administration,risk,security,resource support for development,mechanisms of state administration,martial law","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000010JzAPQA0\u002Fa093Y00001d3FAvQAM\u002FFinal-Public%20management%20of%20risks%20and%20threats%20under%20marti%20%282024-03-07%2000%3A36%3A57%29.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000010JzAPQA0\u002Fa093Y00001d3FAvQAM\u002FFinal%20%28xml%29-Public%20management%20of%20risks%20and%20threats%20under%20marti%20%282024-03-07%2001%3A40%3A30%29.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F1176391\u002F1730290134-1851967550\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F1176391","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F1176391","cdnMediaBaseUrl":null,"totalDownloads":37,"totalViews":0,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"dateSubmitted":"January 25th 2024","dateReviewed":"January 25th 2024","datePrePublished":"March 7th 2024","datePublished":null,"dateFinished":null,"readingETA":"0","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EThe article substantiates the approaches to solving the actual scientific problem of the theory and practice of public administration – the peculiarities of public (state and local) administration in the conditions of security violations and martial law on the territory of the country. Such an analysis was carried out on the basis of a clear definition of the place and role of the anti-crisis management system in the balance of social relations in the public sphere and the development of mechanisms for coordinating the actions of management subjects. The content of the main concepts of the anti-crisis public management is defined. The methodology of the stages of development of public administration has been developed, which is aimed at a meaningful classification – the expediency of using the mechanisms and tools of anti-crisis management as a means of achieving the goal in the conditions of martial law and post-war recovery of the European state. The essence of individual mechanisms and tools for ensuring management in the field of risks to human life is revealed. The information scheme of the functioning of the institutional mechanism of anti-crisis management in the conditions of martial law in a separate European state has been developed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F1176391","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F1176391","signatures":"Valerii Ye Vorotin","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"1003540","type":"book","title":"The Future of Risk Management","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"The Future of Risk Management","slug":null,"isPublished":false,"publishedDate":null,"bookSignature":"Dr. Larisa Ivascu, Dr. Marius Pislaru and Dr. Lidia Alexa","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000010JzAPQA0\u002F0015444_TrikoderCover%20%282023-04-28%2008%3A13%3A03%29.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003540\u002F1713449766-717218657\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003540\u002F1713449766-717218657\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":null,"cdnWebCoverURL300":null,"cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003540\u002F1720087572-796609081\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003540\u002F1720087572-796609081\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":null,"isbn":"978-0-85466-751-2","printIsbn":"978-0-85466-752-9","pdfIsbn":"978-0-85466-753-6","isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isDeactivated":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"288698","title":"Prof.","name":"Larisa","middleName":null,"surname":"Ivascu","slug":"larisa-ivascu","fullName":"Larisa Ivascu"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},"authors":[{"id":"571861","title":"Prof.","name":"Valerii","middleName":null,"surname":"Vorotin","fullName":"Valerii Vorotin","slug":"valerii-vorotin","email":"vevorotin@gmail.com","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.123\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":null}],"sections":[{"id":"sec_1","title":"1. Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Public administration: theory and risks of use","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_3","title":"3. A new stage in the formation of anti-war state administration","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_4","title":"4. Economic security of the state, stimulation, and support of public administration","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_5","title":"5. Directions of ensuring management in the field of human life risks","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_6","title":"6. Conclusions and prospects for further research","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_7","title":"Additional information","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"other\"\u003EList of All documents\u002FLegislation of Ukraine [Internet]. Official website of the Parliament of Ukraine. 