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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" data-vue-meta-server-rendered> <head>   <script id="Cookiebot" src="https://consent.cookiebot.com/uc.js" data-cbid="011c3436-7d64-4a27-ac89-ad262dbcfb8f" type="text/javascript"></script>   <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-DTTE7J8M7F" data-cookieconsent="statistics"></script> <script data-cookieconsent="statistics"> window.gaDebug = false; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag() { if (window.gaDebug) { console.log("XXX gaDebug:", arguments); } dataLayer.push(arguments); } gtag('js', new Date()); (function () { try { var g = localStorage.getItem('ga_debug') || ''; window.gaDebug = (g == 'true'); } catch (e) { console.log("ga_debug error:", e); } gtag('config', 'G-DTTE7J8M7F', { 'debug_mode': window.gaDebug, 'send_page_view': false, // 'cookie_domain': 'none', }); })(); </script> <title>Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems | IntechOpen</title> <meta data-vue-meta="ssr" charset="utf-8"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="description" content="Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems. Edited by: Cheng-Xiang Wang and Joseph Mitola III. ISBN 978-953-51-0666-1, PDF ISBN 978-953-51-6218-6, Published 2012-07-05"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="title" content="Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems | IntechOpen"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="category" content="Book"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" property="og:type" content="book"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" property="og:url" content="https://www.intechopen.com/books/2083"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" property="og:title" content="Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems | IntechOpen"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" property="og:description" content="Cognitive radio technologies are forms of wireless communication with many and varied applications. The contributions in this book will benefit researchers and engineers as they offer cutting-edge knowledge in the field. Subjects include uses of wideband voltage controlled oscillators, control planes for spectrum access and mobility in networks with heterogeneous frequency devices. Other chapters cover cognitive media access control and measurement methods for spectrum occupancy. In addition, there are contributions on delay analysis and channel selection in single-hop networks for delay-sensitive applications, the application of transmission security (TRANSEC) protocols to cognitive radio communication and the use of blind detection, parameters, estimation and the despreading of DS-CDMA signals in multirate, multiuser cognitive radio systems."><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="twitter:card" content="summary"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="twitter:title" content="Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems | IntechOpen"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="twitter:description" content="Cognitive radio technologies are forms of wireless communication with many and varied applications. The contributions in this book will benefit researchers and engineers as they offer cutting-edge knowledge in the field. Subjects include uses of wideband voltage controlled oscillators, control planes for spectrum access and mobility in networks with heterogeneous frequency devices. Other chapters cover cognitive media access control and measurement methods for spectrum occupancy. In addition, there are contributions on delay analysis and channel selection in single-hop networks for delay-sensitive applications, the application of transmission security (TRANSEC) protocols to cognitive radio communication and the use of blind detection, parameters, estimation and the despreading of DS-CDMA signals in multirate, multiuser cognitive radio systems."><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="DC.Identifier" content="10.5772/2492"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="DC.Title" content="Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="DC.Date" content="2012-07-05"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="citation_doi" content="10.5772/2492"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="citation_title" content="Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="citation_publication_date" content="2012-07-05"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="citation_online_date" content="2012-07-05"><meta data-vue-meta="ssr" name="citation_isbn" content="978-953-51-0666-1"><meta 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li[data-v-56230ffb]{position:relative}.aside ul li .submenu[data-v-56230ffb]{display:none;position:absolute;background-color:white;left:0;min-width:100%;z-index:1}.aside ul li:hover>.submenu[data-v-56230ffb]{min-width:200px;display:flex;flex-direction:column;padding:3rem;gap:1rem;line-height:3rem;box-shadow:0 0 10px rgba(0,0,0,0.1)}.aside ul li:hover>.submenu a[data-v-56230ffb]:hover{color:#e10000}} @media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){#app[data-scrolldir="up"] .page-header .wrap{transform:translateY(0)}#app[data-scrolldir="down"] .page-header .wrap{transform:translateY(-100%)}#app[data-scrolldir="down"] .page-header.has-subnav .wrap{transform:translateY(-13em)}#app[data-scrolldir="down"] .page-header.has-double-subnav .wrap{transform:translateY(-17em)}} .search-term[data-v-6047d25e]{position:relative;display:inline-block}.search-term input[data-v-6047d25e]{font-family:'Relative Faux', 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h3[data-v-0935c155]{font-size:18px;text-transform:uppercase;font-family:'FSBrabo', serif;font-weight:700;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;padding-bottom:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:1}.popup .header p[data-v-0935c155]{font-family:'Relative Pro', sans-serif;line-height:1}.popup .close[data-v-0935c155]{position:relative;top:25px;left:calc(100% - 20px);cursor:pointer}.popup .body[data-v-0935c155]{padding:0px;background-color:#fffdea}.popup .body img[data-v-0935c155]{width:100%}.popup .body .relative-d6[data-v-0935c155]{font-family:'Relative Pro', sans-serif}.popup .body .relative-d6 .bold[data-v-0935c155]{font-weight:700}.popup .body .description[data-v-0935c155]{padding:10px;text-align:center}.popup .body .description p[data-v-0935c155]{line-height:150%}.popup .body .description a[data-v-0935c155]{color:#e10000;text-decoration:none}.popup .body .btn[data-v-0935c155]{display:inline-block;font-family:'Relative Faux', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:1.5rem;text-align:center;color:#fffdea;padding:1rem 1.5rem;border:1px solid #e10000;border-radius:4px;background-color:#e10000}.popup .body .btn[data-v-0935c155]:hover{background-color:#870000;border-color:#870000} .breadcrumbs[data-v-a2e71dd8]{padding-top:3.2rem}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.breadcrumbs[data-v-a2e71dd8]{padding-top:2.7rem}}.breadcrumbs__items[data-v-a2e71dd8]{display:flex;flex-wrap:nowrap;overflow-x:scroll;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch;color:#fffdea}@media screen and (min-width: 34.4375em){.breadcrumbs__items[data-v-a2e71dd8]{overflow-x:visible}} .mathlab[data-v-feee617e]{width:100%;max-width:510px;background:#e10000;color:#FFFAD2;font-size:2rem;margin-bottom:3.5rem;padding:5px}@media screen and (max-width: 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(min-width: 48em){.leadTitle img[data-v-feee617e]{width:2.4rem;height:2.4rem;margin-right:1.5rem}}.title[data-v-feee617e]{font-family:'FSBrabo', serif;font-weight:700;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:2.4rem;line-height:3.2rem;margin-bottom:1.8rem}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.title[data-v-feee617e]{font-size:4rem;line-height:5.5rem;margin-top:2.4rem;margin-bottom:2.4rem}}.caption[data-v-feee617e]{font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.2rem;line-height:1.6rem;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.caption[data-v-feee617e]{font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem}}.text[data-v-feee617e]{font-size:1.6rem;line-height:2rem}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.text[data-v-feee617e]{font-size:1.8rem;line-height:2.4rem}}.text[data-v-feee617e] img,.text[data-v-feee617e] span{display:none !important}.book-intro[data-v-feee617e]{display:grid;grid-template-columns:1fr;margin-top:2.4rem}.book-intro__additonal[data-v-feee617e]{margin-top:2.4rem}.book-intro__ito-score[data-v-feee617e]{display:flex;max-width:37.3rem;padding:1.5rem;margin-top:3.2rem;background-color:#ffffff;box-shadow:0px 2.4rem 8.8rem rgba(0,0,0,0.05)}.book-intro__ito-score-ring[data-v-feee617e]{width:8.4rem !important;height:8.4rem !important;margin-right:2rem}.book-intro__ito-score-ring svg[data-v-feee617e]{display:block;max-width:100%;height:100%}.book-intro__ito-score-caption[data-v-feee617e],.book-intro__ito-score-text[data-v-feee617e]{font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase}.book-intro__ito-score-text[data-v-feee617e]{font-family:'Relative Book', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;text-transform:none;margin-top:0.4rem}.book-intro__ito-score-activator[data-v-feee617e]{display:inline-block;font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem;margin-top:1.6rem}.book-intro__ito-score-activator img[data-v-feee617e]{display:inline-block;width:2rem;margin-left:1rem}.book-intro__cover[data-v-feee617e]{width:22rem;margin:0 auto}.book-intro__contributors[data-v-feee617e]{margin-top:5.6rem}.book-intro__cta[data-v-feee617e]{position:relative}.book-intro__cta .share-module[data-v-feee617e]{z-index:12;top:3.5rem;left:5rem}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.book-intro__cta .share-module[data-v-feee617e]{top:3.5rem;left:10rem}}.book-intro__cta .share-module[data-v-feee617e]:before{top:-1rem;border-top:0 !important;border-bottom:1rem solid #000000;right:45%}.book-intro__cta a[data-v-feee617e]{font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem;display:inline-block;margin-right:2rem}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.book-intro__cta a[data-v-feee617e]{font-size:1.6rem;line-height:2.4rem;margin-right:4.2rem}}.book-intro__cta a img[data-v-feee617e]{display:inline-block;width:1.6rem;margin-right:0.8rem}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.book-intro__cta a img[data-v-feee617e]{width:2.4rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.book-intro[data-v-feee617e]{grid-template-columns:minmax(54.3rem, 79.5rem) 40.5rem}.book-intro__titles[data-v-feee617e]{grid-column:1/2;grid-row:1/2;padding-right:1.6rem;margin-top:2.4rem}.book-intro__additonal[data-v-feee617e]{grid-column:2/3;grid-row:1/4;margin-top:0}.book-intro__contributors[data-v-feee617e]{grid-column:1/2;grid-row:2/3;padding-right:4rem}}.sponsored[data-v-feee617e]{display:flex;margin-top:2.4rem}.sponsored-box[data-v-feee617e]{box-sizing:border-box;display:flex;align-items:center;max-width:69.1rem;padding:1rem;border-radius:0.6rem;background-color:#ffffff;box-shadow:0px 2.4rem 8.8rem rgba(0,0,0,0.05)}@media screen and (min-width: 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0}}.wrapper__body[data-v-27c725c1]{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:2rem;background-color:#fffdea}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.wrapper__body[data-v-27c725c1]{display:flex;flex-direction:column;justify-content:center;width:69rem;padding:3rem 15rem 2.5rem 5.6rem}}.stat[data-v-27c725c1]{display:flex;flex-direction:column;width:100%}.stat__heading[data-v-27c725c1]{display:flex;align-items:center;font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.8rem;line-height:2.4rem;text-align:center;color:#000000;padding:0.6rem;border-radius:0.45rem;margin-bottom:1.6rem}.stat__heading-icon[data-v-27c725c1]{box-sizing:border-box;display:flex;align-items:center;width:5rem;height:5rem;padding:1.7rem 1.4rem;border-radius:0.45rem;margin-right:1.5rem;background-color:#FCE5E5}.stat__heading-icon img[data-v-27c725c1]{display:block;width:100%;height:auto}.stat__box[data-v-27c725c1]{padding:4rem 4rem 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.stat[data-v-27c725c1]{box-sizing:border-box;flex-shrink:0;flex-grow:1;width:50%;padding-left:1.25rem;padding-right:1.25rem}.downloads-and-views .stat+.stat[data-v-27c725c1]{margin-top:0}.citations[data-v-27c725c1]{margin-top:1.6rem}.citations .stat__row[data-v-27c725c1]{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;margin-left:-3rem;margin-right:-3rem}.citations .stat__col[data-v-27c725c1]{flex-grow:1;box-sizing:border-box;width:50%;padding:0 3rem}.citations .stat__box+.stat__box[data-v-27c725c1]{margin-top:0.8rem}.citations .stat__col+.stat__col[data-v-27c725c1]{margin-top:0rem;border-left:1px solid rgba(0,0,0,0.1)}.citations .stat__col+.stat__col[data-v-27c725c1]::before{content:none}}.white-bg[data-v-27c725c1]{background-color:#ffffff;box-shadow:0.6rem 1.8rem 6.4rem rgba(0,0,0,0.05)}.modal[data-v-27c725c1]{position:fixed;z-index:1005;top:0;bottom:0;left:0;right:0;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;overflow:hidden;background-color:#000;background-color:rgba(0,0,0,0.4)}.modal__content[data-v-27c725c1]{overflow:auto;height:100%;max-height:100%}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.modal__content[data-v-27c725c1]{height:auto;max-height:calc(100% - 2.4rem)}}.modal-enter-active[data-v-27c725c1],.modal-leave-active[data-v-27c725c1]{transition:opacity .25s}.modal-enter[data-v-27c725c1],.modal-leave-to[data-v-27c725c1]{opacity:0}.close-btn[data-v-27c725c1]{position:absolute;top:1.6rem;right:1.6rem;cursor:pointer}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.close-btn path[data-v-27c725c1]{fill:#e10000}}[data-v-27c725c1] .altmetric-embed a img{margin:auto;vertical-align:middle;display:inline-block} .editor[data-v-6abf993b]{display:flex;align-items:center;margin-top:1.6rem;flex:1}.editor__image[data-v-6abf993b]{margin-right:1.2rem}@media 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img[data-v-6abf993b]{display:block;width:2.4rem;height:2.4rem;margin-right:0.5rem}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.nobel-editor img[data-v-6abf993b]{width:4.8rem;height:4.8rem;margin-right:1.4rem}}.physiology[data-v-6abf993b]{width:310px} .profile-img[data-v-231a3921]{display:inline-block;position:relative}.profile-img>.lazy-image[data-v-231a3921]{display:block;width:4.8rem;height:4.8rem;border-radius:8px;background:transparent}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.profile-img>.lazy-image[data-v-231a3921]{width:11.2rem;height:11.2rem}}.profile-img.filter[data-v-231a3921]:after{content:"";position:absolute;top:0;left:0;right:0;bottom:0;background:rgba(225,0,0,0.1);mix-blend-mode:multiply;border-radius:8px} .lazy-image[data-v-c6fa12ae]{position:relative;display:block;overflow:hidden;width:100%;background-color:#fffcdd}.lazy-image.ar1[data-v-c6fa12ae]{padding-bottom:144.3%}.lazy-image.ar2[data-v-c6fa12ae]{padding-bottom:100%}.image[data-v-c6fa12ae]{position:absolute;left:0;right:0;top:0;bottom:0;margin:auto;width:100%;min-height:100%}.fade-enter-active[data-v-c6fa12ae],.fade-leave-active[data-v-c6fa12ae]{transition:opacity .5s ease-in}.fade-enter[data-v-c6fa12ae],.fade-leave-to[data-v-c6fa12ae]{transform:scale(1);opacity:0} .modal-overlay[data-v-3b1bf31a]{position:fixed;z-index:1001;left:0;top:0;width:100%;height:100%;overflow:hidden;background-color:#000;background-color:rgba(0,0,0,0.4)}.modal-overlay .modal-content[data-v-3b1bf31a]{position:relative;overflow:auto;width:100%;height:100%;background:#fffdea}@media screen and (min-width: 48em){.modal-overlay .modal-content[data-v-3b1bf31a]{top:50%;left:50%;transform:translate(-50%, calc(-50% - 0.5px));width:60rem;max-width:90%;height:auto;max-height:calc(100% - 2.4rem);border-radius:.6rem}}.form[data-v-3b1bf31a]{padding:5.6rem 1.6rem 1.6rem}.form__row[data-v-3b1bf31a]{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap}.form__row+.form__row[data-v-3b1bf31a]{margin-top:1.8rem}.form__group[data-v-3b1bf31a]{flex:1 1 100%;padding:0 1.6rem}.form__group+.form__group[data-v-3b1bf31a]{margin-top:1.8rem}@media screen and (min-width: 34.4375em){.form__group[data-v-3b1bf31a]{flex:1}.form__group+.form__group[data-v-3b1bf31a]{margin-top:0}}.form__label[data-v-3b1bf31a],.form__input[data-v-3b1bf31a],.form__text-area[data-v-3b1bf31a],.form__submit[data-v-3b1bf31a]{font-family:'Relative Book', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem}@media screen and (min-width: 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.swiper-pagination-bullet{background-color:#FBB2B2;width:1.0rem;height:0.6rem;border-radius:0;opacity:1}.pages[data-v-32859338] .swiper-pagination-bullet-active{background-color:#E10000}.pages[data-v-32859338] .swiper-pagination-bullet+.swiper-pagination-bullet{margin-left:0.8rem}.pages-light[data-v-32859338]{display:flex;margin-right:2.4rem}.pages-light[data-v-32859338] .swiper-pagination-bullet{background-color:#F08080;width:1.0rem;height:0.6rem;border-radius:0;opacity:1}.pages-light[data-v-32859338] .swiper-pagination-bullet-active{background-color:#FFFDEA}.pages-light[data-v-32859338] .swiper-pagination-bullet+.swiper-pagination-bullet{margin-left:0.8rem} .book-item[data-v-69cc9686]{position:relative;display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.book-item__downloads[data-v-69cc9686]{display:flex;align-items:center;position:absolute;top:0;right:0;z-index:10;transform:translate(0%, -50%);font-family:'Relative Bold', 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62.5625em){.title[data-v-69cc9686]{font-size:1.6rem;line-height:2.4rem}}.edited[data-v-69cc9686]{font-family:'Relative Book', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.2rem;line-height:1.6rem;text-align:left}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.edited[data-v-69cc9686]{font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem}}.tag[data-v-69cc9686]{font-family:'Relative Faux', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.3em;line-height:1.69231em;color:#fffdea;padding:1px .76923em 0;background:#e10000;border-radius:2px;display:inline-block;margin-top:1.5rem}.tag[data-v-69cc9686]:hover{background:#b40000}.deadline[data-v-69cc9686]{font-family:'Relative Book', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem;text-align:left;margin-bottom:1.6rem}@media screen and (min-width: 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62.5625em){.call-for-authors .inner[data-v-2619f083]{padding-left:10rem;height:30rem}}.call-for-authors .img-container[data-v-2619f083]{height:13.4rem;background:#333}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.call-for-authors .img-container[data-v-2619f083]{height:100%}}.call-for-authors .img-container img[data-v-2619f083]{width:100%;height:100%}.call-for-authors h2[data-v-2619f083]{font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.2rem;line-height:1.6rem;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.call-for-authors h2[data-v-2619f083]{font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem}}.call-for-authors h3[data-v-2619f083]{font-family:'FSBrabo', serif;font-weight:700;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:2.4rem;line-height:3.2rem;margin-top:1.6rem}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.call-for-authors h3[data-v-2619f083]{font-size:3.6rem;line-height:4.4rem}}.call-for-authors .cta[data-v-2619f083]{display:inline-block;font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.4rem;line-height:2rem;color:#e10000;background-color:#fffdea;padding:1rem 1.8rem;margin-top:2.4rem;border-radius:4px}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.call-for-authors .cta[data-v-2619f083]{font-size:1.6rem;line-height:2.4rem;padding:1.4rem 4.5rem;margin-top:5.6rem}}.call-for-authors .actions[data-v-2619f083]{position:absolute;right:10%;bottom:0;transform:translateY(50%)}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.call-for-authors .actions[data-v-2619f083]{right:0;top:3.1rem;transform:translateX(50%)}}.call-for-authors .explore-circle[data-v-2619f083],.call-for-authors .ofs-circle[data-v-2619f083]{box-sizing:border-box;display:flex;flex-direction:column;justify-content:center;align-items:center;font-family:'Relative Bold', 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and (min-width: 62.5625em){.call-for-authors .explore-circle[data-v-2619f083]{transform:translate(-75%, 80%) rotate(-15deg);width:12.4rem;height:12.4rem}} .footer[data-v-e6aca418]{background:#000;color:#fffad2}.inner[data-v-e6aca418]{max-width:117em;margin:0 auto;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0 2em}@media screen and (max-width: 34.375em){.inner[data-v-e6aca418]{padding:0 1.5em}.inner .aside[data-v-e6aca418]{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;margin-bottom:5rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 34.4375em){.inner[data-v-e6aca418]{padding:0 2em}.inner .aside[data-v-e6aca418]{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;margin-bottom:5rem}.inner .main .inner[data-v-e6aca418]{max-width:60em;margin:0 auto}}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.inner .wrap[data-v-e6aca418]{display:table;width:100%}.inner .aside[data-v-e6aca418]{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;display:table-cell;vertical-align:top;width:27em;padding-left:2em}.inner .aside 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3);float:left;box-sizing:border-box}.nav-box[data-v-e6aca418]:last-child{clear:both;width:100%;margin-top:5rem}.icr[data-v-e6aca418]{margin-right:0.3rem}.social-wrap[data-v-e6aca418]{width:calc(100% / 3);float:right}.company-info-wrap[data-v-e6aca418]{width:calc((100% / 3)*2);float:left}.address[data-v-e6aca418]{width:50%;float:left;margin:0}.meta-wrap[data-v-e6aca418]{width:50%;float:right}.search-wrap[data-v-e6aca418]{margin:5rem 0}.cta[data-v-e6aca418]{width:calc(100% /3)}}@media screen and (min-width: 50.0625em){.inner[data-v-e6aca418]{padding-top:8rem}.nav-box[data-v-e6aca418]{width:25%;float:left;box-sizing:border-box}.nav-box[data-v-e6aca418]:first-of-type{padding-left:0}.nav-box[data-v-e6aca418]:last-of-type{padding-right:0}}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.icr[data-v-e6aca418]{margin-right:2rem}} 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!important}.v-popper__popper.v-popper__popper--hidden[data-v-f9e5df86]{font-size:26px !important}.v-popper--theme-dropdown .v-popper__inner[data-v-f9e5df86]{font-size:26px !important;background:#4d07ff;color:black;border-radius:6px;border:4px solid #ddd;box-shadow:0 6px 30px rgba(0,0,0,0.1)}.login[data-v-f9e5df86]{display:flex;flex-direction:row;padding:2rem;background-color:#fff;border-radius:4px;margin:2rem 0;box-shadow:0px 0px 36px 0px rgba(233,221,126,0.4)}@media screen and (max-width: 62.5em){.login[data-v-f9e5df86]{width:calc(100% - 4rem)}}table.price-brakedown[data-v-f9e5df86]{width:100%}table.price-brakedown td[data-v-f9e5df86]{padding:1rem 0px}table.price-brakedown td.summary[data-v-f9e5df86]{text-align:right}table.price-brakedown .border-b[data-v-f9e5df86]{border-bottom:0.5px solid #807d69} .items[data-v-5ab9f6ad]{padding-bottom:2rem;display:flex;align-items:flex-start;gap:32px;border-bottom:0.5px solid #807d69;width:99%}.items 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Joseph Mitola</span></div></a>   <div class="book-cover-3d__tags" data-v-3640cb1f> <div class="book-cover-3d__tag" data-v-3640cb1f> <span data-v-3640cb1f>highly cited contributor</span></div></div></figure></div>  <div class="book-intro__ito-score score" data-v-feee617e><div class="book-intro__ito-score-ring" data-v-feee617e><svg viewBox="0 0 36 36" class="progress-ring" style="cursor:pointer;" data-v-0626afd8 data-v-feee617e><path d="M18 2.0845 a 15.9155 15.9155 0 0 1 0 31.831 a 15.9155 15.9155 0 0 1 0 -31.831" class="progress-ring__background" data-v-0626afd8></path>  <image xlink:href="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/svg/logoSmall.svg" href="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/svg/logoSmall.svg" x="50" y="50" height="50%" width="50%" transform="translate(-40,-40)" data-v-0626afd8></image></svg></div> <div data-v-feee617e><p class="book-intro__ito-score-caption" data-v-feee617e>Book metrics overview</p> <p class="book-intro__ito-score-text" data-v-feee617e> 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25.0607C25.6464 24.4749 25.6464 23.5251 25.0607 22.9393L18.1213 16L25.0607 9.06066Z" fill="#FFFDEA" data-v-27c725c1></path></svg> <div class="wrapper__header" data-v-27c725c1><svg viewBox="0 0 36 36" class="progress-ring" style="cursor:auto;" data-v-0626afd8 data-v-27c725c1><path d="M18 2.0845 a 15.9155 15.9155 0 0 1 0 31.831 a 15.9155 15.9155 0 0 1 0 -31.831" class="progress-ring__background" data-v-0626afd8></path>  <image xlink:href="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/svg/logoSmall.svg" href="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/svg/logoSmall.svg" x="50" y="50" height="50%" width="50%" transform="translate(-40,-40)" data-v-0626afd8></image></svg> <p class="wrapper__title" data-v-27c725c1>Impact of this book and its chapters</p></div> <div