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This book presents cutting-edge research on \u003Ci\u003EAspergillus\u003C\u002Fi\u003E along with useful information for mycologists, microbiologists, toxicologists, plant pathologists, and pharmacologists who may be interested in understanding the impact, significance, and recent advances within the genus \u003Ci\u003EAspergillus\u003C\u002Fi\u003E that have not been critically noticed elsewhere.","isbn":"978-1-83768-052-8","printIsbn":"978-1-83768-051-1","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83768-146-4","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.107748","price":119,"priceEur":135,"priceUsd":150,"priceCbs":null,"slug":"aspergillus-and-aspergillosis-advances-in-genomics-drug-development-diagnosis-and-treatment","numberOfPages":208,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isInWos":null,"isInBkci":false,"hash":"cf41fe79ca8823b111e5dc06803be7f1","bookSignature":"Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh, Mahendra Rai and Masoomeh Shams-Ghahfarokhi","publishedDate":"November 2nd 2023","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F12639.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F12639\u002F1718283014-260689620\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F12639\u002F1718283014-260689620\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","numberOfDownloads":1449,"numberOfViews":null,"numberOfWosCitations":0,"numberOfCrossrefCitations":4,"numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook":0,"numberOfDimensionsCitations":4,"numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook":null,"hasAltmetrics":0,"totalAltmetricsMentions":0,"numberOfTotalCitations":8,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"dateEndFirstStepPublish":"February 9th 2023","dateEndSecondStepPublish":"March 2nd 2023","dateEndThirdStepPublish":"May 1st 2023","dateEndFourthStepPublish":"July 20th 2023","dateEndFifthStepPublish":"September 18th 2023","currentStepOfPublishingProcess":5,"indexedIn":"1,2,3,4,5,6","editedByType":"Edited by","kuFlag":false,"sdgRelated":false,"featuredMarkup":null,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":false,"cbsWebsiteURL":null,"noAds":0,"editors":[{"id":"48251","title":"Dr.","name":"Mehdi","middleName":null,"surname":"Razzaghi-Abyaneh","slug":"mehdi-razzaghi-abyaneh","fullName":"Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F48251\u002F1715846965\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Professor Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh obtained his Ph.D. in Medical Mycology from Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran. He pursued a 12-month sabbatical on the identification of antifungal compounds from bioactive plants at the Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University, in the Laboratory of Applied Biological Chemistry from 2006 to 2007. He is currently a full professor and eminent research scientist at the Pasteur Institute of Iran, where he is working on mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi as well as antifungal nanomaterial, and biologically active antifungals of plant, fungal, and bacterial origin for more than 23 years. Dr. Razzaghi-Abyaneh has received the book year award of Iran in 2002 for the book 'Mycotoxins (in Persian)'. He has supervised and advised several Ph.D. and M.Sc. theses. Dr. Razzaghi-Abyaneh has published more than 150 papers in peer-reviewed international journals, twelve books, and several book chapters. He is the associate editor of Frontiers in Microbiology and a member of editorial board of several national and international journals. His research is focused on the chemical basis of plant–fungal interactions and determining the mode of action of antifungal bioactive compounds of natural origin as small macromolecules at cellular and molecular levels.","institutionString":null,"position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"4","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"3","institution":{"name":"Pasteur Institute of Iran","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Iran"}},"countryString":"Iran"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":{"id":"342838","title":"Prof.","name":"Mahendra","middleName":null,"surname":"Rai","slug":"mahendra-rai","fullName":"Mahendra Rai","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F342838\u002F1717202950\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Professor Mahendra Rai is a visiting scientist at Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland. He has published more than 450 research papers, more than 102 journal articles, and 75 books. He is a member of several scientific societies and has been a national scholar for five years. He received several prestigious awards, including the Father T.A. Mathias Award (1989) from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education, and the Medini Award (1999) from the Department of Environment and Forest, Government of India. He also received a SERC visiting fellowship from the Department of Science and Technology (1996), an INSA visiting fellowship from the Indian National Science Academy (1998), and TWAS-UNESCO Associateship (2002), Italy. Dr. Rai was also awarded a UGC-BSR faculty fellowship by the University Grants Commission, New Delhi (2017–2020) and an NAWA fellowship by the Polish Government (2021–2023). He serves as a referee for twenty international journals and is an editorial board member of ten national and international journals. He has approximately three decades of teaching and research experience. The focus of his research is plant- and nano-based bioactives against human pathogenic microbes.","institutionString":"Nicolaus Copernicus University","position":null,"outsideEditionCount":0,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"1","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"2","institution":{"name":"Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"India"}},"countryString":"Poland"},"coeditorTwo":{"id":"52737","title":"Dr.","name":"Masoomeh","middleName":null,"surname":"Shams-Ghahfarokhi","slug":"masoomeh-shams-ghahfarokhi","fullName":"Masoomeh Shams-Ghahfarokhi","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F52737\u002F1734011546\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Professor Masoomeh Shams-Ghahfarokhi is a faculty member at Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran, where she has been working for around 25 years. After graduating with a degree in Medical Mycology in 2000, Dr. Shams-Ghahfarokhi passed a training course as a Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) fellow in Japan during 2005–2007. Her research is focused on the identification and isolation of antifungal compounds from natural resources (including plants and organisms) and their molecular aspects on the activity of pathogenic fungi. She is active in evaluating the inhibitory effects of bio-nanomaterials and anti-scaling membranes for the selective treatment of fungal infections and their mechanism of action on the cellular and molecular levels. She is also investigating the identification of pathogenic fungi and their genetic diversity by using molecular techniques such as sequencing, real-time PCR, multiplex PCR, and other methods. Dr. Shams-Ghahfarokhi has around two decades of teaching and research, and she has advised and supervised numerous MSc and Ph.D. theses.","institutionString":null,"position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"1","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"1","institution":{"name":"Tarbiat Modares University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Iran"}},"countryString":"Iran"},"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"408","title":"Applied Microbiology","slug":"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-microbiology-applied-microbiology"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"series":null,"subseries":{"id":"4","series":{"id":"6","title":"Infectious Diseases","issn":"2631-6188","editor":{"id":"131400","title":"Prof.","name":"Alfonso J.","middleName":null,"surname":"Rodriguez-Morales","slug":"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales","fullName":"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F131400\u002F1737603546\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is a Senior Researcher and Faculty at the Faculty of Medicine of Fundación Universitaria Autónoma de las Américas-Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is also a Researcher and Faculty at the Faculty of Health Sciences of the Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. He was Non-Resident Faculty Researcher of the Gilbert and Rose-Marie Chagoury School of Medicine, Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon (2023-2024). Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly in zoonotic and vector-borne diseases, including COVID-19 and mpox, and their occurrence among travelers and migrants, as well as its approach under the One Health lens. He is currently the President of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) (2023-2025). Past-President, Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN) (2021-2023). Member, Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine, ACIN. Member of the Council, International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID) (2020-2026). Editor-in-Chief, Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. Full Member of the European Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID). Member of the American Society for Tropical Medicine & Hygiene (ASTM&H). Member of the International Society for Travel Medicine (ISTM). He was a member of the Technical Working Group of the World Health Organization (WHO) for the Global Research Agenda on Health and Migration and the 3rd Global Consultation on the Health of Migrants and Refugees (co-organized by WHO, UNHCR and IOM) (2023). Currently, Member of the World Health Organization (WHO) Guideline Development Group for Clinical Management of post-COVID-19 condition (2024-2025). H index 66 (Scopus) with 867 documents indexed in Scopus.","institutionString":null,"position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"11","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"13","institution":{"name":"Fundación Universitaria Autónoma De Las Américas","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Colombia"}}}}},"tags":null,"_preview":0,"chapters":[{"id":"87579","title":"Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis\u002FMycosis: An Underdiagnosed Disease","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.112166","slug":"allergic-bronchopulmonary-aspergillosis-mycosis-an-underdiagnosed-disease","totalDownloads":159,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":1,"abstract":"Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) is an immune-allergic disease of the lung due to a hypersensitivity reaction to antigens of Aspergillus fumigatus after colonization into the airways. Predominantly, it affects patients with bronchial asthma and those having cystic fibrosis (CF). Despite being recognized as a distinct entity nearly 70 years ago, this disease remains underdiagnosed. This may be due to the diagnostic methods employed, lack of standardized tests, and diagnostic criteria. The mainstay treatment for ABPA is systemic steroid. Azole antifungal agents represent an alternative for the treatment of exacerbations and are preferential strategy for corticosteroids sparing. Biologic drugs are expected to play an important role in the treatment of ABPA based on their mechanism in inhibition of type 2 inflammation, regulation of eosinophils and IgE levels, and modulation of inflammatory cytokines. Therefore, other studies are necessary for a better understanding of this disease so that an early detection can be done as well as a correct management.","signatures":"Solange Oliveira Rodrigues Valle, Augusto Sarquis Serpa and Faradiba Sarquis Serpa","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F87579","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F87579","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"523823","title":"Prof.","name":"Solange","surname":"Oliveira Rodrigues Valle","slug":"solange-oliveira-rodrigues-valle","fullName":"Solange Oliveira Rodrigues Valle"},{"id":"524100","title":"Ph.D.","name":"Faradiba","surname":"Sarquis Serpa","slug":"faradiba-sarquis-serpa","fullName":"Faradiba Sarquis Serpa"},{"id":"550699","title":"MSc.","name":"Augusto","surname":"Sarquis Serpa","slug":"augusto-sarquis-serpa","fullName":"Augusto Sarquis Serpa"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"87363","title":"Post-Viral Aspergillosis","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.111875","slug":"post-viral-aspergillosis","totalDownloads":138,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":2,"abstract":"Post-viral aspergillosis (PVA) is a clinical form of Aspergillus infection that occurs after some viral infections. Aspergillus is the most common respiratory fungal co-pathogen in patients with viral infections. Most cases of PVA have been reported as invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) after influenza, COVID-19, and the cytomegalovirus infection. PVA is more commonly reported in critically ill patients with viral pneumonia. Suggested risk factors for PVA include cellular immune deficiency, ARDS, pulmonary tracts and parenchyma damage, and corticosteroid therapy. New pulmonary nodules such as dense, well-circumscribed lesions with or without a halo sign, air crescent sign, or cavity, or wedge-shaped and segmental or lobar consolidation on the chest CT scan can suggest PVA. As in the treatment of invasive aspergillosis in other settings, triazoles, such as voriconazole or isavuconazole, have been suggested as the first-line treatment for PVA. It seems that the presence of PVA has significantly decreased the survival rate in patients with viral infections.","signatures":"Mohammadreza Salehi, Fariba Zamani and Sadegh Khodavaisy","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F87363","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F87363","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"303331","title":"Dr.","name":"Sadegh","surname":"Khodavaisy","slug":"sadegh-khodavaisy","fullName":"Sadegh Khodavaisy"},{"id":"519246","title":"D.Sc.","name":"Mohammadreza","surname":"Salehi","slug":"mohammadreza-salehi","fullName":"Mohammadreza Salehi"},{"id":"519252","title":"Mrs.","name":"Fariba","surname":"Zamani","slug":"fariba-zamani","fullName":"Fariba Zamani"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"87304","title":"\u003Cem\u003EAspergillus\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and Aspergillosis in People with Chronic Diseases","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.111863","slug":"-em-aspergillus-em-and-aspergillosis-in-people-with-chronic-diseases","totalDownloads":137,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":3,"abstract":"Numerous human diseases are caused by Aspergillus species. Mold infections can be more severe in people with weakened immune systems and chronic illnesses. People with underlying chronic conditions are more likely to contract an Aspergillus infection than immunocompromised patients, who are more likely to develop an invasive infection with these opportunistic molds. These disorders include Aspergillus bronchitis, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, diabetes, cystic fibrosis, severe asthma with fungal sensitivity, and other inflammatory and allergic conditions. The impact of Aspergillus infections in patients with selected chronic infections and the treatment of these infections are discussed in this review along with the most recent research on these topics.","signatures":"Bismark Dabuo, Nunekpeku Xorlali, Ndego Timothy