2022. Available from: \u003Cext-link ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fzakon.rada.gov.ua\u002Flaws\u002Fmain?find=2&user=a&org=1&typ=1%7C2&dat=20220224&datl\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fzakon.rada.gov.ua\u002Flaws\u002Fmain?find=2&user=a&org=1&typ=1%7C2&dat=20220224&datl\u003C\u002Fext-link\u003E= [Accessed: February 2, 2024]\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B2","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B2\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"other\"\u003EThe Ukrainians will push the Russians out of the captured territories. The famous American philosopher Francis Fukuyama names the reasons why Ukraine will win [Internet] Available from: \u003Cext-link ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fnv.ua\u002Fukr\u002Fopinion\u002Frecommends\u002Fukrajina-peremozhe-frensis-fukuyama-pro-te-chim-zakinchitsya-viyna-rosiji-ostanni-novini-50236988.html\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fnv.ua\u002Fukr\u002Fopinion\u002Frecommends\u002Fukrajina-peremozhe-frensis-fukuyama-pro-te-chim-zakinchitsya-viyna-rosiji-ostanni-novini-50236988.html\u003C\u002Fext-link\u003E\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B3","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B3\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"book\"\u003EPavlyuk O. The World Bank Has Preliminarily Assessed Ukraine's Losses as a Result of the War: It Is 40% of GDP [Internet]. Suspilne Ukraine; 2022. Available from: \u003Cext-link ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fsuspilne.media\u002F231337-svitovij-bank-poperedno-ociniv-zbitki-ukraini-vnaslidok-vijni-ce-40-vvp\u002F\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fsuspilne.media\u002F231337-svitovij-bank-poperedno-ociniv-zbitki-ukraini-vnaslidok-vijni-ce-40-vvp\u002F\u003C\u002Fext-link\u003E [Accessed: February 2, 2024]\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B4","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B4\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"book\"\u003EGaetani F. The Structure, Role and Mandate of Civil Protection in Disaster Risk Reduction for South Eastern Europe. South Eastern Europe Disaster Risk Mitigation and Adaptation Programme. Report International Centre on Environmental Monitoring Research Foundation (CIMA), Gaetani F, Parodi A, Siccardi F, Miozzo D, Trasforini E. [Electronic source]. Available from: \u003Cext-link ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.unisdr.org\u002Fpreventionweb\u002Ffiles\u002F9346_Europe.pdf\"\u003Ehttp:\u002F\u002Fwww.unisdr.org\u002Fpreventionweb\u002Ffiles\u002F9346_Europe.pdf\u003C\u002Fext-link\u003E\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B5","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B5\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"book\"\u003EVorotin Valerii, Sirinova Aliya. The Risk Management as an Innovation Approach in Govermental Management of Customs Procedures in GUAM Countries. Kyiv: dp “Vydavnychyi dim “Personal”; 2019;\u003Cbold\u003E2\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(17):46-57\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B6","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B6\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"book\"\u003EZhalilo Ya A, Bazylyuk Ya B, Sobkevich OV. The Strategic Price of Russian Aggression for the Economy of Ukraine [Internet]. National Institute of Strategic Studies; 2022. Available from: \u003Cext-link ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fniss.gov.ua\u002Fsites\u002Fdefault\u002Ffiles\u002F2022-04\u002Fanalytrep_05_2022.pdf\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fniss.gov.ua\u002Fsites\u002Fdefault\u002Ffiles\u002F2022-04\u002Fanalytrep_05_2022.pdf\u003C\u002Fext-link\u003E [Accessed: February 2, 2024]\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B7","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B7\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003EVorotina N, Koval O, Vorotin V, Prodanyk V, Shynkarov A. Legal foundations and features of public administration in the budgetary sphere in Ukraine and abroad. Rivista di scienze giuridiche a cura della facoltà di giurisprudenza dell’università cattolica di Milano\u002Fvp vita e pensiero indice. 2023;\u003Cbold\u003E2\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E:247-262. (Scopus). DOI: 10.26350\u002F18277942_000122\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"}],"footnotes":[],"contributors":[{"corresp":"yes","contributorFullName":"Valerii Ye Vorotin","address":"vevorotin@gmail.com","affiliation":"\u003Cul class=\"list\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003EState Ecological Academy of the Ministry of Environment, Department of Public Administration, Kyiv, Ukraine\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E"}],"corrections":null},"book":{"id":"1003540","type":"book","title":"The Future of Risk Management","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"The Future of Risk Management","slug":null,"isPublished":false,"publishedDate":null,"bookSignature":"Dr. Larisa Ivascu, Dr. Marius Pislaru and Dr. Lidia Alexa","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000010JzAPQA0\u002F0015444_TrikoderCover%20%282023-04-28%2008%3A13%3A03%29.