class="wrapper__body" data-v-27c725c1><div class="downloads-and-views" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__heading white-bg" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__heading-icon" data-v-27c725c1><img 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class="stat__heading-icon" data-v-27c725c1><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/series/icons/quotation_red.svg" alt="Citations" data-v-27c725c1></div> <span data-v-27c725c1>Citations</span></div> <div class="stat__box white-bg" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__logo stat__logo--dimension" data-v-27c725c1><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/institutions/dimension-trimmed.svg" alt="Dimensions" data-v-27c725c1></div> <div class="stat__row" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__col" data-v-27c725c1><div data-style="small_circle" data-doi="10.5772/2492" class="__dimensions_badge_embed__ stat__box-value" data-v-27c725c1></div> <p class="stat__box-desc" data-v-27c725c1>Book Citations</p></div> <div class="stat__col" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__box-value" data-v-27c725c1>7</div> <p class="stat__box-desc" data-v-27c725c1>Total Chapter Citations</p></div></div></div> <div class="stat__box white-bg" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__logo stat__logo--crossref" data-v-27c725c1><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/institutions/crossref.svg" alt="Crossref" data-v-27c725c1></div> <div class="stat__row" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__col" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__box-value" data-v-27c725c1>3</div> <p class="stat__box-desc" data-v-27c725c1>Book Citations</p></div> <div class="stat__col" data-v-27c725c1><div class="stat__box-value" data-v-27c725c1>7</div> <p class="stat__box-desc" data-v-27c725c1>Total Chapter Citations</p></div></div></div> </div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div> <div class="book-intro__contributors" data-v-feee617e> <div class="profile-group" data-v-feee617e><h2 class="caption" data-v-feee617e>Academic Editor</h2> <div class="editor" data-v-6abf993b data-v-feee617e><div class="editor__image" data-v-6abf993b><figure class="profile-img filter" data-v-231a3921 data-v-6abf993b><span class="lazy-image ar" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-231a3921><img alt="Cheng-Xiang Wang" class="image cover-image-20e6" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span></figure></div> <div class="editor__details" data-v-6abf993b> <a href="/profiles/115556" class="editor__name" data-v-6abf993b>Cheng-Xiang Wang</a> <p class="editor__position" data-v-6abf993b>Heriot-Watt University<span data-v-6abf993b>,<br data-v-6abf993b>United Kingdom</span></p>  </div></div>    </div> <div class="profile-group" data-v-feee617e><h2 class="caption" data-v-feee617e>Co-editor</h2> <div class="editor" data-v-6abf993b data-v-feee617e><div class="editor__image" data-v-6abf993b><figure class="profile-img" data-v-231a3921 data-v-6abf993b><span class="lazy-image ar" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-231a3921><img alt="Joseph Mitola" class="image cover-image-8737" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span></figure></div> <div class="editor__details" data-v-6abf993b> <a href="/profiles/120899" class="editor__name" data-v-6abf993b>Joseph Mitola</a> <p class="editor__position" data-v-6abf993b>Royal Institute of Technology<span data-v-6abf993b>,<br data-v-6abf993b>Sweden</span></p>  </div></div>    </div> </div></section> <section class="abstract-and-meta" data-v-feee617e><div class="meta" data-v-feee617e><div class="book-meta" data-v-feee617e><div class="book-meta__item" data-v-feee617e><p data-v-feee617e><span class="caption" data-v-feee617e>Published</span>05 July 2012</p></div> <div class="book-meta__item" data-v-feee617e><p data-v-feee617e><span class="caption" data-v-feee617e>Doi</span>10.5772/2492</p></div> <div class="book-meta__item" data-v-feee617e><p data-v-feee617e><span class="caption" data-v-feee617e>ISBN</span>978-953-51-0666-1</p></div>  <div class="book-meta__item" data-v-feee617e><p data-v-feee617e><span class="caption" data-v-feee617e>eBook (PDF) ISBN</span>978-953-51-6218-6</p></div> <div class="book-meta__item" data-v-feee617e><p data-v-feee617e><span class="caption" data-v-feee617e>Copyright year</span>2012</p></div> <div class="book-meta__item" data-v-feee617e><p data-v-feee617e><span class="caption" data-v-feee617e>Number of pages</span>156</p></div>  </div></div> <div class="abstract" data-v-feee617e> <p aria-hidden="true" class="text" style="display:;" data-v-feee617e>Cognitive radio technologies are forms of wireless communication with many and varied applications. The contributions in this book will benefit researchers and engineers as they offer cutting-edge knowledge in the field. Subjects include uses of wideband voltage controlled oscillators, control planes for spectrum access and mobility in networks with heterogeneous frequency devices. Other chapters ...</p> <p class="text" style="display:none;" data-v-feee617e>Cognitive radio technologies are forms of wireless communication with many and varied applications. The contributions in this book will benefit researchers and engineers as they offer cutting-edge knowledge in the field. Subjects include uses of wideband voltage controlled oscillators, control planes for spectrum access and mobility in networks with heterogeneous frequency devices. Other chapters cover cognitive media access control and measurement methods for spectrum occupancy. In addition, there are contributions on delay analysis and channel selection in single-hop networks for delay-sensitive applications, the application of transmission security (TRANSEC) protocols to cognitive radio communication and the use of blind detection, parameters, estimation and the despreading of DS-CDMA signals in multirate, multiuser cognitive radio systems.</p> <a class="caption cta-toggle" data-v-feee617e>Read more</a> <div class="cta-box" data-v-feee617e><a class="cta-button cta-button--red" data-v-feee617e>Order Print Copy</a> <button class="cta-button cta-button--outline" data-v-feee617e>Recommend to Your Library</button> <span data-v-3b1bf31a data-v-feee617e><div class="modal-overlay" style="display:none;" data-v-3b1bf31a><div class="modal-content" data-v-3b1bf31a><button class="close-btn" data-v-3b1bf31a><svg width="32" height="32" viewBox="0 0 32 32" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" data-v-3b1bf31a><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" 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Wideband Voltage Controlled Oscillators for Cognitive Radio Systems</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Alessandro Acampora and Apostolos Georgiadis</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>2,827</span></div> <div class="stat-row" data-v-05b13c55><div class="badge" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/industry/crossref.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> <div class="number-box" data-v-05b13c55>1</div></div> <div data-doi="10.5772/31212" data-hide-zero-citations="true" data-legend="hover-top" data-style="large_rectangle" class="__dimensions_badge_embed__ stat-row" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div></div>  </div></div> </div><div class="chapters-table__row" data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter" data-v-05b13c55 data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter__header" data-v-05b13c55><div class="unlock-icon-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/journals/OpenAccessLock.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div> <div class="chapter__body" data-v-05b13c55><div class="chapter__details" data-v-05b13c55><a href="/chapters/37688" class="chapter__title" data-v-05b13c55>2. Control Plane for Spectrum Access and Mobility in Cognitive Radio Networks with Heterogeneous Frequency Devices</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Nicolas Bolivar and Jose L.</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>2,531</span></div>   </div></div>  </div></div> </div><div class="chapters-table__row" data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter" data-v-05b13c55 data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter__header" data-v-05b13c55><div class="unlock-icon-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/journals/OpenAccessLock.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div> <div class="chapter__body" data-v-05b13c55><div class="chapter__details" data-v-05b13c55><a href="/chapters/37689" class="chapter__title" data-v-05b13c55>3. Cognitive Media Access Control</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Po-Yao Huang</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>1,961</span></div>   </div></div>  </div></div> </div><div class="chapters-table__row" data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter" data-v-05b13c55 data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter__header" data-v-05b13c55><div class="unlock-icon-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/journals/OpenAccessLock.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div> <div class="chapter__body" data-v-05b13c55><div class="chapter__details" data-v-05b13c55><a href="/chapters/37690" class="chapter__title" data-v-05b13c55>4. Delay Analysis and Channel Selection in Single-Hop Cognitive Radio Networks for Delay Sensitive Applications</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Behrouz Jashni</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>2,342</span></div>   </div></div>  </div></div> </div><div class="chapters-table__row" data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter" data-v-05b13c55 data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter__header" data-v-05b13c55><div class="unlock-icon-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/journals/OpenAccessLock.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div> <div class="chapter__body" data-v-05b13c55><div class="chapter__details" data-v-05b13c55><a href="/chapters/37691" class="chapter__title" data-v-05b13c55>5. Adaptation from Transmission Security (TRANSEC) to Cognitive Radio Communication</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Chien-Hsing Liao and Tai-Kuo Woo</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>4,724</span></div> <div class="stat-row" data-v-05b13c55><div class="badge" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/industry/crossref.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> <div class="number-box" data-v-05b13c55>4</div></div> <div data-doi="10.5772/31217" data-hide-zero-citations="true" data-legend="hover-top" data-style="large_rectangle" class="__dimensions_badge_embed__ stat-row" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div></div>  </div></div> </div><div class="chapters-table__row" data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter" data-v-05b13c55 data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter__header" data-v-05b13c55><div class="unlock-icon-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/journals/OpenAccessLock.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div> <div class="chapter__body" data-v-05b13c55><div class="chapter__details" data-v-05b13c55><a href="/chapters/37692" class="chapter__title" data-v-05b13c55>6. Blind Detection, Parameters Estimation and Despreading of DS-CDMA Signals in Multirate Multiuser Cognitive Radio Systems</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Crepin Nsiala Nzeza and Roland Gautier</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>2,213</span></div> <div class="stat-row" data-v-05b13c55><div class="badge" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/industry/crossref.