Amoliga, Zyaara Kono Atibodu, Precious Mavis Newman, Alhassan Mohammed, Raymond Adongsakiya Ali and Abubakari Abudu","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F87304","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F87304","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"466236","title":"B.Sc.","name":"Bismark","surname":"Dabuo","slug":"bismark-dabuo","fullName":"Bismark Dabuo"},{"id":"535959","title":"B.Sc.","name":"Alhassan","surname":"Mohammed","slug":"alhassan-mohammed","fullName":"Alhassan Mohammed"},{"id":"535961","title":"B.Sc.","name":"Abubakari","surname":"Abudu","slug":"abubakari-abudu","fullName":"Abubakari Abudu"},{"id":"543693","title":"B.Sc.","name":"Nunekpeku","surname":"Xorlali","slug":"nunekpeku-xorlali","fullName":"Nunekpeku Xorlali"},{"id":"543694","title":"B.Sc.","name":"Ndego Timothy","surname":"Amoliga","slug":"ndego-timothy-amoliga","fullName":"Ndego Timothy Amoliga"},{"id":"543695","title":"B.Sc.","name":"Zyaara Kono","surname":"Atibodu","slug":"zyaara-kono-atibodu","fullName":"Zyaara Kono Atibodu"},{"id":"543696","title":"B.Sc.","name":"Precious","surname":"Mavis Newman","slug":"precious-mavis-newman","fullName":"Precious Mavis Newman"},{"id":"543697","title":"Dr.","name":"Raymond Adongsakiya","surname":"Ali","slug":"raymond-adongsakiya-ali","fullName":"Raymond Adongsakiya Ali"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"87187","title":"Virulence Attributes in \u003Cem\u003EAspergillus fumigatus\u003C\u002Fem\u003E","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.111778","slug":"virulence-attributes-in-em-aspergillus-fumigatus-em-","totalDownloads":149,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":4,"abstract":"Aspergillus fumigatus is one of the most important opportunistic fungal pathogens. It causes various types of infections in humans, from skin, lung, and allergic infections to invasive infections. However, these stand out because their mortality rate can reach up to 95%. A. fumigatus is a ubiquitous fungus and, therefore, humans are in constant contact with it without major risk, except when there is a predisposing factor on the host, that allows the fungus to penetrate and invade the tissues. It is fascinating how this fungus manages to go from harmless to pathogenic as, in addition to the predisposing factors of the human, multiple attributes of the fungus intervene that favor its growth and survival in the host. Among these virulence attributes are thermotolerance, the ability to evade the immune response, some components of the cell wall, the production of secondary metabolites, compliance with nutritional requirements, and the production of melanin, among others. Furthermore, some of these virulence attributes are interrelated, making understanding the pathogenesis of aspergillosis more complex. This chapter presents a review of some virulence attributes that are known, to date, in A. fumigatus.","signatures":"María Guadalupe Frías-De-León, Eduardo García-Salazar and Gustavo Acosta-Altamirano","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F87187","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F87187","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"248801","title":"Dr.","name":"María Guadalupe","surname":"Frías De León","slug":"maria-guadalupe-frias-de-leon","fullName":"María Guadalupe Frías De León"},{"id":"248803","title":"Dr.","name":"Gustavo","surname":"Acosta-Altamirano","slug":"gustavo-acosta-altamirano","fullName":"Gustavo Acosta-Altamirano"},{"id":"523835","title":"MSc.","name":"Eduardo","surname":"García-Salazar","slug":"eduardo-garcia-salazar","fullName":"Eduardo García-Salazar"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"87168","title":"Nanomaterials-Based Biosensors against \u003Cem\u003EAspergillus\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and Aspergillosis: Control and Diagnostic Perspectives","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.111725","slug":"nanomaterials-based-biosensors-against-em-aspergillus-em-and-aspergillosis-control-and-diagnostic-pe","totalDownloads":124,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":5,"abstract":"Aspergillosis is the name given to the spectrum of diseases caused by the genus Aspergillus. Research on aspergillosis has shown a progressive expansion over the past decades, largely due to the rise in the number of immunocompromised individuals who are at risk for the infection. Nanotechnology provides innovative tools in the medicine, diagnosis, and treatment. The unique properties of nanomaterials like small size in the nanoscale have attracted researchers to explore their potential, especially in medical diagnostics. Aptamers, considered as chemical antibody, are short, single-stranded oligonucleotide molecules with high affinity and specificity to interact with target molecules even superior to antibody. Accordingly, development of nanomaterials-based biosensors technology such as immunosensors and aptasensors against Aspergillus and Aspergillosis is of great significance and urgency. In this book chapter, we comprehensively introduce and analyze the recent progress of nanomaterials-based biosensors against Aspergillus and Aspergillosis. In addition, we reveal the challenges and provide our opinion in future opportunities for such sensing platform development. Ultimately, conclusion and future prospects are highlighted and summarized.","signatures":"Xiaodong Guo, Mengke Zhang, Mengzhi Wang, Jiaqi Wang and Marie-Laure Fauconnier","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F87168","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F87168","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"521997","title":"M.D.","name":"Xiaodong","surname":"Guo","slug":"xiaodong-guo","fullName":"Xiaodong Guo"},{"id":"540254","title":"Dr.","name":"Mengke","surname":"Zhang","slug":"mengke-zhang","fullName":"Mengke Zhang"},{"id":"540373","title":"Prof.","name":"Mengzhi","surname":"Wang","slug":"mengzhi-wang","fullName":"Mengzhi Wang"},{"id":"540375","title":"Dr.","name":"Jiaqi","surname":"Wang","slug":"jiaqi-wang","fullName":"Jiaqi Wang"},{"id":"540376","title":"Dr.","name":"Marie-Laure","surname":"Fauconnier","slug":"marie-laure-fauconnier","fullName":"Marie-Laure Fauconnier"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"87240","title":"Metagenomic Next-Generation Sequencing (mNGS) for the Diagnosis of Pulmonary Aspergillosis","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.111827","slug":"metagenomic-next-generation-sequencing-mngs-for-the-diagnosis-of-pulmonary-aspergillosis","totalDownloads":147,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":6,"abstract":"The diagnosis of pulmonary aspergillosis is a critical step in initiating prompt treatment and improving patients’ prognosis. Currently, microbiological analysis of pulmonary aspergillosis involves fungal smear and culture, serum (1,3)-β-D-glucan (G) or galactomannan (GM) tests, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). However, these methods have limitations. Recent studies have demonstrated that polymorphisms in pentraxin3 (PTX3), a soluble pattern recognition receptor, are associated with increased susceptibility to invasive aspergillosis. mNGS, a new microbial diagnostic method, has emerged as a promising alternative. It has high sensitivity in identifying pulmonary aspergillosis and can accurately distinguish species. Additionally, it outperforms other methods in detecting mixed infections and instructing the adjustment of antimicrobial treatments. As a result, mNGS has the potential to be adopted as the gold standard for the diagnosis of pulmonary aspergillosis.","signatures":"Hao Tang, Shujun Bao and Caiming Zhong","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F87240","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F87240","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"523734","title":"Dr.","name":"Hao","surname":"Tang","slug":"hao-tang","fullName":"Hao Tang"},{"id":"523886","title":"Dr.","name":"Shujun","surname":"Bao","slug":"shujun-bao","fullName":"Shujun Bao"},{"id":"523887","title":"Dr.","name":"Caiming","surname":"Zhong","slug":"caiming-zhong","fullName":"Caiming Zhong"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"88060","title":"Aspergilosis: Resistance and Future Impacts","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.112755","slug":"aspergilosis-resistance-and-future-impacts","totalDownloads":93,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":7,"abstract":"Fungal infections have been increasingly reported in routine, especially opportunistic ones such as aspergillosis, which represents a serious challenge for health professionals. The use of itraconazole, for a long time, was effective for a good clinical response, but factors associated with the advancement of medicine, length of stay, diagnostic errors, incorrect doses, and wrong choice of antifungal classes favored the appearance of resistance mechanisms. Thus, new research, together with the development of new molecules, is being carried out in order to reduce the advance of resistance, increasing patient survival.","signatures":"Amanda Junior Jorge","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F88060","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F88060","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"524173","title":"Dr.","name":"Amanda","surname":"Junior Jorge","slug":"amanda-junior-jorge","fullName":"Amanda Junior Jorge"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"87189","title":"Immunosensing of Aflatoxin B1 and Ochratoxin A on a Portable Device as Point-of-Care","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.111724","slug":"immunosensing-of-aflatoxin-b1-and-ochratoxin-a-on-a-portable-device-as-point-of-care","totalDownloads":193,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":8,"abstract":"Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are potent mycotoxins produced by the fungal genus Aspergillus. Their occurrence in grain corn is alarming hence the need for rapid on-site detection. An immuno-based biosensor technique for detection of the aforementioned toxins is described here. Highly specific in-house polyclonal antibodies against AFB1 and OTA were employed as bioreceptors in a label-free electrochemical biosensor; immobilized on modified screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs). The immuno-functionalized SPCEs were first characterized on a laboratory electrochemical workstation for proof-on-concept study using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) electrochemical technique. An Android-based device is improvised as a portable electrochemical reader integrated with internet of thing (IoT) features which include cloud server and a dedicated website. Sensitivity achieved by the modified SPCEs on the portable device is superior compared to enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method and lab-based electrochemical workstation. The miniaturized biosensor system has been successfully tested on cornfield for in-situ mycotoxins detection with simple sample extraction. Analysis performed on twenty samples were validated using chromatographic analysis. This biosensor-IoT system offers a potential application for real-time detection and the portable reader serves as an excellent tool for point-of-care in routine monitoring of harmful mycotoxins.","signatures":"Nur Azura Mohd Said, Noor Sheryna Jusoh, Norhafniza Awaludin, Mohammad Rejab Ismail, Noor Fadilah Mohd Bakri, Lily Suhaida Mohd Sojak and Faridah Salam","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F87189","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F87189","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"519521","title":"Dr.","name":"Nur Azura","surname":"Mohd Said","slug":"nur-azura-mohd-said","fullName":"Nur Azura Mohd Said"},{"id":"520720","title":"Ms.","name":"Noor Sheryna","surname":"Jusoh","slug":"noor-sheryna-jusoh","fullName":"Noor Sheryna Jusoh"},{"id":"520721","title":"Ms.","name":"Norhafniza","surname":"Awaludin","slug":"norhafniza-awaludin","fullName":"Norhafniza Awaludin"},{"id":"520722","title":"Dr.","name":"Faridah","surname":"Salam","slug":"faridah-salam","fullName":"Faridah Salam"},{"id":"539490","title":"Mrs.","name":"Noor Fadhilah","surname":"Mohd Bakri","slug":"noor-fadhilah-mohd-bakri","fullName":"Noor Fadhilah Mohd Bakri"},{"id":"539491","title":"Mrs.","name":"Lily Sohaida","surname":"Mohd Sojak","slug":"lily-sohaida-mohd-sojak","fullName":"Lily Sohaida Mohd Sojak"},{"id":"539773","title":"Mr.","name":"Mohammad Rejab","surname":"Ismail","slug":"mohammad-rejab-ismail","fullName":"Mohammad Rejab Ismail"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"86885","title":"The Menace of Aflatoxin: Understanding the Effects of Contamination by \u003Cem\u003EAspergillus Species\u003C\u002Fem\u003E on Crops and Human Health and Advancements in Managing These Toxic Metabolites","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.110782","slug":"the-menace-of-aflatoxin-understanding-the-effects-of-contamination-by-em-aspergillus-species-em-on-c","totalDownloads":189,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":9,"abstract":"Food security and safety are essential global issues that require collaboration from governments, private industry, and individuals to ensure there is enough safe and nutritious food to meet the needs of a growing population. The three main elements impacting food security and safety are the availability of food, access to safe food, and the utilization of food for a healthy life. Aflatoxins, harmful mycotoxins produced by certain fungi, damage a significant proportion of the world’s food supply, which is a factor in food insecurity. Effective strategies to prevent and manage aflatoxin contamination in crops include promoting sustainable and diversified agricultural practices, improving crop management, post-harvest handling and storage, and strict regulation and monitoring of food quality and safety. To date, there have been 20 different types of aflatoxins identified, with B1, B2, G1, and G2 being the most prevalent and dangerous. To mitigate the impact of aflatoxins, it is important to understand the mechanisms of contamination, the impact of aflatoxins, and the management strategies that can be employed to reduce contamination. An updated review on aflatoxin contamination, its impact and management strategies can provide valuable information for researchers, policymakers, and food safety professionals.","signatures":"Amir Afzal, Sairah Syed, Rafiq Ahmad, Muhammad Zeeshan and Ghulam Nabi","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F86885","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F86885","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"520015","title":"Dr.","name":"Amir","surname":"Afzal","slug":"amir-afzal","fullName":"Amir Afzal"},{"id":"569302","title":"Dr.","name":"Sairah","surname":"Syed","slug":"sairah-syed","fullName":"Sairah Syed"},{"id":"569303","title":"Dr.","name":"Rafiq","surname":"Ahmad","slug":"rafiq-ahmad","fullName":"Rafiq Ahmad"},{"id":"569304","title":"Dr.","name":"Muhammad","surname":"Zeeshan","slug":"muhammad-zeeshan","fullName":"Muhammad Zeeshan"},{"id":"569305","title":"Dr.","name":"Ghulam","surname":"Nabi","slug":"ghulam-nabi","fullName":"Ghulam Nabi"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"87813","title":"Whey Protein Fermentation with \u003Cem\u003EAspergillus niger\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: Source of Antioxidant Peptides","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.111895","slug":"whey-protein-fermentation-with-em-aspergillus-niger-em-source-of-antioxidant-peptides","totalDownloads":120,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":10,"abstract":"Aspergillus niger is a filamentous fungus that through its proteolytic activity, as a result of its proteases, hydrolyzes whey proteins into smaller