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003540\u002F1713449766-717218657\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003540\u002F1713449766-717218657\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":null,"cdnWebCoverURL300":null,"cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003540\u002F1720087572-796609081\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003540\u002F1720087572-796609081\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":null,"isbn":"978-0-85466-751-2","printIsbn":"978-0-85466-752-9","pdfIsbn":"978-0-85466-753-6","isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isDeactivated":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"288698","title":"Prof.","name":"Larisa","middleName":null,"surname":"Ivascu","slug":"larisa-ivascu","fullName":"Larisa Ivascu"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},"subsereis":null,"subseries":null},"profile":{"item":{"id":"115556","title":"Prof.","name":"Cheng-Xiang","middleName":null,"surname":"Wang","email":"cheng-xiang.wang@hw.ac.uk","fullName":"Cheng-Xiang Wang","slug":"cheng-xiang-wang","position":null,"biography":"Cheng-Xiang Wang received the BSc and MEng degrees in Communication and Information Systems from Shandong University, China, in 1997 and 2000, respectively, and the PhD degree in Wireless Communications from Aalborg University, Denmark, in 2004.\nHe has been with Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK since 2005, and became a Professor in Wireless Communications in 2011. He is also an Honorary Fellow of the University of Edinburgh, UK, a Chair Professor of Shandong University, and a Guest Professor of Southeast University, China. He was a Research Fellow at the University of Agder, Grimstad, Norway, from 2001-2005, a Visiting Researcher at Siemens AG-Mobile Phones, Munich, Germany, in 2004, and a Research Assistant at Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany, from 2000-2001. His current research interests focus on wireless channel measurements\u002Fmodelling and (B)5G wireless communication networks, including green communications, cognitive radio networks, high mobility communication networks, massive MIMO, millimeter wave communications, and visible light communications. He has co-authored 2 books, 1 book chapter, and over 320 papers in refereed journals and conference proceedings.\n\nProf. Wang has served as an editor for 9 international journals, including the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY (since 2011), IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS (since 2015), and the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS (2007--2009). He was the lead Guest Editor for the IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, Special Issue on Vehicular Communications and Networks. He was also a Guest Editor for the IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, Special Issue on Spectrum and Energy Efficient Design of Wireless Communication Networks and Special Issue on Airborne Communication Networks, and a Guest Editor for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIG DATA, Special Issue on Wireless Big Data. He has served as a Technical Program Committee (TPC) Member, TPC Chair, and General Chair for over 80 international conferences. He received 9 Best Paper Awards from IEEE Globecom 2010, IEEE ICCT 2011, ITST 2012, IEEE VTC 2013-Spring, IWCMC 2015, IWCMC 2016, IEEE\u002FCIC ICCC 2016, and WPMC 2016. He is a Fellow of the IEEE, IET, and HEA. He is recognized as a Web of Science 2017 Highly Cited Researcher.","institutionString":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F115556\u002F1730415795\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","totalCites":0,"totalChapterViews":"0","outsideEditionCount":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"0","totalEditedBooks":"1","personalWebsiteUrl":null,"twitterURL":null,"linkedinURL":null,"institution":{"name":"Heriot-Watt University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"United Kingdom"}}},"booksEdited":[{"id":"2083","type":"book","slug":"advances-in-cognitive-radio-systems","isPublished":true,"title":"Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems","subtitle":null,"coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F2083.jpg","abstract":"Cognitive radio technologies are forms of wireless communication with many and varied applications. The contributions in this book will benefit researchers and engineers as they offer cutting-edge knowledge in the field. Subjects include uses of wideband voltage controlled oscillators, control planes for spectrum access and mobility in networks with heterogeneous frequency devices. Other chapters cover cognitive media access control and measurement methods for spectrum occupancy. In addition, there are contributions on delay analysis and channel selection in single-hop networks for delay-sensitive