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> <div class="number-box" data-v-05b13c55>2</div></div> <div data-doi="10.5772/30366" data-hide-zero-citations="true" data-legend="hover-top" data-style="large_rectangle" class="__dimensions_badge_embed__ stat-row" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div></div>  </div></div> </div><div class="chapters-table__row" data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter" data-v-05b13c55 data-v-f946db4c><div class="chapter__header" data-v-05b13c55><div class="unlock-icon-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/journals/OpenAccessLock.svg" data-v-05b13c55></div> </div> <div class="chapter__body" data-v-05b13c55><div class="chapter__details" data-v-05b13c55><a href="/chapters/37693" class="chapter__title" data-v-05b13c55>7. Measurement and Statistics of Spectrum Occupancy</a> <p class="chapter__contributors" data-v-05b13c55><span data-v-05b13c55>By Zhe Wang</span></p> </div> <div class="chapter__statistics" data-v-05b13c55><div data-v-05b13c55><div class="stat-row download-stat-container" data-v-05b13c55><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/45.123/series/icons/ic-download.svg" data-v-05b13c55> <span data-v-05b13c55>3,309</span></div>   </div></div>  </div></div> </div></div> </div></div></div> <div id="statistics" class="container book-statistics" data-v-7164251b data-v-2048a31b><h4 data-v-7164251b>IMPACT OF THIS BOOK AND ITS CHAPTERS</h4> <div class="stats" data-v-3f5a7fa5 data-v-7164251b><div class="item" data-v-3f5a7fa5><p data-v-3f5a7fa5><span data-v-3f5a7fa5>19,907</span> Total Chapter Downloads</p></div><div class="item" data-v-3f5a7fa5><p data-v-3f5a7fa5><span data-v-3f5a7fa5>859</span> Total Chapter Views</p></div><div class="item" data-v-3f5a7fa5><p data-v-3f5a7fa5><span 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C21.6821204,22.2912042 21.6817754,22.2948275 21.6817754,22.2984507 C21.6817754,30.752331 28.5590289,37.6295845 37.0127366,37.6295845 C37.7863845,37.6295845 38.5527859,37.5676444 39.3076275,37.4532535 L39.3076275,47.5686479 C39.3076275,48.3079613 39.9071873,48.9076937 40.6466732,48.9076937 C41.3859866,48.9076937 41.9853739,48.3079613 41.9853739,47.5686479 L41.9853739,36.796757 C44.484719,35.9396021 46.7488986,34.4454472 48.5267014,32.4212641 L48.5669021,32.3755423 C49.1533493,31.7199085 48.9746028,30.6460493 48.0927754,30.247493" data-v-eb7322e6></path></g></g></svg> <div class="text text-style-9e92" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems</span>   <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Cheng-Xiang Wang</span></div></a></figure></div> <div class="order-book__distributors" data-v-3b3d8430><div data-v-3b3d8430><p class="caption" data-v-3b3d8430>Available on</p> <img 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Wideband</span></a></h4> <p class="edited" data-v-69cc9686> Edited by <span data-v-69cc9686><a href="/profiles/12623" data-v-69cc9686>Mohammad Abdul Matin</a> </span></p>  </div> </div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-78d7195c><div class="book-item" style="width:undefinedpx;" data-v-69cc9686 data-v-78d7195c><figure class="cover-wrap top" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/3370" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Radio Frequency Identification" class="image cover-image-e67a" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" data-v-eb7322e6></rect> <text x="150" y="35" font-family="Arial" text-anchor="middle" fill="#fffad2" font-size="12" data-v-eb7322e6>IntechOpen</text> <g transform="translate(140, 220)" fill="#FFFAD2" data-v-eb7322e6><g transform="scale(0.7)" data-v-eb7322e6><path d="M18.4091275,7.09361268 L3.66754648,15.3478697 C2.61853239,15.939493 1.9668669,17.0549331 1.9668669,18.2588838 L1.9668669,33.0542958 L0.869542958,32.6455599 C0.346761268,32.4507676 -3.45070423e-05,31.9516232 -3.45070423e-05,31.3936444 L-3.45070423e-05,1.37079225 C-3.45070423e-05,0.417880282 0.94908169,-0.243792254 1.84298662,0.08575 L18.3356275,6.16347535 C18.7472965,6.3151338 18.791638,6.87932394 18.4091275,7.09361268 M38.2955359,22.6833768 C38.178212,23.1238592 37.8226169,23.4794542 37.382307,23.5967782 C36.3688352,23.8671408 35.4695817,22.9675423 35.7401169,21.9540704 C35.8576134,21.5139331 36.2132085,21.158338 36.6536908,21.0411866 C37.6666451,20.7715141 38.565381,21.6704225 38.2955359,22.6833768 M48.0927754,30.247493 C47.5629197,30.0078415 46.9350641,30.1798592 46.5494479,30.614993 L46.5221873,30.6455317 C45.2633704,32.0789542 43.7110711,33.1881831 41.9971063,33.9233556 C41.9917577,33.9255986 41.9971063,22.341757 41.9971063,22.341757 C41.9971063,13.8637218 35.1127789,6.99078169 26.6345711,6.99078169 C24.2718739,6.99078169 21.8610394,7.48388732 19.7830254,8.63297183 C17.9817577,9.62901761 7.46211338,15.5312746 4.66255704,17.1022077 C4.23846549,17.3401338 3.97845493,17.7871725 3.97845493,18.2733768 L3.97845493,47.5848662 C3.97845493,48.5941972 5.06456408,49.230507 5.9451838,48.7372289 L19.0174866,41.4119014 C19.4345042,41.1781162 19.6927894,40.7374613 19.6927894,40.2593662 L19.6927894,17.7378275 C19.6927894,17.2512782 20.0211239,16.8006162 20.5000817,16.7141761 C21.1293176,16.6008204 21.6765993,17.0811585 21.6765993,17.6893451 L21.6765993,22.2984507 L21.6821204,22.287581 C21.6821204,22.2912042 21.6817754,22.2948275 21.6817754,22.2984507 C21.6817754,30.752331 28.5590289,37.6295845 37.0127366,37.6295845 C37.7863845,37.6295845 38.5527859,37.5676444 39.3076275,37.4532535 L39.3076275,47.5686479 C39.3076275,48.3079613 39.9071873,48.9076937 40.6466732,48.9076937 C41.3859866,48.9076937 41.9853739,48.3079613 41.9853739,47.5686479 L41.9853739,36.796757 C44.484719,35.9396021 46.7488986,34.4454472 48.5267014,32.4212641 L48.5669021,32.3755423 C49.1533493,31.7199085 48.9746028,30.6460493 48.0927754,30.247493" data-v-eb7322e6></path></g></g></svg> <div class="text text-style-b33c" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Radio Frequency Identification</span> <span class="sub-title" data-v-eb7322e6>from System to Applications</span>  <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Mamun Bin Ibne Reaz</span></div></a></figure> <h4 class="title" data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/3370" data-v-69cc9686> <span data-v-69cc9686>Radio Frequency Identification</span></a></h4> <p class="edited" data-v-69cc9686> Edited by <span data-v-69cc9686><a href="/profiles/129681" data-v-69cc9686>Mamun Bin Ibne Reaz</a> </span></p>  </div> </div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-78d7195c><div class="book-item" style="width:undefinedpx;" data-v-69cc9686 data-v-78d7195c><figure class="cover-wrap top" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/3339" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Radio Frequency Identification Fundamentals and Applications" class="image cover-image-21f2" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" data-v-eb7322e6></rect> <text x="150" y="35" font-family="Arial" text-anchor="middle" fill="#fffad2" font-size="12" data-v-eb7322e6>IntechOpen</text> <g transform="translate(140, 220)" fill="#FFFAD2" data-v-eb7322e6><g transform="scale(0.7)" data-v-eb7322e6><path d="M18.4091275,7.09361268 L3.66754648,15.3478697 C2.61853239,15.939493 1.9668669,17.0549331 1.9668669,18.2588838 L1.9668669,33.0542958 L0.869542958,32.6455599 C0.346761268,32.4507676 -3.45070423e-05,31.9516232 -3.45070423e-05,31.3936444 L-3.45070423e-05,1.37079225 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data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Radio Frequency Identification Fundamen...</span> <span class="sub-title" data-v-eb7322e6>Design Methods and Solutions</span>  <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Cristina Turcu</span></div></a></figure> <h4 class="title" data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/3339" data-v-69cc9686> <span data-v-69cc9686>Radio Frequency Identification Fundamentals and Applications</span></a></h4> <p class="edited" data-v-69cc9686> Edited by <span data-v-69cc9686><a href="/profiles/9302" data-v-69cc9686>Cristina Turcu</a> </span></p>  </div> </div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-78d7195c><div class="book-item" style="width:undefinedpx;" data-v-69cc9686 data-v-78d7195c><figure class="cover-wrap top" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/3802" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Progress in Compact Antennas" class="image cover-image-2559" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" data-v-eb7322e6></rect> <text x="150" y="35" font-family="Arial" text-anchor="middle" fill="#fffad2" font-size="12" data-v-eb7322e6>IntechOpen</text> <g transform="translate(140, 220)" fill="#FFFAD2" data-v-eb7322e6><g transform="scale(0.7)" data-v-eb7322e6><path d="M18.4091275,7.09361268 L3.66754648,15.3478697 C2.61853239,15.939493 1.9668669,17.0549331 1.9668669,18.2588838 L1.9668669,33.0542958 L0.869542958,32.6455599 C0.346761268,32.4507676 -3.45070423e-05,31.9516232 -3.45070423e-05,31.3936444 L-3.45070423e-05,1.37079225 C-3.45070423e-05,0.417880282 0.94908169,-0.243792254 1.84298662,0.08575 L18.3356275,6.16347535 C18.7472965,6.3151338 18.791638,6.87932394 18.4091275,7.09361268 M38.2955359,22.6833768 C38.178212,23.1238592 37.8226169,23.4794542 37.382307,23.5967782 C36.3688352,23.8671408 35.4695817,22.9675423 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class="edited" data-v-69cc9686> Edited by <span data-v-69cc9686><a href="/profiles/169144" data-v-69cc9686>Laure Huitema</a> </span></p>  </div> </div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-78d7195c><div class="book-item" style="width:undefinedpx;" data-v-69cc9686 data-v-78d7195c><figure class="cover-wrap top" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/2260" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Ultra-Wideband Radio Technologies for Communications, Localization and Sensor Applications" class="image cover-image-20e6" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" data-v-eb7322e6></rect> <text x="150" y="35" font-family="Arial" text-anchor="middle" fill="#fffad2" font-size="12" data-v-eb7322e6>IntechOpen</text> <g transform="translate(140, 220)" fill="#FFFAD2" data-v-eb7322e6><g 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41.9853739,47.5686479 L41.9853739,36.796757 C44.484719,35.9396021 46.7488986,34.4454472 48.5267014,32.4212641 L48.5669021,32.3755423 C49.1533493,31.7199085 48.9746028,30.6460493 48.0927754,30.247493" data-v-eb7322e6></path></g></g></svg> <div class="text text-style-9adf" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Ultra-Wideband Radio Technologies for C...</span>   <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Reiner Thomä</span></div></a></figure> <h4 class="title" data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/2260" data-v-69cc9686> <span data-v-69cc9686>Ultra-Wideband Radio Technologies for Communications, Localization and Sensor Applications</span></a></h4> <p class="edited" data-v-69cc9686> Edited by <span data-v-69cc9686><a href="/profiles/14632" data-v-69cc9686>Reiner Thomä</a> </span></p>  </div> </div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-78d7195c><div class="book-item" style="width:undefinedpx;" data-v-69cc9686 data-v-78d7195c><figure class="cover-wrap top" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/6037" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Optical Communication Technology" class="image cover-image-77f2" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" data-v-eb7322e6></rect> <text x="150" y="35" font-family="Arial" text-anchor="middle" fill="#fffad2" font-size="12" data-v-eb7322e6>IntechOpen</text> <g transform="translate(140, 220)" fill="#FFFAD2" data-v-eb7322e6><g transform="scale(0.7)" data-v-eb7322e6><path d="M18.4091275,7.09361268 L3.66754648,15.3478697 C2.61853239,15.939493 1.9668669,17.0549331 1.9668669,18.2588838 L1.9668669,33.0542958 L0.869542958,32.6455599 C0.346761268,32.4507676 -3.45070423e-05,31.9516232 -3.45070423e-05,31.3936444 L-3.45070423e-05,1.37079225 C-3.45070423e-05,0.417880282 0.94908169,-0.243792254 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L19.0174866,41.4119014 C19.4345042,41.1781162 19.6927894,40.7374613 19.6927894,40.2593662 L19.6927894,17.7378275 C19.6927894,17.2512782 20.0211239,16.8006162 20.5000817,16.7141761 C21.1293176,16.6008204 21.6765993,17.0811585 21.6765993,17.6893451 L21.6765993,22.2984507 L21.6821204,22.287581 C21.6821204,22.2912042 21.6817754,22.2948275 21.6817754,22.2984507 C21.6817754,30.752331 28.5590289,37.6295845 37.0127366,37.6295845 C37.7863845,37.6295845 38.5527859,37.5676444 39.3076275,37.4532535 L39.3076275,47.5686479 C39.3076275,48.3079613 39.9071873,48.9076937 40.6466732,48.9076937 C41.3859866,48.9076937 41.9853739,48.3079613 41.9853739,47.5686479 L41.9853739,36.796757 C44.484719,35.9396021 46.7488986,34.4454472 48.5267014,32.4212641 L48.5669021,32.3755423 C49.1533493,31.7199085 48.9746028,30.6460493 48.0927754,30.247493" data-v-eb7322e6></path></g></g></svg> <div class="text text-style-dc3b" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Optical Communication Technology</span>   <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Pedro Pinho</span></div></a></figure> <h4 class="title" data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/6037" data-v-69cc9686> <span data-v-69cc9686>Optical Communication Technology</span></a></h4> <p class="edited" data-v-69cc9686> Edited by <span data-v-69cc9686><a