peptides. These peptides are characterized by antioxidant properties due to the presence of specific amino acids, such as histidine, tyrosine, tryptophan, cysteine, and methionine, which have been shown to have antioxidant effects. Considering the above, peptide extracts derived from the fermentation of a lactic serum substrate with Aspergillus niger were obtained, which were partially purified by precipitation with ZnSO4\u002Facetone; subsequently, the antioxidant capacity was evaluated by spectrophotometric techniques as 2,2-azinobis-3ethyl benzothiazole-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS▪+), diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH▪), in 96-well microplates, these analyses showed that these extracts have an antioxidant activity higher than 50%; likewise, the amount of thiol groups (-SH) was determined to be higher than 29 nmol\u002FμL and the superoxide dismutase activity (SOD) with values above 0.010 SOD units\u002FmL. For this reason, it is proposed that they can be studied in the future as substances within a food supplementation or in the therapeutic field.","signatures":"Marcela Patricia Gomez Rojas and Oscar Marino Mosquera Martinez","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F87813","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F87813","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"244034","title":"Dr.","name":"Óscar","surname":"Marino Mosquera Martinez","slug":"oscar-marino-mosquera-martinez","fullName":"Óscar Marino Mosquera Martinez"},{"id":"519575","title":"M.Sc.","name":"Marcela","surname":"Patricia Gomez Rojas","slug":"marcela-patricia-gomez-rojas","fullName":"Marcela Patricia Gomez Rojas"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0}]},"relatedBooks":[{"type":"book","id":"3109","title":"Aflatoxins","subtitle":"Recent Advances and Future Prospects","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true,"hash":"453773f0490ed038eebb02e3148e695b","slug":"aflatoxins-recent-advances-and-future-prospects","bookSignature":"Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F3109.jpg","editedByType":"Edited by","editors":[{"id":"48251","title":"Dr.","name":"Mehdi","surname":"Razzaghi-Abyaneh","slug":"mehdi-razzaghi-abyaneh","fullName":"Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"productType":{"id":"1","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},{"type":"book","id":"10770","title":"The Genus Aspergillus","subtitle":"Pathogenicity, Mycotoxin Production and Industrial Applications","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true,"hash":"3c738f90b4a382d3a3a6f9326ec390a9","slug":"the-genus-aspergillus-pathogenicity-mycotoxin-production-and-industrial-applications","bookSignature":"Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh and Mahendra Rai","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F10770.jpg","editedByType":"Edited by","editors":[{"id":"48251","title":"Dr.","name":"Mehdi","surname":"Razzaghi-Abyaneh","slug":"mehdi-razzaghi-abyaneh","fullName":"Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"productType":{"id":"1","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},{"type":"book","id":"2040","title":"Innovations in Biotechnology","subtitle":null,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true,"hash":"7aa191e2ed1767776deb20916d3b6776","slug":"innovations-in-biotechnology","bookSignature":"Eddy C. 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The specialized literature has noted that resins are still in development, with their mechanical properties significantly inferior to those of classical materials at the current stage of their research. This could result in a composite material with reduced mechanical properties to implement plant-based solutions in the field of composites, with composites reinforced with flax fiber showing the most promise.\r\nMany fields, such as construction, electronics, automotive, energy, maritime, and aeronautics, are increasingly using these resins due to their versatile nature. They can withstand massive loads without breaking or deforming due to their high tensile and compressive strength. This book will aim to unite methodologies, performance evaluations, and environmental considerations, offering insights into future trends and challenges in epoxy research and development. Epoxy—Materials, Applications, and Advanced Technologies—can be a guide not only for those in the industry or researchers but also for students who want to know the latest trends in resin development and research.","isbn":"978-1-83634-316-5","printIsbn":"978-1-83634-317-2","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83634-318-9","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1008044","price":0,"priceEur":null,"priceUsd":null,"oapfPrice":1400,"slug":null,"numberOfPages":0,"isOpenForSubmission":true,"isSalesforceBook":true,"isNomenclature":false,"hash":"83fb93aaa41ac8879f122c182d91f13c","bookSignature":"Prof. Petrica Vizureanu and Dr. Madalina Simona Baltatu","publishedDate":null,"coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc00000BcWB7IAN\u002F0016596_TrikoderCover%20%282024-11-05%2011%3A35%3A13%29.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004692\u002F1730905625-1576307051\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004692\u002F1730905625-1576307051\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":null,"cdnWebCoverURL300":null,"cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004692\u002F1739536462-1167391894\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004692\u002F1739536462-1167391894\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","keywords":"Thermosetting Polymers, Chemical Resistance, Cross-linking Density, Mechanical Properties, Adhesives and Sealants, Composite Materials, Protective Coatings, Structural Repairs, Nanocomposites, Advanced Curing Agents, Self-healing Epoxies, Lightweight Materials","numberOfDownloads":null,"numberOfWosCitations":null,"numberOfCrossrefCitations":0,"numberOfDimensionsCitations":0,"numberOfTotalCitations":0,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"dateEndFirstStepPublish":"February 18th 2025","dateEndSecondStepPublish":"March 23rd 2025","dateEndThirdStepPublish":"May 20th 2025","dateEndFourthStepPublish":"August 8th 2025","dateEndFifthStepPublish":"October 7th 2025","dateConfirmationOfParticipation":"March 18th 2025","remainingDaysToSecondStep":"a month","secondStepPassed":false,"areRegistrationsClosed":false,"currentStepOfPublishingProcess":2,"editedByType":null,"kuFlag":false,"sdgRelated":false,"biosketch":"Professor Petrica Vizureanu is a distinguished scholar and innovator in the field of materials science and engineering with many significant contributions to the research and development of advanced materials, particularly focusing on biomaterials, metallic alloys, and smart materials for industrial.","equalEditorOneBiosketch":null,"equalEditorTwoBiosketch":null,"equalEditorThreeBiosketch":null,"coeditorOneBiosketch":"Lecturer Ph.D Eng. BALTATU has been a young researcher since 2014 in the field of biomaterials, a hard worker on titanium alloys. Her publication record is over 64 articles of which 42 are indexed in journals with IF. Other achievements include: 4 international books, 3 international books as editor, 3 national books, 6 international book chapters, 5 patent applications, and 61 awards at invention salons.","coeditorTwoBiosketch":null,"coeditorThreeBiosketch":null,"coeditorFourBiosketch":null,"coeditorFiveBiosketch":null,"isPublished":false,"isDeactivated":false,"hasEditors":true,"editors":[{"id":"12354","title":"Prof.","name":"Petrica","middleName":null,"surname":"Vizureanu","slug":"petrica-vizureanu","fullName":"Petrica Vizureanu","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F12354\u002F1720604236\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Petrică Vizureanu obtained an MSc and Ph.D. in heating equipment at the Gheorghe Asachi Technical University, Iasi, Romania, in 1992 and 1999, respectively. Dr. Vizureanu is currently a full professor and scientific supervisor in materials engineering at the same university and the appointed director of the Department of Technologies and Equipment for Materials Processing. He is an editor and guest editor for many journals and publishing houses. His research focuses on expert systems for heating system programming, computer-assisted design for heating equipment, heating equipment for materials processing, heat transfer, biomaterials, and geopolymers. He has published more than 250 papers in international journals and conference proceedings as well as over 40 books.","institutionString":null,"countryString":"Romania","position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"15","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"10","institution":{"name":"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Romania"}}}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":{"id":"314944","title":"Dr.","name":"Madalina Simona","middleName":null,"surname":"Baltatu","slug":"madalina-simona-baltatu","fullName":"Madalina Simona Baltatu","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F314944\u002F1720604275\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Mădălina Simona Bălțatu is a lecturer at Technical University “Gh. Asachi” from Iași; she defended her Ph.D. thesis in 2017. She is a young researcher with a lot of experience in the field of biomaterials (proven by articles, international books, and book chapters: https:\u002F\u002Fwww.afir.org.ro\u002Fmsb\u002F). Published work includes six books and four book chapters; 60 papers published in journals and at conferences, of which 40 articles are indexed in Web of Science; five patent applications and 56 awards obtained at invention salons (32 gold medals, seven silver medals, two bronze medals, 15 special awards). More information about published work: h-index 17, Citations: 781, Source: Google Scholar; h-index 15, Citations: 495, Source: Web of Science.","institutionString":null,"countryString":"Romania","position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"7","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"2","institution":{"name":"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Romania"}}},"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"assistantEditorOne":null,"assistantEditorTwo":null,"assistantEditorThree":null,"assistantEditorFour":null,"assistantEditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"156","title":"Composite Materials","slug":"materials-science-composite-materials"}],"chapters":null,"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"series":{"id":"1003779","title":"Materials Science","issn":"3049-8856","editor":{"id":"470403","name":"Chonghe","middleName":null,"surname":"Li","fullName":"Chonghe Li","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F470403\u002F1734031039\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Shanghai University","country":{"name":"China"}}}},"subseries":{"id":"1003781","series":{"id":"1003779","title":"Materials Science","issn":"3049-8856","editor":{"id":"470403","name":"Chonghe","middleName":null,"surname":"Li","fullName":"Chonghe Li","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F470403\u002F1734031039\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Shanghai University","country":{"name":"China"}}}}},"personalPublishingAssistant":{"id":"301331","firstName":"Mia","lastName":"Vulovic","middleName":null,"title":"Mrs.","imageUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fstorage\u002Fusers\u002F301331\u002Fimages\u002F8498_n.jpg","email":"mia.v@intechopen.com","biography":"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P1\"\u003EA web-based oil diagnosis system for continuous online lubricant condition monitoring is presented. The new approach utilizes sensor detection of chemical aging of engineering oils and their additives or first traces of wear debris by precision measurement of the electrical properties. The basic concept and physical background are introduced in detail.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P2\"\u003EThe application potential of the sensor system is discussed on the example of the early identification of critical operating conditions for premature white etching cracks failures of rolling bearings in industrial gearboxes. Causative vibration loading is revealed prior to any component damage. Large roller bearings in wind energy gearboxes unusually often fail prematurely, i.e. clearly before the nominal \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EL\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E10\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E life. The failure is characterized by axial raceway cracks, from which branching and spreading crack systems, partly decorated by white etching microstructure, develop into the depth by corrosion fatigue. High localized friction coefficients, resulting from the specific vibration caused mixed friction operating conditions, initiate tensile stress induced cleavage-like brittle spontaneous surface cracking. The basic idea of the novel failure detection condition monitoring system is the early identification of chemical aging of the lubricant and its additives under the influence of vibration loading.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P3\"\u003EThe sensor effectively controls the proper operation conditions of, e.g., bearings and gears in gearboxes. The online diagnostics system measures components of the specific complex impedance of oils. For instance, metal abrasion due to wear debris, broken oil molecules, forming acids or oil soaps, result in an increase of the electrical conductivity, which directly correlates with the degree of contamination of the oil. For additivated lubricants, the stage of degradation of the additives can also be derived from changes in the dielectric constant. The determination of the reduction in the oil quality by contaminations and the quasi continuous evaluation of wear and chemical aging follow the holistic approach of a real-time monitoring of an alteration in the condition of the oil-machine system. The measuring signals can be transmitted online to a web-based monitoring system via LAN, WLAN or serial interfaces of the sensor. Control of the relevant damage mechanisms, e.g. tribiological wear or oil aging, during proper operation below certain tolerance limits then allows preventive, condition-oriented maintenance to be carried out, if necessary, long before regular overhauling. Outage durations are reduced and the life of components and machines is increased.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Basic sensor concept and physical principles\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.1. Basic sensor concept\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF1\"\u003EThe basic sensor concept of the novel engineering oil monitoring system is based on the measurement of complex oil impedance components \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EX\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, particularly the specific electrical conductivity κ and the relative permittivity ε\u003Csub\u003Er\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E. Due to their temperature dependence, the oil temperature \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ET\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E is also recorded [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E-\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Two or more electrodes, between which the oil flows, serve as a basic sensor. Resistance and capacity are measured independently of each other. Zero-mean periodic quantities are used to prevent polarization effects. \u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the sensor in its triple plate design.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage1.