applications, the application of transmission security (TRANSEC) protocols to cognitive radio communication and the use of blind detection, parameters, estimation and the despreading of DS-CDMA signals in multirate, multiuser cognitive radio systems.","editors":[{"id":"115556","title":"Prof.","name":"Cheng-Xiang","surname":"Wang","slug":"cheng-xiang-wang","fullName":"Cheng-Xiang Wang"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume"}}],"chaptersAuthored":[],"collaborators":[]},"generic":{"page":{"slug":"authorship-policy","title":"Authorship Policy","intro":"\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.icmje.org\u002Frecommendations\u002Fbrowse\u002Froles-and-responsibilities\u002Fdefining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html#two\"\u003EUniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. Although these criteria are drafted for medical journals editors, we believe that they are not field specific to but can be universally applied across all disciplines. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met: \u003C\u002Fp\u003E","metaTitle":"Authorship Policy","metaDescription":"IN TECH's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, one must:","metaKeywords":null,"canonicalURL":"\u002Fpage\u002Fauthorship-policy","contentRaw":"[{\"type\":\"htmlEditorComponent\",\"content\":\"\u003Cul\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EA substantial contribution to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work; \u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EParticipation in drafting or revising the work;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EApproval of the manuscript version to be published;\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EAgreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. \u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAll contributors who meet these criteria are listed as Authors. Their exact contributions should be described in the manuscript at the time of submission. We recognise Authors as persons of full legal age, with the age of majority defined by the country of residence.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EContributors who do not meet all four criteria should not be listed as Authors but their contribution (e.g. technical assistance, acquisition of funding, administrative support, research supervision, language editing, etc.) acknowledged.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe Corresponding Author is responsible for ensuring that all Authors fulfill the criteria for authorship. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ECORRESPONDENCE\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EEach manuscript should have a named Author for correspondence. The Corresponding Author is responsible for all communication during the peer review and publication process. This Author also takes responsibility for submitting the manuscript and ensuring it adheres to all editorial and ethical requirements, has been submitted with any relevant documentation, and includes a conflict of interest statement.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAll other Authors should be listed in order of contribution (noting any Authors who made equal contributions) and their affiliations specified. If a paper is authored by a consortium, the consortium should be named in the author list and all Authors within the consortium listed in an appendix to the manuscript.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAuthors’ first names should be given in full, followed by initials for additional or middle names, and then surname in full.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ECHANGES IN AUTHORSHIP\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen follows the \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fpublicationethics.org\u002Fauthorship\\\"\u003ECommittee on Publication Ethics\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (COPE) guidelines for changes in authorship or managing potential disputes among Authors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAny changes to an author list at any point during the submission and publication process will result in verification checks to ensure added, or removed Authors are aware of the changes and can verify their contributions to the manuscript. Any change to an author list after the official publication may be realized through a Correction Notice. All authorship disputes will be addressed based on the COPE guidelines.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EAFFILIATION\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAll Authors should provide an affiliation and an institutional email address at the point of submission for verification purposes and to attribute the place where the work was performed, supported, or approved. If an institutional email cannot be provided Authors will need to verify their institutional address via a different means. IntechOpen will use internationally recognised country affiliations and may occasionally need to request changes to affiliations for consistency across the journals and books portfolios. IntechOpen will remain neutral in regard to affiliations used.