href="/profiles/122497" data-v-69cc9686>Pedro Pinho</a> </span></p>  </div> </div><div class="swiper-slide" data-v-350a9a21 data-v-78d7195c><div class="book-item" style="width:undefinedpx;" data-v-69cc9686 data-v-78d7195c><figure class="cover-wrap top" data-v-eb7322e6 data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/5420" data-v-eb7322e6><span class="lazy-image ar1" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-eb7322e6><img alt="Terahertz Spectroscopy" class="image cover-image-4e60" data-v-c6fa12ae data-v-c6fa12ae></span>    <svg viewBox="0 0 300 270" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" class="svg" data-v-eb7322e6><rect width="300" height="270" style="fill:#e10000;" data-v-eb7322e6></rect> <text x="150" y="35" 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46.5494479,30.614993 L46.5221873,30.6455317 C45.2633704,32.0789542 43.7110711,33.1881831 41.9971063,33.9233556 C41.9917577,33.9255986 41.9971063,22.341757 41.9971063,22.341757 C41.9971063,13.8637218 35.1127789,6.99078169 26.6345711,6.99078169 C24.2718739,6.99078169 21.8610394,7.48388732 19.7830254,8.63297183 C17.9817577,9.62901761 7.46211338,15.5312746 4.66255704,17.1022077 C4.23846549,17.3401338 3.97845493,17.7871725 3.97845493,18.2733768 L3.97845493,47.5848662 C3.97845493,48.5941972 5.06456408,49.230507 5.9451838,48.7372289 L19.0174866,41.4119014 C19.4345042,41.1781162 19.6927894,40.7374613 19.6927894,40.2593662 L19.6927894,17.7378275 C19.6927894,17.2512782 20.0211239,16.8006162 20.5000817,16.7141761 C21.1293176,16.6008204 21.6765993,17.0811585 21.6765993,17.6893451 L21.6765993,22.2984507 L21.6821204,22.287581 C21.6821204,22.2912042 21.6817754,22.2948275 21.6817754,22.2984507 C21.6817754,30.752331 28.5590289,37.6295845 37.0127366,37.6295845 C37.7863845,37.6295845 38.5527859,37.5676444 39.3076275,37.4532535 L39.3076275,47.5686479 C39.3076275,48.3079613 39.9071873,48.9076937 40.6466732,48.9076937 C41.3859866,48.9076937 41.9853739,48.3079613 41.9853739,47.5686479 L41.9853739,36.796757 C44.484719,35.9396021 46.7488986,34.4454472 48.5267014,32.4212641 L48.5669021,32.3755423 C49.1533493,31.7199085 48.9746028,30.6460493 48.0927754,30.247493" data-v-eb7322e6></path></g></g></svg> <div class="text text-style-f350" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Terahertz Spectroscopy</span> <span class="sub-title" data-v-eb7322e6>A Cutting Edge Technology</span>  <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Jamal Uddin</span></div></a></figure> <h4 class="title" data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/5420" data-v-69cc9686> <span data-v-69cc9686>Terahertz Spectroscopy</span></a></h4> <p class="edited" data-v-69cc9686> Edited by <span data-v-69cc9686><a href="/profiles/126741" data-v-69cc9686>Jamal Uddin</a> </span></p>  </div> 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4.66255704,17.1022077 C4.23846549,17.3401338 3.97845493,17.7871725 3.97845493,18.2733768 L3.97845493,47.5848662 C3.97845493,48.5941972 5.06456408,49.230507 5.9451838,48.7372289 L19.0174866,41.4119014 C19.4345042,41.1781162 19.6927894,40.7374613 19.6927894,40.2593662 L19.6927894,17.7378275 C19.6927894,17.2512782 20.0211239,16.8006162 20.5000817,16.7141761 C21.1293176,16.6008204 21.6765993,17.0811585 21.6765993,17.6893451 L21.6765993,22.2984507 L21.6821204,22.287581 C21.6821204,22.2912042 21.6817754,22.2948275 21.6817754,22.2984507 C21.6817754,30.752331 28.5590289,37.6295845 37.0127366,37.6295845 C37.7863845,37.6295845 38.5527859,37.5676444 39.3076275,37.4532535 L39.3076275,47.5686479 C39.3076275,48.3079613 39.9071873,48.9076937 40.6466732,48.9076937 C41.3859866,48.9076937 41.9853739,48.3079613 41.9853739,47.5686479 L41.9853739,36.796757 C44.484719,35.9396021 46.7488986,34.4454472 48.5267014,32.4212641 L48.5669021,32.3755423 C49.1533493,31.7199085 48.9746028,30.6460493 48.0927754,30.247493" data-v-eb7322e6></path></g></g></svg> <div class="text text-style-3ae0" style="font-size:150em;" data-v-eb7322e6> <span class="title" data-v-eb7322e6>Contemporary Issues in Wireless Communi...</span>   <span class="editors" data-v-eb7322e6>Edited by Mutamed Khatib</span></div></a></figure> <h4 class="title" data-v-69cc9686><a href="/books/4473" data-v-69cc9686> <span data-v-69cc9686>Contemporary Issues in Wireless Communications</span></a></h4> <p class="edited" data-v-69cc9686> Edited by <span data-v-69cc9686><a href="/profiles/22273" data-v-69cc9686>Mutamed Khatib</a> </span></p>  </div> </div> </div></div> <div id="swiper-pagination-69cc" class="pages" data-v-32859338 data-v-78d7195c></div> <div class="nav-btns" data-v-32859338 data-v-78d7195c><div id="swiper-button-prev-69cc" class="swiper-button swiper-button--prev" data-v-32859338 data-v-78d7195c></div> <div id="swiper-button-next-69cc" class="swiper-button swiper-button--next" data-v-32859338 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The book is edited by P. Syamasundar Rao, Professor of Pediatrics and Medicine and Emeritus Chief of Pediatric Cardiology at the McGovern Medical School, the University of Texas at Houston, a pioneer in interventional pediatric cardiology.","metaKeywords":null,"publishedDatetime":"September 27, 2022","endDate":null,"newsType":"1","contentRaw":"[{\"type\":\"htmlEditorComponent\",\"content\":\"\u003Cp\u003EA significant milestone was celebrated recently with the publication of IntechOpen’s 6,000th Open Access book, \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002F11220\\\"\u003E"Congenital Heart Defects Recent Advances."\u003C\u002Fa\u003E The book is edited by P. Syamasundar Rao, Professor of Pediatrics and Medicine and Emeritus Chief of Pediatric Cardiology at the McGovern Medical School, the University of Texas at Houston, a pioneer in interventional pediatric cardiology.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThis 6,000th book focuses on the remarkable developments in the diagnosis and treatment of congenital heart defects in the last 50 years. It addresses these achievements and discusses issues related to managing congenital heart disease in developing countries. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EReflecting his insights on the book, \u003Cstrong\u003EDr. Rao says: \u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003E“A large number of advances have occurred in both the diagnosis and treatment of congenital heart defects over the last few decades. Some of these advances were reviewed in the book by authors from around the world. It is hoped that these reviews are helpful to the reader in diagnosing and managing their patients with congenital heart defects. \u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cem\u003E“My past experience of editing and publishing with IntechOpen indicates that a large number of physicians from several countries accessed these books. I anticipate a similar response for this book as well.”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe book brings the perspectives of 41 researchers from around the world, including prominent scientists in the field, such as Maria Giovanna Russo from the Pediatric Cardiology Unit—Luigi Vanvitelli—Campania University Hospital, Monaldi Hospital, Naples, Italy, Jose Da Silva from UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh and the University of Pittsburgh, USA as well as Cecilia W. Lo from University of Pittsburgh, USA.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003ESince 2004, all of our Open Access publications provide original content on topics ranging from robotics to space exploration, immunology to sustainable development, and beyond. With the publication of our 6,000th book, we remain a relevant source of research for scientists, scholars, and innovators worldwide. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EDr. Sara Uhac, CEO at IntechOpen, says:\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003E “We are proud to reach the milestone of the 6,000th book in the year of our eighteenth anniversary since the beginning of our journey of opening up science and celebrating its contribution to improving the world in which we live. This achievement highlights our commitment to our scientific community and sets further expectations for the future as we continue to advance science through our publishing program and all our activities”.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EDanijela Duric, Director of Book Publishing at IntechOpen, says:\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003E "On behalf of our Book Publishing Department, I would like to express our gratitude to all the Editors and Authors who have contributed to the 6,000 books that we have published to date. Since we began as pioneers in the publishing industry with Open Access books, we have thoroughly enjoyed our years of working with academics and widely sharing their work.”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAs we continue advancing science and democratising knowledge through our publishing program, look at the retrospective of our Open Access books journey.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cvideo controls style=\\\"width: 100%;-webkit-box-shadow: 0px 0px 2px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);box-shadow: 2px -2px 6px 2px rgb(0 0 0 \u002F 7%);\\\"\u003E\u003Csource src=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpublic\u002Fvideos\u002F6000book-carousel-video.mp4\\\" type=\\\"video\u002Fmp4\\\"\u002F\u003E\u003C\u002Fvideo\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\"}]","published":true,"mainMedia":{"caption":"","originalUrl":"\u002Fmedia\u002Foriginal\u002F252"}},"components":[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"\u003Cp\u003EA significant milestone was celebrated recently with the publication of IntechOpen’s 6,000th Open Access book, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002F11220\"\u003E"Congenital Heart Defects Recent Advances."\u003C\u002Fa\u003E The book is edited by P. Syamasundar Rao, Professor of Pediatrics and Medicine and Emeritus Chief of Pediatric Cardiology at the McGovern Medical School, the University of Texas at Houston, a pioneer in interventional pediatric cardiology.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThis 6,000th book focuses on the remarkable developments in the diagnosis and treatment of congenital heart defects in the last 50 years. It addresses these achievements and discusses issues related to managing congenital heart disease in developing countries. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EReflecting his insights on the book, \u003Cstrong\u003EDr. Rao says: \u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003E“A large number of advances have occurred in both the diagnosis and treatment of congenital heart defects over the last few decades. Some of these advances were reviewed in the book by authors from around the world. It is hoped that these reviews are helpful to the reader in diagnosing and managing their patients with congenital heart defects. \u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cem\u003E“My past experience of editing and publishing with IntechOpen indicates that a large number of physicians from several countries accessed these books. I anticipate a similar response for this book as well.”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe book brings the perspectives of 41 researchers from around the world, including prominent scientists in the field, such as Maria Giovanna Russo from the Pediatric Cardiology Unit—Luigi Vanvitelli—Campania University Hospital, Monaldi Hospital, Naples, Italy, Jose Da Silva from UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh and the University of Pittsburgh, USA as well as Cecilia W. Lo from University of Pittsburgh, USA.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003ESince 2004, all of our Open Access publications provide original content on topics ranging from robotics to space exploration, immunology to sustainable development, and beyond. With the publication of our 6,000th book, we remain a relevant source of research for scientists, scholars, and innovators worldwide. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EDr. Sara Uhac, CEO at IntechOpen, says:\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003E “We are proud to reach the milestone of the 6,000th book in the year of our eighteenth anniversary since the beginning of our journey of opening up science and celebrating its contribution to improving the world in which we live. This achievement highlights our commitment to our scientific community and sets further expectations for the future as we continue to advance science through our publishing program and all our activities”.