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ESensor in triple plate design.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P5\"\u003EOils are electrical non-conductors. The electrical residual conductivity of pure oils lies in the range below 1 pS\u002Fm. For comparison, the electrical conductivity of the electrical non-conductor distilled water is larger by six orders of magnitude.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P6\"\u003EBroken oil molecules, acids, abrasive (metallic) wear, ions, oil soaps, etc., cause an increase of the oil conductivity κ. It rises with increasing ion concentration and mobility. The electrical conductivity of almost all impurities is high compared to the extremely low corresponding property of original pure oils. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P7\"\u003EThe basic sensor represents an electrode arrangement, in which the measured oil is used as electrical conductor and as dielectric material for conductivity and relative permittivity measurement, respectively. Oil is an electrical non-conductor. High resistance of the basic sensor and resulting low measurement currents provide best interference sensitivity to interspersed electromagnetic fields. Due to the very small currents, moreover, sufficient interference suppression is achieved. To prevent polarization effects, zero-mean alternating current voltages are measured as test signals. However, no capacitive current components may be measured simultaneously during a conductivity measurement because the capacitive current is much higher than its ohmic components. Thus, rather high requirements are set on analog sensor electronic systems, which are met with the reported measurement procedure.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P8\"\u003EThe conductivities of the insulating construction elements and insulation of electrical feedthrough are about the same size as for the pure oils to be analyzed. The developed basic sensors and precise sensor electronic system ensure that the conductivity of feedthroughs and substrates may not be included into the test results. The active basic sensor unit consists of two or several basic sensor plates which are fixed to metal pins of a glass\u002Fmetal feedthrough in a constant distant from each other. The plates of the basic sensor are arranged in the middle of the measuring chamber, allowing for an adequate incident flow of the flowing medium. A special alignment of the sensor housing parts is thus not necessary in this design. The extension characteristics of the sensor housing materials and the glass\u002Fmetal feedthrough pins are exactly adjusted to the material characteristics of the used feedthrough glass. The compression strength is above 10 MPa\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.2. Temperature compensation\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF2\"\u003EThe ion mobility and thus the electrical conductivity κ depend upon the internal friction of the oil and therefore also on its temperature. The oil conductivity increases with temperature. \u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the dependence of the conductivity κ on the temperature change Δ\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ET\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage2.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ETemperature dependence of the electrical conductivity of sample oil.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P10\"\u003EAlready for about 3 °C alteration in temperature, the conductivity changes by about 25%. The electrical conductivity κ is a temperature function that depends on oil impurities rather than on the oil itself. The type of pollution and its temperature dependence cannot be assumed to be known. To improve the comparability of measurements, a self-learning adaptive temperature compensation algorithm is implemented. An integral alteration of the oil quality can then be assessed by the temperature compensated conductivity value, whereas the type of contamination is not determinable. The relative permittivity is measured with the same basic sensor arrangement as used for the electrical conductivity.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P11\"\u003EThe electrical conductivity and relative permittivity are to be measured with respect to a reference temperature \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ET\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E as close as possible to the operating temperature of the oil. These parameters can be evaluated by means of temperature-dependent approximating polynomials, as demonstrated below exemplarily for the electrical conductivity:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E1\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eκ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eκ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003ER\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E,\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced separators=\"|\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EΔ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003ET\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EΔ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:msubsup\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003ET\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E2\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msubsup\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EΔ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:msubsup\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003ET\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E3\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msubsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E×\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eκ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EM\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE1\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp id=\"P12\"\u003EHere, κ\u003Csub\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E and κ\u003Csub\u003ER,0\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E denote the approximate and previously calculated (old) electrical conductivity of the oil at the reference temperature \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ET\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003ER\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E, respectively. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ET\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003EC\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E stands for the current temperature of the oil and κ\u003Csub\u003EM\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is the electrical conductivity measured without temperature compensation. Moreover, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Eb\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, und \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ec\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E are the coefficients of the approximating polynomial to be adaptively determined. The temperature difference is defined as follows:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E2\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EΔ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003ET\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003ET\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003ER\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E-\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003ET\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE2\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF3\"\u003EThe oil temperature \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ET\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003EC\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is measured for this temperature compensation. The use of a polynomial of the third order in \u003Ca href=\"#E1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"disp-formula\"\u003EEq. (1)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E ensures good approximation while keeping the computational effort for the applied microcomputer reasonably low. \u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the measured values of the electrical conductivity κ after temperature compensation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage3.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EMeasured conductivity values after temperature compensation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.3. Calculation and linear approximation of relative permittivity and conductivity \u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P14\"\u003EIn a series of experiments on the non-additivated lubricating oil FVA03, fresh demineralized water was added to a volume of 3.01%. The oil conductivity data measured as a function of the water content are found to follow a linear relationship in good approximation. The theoretical course of the relative permittivity is calculated for dilute solutions according to different mixing rules by truncating a Taylor series expansion of the model equations after the linear term. The model of Lichtenecker is evaluated in \u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. Lichtenecker developed the formula of \u003Ca href=\"#E3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"disp-formula\"\u003EEq. (3)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E for calculating the dielectric constant of a homogeneous mixture ε\u003Csub\u003Er\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]: \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E3\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Er\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msubsup\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Er\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E,\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Ed\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ef\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msubsup\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E×\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msubsup\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Eε\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Er\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E,\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Eo\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003El\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E1\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E-\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ef\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msubsup\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE3\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp id=\"preF4\"\u003EThe permittivity of the addition and the oil, respectively, is denoted ε\u003Csub\u003Er,add\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E and ε\u003Csub\u003Er,oil\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E. With the volume fraction \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ef\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E of the addition, 1−\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003Ef\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E becomes the volume fraction of the oil.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage4.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 4.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EElectrical permittivity ε\u003Csub\u003Er\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E measured as a function of the water content and model fit according to \u003Cxref rid=\"E3\" ref-type=\"disp-formula\"\u003EEq. (3)\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Premature failures of rolling bearings and correlation with oil aging\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF5\"\u003EBearings in industrial, e.g. wind turbine, gearboxes unusually often suffer from a significantly shorter life than calculated by white etching cracks [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. \u003Ca href=\"#F5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the light-optical micrograph of a typical metallographic microsection [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The overrolling direction from left to right indicates surface initiation and top-down propagation of the extended crack system.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F5\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage5.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 5.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ERadial microsection of a branching and spreading white etching crack system.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF6\"\u003EThese early failures are characterized by mostly axial raceway cracks, revealing vertical semi to fully circular cleavage-like lenticular brittle spontaneous incipient cracks in preparatively opened original fracture faces [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Occasionally, pock-like spallings are associated with the surface cracks, as shown exemplarily in \u003Ca href=\"#F6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The developing deep crack systems are open to the raceway, from which oil penetrates and promotes further corrosion fatigue crack growth as well as local secondary microstructural changes in the form of crack path decorating white etching constituents. It is evident from fractography and X-ray diffraction (XRD) residual stress analyses that the cleavage-like incipient cracks are caused by frictional tangential tensile stresses [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], which occur in subregions of the contact area in specific, vibrationally induced mixed friction operating conditions [5–8].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F6\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage6.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 6.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EInner ring raceway with typical axial cracks and few associated pock-like spallings.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF7\"\u003EXRD based material response analyses of run rolling bearings, suffering from white etching cracks on still largely undamaged raceways, reveal the causative vibration loading [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It is further reported that lubricant aging occurs under the influence of vibrations [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. An example of an infrared spectrum of used oil from rig test run of a roller bearing is provided in \u003Ca href=\"#F7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The verified O‒H and C=O oxidation bands indicate operational acidification of the oil, also reflected in the dissolution of MnS inclusion lines on the raceway (cf. \u003Ca href=\"#F8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 8)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, as a result of polycondensation reactions towards resinification and beginning lacquer formation. It is this aging of the lubricating oil and its additives, which can be detected at an early stage by the new sensor so that a gearbox operating at critical conditions is identified.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F7\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage7.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 7.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EOxidation peaks in the infrared spectrum of a used non-additivated aliphatic lubricating oil run under vibration loading in a rolling bearing rig test (λ is the wavelength).