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ERESPONSIBILITY\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe Corresponding Author is responsible for ensuring that all Authors fulfil the criteria for authorship. To be listed, Authors should have made substantial contributions to the work submitted to IntechOpen, for example, by designing the study, conducting experiments, collating, or analysing data or providing software\u002Ftools\u002Fservices used in the generation of the submitted work. 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The main barriers for the development of geothermal industry include high resource and exploration risk, overall high development cost particularly drilling, and inadequate financing and grant support. The global averaged cost of electricity for the geothermal facility is nearly 0.072 USD\u002FkWh as compared to 0.056 for onshore wind and 0.047 USD\u002FkWh for hydropower. However, the technology is rather competitive to other renewables such as concentrating solar power (0.185 USD\u002FkWh) and offshore wind (0.127 USD\u002FkWh). 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Despite interventions like carbon finance investments (CFIs), the net zero emission (NZE) goal has not been met. This chapter aimed to assess the risks of CFI policies to guide decision-making. CFIs involve a reduction of greenhouse gas, generating returns on carbon markets, and supporting sustainable development. The study employed a secondary research design using data from the World Bank, International Energy Agency (IEA), and Scopus from 2009 to June 2024. Data was analyzed using thematic analysis and Ordinary Least Squares (OLS). The study found a conflict between the social and business dilemma and the high concentration of CFIs in advanced economies. It suggests balanced investments toward sectors and regions. In conclusion, the low funding and capacity to manage resources limit the scalability and size of CFIs calling for collaboration, coordination, and resource commitment.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1004207","title":"Carbon Odyssey - A Journey Through Earth’s Carbon Cycle","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000004049rIAA\u002F0016111_TrikoderCover%20%282024-02-26%2007%3A36%3A47%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Nabulya Jesca, Peter Oseghale Ohue and Jerome Ntege"},{"id":"1206858","title":"Solid Solution Thermochemistry: Understanding Metal Zoning in Polymetallic Hydrothermal Sulfide Ore Deposits","slug":null,"totalDownloads":2,"totalDimensionsCites":null,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1007090","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EThis chapter is a tutorial illustrating the methods used to create thermochemical models for sulfide solid solutions focusing on the sulfosalt fahlore \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m1\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E≈\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E (Cu,Ag)\u003Csub\u003E10\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E(Fe,Zn)\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E(Sb,As)\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003ES\u003Csub\u003E(13 − x)\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E with S vacancies 0 ≤ x < 3 and the common sulfide sphalerite (Zn,Fe)S. The formulation and calibration of the thermochemical model for sulfur vacancy-free fahlores are outlined and preliminary estimates for the Gibbs energies of formation of As-endmembers are presented. For sphalerites it summarizes the development of a cluster variation method (CVM) model based on 13 and 6 metal atom cubeocahedral and octahedral basis clusters which accounts for experimental constraints on sphalerite compositions in pyrrhotite + pyrite and pyrrhotite + iron metal assemblages, calorimetric and 850°C activity-composition constraints, and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eab-initio\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E quantum mechanical calculations. The analysis outlines the need for additional theoretical, experimental and petrological studies to complete the model for fahlores with S vacancies, discusses why there is an intrinsic limit of 3 sulfur vacancies in fahlores, and reviews how the large Gibbs energies of the reciprocal reactions governing the incompatibilities between Zn and As, Zn and Ag, and As and Ag are the keys to understanding the origin of metal zoning of fahlores in fissure-vein, polymetallic sulfide ore deposits.