\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EDanijela Duric, Director of Book Publishing at IntechOpen, says:\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003E "On behalf of our Book Publishing Department, I would like to express our gratitude to all the Editors and Authors who have contributed to the 6,000 books that we have published to date. Since we began as pioneers in the publishing industry with Open Access books, we have thoroughly enjoyed our years of working with academics and widely sharing their work.”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EAs we continue advancing science and democratising knowledge through our publishing program, look at the retrospective of our Open Access books journey.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cvideo controls style=\"width: 100%;-webkit-box-shadow: 0px 0px 2px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);box-shadow: 2px -2px 6px 2px rgb(0 0 0 \u002F 7%);\"\u003E\u003Csource src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpublic\u002Fvideos\u002F6000book-carousel-video.mp4\" type=\"video\u002Fmp4\"\u002F\u003E\u003C\u002Fvideo\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E"}],"latestNews":[{"slug":"green-energy-and-environmental-technology-journal-supporting-the-un-sustainable-development-goals-20241105","title":"Green Energy and Environmental Technology Journal: Supporting the UN Sustainable Development Goals"},{"slug":"intechopen-signs-research4life-publishers-recommitment-20241029","title":"IntechOpen Signs Research4Life Publishers Recommitment"},{"slug":"intechopen-launches-open-science-hub-20241028","title":"IntechOpen Launches Open Science Hub"},{"slug":"2024-best-paper-award-from-the-ai-computer-science-and-robotics-technology-journal-20241004","title":"2024 Best Paper Award From the AI, Computer Science, and Robotics Technology Journal"},{"slug":"peer-review-week-2024-spotlight-an-interview-with-global-campus-co-founder-paul-tuinenburg-20240927","title":"Peer Review Week Spotlight: An Interview with Global Campus Co-Founder Paul Tuinenburg"},{"slug":"new-open-access-books-from-the-knowledge-unlatched-select-programme-2024-20240819","title":"New Open Access Books from the Knowledge Unlatched Select Programme 2024"},{"slug":"intechopen-presents-interviews-for-young-scientists-with-science-s-leading-minds-20240708","title":"IntechOpen Presents Interviews for Young Scientists with Science's Leading Minds"},{"slug":"recent-intechopen-book-series-launches-20240705","title":"Recent IntechOpen Book Series Launches"}]},"book":{"item":{"type":"book","id":"2083","leadTitle":null,"fullTitle":"Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems","title":"Advances in Cognitive Radio Systems","subtitle":null,"reviewType":"peer-reviewed","abstract":"Cognitive radio technologies are forms of wireless communication with many and varied applications. The contributions in this book will benefit researchers and engineers as they offer cutting-edge knowledge in the field. Subjects include uses of wideband voltage controlled oscillators, control planes for spectrum access and mobility in networks with heterogeneous frequency devices. Other chapters cover cognitive media access control and measurement methods for spectrum occupancy. In addition, there are contributions on delay analysis and channel selection in single-hop networks for delay-sensitive applications, the application of transmission security (TRANSEC) protocols to cognitive radio communication and the use of blind detection, parameters, estimation and the despreading of DS-CDMA signals in multirate, multiuser cognitive radio systems.","isbn":null,"printIsbn":"978-953-51-0666-1","pdfIsbn":"978-953-51-6218-6","doi":"10.5772\u002F2492","price":119,"priceEur":129,"priceUsd":155,"priceCbs":null,"slug":"advances-in-cognitive-radio-systems","numberOfPages":156,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isInWos":null,"isInBkci":false,"hash":"4ccdffed1e68f35ee4aa197ba5e8e2f4","bookSignature":"Cheng-Xiang Wang and Joseph Mitola III","publishedDate":"July 5th 2012","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F2083.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F2083\u002F1718269335-1721830574\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F2083\u002F1718269335-1721830574\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","numberOfDownloads":19907,"numberOfViews":859,"numberOfWosCitations":5,"numberOfCrossrefCitations":7,"numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook":3,"numberOfDimensionsCitations":7,"numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook":3,"hasAltmetrics":0,"totalAltmetricsMentions":0,"numberOfTotalCitations":19,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"dateEndFirstStepPublish":"March 10th 2011","dateEndSecondStepPublish":"May 27th 2011","dateEndThirdStepPublish":"October 1st 2011","dateEndFourthStepPublish":"October 31st 2011","dateEndFifthStepPublish":"February 28th 2012","currentStepOfPublishingProcess":5,"indexedIn":"1,2,3,4,5,6,7","editedByType":"Edited by","kuFlag":false,"sdgRelated":null,"featuredMarkup":null,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":false,"noAds":0,"editors":[{"id":"115556","title":"Prof.","name":"Cheng-Xiang","middleName":null,"surname":"Wang","slug":"cheng-xiang-wang","fullName":"Cheng-Xiang Wang","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F115556\u002F1730415795\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Cheng-Xiang Wang received the BSc and MEng degrees in Communication and Information Systems from Shandong University, China, in 1997 and 2000, respectively, and the PhD degree in Wireless Communications from Aalborg University, Denmark, in 2004.\nHe has been with Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK since 2005, and became a Professor in Wireless Communications in 2011. He is also an Honorary Fellow of the University of Edinburgh, UK, a Chair Professor of Shandong University, and a Guest Professor of Southeast University, China. He was a Research Fellow at the University of Agder, Grimstad, Norway, from 2001-2005, a Visiting Researcher at Siemens AG-Mobile Phones, Munich, Germany, in 2004, and a Research Assistant at Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany, from 2000-2001. His current research interests focus on wireless channel measurements\u002Fmodelling and (B)5G wireless communication networks, including green communications, cognitive radio networks, high mobility communication networks, massive MIMO, millimeter wave communications, and visible light communications. He has co-authored 2 books, 1 book chapter, and over 320 papers in refereed journals and conference proceedings.\n\nProf. Wang has served as an editor for 9 international journals, including the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY (since 2011), IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS (since 2015), and the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS (2007--2009). He was the lead Guest Editor for the IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, Special Issue on Vehicular Communications and Networks. He was also a Guest Editor for the IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, Special Issue on Spectrum and Energy Efficient Design of Wireless Communication Networks and Special Issue on Airborne Communication Networks, and a Guest Editor for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIG DATA, Special Issue on Wireless Big Data. He has served as a Technical Program Committee (TPC) Member, TPC Chair, and General Chair for over 80 international conferences. He received 9 Best Paper Awards from IEEE Globecom 2010, IEEE ICCT 2011, ITST 2012, IEEE VTC 2013-Spring, IWCMC 2015, IWCMC 2016, IEEE\u002FCIC ICCC 2016, and WPMC 2016. He is a Fellow of the IEEE, IET, and HEA. He is recognized as a Web of Science 2017 Highly Cited Researcher.","institutionString":null,"position":null,"outsideEditionCount":0,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"0","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"1","institution":{"name":"Heriot-Watt University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"United Kingdom"}},"countryString":null}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":{"id":"120899","title":"Dr.","name":"Joseph","middleName":null,"surname":"Mitola","slug":"joseph-mitola","fullName":"Joseph Mitola","cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.123\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":"Joseph Mitola III (jmitola@ieee.org) Chief Product Scientist, Federated Wireless, consultant, expert witness, and technical innovator, recognized globally as introducing software radio technologies via the landmark Software Radio Architecture Special Issue of the IEEE Communications Magazine, (May 1995) and cognitive radio via the first Cognitive Radio Architecture (KTH, 1998; Wiley, 2006). Earlier in his career he was Vice President, Research, Stevens Institute of Technology; Chief Scientist of the US DoD FFRDC of The MITRE Corporation; Special Assistant to the Director of the DARPA; and Technical Advisor to the Executive Office of the President of the United States; positions of technical leadership with E-Systems, Harris Corporation, Advanced Decision Systems, ITT Corporation and US DoD. B.S. EE (Northeastern University); M.S.E. in stochastic optimal control (The Johns Hopkins University); Doctorate in teleinformatics (KTH, The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 2000).","institutionString":null,"position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"0","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"1","institution":{"name":"Royal Institute of Technology","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Sweden"}},"countryString":null},"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"762","title":"Wireless Communication System","slug":"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-wireless-communication-system"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"subseries":null,"tags":[{"id":"65","label":"highly cited contributor"}],"_preview":0,"chapters":[{"id":"37687","title":"Wideband Voltage Controlled Oscillators for Cognitive Radio Systems","doi":"10.5772\u002F31212","slug":"wideband-voltage-controlled-oscillators-for-cognitive-radio-systems","totalDownloads":2827,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":1,"abstract":null,"signatures":"Alessandro Acampora and Apostolos Georgiadis","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F37687","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F37687","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"86065","title":"Dr.","name":"Alessandro","surname":"Acampora","slug":"alessandro-acampora","fullName":"Alessandro Acampora"},{"id":"89901","title":"Dr.","name":"Apostolos","surname":"Georgiadis","slug":"apostolos-georgiadis","fullName":"Apostolos Georgiadis"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"37688","title":"Control Plane for Spectrum Access and Mobility in Cognitive Radio Networks with Heterogeneous Frequency Devices","doi":"10.5772\u002F32220","slug":"control-plane-for-spectrum-access-and-mobility-in-cognitive-radio-networks-with-heterogeneous-freque","totalDownloads":2531,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":2,"abstract":null,"signatures":"Nicolas Bolivar and Jose L.","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F37688","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F37688","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"90628","title":"Mr.","name":"Nicolás","surname":"Bolívar","slug":"nicolas-bolivar","fullName":"Nicolás Bolívar"},{"id":"138976","title":"Dr.","name":"José L.","surname":"Marzo","slug":"jose-l.-marzo","fullName":"José L. 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In 2008, Dr. Aydin joined the faculty of the Chemistry Department, at Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey, where he rose through the ranks from assistant professor to Professor of Physical Chemistry. 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From 2001 to 2005, he served as a post-doctoral associate at the Center for Analysis of Structures and Interfaces, Chemistry Department, The City College of New York, USA. In 2008, Dr. Aydin joined the faculty of the Chemistry Department, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey, where he rose through the ranks from assistant professor to Professor of Physical Chemistry. 