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF8\"\u003EThe mentioned crack initiation by tribochemical reactions is also found on lateral surfaces of rollers. In \u003Ca href=\"#F8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image, taken in the secondary electron imaging mode, is shown on the left. Residues of manganese and sulphur, detected in the crack-like defect by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (\u003Ca href=\"#F8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, on the right), indicate the causative tribo chemical dissolution of nonmetallic MnS inclusions [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F8\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage8.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 8.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ESEM image of a crack on a bearing roller with elemental mapping of Mn and S.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_7\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Trial of the oil sensor system on a bearing and gear test rig\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P20\"\u003EOn a bearing and gear test rig, the new sensor based oil quality monitoring system is applied. Various load cycles are run and speeds and torques are measured. The results of the trial are described, evaluated and discussed in the following sections.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_7_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.1. Loss of power and trial run characteristics\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P21\"\u003EThe speed-related power \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EP\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E(\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E) of the test rig is given as follows:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E4\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EM\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∙\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eω\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ew\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Et\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eh\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003E \u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eω\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E2\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eπ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∙\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003En\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE4\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp id=\"P22\"\u003EHere, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EM\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E denotes the torque, ω and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E respectively stand for the angular velocity and rotational speed. The implemented power loss ∆\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EP\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E is derived from the transmission ratio \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EN\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EÜ\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E: \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E5\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∆\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eω\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E1\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∙\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced separators=\"|\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EM\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E1\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E-\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EN\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003EÜ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∙\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EM\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E2\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE5\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF9\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EM\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E1\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EM\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E indicate the torque of the drive and the load, respectively. In the first trial on the test rig, the rolling bearing is intentionally damaged. The time-dependent power loss in the gear, as derived from the measuring signal characteristics, is represented in \u003Ca href=\"#F9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F9\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage9.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 9.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ECalculated power loss Δ\u003Citalic\u003EP\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P24\"\u003EAfter switching to a higher load, the power loss increases abruptly before the bearings run in. Towards the end of the trial, the bearings reveal indication of advanced deterioration. A wide lubrication gap and vibrations when overrolling spalling results in higher oscillation amplitudes, which leads to the automatic shutdown of the test rig eventually. The measuring results obtained with the oil sensor system are presented in the following.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.2. Conductivity of the lubricating oil\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF10\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the test readings of the conductivity measurement of the lubricating oil. The current bearing wear and the deteriorating oil condition in the conducted trial are reflected in the change of the electrical conductivity plotted vs. running time in the diagram.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F10\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage10.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 10.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EMeasurement of the electrical conductivity κ vs. running time \u003Citalic\u003Et\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF11\"\u003ENew oil from the storage container exhibits a conductivity κ of 2312 pS\u002Fm. After filling into the trial gear and before the start-up of the test rig, a conductivity of 2791 pS\u002Fm is measured. This increase can be attributed to existing residual impurities in the gear. During the trial run, the conductivity κ of the gear oil increases to 16868 pS\u002Fm. Besides changes in temperature, conductivity increase is caused, e.g., by wear debris and removed material from spalling, impurities, broken oil molecules or forming oil soap. As described above, the temperature dependence of the electrical conductivity of the used gear oil is compensated and the oil conductivity measured in the gear trial is converted into the relevant conductivity value at 40 °C. \u003Ca href=\"#F11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the development of the temperature compensated oil conductivity with running time during the gear trial.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F11\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage11.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 11.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ETime curve of the temperature compensated oil conductivity derived from \u003Cxref rid=\"F10\" ref-type=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 10\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P27\"\u003EIn the case of an initially low load, the electrical conductivity increases linearly with running time. It is to be assumed that the low bearing wear in this area also increases proportional to the time.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P28\"\u003EDuring the necessary intermediate shutdown (interruption) and run-up of the drive machine to 330 Nm, the conductivity is virtually constant. After switching over to the higher load, the oil conductivity increases strongly. Here, the bearing run-in (shakedown) is shown as reduction in the conductivity increase. More than about 30 minutes prior to the final forced shutdown of the trial run by an oscillation sensor, the conductivity remains almost constant followed by a temporary rise directly before disconnection. After switching off the test gear, the oil conductivity decreases strongly. This clearly emphasizes the influence of the additives. During the loading stages, more impurities per time unit are produced than bound to additives. After shutting down the test rig, no further oil contamination occurs while the effect of additives still continues.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF12\"\u003EThe variations in electrical conductivity are depicted in \u003Ca href=\"#F12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. In this diagram, the curve follows averages respectively calculated over 3 minutes.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F12\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage12.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 12.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EAlteration of the electrical conductivity, expressed as \u003Citalic\u003E∆\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003Eκ\u003Csub\u003E40\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E\u002F∆\u003Citalic\u003Et,\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E vs. running time \u003Citalic\u003Et\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF13\"\u003EWhen starting up at 2000 revolutions per minute and a torque of 150 Nm, a relatively constant change in conductivity from 0.6 to 0.8 pS\u002F(m×3 min), equivalent to 3.3 to 4.4 fS\u002F(m×s), occurs. In the case of higher load (330 Nm, 3000 min\u003Csup\u003E–1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E), the change in conductivity rises up to 3.8 pS\u002F(m×3 min), i.e. 21.1 fS\u002F(m×s). After the intermediate load increase, the effect on the change of the oil conductivity appears stronger. This may be attributed to the time-dependent formation of impurities and changes in bearing stressing as can be expected during the development of spalling. \u003Ca href=\"#F13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the inner ring of the failed planet bearing with massive damage of the raceway at the end of the trial.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F13\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage13.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 13.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EHeavily spalled inner ring raceway of the tested cylindrical roller bearing.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF14\"\u003EThe connection between the change in conductivity κ and the loss of power ∆\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EP\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in the gear is also evaluated. \u003Ca href=\"#F14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E represents this progress graphically. Both the increasing change in oil conductivity and the gear power loss correlate with the bearing wear.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F14\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage14.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 14.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EAlteration of the electrical conductivity as function of power loss of the gearbox.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P32\"\u003EIn the diagram of \u003Ca href=\"#F14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, a trend line is drawn as polynomial of the third order. The higher the increases in conductivity and loss of power in the gear, the stronger the bearing wear occurs. Exceptional changes to the system, e.g. switching of the load conditions, are not taken into account.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.3. Relative permittivity of the lubricating oil\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF15\"\u003EIn addition to the electrical conductivity, the relative permittivity ε\u003Csub\u003Er\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E of the oil is measured. In the case of oils not enriched with additives, the water content can be determined that way. There are good prospects that the dwindling efficacy of the additives can be detected by means of the dielectric constant measurement. \u003Ca href=\"#F15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the time development of the relative permittivity during the trial run. Due to the dependence on temperature, this development is also depicted in the diagram.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F15\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage15.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 15.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ETime curves of the relative permittivity ε\u003Csub\u003Er\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E and the temperature \u003Citalic\u003ET\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E as a function of the running time \u003Citalic\u003Et\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF16\"\u003EThe change of the relative permittivity could be caused by a combination of the effects of a chemical reaction of additives, water evaporation from the oil and the temperature dependence of the cell constants as well as the relative permittivity itself. During the trial run, the temperature increases from 42 to 52.9 °C. The temperature dependence justifies the developed adaptive, self-learning temperature compensation technique. \u003Ca href=\"#F16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the temperature compensated time development of the relative permittivity during the gear trial.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F16\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage16.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 16.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ETime curve of the temperature compensated relative permittivity ε\u003Csub\u003Er\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_11\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Approach for condition monitoring of additivated lubricating oils\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P35\"\u003EA direct connection between the electrical conductivity and the degree of contamination of oils is found. An increase of the electrical conductivity of the oil in operation can thus be interpreted as increasing wear or contamination of the lubricant. The aging of the oil is also evident in the degradation of additives. The used additives reveal high conductivity compared with the oil. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF17\"\u003EThe consumption of the additives is reflected in a reduction of the electrical conductivity and permittivity of the oil. The gradient, i.e. the time derivative, of the conductivity or the dielectric constant progression respectively represents a measure of the additive degradation and consumption. The full additive degradation is indicated by the slope of zero (bathtub curve). Then the measurement signal increases further with increasing pollution, water entry, etc. \u003Ca href=\"#F17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E schematically shows the temperature compensated time curve of the permittivity of additivated oil continuously contaminated by the addition of wear debris, water or oil acids from chemical aging. Once the additives are consumed, the vanishing shielding effect results in a characteristic re-increase.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F17\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage17.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 17.