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1004256","title":"Ore Geology","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000006rmJGIAY\u002F0016160_TrikoderCover%20%282024-05-21%2007%3A19%3A16%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Richard Sack"},{"id":"1206436","title":"The Contribution of Underwater Systems for the Study of the Emerged Volcanoes and Seamounts of Southern Italy\u003Cbr\u003E","slug":null,"totalDownloads":13,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1007585","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EThis chapter examines the signals collected by multidisciplinary seafloor observatories and subsea instruments in Southern Tyrrhenian region. It provides an overview of the systems, emphasizing the key characteristics of the sensors. Various types of signals (such as seismological, magnetic, deformation, and oceanographic data), detected underwater and related to onshore and offshore volcanic structures, are analysed and compared, where possible, with data from land-based stations. The focus is on several case studies from Southern Italy, a region of high geological activity, and tectonic and volcanic features. This area includes two of the world’s most active volcanoes, Mt. Etna and Stromboli, as well as the Marsili Seamount, the largest volcanic seamount in the Tyrrhenian Sea bathyal plain. Although extensive research has been conducted on Mt. Etna and Stromboli, the functioning of their deepest and submerged parts, as well as the nature and evolution of their activity, remains incomplete. This is also particularly true for volcanic seamounts like Marsili. Seafloor instrumentation, including Ocean Bottom Seismometers and Hydrophones (OBSHs), and multiparametric seafloor observatories play a crucial role in monitoring volcanic activity contributing significantly to understanding of volcanic behaviour and its temporal evolution. Additionally, swath bathymetry data aid in visualizing tectonic and volcanic structures.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1003730","title":"A Comprehensive Study of Volcanic Phenomena","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000011KFdTQAW\u002F0015634_TrikoderCover%20%282024-05-21%2007%3A44%3A34%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Tiziana Sgroi and Paolo Favali"},{"id":"1198002","title":"Imaging Subvolcanic Structures by Magnetotellurics","slug":null,"totalDownloads":26,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1007593","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EThe generation of magma beneath volcanic edifices is a long-lived dynamic phenomenon that shapes the volcanic environment and can trigger eruptions. Analog and theoretical modeling are valuable tools used in the study of volcanic areas to better understand the processes driving volcanic activity, the behavior of volcanic systems, and the formation of volcanic structures. However, results obtained from analog and theoretical models and field studies need to be critically assessed against those obtained from other methods. Magnetotellurics (MT), a geophysical method that allows for the detailed mapping of electrical resistivity variations in the subsurface, provides reliable images of the interior structure of volcanoes (i.e., subvolcanic structures such as magma reservoirs, plumbing systems, hydrothermal systems, and collapsed calderas) based on the measurement of naturally occurring electric and magnetic field variations over time. This method is used not only to unveil the deep structure of volcanoes and prospect geothermal systems or ore deposits but also to assess volcanic hazards related to the size and depth of the magmatic source. This chapter presents a thorough examination of how MT helps reveal the hidden complexities beneath volcanoes, suggesting insights into magmatic processes, hydrothermal systems, structural controls, and the overall geoelectric architecture of volcanic edifices.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1003730","title":"A Comprehensive Study of Volcanic Phenomena","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000011KFdTQAW\u002F0015634_TrikoderCover%20%282024-05-21%2007%3A44%3A34%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Özlem Hacıoğlu"},{"id":"1206430","title":"Volatile Composition of Fluid Inclusions in Gold-Bearing Quartz Veins Analyzed by Solid-Mass Spectrometry: Method and Contributions to the Orogenic Metallogenic Model and Exploration","slug":null,"totalDownloads":20,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1007318","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EThis chapter provides details about the analytical procedures and examples from published papers of the contributions of this technique to the understanding of, (1) the signification of ethane; (2) the hydrothermal reactions; (3) the water-poor and CO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E-rich fluids; and (4) the source of gold. Gold deposits used as examples range in age from the Archean to the Paleozoic era. Ethane was established as an indicator (proxy) of organic thermal maturation at depth. Hydrothermal reactions inducing graphite precipitation in the host rocks and mineralized structures and consumption of CO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E and CH\u003Csub\u003E4\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E were documented in the Otago Schist district in New Zealand, accounting for the low-CO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E mineralizing fluids, and in the Keraf Zone in Sudan, accounting for the various fluid signatures. Water-poor and CO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E-rich fluids associated with high-grade gold or world-class gold deposits also result from hydrothermal reactions involving the consumption of water and ethane. Gold transport as nanoparticles or as hydrocarbon-gold complexes is related to water-poor, hydrocarbon-rich fluids and associated with high-grade gold mineralization. The sedimentary source of gold is demonstrated by the presence of ethane, which is a tracer of organic matter metamorphism in deep sedimentary rocks at amphibolite facies, providing gold extraction from nodular pyrite during transformation to pyrrhotite.