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Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EIn order to develop a robot that can work in normal everyday situations, it is necessary to discover the principles relevant to establishing and maintaining social interaction between humans and robots. Even if short-term human-robot interaction can be performed by implementing simple behaviors in a robot, it remains difficult to realize long-term social interaction. We have explored the principles underlying natural human-robot communication by development of an android which closely resembles a human being, which is called an android science approach (\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EIshiguro, 2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ENass et al. (Nass et al., 1994\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) demonstrated that the human-computer relationship is fundamentally social and that a person's social response toward computers is automatic in social situations. It is inferred from their studies that person's interpersonal responses subconsciously expressed toward a robot (in other words, perceptual social illusion (\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EJacob & Jeannerod, 2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)) underlie the natural communication between the person and the robot. The condition to elicit interpersonal behavior must be related to a mechanism to support natural communication. The android science approach explores the boundary conditions to elicit subconscious interpersonal behavior toward an android from humans by investigating methods to make the android more humanlike.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EHumanlike body motions are necessary to implement humanlike behavior in an android. There have been several studies on the generation of humanlike motion, including studies on a model to generate human motion trajectories based on a neurocomputational approach (\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EFlash & Hogan, 1985\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EUno et al., 1989\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EKawato, 1992\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ESchaal & Sternad, 2001\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), a study on the control of a manipulator based on a model of motion trajectories of a person's arm (\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EKashima & Isurugi, 1998\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), and studies on a computer graphics (CG) animated characters, which have shown that noise in the motion makes the character's motion more humanlike (\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EPerlin, 1995\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EBodenheimer et al., 1999\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). These studies successfully generated a humanlike motion. However, a humanlike motion specific to communication situations has not been considered. The present study considers the human-like nature of a person's motion during interaction with other people.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EA person generally does not produce exactly identical motion when he\u002Fshe repeats a behavior with the same intention, as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E(a). In contrast, a robot is able to repeat exactly identical motion with a purpose. A person's motion is diverse in that the motion\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage1.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAn example of motion decomposition in a reaching movement.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003Evaries according to noises, mental and physical states, the social situation, and so on, even if the person's intention does not change. We endow an android with motion variety in order to make the android behavior more humanlike. If a person consciously or subconsciously attributes a cause of motion variety in an android motion to such things as the android's mental states, physical states, and the social situations, the person has more humanlike impression toward the android.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EWe further consider the variety of human motion. We divide a person's motion into the following two components (an example is shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E(b)):\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Col style=\"list-style-type: order;\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp\u003EA motion that satisfies his\u002Fher intention.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp\u003EA motion change that is not relevant to the intention (a variation of the physical properties of the motion (i) such as its trajectory and velocity). \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Fol\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThe motion variety described in the above means a variety in the motion change. Motion generation models involving a signal-dependent noise have been proposed in studies related to the variety of the motion change (\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ETodorov & Jordan, 2002\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EMiyamoto et al., 2004\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). This noise-based variety cannot be controlled even if the subject consciously attempts to control or suppress this variety. In contrast, motion variety caused by such things as mental strain or hesitation can be consciously controlled. We assume that the motion variety in an intentional motion influences the human-like nature of the android behavior, even if an observed motion change caused by the variety is small.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThe present chapter hypothesizes that the motion change that is not relevant to a subject's intention and can be consciously controlled influences the humanlike impression towards the subject. In particular, we focus on motion variety in an intentional motion caused by the social relationship between the subject and another person. The present chapter concretely \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage2.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EGestures to be modelled. A subject reaches out and touches an object or a person.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003Etakes up the motion of a subject reaching out and touching another person. Even a simple reaching motion of a humanoid robot has not been studied with respect to how the change of its properties due to social situations affects the impression of an observer toward the robot. As an extreme case, the present chapter models the motion difference between two cases in which a subject touches another person or an inanimate object through observing the subject's behavior. We then examine how the presence of the motion variety in an android motion influences the impression toward the android. In a psychological experiment, as a third party, participants watch an android touches a person or an object and report their impressions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\t\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. A model of human motion variety based on differences in social situation\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThe present chapter hypothesizes that motion variety in an intentional motion independent of uncontrollable noise contributes to the human-like nature of the motion. In order to examine this hypothesis, we model the motion difference caused by the social relationship between two persons in the motion of one reaching out and touching the other. It is, however, difficult to control the social relationship between two persons in an experiment. As the extreme case, we consider the difference between a person-object relationship (\u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, top) and an interpersonal relationship (\u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, bottom). The person-object relationship is not social, but this chapter considers it as the least social relationship. We then construct a model of the difference in the subject's arm movements in these two cases.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EIn order to construct the model, we set up the situations shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and measured the subject's arm movements with a motion capture system (MAC 3D System, Motion Analysis Corporation). The task of the subject was to reach out with the right hand and touch a box or a female experimenter in front of the subject. The hand position of the subject was measured by attaching a marker to the back of the hand. The sampling rate was 60 Hz. The subject touched the left shoulder, nose, and forehead of the experimenter and two spots on the box, the heights of which are the same as those of the shoulder and forehead (box low and box high). The subjects were seven male students. Some of the subjects were familiar with the female experimenter and others were not. All subject touched the target in the order of box low, box high, left shoulder, nose, and forehead, once for each target (total of thirty-five trials). The subjects were told to touch the target and return their hand to the initial position.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThe analysis is not for the purpose of finding differences in motion common to all subjects because the motion variation is caused by individuality in some cases. It is sufficient to find a feature to differentiate a subject-person relationship (interpersonal case) from a subject-object relationship (impersonal case) within a subject. However, if the feature is not common among the subjects, it may be difficult to obtain a common impression towards an android in the later experiment. Therefore, we attempt to find a feature that is shared by the majority of the subjects.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage3.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAn example of a subject's hand velocity (subject 1).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EFirst, we calculated the absolute value of the hand velocity in order to facilitate the analysis. The trajectory of the hand position was smoothed by a low-pass filter, and the velocity was calculated by forward differences. We investigated the difference in the velocity profiles. As an example, the results for a typical subject are shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. Each plot is the absolute value of the velocity of the hand and is shifted in time so that the times of the first peaks are the same. In each plot, the first bell-shaped curve indicates the reaching out motion, and the second bell-shaped curve indicates the returning motion. The following features were found for each subject.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThe velocity profile in the reaching phase forms a unimodal, bell-shaped curve that does not depend on the relationships (interpersonal and impersonal cases).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThe velocity profile in the returning phase varies depending on the relationships.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThere were no remarkable differences in motion among the subjects that were familiar with the experimenter and the subjects that were not familiar with the experimenter. In order to examine the returning phase in detail, the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity were calculated. \u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and 5 show the absolute value of the horizontal and vertical components, respectively. In all cases, the profile of the vertical component in the returning phase is a single-peak shape. This characteristic is common among all subjects. Moreover, \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage4.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 4.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EHorizontal velocity of the hand (the horizontal component of the \u003Cxref rid=\"F3\" ref-type=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F5\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage5.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 5.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EVertical velocity of the hand (the vertical component of the \u003Cxref rid=\"F3\" ref-type=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F6\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage6.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 6.