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003ETemperature compensated permittivity.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P37\"\u003EThe most commercially available particle counters only detect particles as small as 4 µm. In a very early stage of wear of bearings, gears, hydraulic cylinders, etc., however, particularly smaller particles are produced. A preventive maintenance lowing, rather than rigid inspection intervals, therefore requires recognition of even the smallest particles. These particles are far more common in the oils of functioning machines than larger ones. Oil aging can be involved in the failure, for instance, of rolling bearings [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_12\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E6. Web-based decentralized lubricant quality monitoring system\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P38\"\u003EThe integration into a suitable communication structure and the realization of an online monitoring system offers an interesting practice-oriented utilization of the oil sensor system. This is briefly discussed below.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P39\"\u003EPreferred areas of application of the sensor system are energy production and automated technical plants that are operated locally, like e.g. wind turbines, generators, hydraulic systems or gearboxes. Plant employers are interested in continuous automated in vivo examination of the oil quality rather than interrupting the operation for regular sampling. Online oil status monitoring significantly improves the economic and ecological efficiency by increasing operating safety, reducing down times or adjusting oil change intervals to actual requirements. Once the oil condition monitoring sensors are installed on the plants, the measuring data can be displayed and evaluated elsewhere. A flexible decentralized monitoring system also enables the analysis of measuring signals and monitoring of the plants by external providers. A user-orientated service ensuring the quantitative evaluation of changes in the oil-machine system, including the recommendation of resulting preventive maintenance measures, relieves plant operators, increases reliability and saves costs.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF18\"\u003EIn a web-based decentralized online oil condition monitoring system, the sensor signals are preferably transferred through the Internet to a database server and recorded on an HTML page as user interface [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. \u003Ca href=\"#F18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the displayed measured data. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F18\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage18.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 18.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EDisplayed measured data.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF19\"\u003EFollowing authentication, a simple web browser permits access via the wired or wireless LAN. In case of alarm signals, an immediate automated generation of warning messages, for instance by e-mail or SMS, is possible from any computer with Internet connection. \u003Ca href=\"#F19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the new sensor system with communication unit [\u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F19\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage19.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 19.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" xmlns:sym=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2012\u002Fsymbol\"\u003EWearSens\u003Csup\u003E®\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E sensor system with communication unit.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_13\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E7. Conclusions\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P42\"\u003EThe online diagnostics system measures components of the specific complex impedance of oils. For instance, metal abrasion due to bearing wear at the tribological contact, broken oil molecules, acids or oil soap cause an increase in electrical conductivity that directly correlates with the degree of pollution of the oil. The dielectrical properties of the oils are especially determined by the water content, which, in the case of products that are not enriched with additives, becomes accessible by an additional accurate measurement of the relative permittivity. In the case of oils enriched with additives, statements on the degradation of additives can also be deduced from recorded changes in the relative permittivity. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P43\"\u003EIndication of damage and wear is measured as an integral factor of, e.g., the degree of pollution, oil aging and acidification, water content and the decomposition state of additives or abrasion of the bearings. It provides informative data on lubricant aging and material loading as well as the wear of the bearings and gears for the online operative monitoring of components of machines. Additional loading, for instance, by vibration induced mixed friction in rolling-sliding contact (rolling bearings, gears, cams, etc.) causes specific faster oil aging, e.g., in the course of premature component failures. Verified in roller bearing vibration rig tests, the oil suffers from significant acidification by polycondensation reactions and incipient resinification, as proven by infrared spectroscopy of used lubricant. The application potential of the sensor is discussed on the example of the prevention of early rolling bearing failures in industrial gearboxes, of which vibrational contact loading is the root cause.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P44\"\u003EFor an efficient machine utilization and targeted damage prevention, the new electrical online oil condition monitoring system offers the prospect to carry out timely preventative maintenance on demand rather than in rigid inspection intervals. The determination of impurities or reduction in the quality of the lubricants and the quasi continuous evaluation of the bearing and gear wear and oil aging meet the holistic approach of a real-time monitoring of a change in the condition of the oil-machine system. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P45\"\u003EThe measuring signals can be transmitted to a web-based condition monitoring system via LAN, WLAN or serial interfaces of the sensor system. The monitoring of the tribological wear mechanisms during proper operation below the tolerance limits of the components then allows preventive, condition-oriented maintenance to be carried out, if necessary, long before regular overhauling, thus reducing outages caused by wear while simultaneously increasing the overall lifetime of the oil-machine system.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P46\"\u003EOn a bearing and gear rig test, various load cycles are run and the functionality of the introduced electric online condition monitoring sensor system is tested successfully. The evaluation of the experiment is presented.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":null,"chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpdfs\u002F44606.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fsource\u002Fxml\u002F44606.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F44606\u002F1671934974\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F44606","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F44606","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F44606\u002F1512345123\u002F","totalDownloads":4304,"totalViews":1325,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":18,"totalAltmetricsMentions":0,"introChapter":null,"impactScore":5,"impactScorePercentile":93,"impactScoreQuartile":4,"hasAltmetrics":0,"dateSubmitted":"March 29th 2012","dateReviewed":"January 8th 2013","datePrePublished":null,"datePublished":"May 22nd 2013","dateFinished":"May 9th 2013","readingETA":"0","abstract":null,"reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F44606","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F44606","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"3128","type":"book","title":"Tribology","subtitle":"Fundamentals and Advancements","fullTitle":"Tribology - Fundamentals and Advancements","slug":"tribology-fundamentals-and-advancements","publishedDate":"May 22nd 2013","bookSignature":"Jürgen Gegner","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F3128.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F3128\u002F1713433867-337209617\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F3128\u002F1713433867-337209617\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F3128\u002F1718270330-1976595436\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F3128\u002F1718270330-1976595436\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F3128\u002F1718107584-231465809\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F3128\u002F1718107584-231465809\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":"Edited by","isbn":null,"price":139,"printIsbn":"978-953-51-1135-1","pdfIsbn":"978-953-51-6342-8","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","numberOfWosCitations":135,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":true,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"40520","title":"Dr.","name":"Jürgen","middleName":null,"surname":"Gegner","slug":"jurgen-gegner","fullName":"Jürgen Gegner"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":null,"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"813"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"chapters":[{"id":"44639","type":"chapter","title":"Fundamentals of Lubricants and Lubrication","slug":"fundamentals-of-lubricants-and-lubrication","totalDownloads":6663,"totalCrossrefCites":3,"signatures":"Walter Holweger","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"157019","title":"Dr.","name":"Walter","middleName":null,"surname":"Holweger","fullName":"Walter Holweger","slug":"walter-holweger"}]},{"id":"44826","type":"chapter","title":"Lubrication and Lubricants","slug":"lubrication-and-lubricants","totalDownloads":9960,"totalCrossrefCites":5,"signatures":"Nehal S. 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Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Basic sensor concept and physical principles","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2_2","title":"2.1. Basic sensor concept","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_3_2","title":"2.2. Temperature compensation","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_4_2","title":"2.3. Calculation and linear approximation of relative permittivity and conductivity ","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_6","title":"3. Premature failures of rolling bearings and correlation with oil aging","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_7","title":"4. Trial of the oil sensor system on a bearing and gear test rig","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_7_2","title":"4.1. Loss of power and trial run characteristics","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_8_2","title":"4.2. Conductivity of the lubricating oil","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_9_2","title":"4.3. Relative permittivity of the lubricating oil","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_11","title":"5. Approach for condition monitoring of additivated lubricating oils","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_12","title":"6. Web-based decentralized lubricant quality monitoring system","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_13","title":"7. Conclusions","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation\u003EGegner, J., Kuipers, U., Mauntz, M. Ölsensorsystem zur Echtzeit-Zustandsüberwachung von technischen Anlagen und Maschinen, Technisches Messen 77; 2010. pp. 283-292.\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B2","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B2\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation\u003EKuipers, U., Mauntz, M. Ölsensorsystem – Sensorsystem zur Messung von Komponenten der komplexen Impedanz elektrisch gering leitender und nichtleitender Fluide, dessen Realisierung und Anwendung, German Patent Application N° 10 2008 047 366.9, Applicant: cmc Instruments GmbH, German Patent Office, Munich, Filing date: 15.09.2008, in German.\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B3","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B3\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation\u003EKuipers, U., Mauntz, M. Verfahren, Schaltungsanordnung, Sensor zur Messung physikalischer Größen in Fluiden sowie deren Verwendung, European Patent Application N° EP 09000244, European Patent Office, Munich; 09.01.2009, in German.\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B4","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B4\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation\u003ELichtenecker, K., Rother, K. Die Herleitung der logarithmischen Mischungsgesetzes aus allgemeinen Prinzipien der stationären Strömung, Physikalische Zeitschrift, 1931, 32, pp. 255-260.\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B5","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B5\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation\u003EGegner, J. Tribological Aspects of Rolling Bearing Failures, In: C.-H. Kuo (ed.), Tribology – Lubricants and Lubrication, Rijeka: InTech; 2011. Chap. 2, pp. 33-94.\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B6","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B6\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation\u003ENierlich, W., Gegner, J. 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Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003EVapor and water are used as heat transmission fluids in a number of heat transportation systems, both as a coolant and for heating, because of their accessibility and high heat capacity. A lake or the sea are two potential natural sources of chilly water [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Because of the high heat of vaporization, condensing steam is a highly effective heating fluid. Water and steam are corrosive, which is a drawback. Water is the coolant in practically all electric power plants, where it makes steam, and the steam spin the turbines that turn generators. Water is used extensively in the US to cool power plants. Water may also be utilized as a neutron moderator in nuclear power plants. Water serves as a condenser and a controller in most nuclear reactors. Removing water from the reactor inhibits the nuclear process.; nonetheless, alternative means for preventing a fission reaction are preferred, and it is preferable to have the nuclear reactor core roofed with water to provide sufficient cooling.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E1.1 Water utilization in electric power generation\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EThermoelectric or “thermal” power plants boil water to generate steam, which is then used to generate electricity. Hydropower plants, which employ dams and other methods to create energy in moving water, rely heavily on water. The flowing water drives the rotating blades, which spin a generator, and mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by the spinning of turbines [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Hydroelectric power generates a significant amount of the world’s electricity.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E1.2 Water chemistry in nuclear power plant\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECooling water\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: Most of the water is utilized to keep things cold. Vapor is accustomed to spinning the turbines that create electric power in power plants, which boil water to make steam. The steam is then cooled by drawing massive amounts of water from surrounding rivers, lakes, and seas, which is then utilized to generate additional power.