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1004256","title":"Ore Geology","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000006rmJGIAY\u002F0016160_TrikoderCover%20%282024-05-21%2007%3A19%3A16%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Damien Gaboury"},{"id":"1198020","title":"Complex Magma Chamber Dynamics and Volcanic Activity in the Karapınar Volcanic Field: Insights from Mineral and Whole-Rock Chemistry – A Review","slug":null,"totalDownloads":13,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1007069","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EThe thermal and material conditions of magma chambers influence magma mobilization processes and temporal dynamics, which are crucial for assessing volcanic hazards. Crystals preserve historical magma reservoir information, facilitating alignment with computational simulations. The Karapınar Volcanic Field (KPVF) in Central Anatolia, part of the Cappadocia Volcanic Province, serves as an ideal natural laboratory for studying monogenetic volcanism, characterized by scoria cones along a fault line, maars, and lava flows. Basaltic, basaltic andesitic, and andesitic lavas, along with their pyroclastics, are widespread in this region. The basaltic and basaltic andesitic lava flows incorporate various enclaves, such as magma mixing enclaves, cumulate enclaves, and xenocrysts. They also contain several ocelli, embayed-quartz xenocrysts, and densely sieved plagioclase megacrysts. Meke and Yılan maars exemplify intriguing maar volcanism, with basaltic andesitic lavas containing numerous enclaves. Interestingly, these mafic rocks contain zircon grains (generally found in felsic magmas). The presence of different types of enclaves, mineral textural properties, and zircon-bearing mafic rocks indicate complex magma chamber dynamics in the area. Moreover, whole-rock and mineral chemistry from KPVF reveal complex magmatic histories, emphasizing the presence of multiple feeding and plumbing systems that potentially trigger volcanic activity. Temporally and spatially, mineral chemistry analyses can provide high-resolution insights into the volcano-tectonic history of the region.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1003730","title":"A Comprehensive Study of Volcanic Phenomena","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000011KFdTQAW\u002F0015634_TrikoderCover%20%282024-05-21%2007%3A44%3A34%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Gülin Gencoglu Korkmaz and Hüseyin Kurt"}],"onlineFirstChaptersTotal":13},"preDownload":{"success":null,"errors":{}},"subscriptionForm":{"success":null,"errors":{}},"aboutIntechopen":{},"privacyPolicy":{},"cookiePolicy":{},"recruitmentPrivacyNotice":{},"peerReviewing":{},"howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks":{},"sponsorshipBooks":{"sponsorshipBooks":[],"offset":0,"limit":8,"total":null},"allSeries":{"pteSeriesList":[],"lsSeriesList":[],"hsSeriesList":[],"sshSeriesList":[],"testimonialsList":[]},"series":{"item":{"id":"13","title":"Veterinary Medicine and Science","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.73681","issn":"2632-0517","scope":"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. By addressing hot topics in veterinary sciences, we aim to gather authoritative texts within each issue of this series, providing in-depth overviews and analysis for graduates, academics, and practitioners and foreseeing a deeper understanding of the subject. Forthcoming texts, written and edited by experienced researchers from both industry and academia, will also discuss scientific challenges faced today in Veterinary Medicine and Science. In brief, we hope that books in this series will provide accessible references for those interested or working in this field and encourage learning in a range of different topics.","coverUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fseries\u002Fcovers\u002F13.jpg","latestPublicationDate":"November 20th, 2024","hasOnlineFirst":true,"numberOfPublishedBooks":21,"editor":{"id":"38652","title":"Prof.","name":"Rita","middleName":null,"surname":"Payan-Carreira","slug":"rita-payan-carreira","fullName":"Rita Payan-Carreira","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F38652\u002F1689229357\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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