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EBoiler water\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: Thermal power plants use boilers to produce pressurized steam, which is used to spin turbines to generate electricity. The theory of the Rankin Cycle does this. To produce a team, every boiler needs a huge amount of fuel. Coal, gas, oil, and nuclear fuel are used to heat boiler water.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EProcess water\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: A thermal power production plant that converts heat energy into electricity. A steam-driven turbine transforms heat into mechanical power as an intermediary to electrical power. Water is heated, converted to steam, and then used to drive a steam turbine, which moves a power generator to produce electricity.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EConsumptive water\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E: A condenser removes heat from the water cycle in a conventional thermoelectric power plant. Cooling water is utilized to get rid of the heat. The USGS (United States Geological Survey) also measured the quantity of water consumed by thermoelectric power plants (amount of water evaporated, transpired, or absorbed into products).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E1.3 The layout of nuclear power plant\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p8\"\u003EThere is various equipment used in a nuclear power plant. The most important parts are:\u003Col style=\"list-style-type: alpha-lower;\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p9\"\u003EFuel rod (Uranium is the basic fuel).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003EBlades\u002F Control rods.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003EModerator \u002Fcoolant.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p12\"\u003EReactor pressure vessel.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003ESteam\u002Fvapor Generator\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003ETurbine\u002Fgenerator\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003EContainment\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Fol\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p16\"\u003EIn steam turbines and steam turbine generators, superheaters are commonly utilized (HRSGs). Their goal is to elevate the temperature from saturation to the appropriate ultimate temperature, which in certain situations can be as high as 1000°F. When utilized in steam turbines, superheated steam lowers the turbine’s heat rate and, as a result, lowers the turbine’s steam heat rate, improving the turbine and related to plant power and output efficiency. Also, based on the pressure ratio, steam situations at the steam turbine exhaust will have no moisture; nonetheless, moisture in the last few phases of a steam turbine might harm the turbine blades. Some design approaches and performance elements of superheaters that might be of relevance to power station engineers may be found in the study that are listed\u002Fmentioned below. The most important components of a nuclear power plant are:\u003Col style=\"list-style-type: alpha-lower;\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003EWater storage tank\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003EWater circulating pump\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p19\"\u003EBoiler\u002Fsteam generator\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003ETurbine\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003EGenerator\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Fol\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003EIn a pressurized water reactor (PWR), a nuclear power plant contains three main circuits:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003EThe primary circuit absorbs heat from the reactor core and transfers it to the secondary to produce steam.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003EIn this circuit, the water turns into steam.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003EThe tertiary circuit is called the cooling circuit. Here the steam condenses and turns into water (\u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1148495\u002F1730285076-412876043\u002Fmedia\u002FF1.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p26\"\u003ELayout of nuclear power plant [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E1.3.1 Primary circuit\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003EPWRs are a type of pressurized water reactor that uses ordinary water as a controller and coolant. A main cooling circuit that runs under tremendous pressure through the reactor core and a secondary circuit that creates steam to power the turbine define the architecture [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The heat from the reactor’s fuel rods was transported to a primary circuit that held water. This water gets incredibly hot (about 300°C), yet it does not boil since it’s kept under pressure (around 155 bar). As a result, the moniker “pressurized water reactor” was coined [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E1.3.2 Secondary circuit\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003EThe water in the secondary circuit is at reduced pressure, so it blooms in the heat transfer, which acts as a steam\u002Fvapor generator. The vapor is condensed and transferred to the heat transfer in connection with the previous (primary) circuit then it drives the turbine and produces energy. The steam generator receives the heated water via a heat exchanger. Heat is transmitted from the reactor cooling water to a different secondary circuit (the steam-water circuit). Water is transformed to steam in this circuit due to the reduced pressure; the vapor is then utilized to turn the turbine linked to a generator [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E1.3.3 Tertiary circuit\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003EAt last, the steam that exits the turbine is cooled and turned back into the water. The condenser is cooled using a different tertiary cooling circuit that uses water from an external device [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Methodology\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003EWater quality from diverse sources was studied and compared to the standard value of boiler water from a typical thermal power plant and the secondary circuit of the VVER-1200 PWR Reactor. To determine pH a digital pH meter (Model HT 2002-0, S\u002FN CO316002, Hanna instrument) was utilized. The chemical properties of the water samples were determined using various analytical tests and a digital EC and TDS meter (Model S\u002FN: Co127A, Hanna-2003-02). Heavy metals were also investigated using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric (AAS) process, and the chemical properties (Hardness, Alkalinity, Chloride, and Silica) of the water samples were determined using various analytical tests.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.1 Water purification method in power plant\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p31\"\u003EThis chapter briefly describes all experimental observations that are presented in the form of numerical data relevant to the individual samples used in the current experiments. It is representing the study on the analysis of water quality of the source waters and the recommended value of boiler water of Nuclear Power Plant and secondary circuit of VVER-1200 PWR reactor. The deviations between the obtained values and the recommended values are briefly discussed in the following section. Before and after treatment, several water quality parameters such as pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Chloride, Total Hardness (TA), Total Alkalinity (TA), Silica (SiO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E), and Heavy Metals were meticulously monitored. Then, to utilize for power generation, we picked the optimal condition of the best quality of source waters (\u003Ca href=\"#tab1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003ENo\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003EParameter\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003EUnit\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003ERecommended values of PWR secondary circuit\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EpH\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E4.5–10\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EElectrical conductivity (EC) at 25°C\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EμS\u002Fcm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E00\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E3\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003ETDS\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003Eppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E00\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E4\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003EChloride\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003Eppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E<0.1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E5\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003ETotal hardness\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003Eppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E00\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E6\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003ETotal alkalinity\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003Eppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E00\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E7\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003ESilica (SiO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003Eppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E—\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 1.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p60\"\u003ERecommended values of water quality for PWR secondary circuit.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.1 Distillation\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p32\"\u003EDistillation has several advantages. The technology is relatively affordable, except for glassware and warming components, there are no extra costs, and it generates water of generally acceptable quality. The water of Type II or III quality is commonly produced by distillation, with a resistivity of around 1.0 mega-ohm\u002Fcm. However, distillation has several disadvantages, and as a result, it is not as commonly employed as it once was. Distillation is not just a process that can be done whenever you want it. As a result of this, a certain amount of water must be purified and saved for future use. Charge particles or plasticizers will filter outside of the water pot if the storage vessel is not composed of an inert substance, decontaminating the water. Bacteria have been shown to thrive in stagnant water. The water sample was autoclaved, and the bottles could be sterilized. The bottle, however, is exposed to microorganisms once it is opened, and contamination occurs. Distillation has other disadvantages, such as wasting a lot of water and energy. It must be cleaned regularly since mineral deposits from the feedwater have built up.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.2 Deionization\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p33\"\u003EIn laboratories, deionization is a common procedure for producing distilled water on demand. Most deionization systems consist of one-to-four-cylinder cartridges linked to plumbing lines and hanging on a wall opposite a sink. Deionization exchanges hydrogen ions for cationic pollutants and hydroxyl ions for anion exchange impurities in the input water. The desalination resins, which are little spherical plastic beads, filter the feed water. Over time, water cations and anions replace all of the fertile hydrogen and hydroxyl groups in the seeds, necessitating the replacement or regeneration of the resin. Deionization has several advantages when it comes to producing clean water (over distillation). Because it is an on-demand technique, purified water may be delivered on demand. Nuclear standard desalination resin or polishing mixed bed resin eliminates virtually all ionic particles in water to a maximum resistance of 18.2 mega ohm\u002Fcm (at 25°C). Deionization, on the other hand, does not ensure that the water is completely free of contaminants. Small particles of ion exchange resin are pushed out of the system during operation, and stagnant water in the cartridges may encourage bacterial development. Deionization does not remove all dissolved organic molecules from the feedwater, and these chemicals might foul the ionic liquid.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p34\"\u003EFinally, for laboratories that want to replace rather than regenerate their deionization cartridges, deionization cartridges might be a costly choice. Many attempts have been made to address the drawbacks of deionization and distilled. The cartridges survive significantly longer in some configurations where distillation precedes deionization, but the concerns of bacterial contamination persist [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_10_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.3 Reverse osmosis\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p35\"\u003EReverse osmosis is a water purification technique that avoids many of the disadvantages of distillation and deionization. The natural mechanism of osmosis may be used to explain reverse osmosis. Osmosis is the process of water moving from the less concentrated (purer) side of a semipermeable membrane to the more saturated (saltier) side [\u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This movement continues until the concentrations reach equilibrium, or until the pressure on the more concentrated side rises to the point where the flow is halted. Osmosis, which is also the natural technique by which water travels from one cell to another in human bodies, is used to get water into a plant’s root. When a high-pressure pump is used to apply pressure to the more concentrated solution that is greater than the osmotic pressure, water molecules are driven back over the membrane to the less concentrated side, resulting in purified water. This is an example of reverse osmosis in operation. Most pollutants are normally removed by reverse osmosis, which eliminates 90–99% of them [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p36\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#tab2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the technical specifications of reverse osmosis.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EImpurities\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003EExtraction efficiency (%)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EDissolved solids\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E100\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EBacteria\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E99.5\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EPyrogens\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E99.5\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EViruses\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E99.5\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EMonovalent inorganics\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E94–96\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EDivalent inorganics\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E96–98\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ETrivalent inorganics\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E98–99\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EOrganic substances\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E97–99.5\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 2.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p37\"\u003EPerformance of reverse osmosis [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p38\"\u003EReverse osmosis is a cost-effective technology that is widely used in fresh tap water before it is cleansed further using other technologies due to its high purification efficacy. Reverse osmosis is widely used in combination with the ion exchange process to increase the life of deionization “polishing” cartridges since it removes a substantial percentage of bacteria and pyrogens. Furthermore, a system that allows for the dispensing of reverse osmosis water provides a source of high-quality pre-purified water that is suitable for several laboratory applications.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_11_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.4 Activated carbon filtration\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p39\"\u003EActivated carbon filtration, which uses strong interaction and desorption to remove chlorine and soluble organic substances from water, is frequently found in two regions of a purifier. Even though chlorine and, to a smaller extent, dissolved organics contaminate thin-film composite reverse osmosis membranes, activated carbon is commonly utilized before the Ro system to remove these contaminants. In the polishing loop of a water purifier, a solid activated carbon filter is typically utilized to extract trace quantities of dissolved organics, resulting in water suitable for HPLC tests.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_12_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.5 Ultrafiltration\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p40\"\u003EUltrafiltration employs a membrane that is essentially represented by RO systems, with the exception that the holes in the ultrafilter are somewhat bigger. Pyrogens and other big-chain biological substances or organic compounds such as RNase are removed from cleaned water using an ultrafilter. Because a large portion of the water delivered to the ultrafilter travels through it, if it is not maintained, it will ultimately block. The ultrafilter is routinely and tangentially cleansed free of impurities in a suitably constructed system. Ultrafiltration is an excellent technique for assuring highly consistent, very clean water quality with this sort of construction.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_13_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.6 Ultraviolet oxidation\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p41\"\u003EUltraviolet oxidation kills bacteria by emitting ultraviolet light with a biocidal wavelength of 254 nm. It also split and ionizes some organics at 185 (nm), which are then removed by the polishing loop’s deionization and organic adsorption cartridges. In modern water purification techniques, ultrafiltration is widely used for drinking water.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_14_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.7 Electrodialysis\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p42\"\u003EElectrodialysis (ED) eliminates pollutants from water by drawing charging contaminates via charge-selective membranes and out of the cleaned water using an electrical current. ED is cost comparable with reverse osmosis for producing potable water from fresh brackish source water. However, ED has several disadvantages when it comes to producing laboratory-grade water, and as a result, it is rarely employed in labs. To begin with, ED’s ability to remove pollutants is restricted. Because they are not driven to the membranes, pollutants with weak or nonexistent charge density, such as some organics, pyrogens, and elemental metals, cannot be removed by ED [\u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Second, ED necessitates the use of a professional operator as well as frequent protection. Greater molecules with a substantial charge, such as colloids and detergents, can clog membrane pores, limiting their capacity to transport ions and necessitating regular cleaning. ED releases caustic soda, which can cause scaling, as well as potentially hazardous hydrogen gas. Finally, ED is a somewhat costly procedure. The electrical resistance of water rises as ionic pollutants are eliminated, requiring a greater electrical current to complete the purification process. Because of the higher power usage, purification above the potable level is considered uneconomical. Platinum and stainless steel, for example, are both costly component materials [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_17\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Conclusion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p43\"\u003EWater quality has long been an important factor in nuclear power plant (NPP) operation A proper water chemistry program is important for the safe operation of power plants. It ensures the integrity, reliability, and availability of the main plant structures, systems, and equipment that are essential for safety, by the assumptions and intentions of the design. Water is used as a working and cooling fluid in power plants. The chemistry of water coolants and corrosion concerns is particularly important in nuclear power plants. As a result, a water regime for commercially water-cooled equipment must be created to prescribe the values of water quality parameters such as Turbidity, pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Hardness, Alkalinity, Chloride Content, Silica, and Heavy Metals. Hence, this chapter has been undertaken to study the water characteristics of nuclear power plants.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"nuclear power plant,water chemistry,pressurized water reactor,VVER-1200,steam generator","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y00000yuj5kQAA\u002Fa093Y00001ddveVQAQ\u002FOnline%20First-Water%20Chemistry%20in%20Nuclear%20Power%20Plant%20%282023-12-08%2011%3A13%3A53%29.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y00000yuj5kQAA\u002Fa093Y00001ddveVQAQ\u002FOnline%20First%20%28xml%29-Water%20Chemistry%20in%20Nuclear%20Power%20Plant%20%282023-12-08%2011%3A14%3A12%29.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F1148495\u002F1730285076-412876043\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F1148495","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F1148495","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1148495\u002F1730285076-412876043\u002F","totalDownloads":355,"totalViews":1619,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"dateSubmitted":"June 19th 2023","dateReviewed":"June 23rd 2023","datePrePublished":"August 8th 2023","datePublished":"January 10th 2024","dateFinished":null,"readingETA":"0","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EWater quality has long been an important part of the operation of nuclear power plants. Water is used as a working and cooling fluid in power plants. The quality of source waters to be used in the power plants after treatment should conform to the prescribed values of Physicochemical properties like pH, EC, TDS, alkalinity, hardness, presence of chloride content, silica, and heavy metals as recommended by technical guidelines. The Physicochemical properties of water must be recovered the recommended values of the World Health Organization (WHO), United States of Public Health (USPH), and power plant water chemistry guidelines. But the values of raw water are very far from the recommended values of Nuclear Power Plants operation. So, it needs to treat to use in the boilers. Gravitation, Carbon filtration, Ion exchange method, and Reverse Osmosis (RO) are good ways to treat the water before use in power plants. The aim of this chapter is to explore the water chemistry of the source water quality parameters values and those of the recommended values of technical guidelines.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F1148495","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F1148495","signatures":"Md. Nur Salam and Md. Rokonuzzaman","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"1002921","type":"book","title":"Nuclear Power Plants","subtitle":"New Insights","fullTitle":"Nuclear Power Plants - New Insights","slug":null,"isPublished":true,"publishedDate":"January 10th 2024","bookSignature":"Nasser Sayed Awwad and Hamed Majdooa Algarni","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F12760.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1002921\u002F1713449341-936003840\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1002921\u002F1713449341-936003840\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1002921\u002F1721026650-529080948\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1002921\u002F1721026650-529080948\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1002921\u002F1721026650-529080948\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1002921\u002F1721026650-529080948\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":null,"isbn":"978-1-83769-666-6","printIsbn":"978-1-83769-667-3","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83769-668-0","isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isDeactivated":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"145209","title":"Prof.","name":"Nasser","middleName":null,"surname":"Awwad","slug":"nasser-awwad","fullName":"Nasser Awwad"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},"authors":[{"id":"532490","title":"Mr.","name":"Md Nur","middleName":null,"surname":"Salam","fullName":"Md Nur Salam","slug":"md-nur-salam","email":"1016280008@student.mist.ac.bd","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F532490\u002F1690098797\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","institution":null},{"id":"555761","title":"Ph.D. Student","name":"Md.","middleName":null,"surname":"Md. Rokonuzzaman","fullName":"Md. Md. Rokonuzzaman","slug":"md.-md.-rokonuzzaman","email":"md.rokonuzzaman@postgrad.manchester.ac.uk","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":null}],"sections":[{"id":"sec_1","title":"1. Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_1_2","title":"1.1 Water utilization in electric power generation","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_2_2","title":"1.2 Water chemistry in nuclear power plant","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_3_2","title":"1.3 The layout of nuclear power plant","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_3_3","title":"1.3.1 Primary circuit","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_4_3","title":"1.3.2 Secondary circuit","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_5_3","title":"1.3.3 Tertiary circuit","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_8","title":"2. Methodology","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_8_2","title":"2.1 Water purification method in power plant","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_8_3","title":"2.1.1 Distillation","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_9_3","title":"2.1.2 Deionization","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_10_3","title":"Table 2.","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_11_3","title":"2.1.4 Activated carbon filtration","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_12_3","title":"2.1.5 Ultrafiltration","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_13_3","title":"2.1.6 Ultraviolet oxidation","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_14_3","title":"2.1.7 Electrodialysis","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_17","title":"3. Conclusion","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003ELarin BM, Bushuev EN, Larin AB, Karpychev EA, Zhadan AV. Improvement of water treatment at thermal power plants. 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International Journal of Engineering Materials and Manufacture. 2022;\u003Cbold\u003E7\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(4):103-110\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B16","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B16\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"book\"\u003EGupta N, Khoiyangbam RS, Jain N. Environmental Chemistry. New Delhi; 2015\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B17","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B17\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003ETsubakizaki S, Wada T, Tokomoto T. Water quality control technology for thermal power plants (current situation and future prospects). Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Technical Review. 2013;\u003Cbold\u003E50\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(3)\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B18","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B18\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003EAlam JB, Islam MR, Muyen Z, Mamun M, Islam S. Water quality parameters along Rivers. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2007;\u003Cbold\u003E4\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(1):159-167\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B19","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B19\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003ENalawade PM, Bholay AD, Mule MB. Assessment of groundwater and surface water quality indices for heavy metals nearby area of Parli thermal power plant. Universal Journal of Environmental Research and Technology. 2012;\u003Cbold\u003E2\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(1):47-51\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B20","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B20\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003EGalal Uddin M, Moniruzzaman M, Khan M. Evaluation of groundwater quality using CCME water quality index in the rooppur nuclear power plant area, ishwardi, pabna, Bangladesh. 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The consumption of vegetable proteins, development of product, economic, sustainability, and food safety aspects will be summarized.","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"book":{"id":"11007","slug":"vegetable-crops-health-benefits-and-cultivation","title":"Vegetable Crops","fullTitle":"Vegetable Crops - Health Benefits and Cultivation","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true},"signatures":"Nazir Ahmed, Anwar Ali, Sakhawat Riaz, Arslan Ahmad and Muhammad Aqib","authors":[{"id":"208335","title":"Dr.","name":"Nazir","middleName":null,"surname":"Ahmad","slug":"nazir-ahmad","fullName":"Nazir Ahmad"},{"id":"424654","title":"Ph.D.","name":"Anwar","middleName":null,"surname":"Ali","slug":"anwar-ali","fullName":"Anwar Ali"},{"id":"424655","title":"Mr.","name":"Sakhawat","middleName":null,"surname":"Riaz","slug":"sakhawat-riaz","fullName":"Sakhawat Riaz"},{"id":"424656","title":"Mr.","name":"Arslan","middleName":null,"surname":"Ahmad","slug":"arslan-ahmad","fullName":"Arslan Ahmad"},{"id":"429649","title":"Mr.","name":"Muhammad","middleName":null,"surname":"Aqib","slug":"muhammad-aqib","fullName":"Muhammad Aqib"}]},{"id":"83759","title":"Leaf Curl Disease a Significant Constraint in the Production of Tomato: Impact, Challenges, and Management","slug":"leaf-curl-disease-a-significant-constraint-in-the-production-of-tomato-impact-challenges-and-managem","totalDownloads":776,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"abstract":"Insect-borne plant viruses cause huge yield loss in the world’s most important crops. 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