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAn example of a subject's hand velocity (subject 2).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F7\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage7.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 7.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAn example of a subject's hand velocity (subject 3).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003Ethe profile of the horizontal component in the returning phase has a peak before the maximum peak. Other examples of the horizontal and vertical components are shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and 7. We can also find a similar profile of the horizontal component in these examples.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThis characteristic appears 6 times among the 14 trials of the impersonal case and 18 times among the 21 trials of the interpersonal case. In other words, this characteristic appears more often in the interpersonal case than in the impersonal case. Although there is no statistically significant difference between the two cases because the number of the subjects is not sufficient, we focus on this feature in order to differentiate the interpersonal and impersonal cases. Comparing the horizontal and vertical components, the time to start increasing the vertical velocity is always later than the time to start increasing the horizontal velocity. There is a tendency for this time delay to be larger in interpersonal cases than in impersonal cases. These results suggest that, in the interpersonal case, when the subjects returned their hands, they moved their hands horizontally at first and then brought their hands down, whereas, in the impersonal case, subjects brought their hands down from the beginning. It is generally thought that a person moves his\u002Fher arm by controlling his\u002Fher\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F8\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage8.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 8.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThe model of variation in returning phase of touching motion.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003Ehand position initially with feedback control and then moves his\u002Fher arm in a ballistic trajectory. This difference in motion can be modelled as the difference of desired hand position of feedback control in the space close to another person (\u003Ca href=\"#F8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). To put it more concretely:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp\u003EIn the impersonal case, the desired hand position is set such that the hand can be returned in the fastest path (\u003Ca href=\"#F8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, top).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp\u003EIn the interpersonal case, the desired hand position is set such that the hand can move from the space in proximity to the other person along the fastest path (\u003Ca href=\"#F8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, bottom).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EAlthough this model is specific to the motion for touching another person or a box, it can be taken as a model of human motion variety due to differences in social situation. In the next section, we examine the influence of the model on the impression towards an android.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\t\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Experiments\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.1. Repliee Q2 android\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThe android (called Repliee Q2) used in the experiment is shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The android is modelled after a Japanese woman, the standing height of which is approximately 160 cm. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThe skin is composed of a kind of silicone that feels like human skin. The android is driven by pneumatic actuators that give it 42 degrees of freedom from the waist up. The legs and feet are not powered. The android can neither stand up nor move from a chair. The joints driven by the pneumatic actuator has mechanical flexibility in the control thanks to the high compressibility of air. The flexibility of the joints makes for safer interaction, with movements that are generally smoother than those of other similar systems. The complicated dynamics of the air actuator make executing the trajectory tracking control difficult.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F9\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage9.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 9.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E“Repliee Q2” android. The left figure is blurred in order to hide the details.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F10\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage10.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 10.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAndroid motions generated based on the constructed model.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.2. Method\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EWe implemented the motion variation based on the proposed model in the Repliee Q2 android and investigated the impression toward the android from a third-person viewpoint in psychological experiments. We showed video recordings of the android motions to participants and asked them impressions toward the android. The android motions generated based on the proposed model are shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The top of the figure shows the motion in which the hand is returned along the fastest path (hereafter, motion M1). The bottom panel shows the motion in which the hand leaves from the space near the other person along the fastest path (hereafter, motion M2). The motion of reaching out was implemented according to the average motion of the subjects' reaching motions observed in the experiment described in Section 2. It is difficult to implement a quick and smooth motion in the android with a simple feedback control because the joints are driven by flexible pneumatic actuators. In order to avoid this difficulty, we implemented the motions in the android so that the speed of motion is slow. The video stimuli were made by playing videos of the android with slow motion at fast speed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EIn order to examine the influence of the motion variety on the impression toward the android, we prepared three types of android, as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#T1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. Three androids reach out and touch persons and inanimate objects in different manners. The android in Condition A (hereafter, android A) touches persons and objects with motion M1. The android in Condition B (hereafter, android B) touches persons and objects with motion M2. The android in Condition C (hereafter, android C) touches objects with motion M1 and persons with motion M2. Conditions A and B are used to examine the impressions with respect to the androids without motion variety, and Condition C is used to examine the impressions with respect to the androids with motion variety. When the target is a person, the android touches the left shoulder of the person sitting in a face-to-face position.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"T1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable margin-left=\"0\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"155.4\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"71.05\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"71.05\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"71.05\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\".5\" border-right=\".5\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\".5\" border-right=\".5\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EAndroid A\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\".5\" border-right=\".5\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EAndroid B\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\".5\" border-right=\".5\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EAndroid C\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\".5\" border-right=\".5\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EA motion with which the android touches an object\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\".5\" border-right=\".5\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EMotion M1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\".5\" border-right=\".5\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EMotion M2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\".5\" border-right=\".5\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EMotion M1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\".5\" border-right=\".5\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EA motion with which the android touches a person\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\".5\" border-right=\".5\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EMotion M1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\".5\" border-right=\".5\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EMotion M2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\".5\" border-right=\".5\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EMotion M2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 1.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThe experimental conditions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EIn each condition, a participant was presented six android motions to report the impression. The android touches three objects (a calendar, a video camera, and a small shelf) and three male persons once for each target. The six targets are shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The video stimulus is synthesized from a video recording of the android motion without the target and a video recording of the only target. The video of each motion is five seconds long. In each condition, six motions were randomly presented to a participant with a constraint in which the motion of touching an object and the motion of touching a person were alternately presented. In order to eliminate memory effect and aftereffect, a blank image was presented for two seconds between the videos, as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EWe designed a questionnaire using a five-point Likert scale with 1 = strongly disagree, 3 = neutral, and 5 = strongly agree. The aim of the questionnaire is to ask the impression of the android's human-like nature; therefore, the questionnaire asked how the android is “humanlike.” It is, however, possible that the variation in the arm trajectories does not influence the impression on the human-likeness. We then prepared other six items in the\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F11\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage11.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 11.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThe objects and persons in the video stimuli.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F12\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage12.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 12.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThe procedure to present the video stimuli.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003Equestionnaire, which are likely influenced by the variation in the arm trajectories. The items are ``the android is (1) polite, (2) accurate, (3) intellectual, (4) conscientious, (5) friendly, (6) graceful, and (7) humanlike.'' The items are listed in random order in order to avoid the order effect, except for “humanlike,” which always appears at the end of the questionnaire, because an answer to the item “humanlike” is likely to influence the responses to the other items.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.3. Experiment 1: comparing Androids A and C\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EAt first, we compared Androids A and C in order to investigate the influence of the presence of motion variety in the android. The expectation is that the comparison of the impressions of the human-like nature results in the following:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EAndroid C > Android A.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F13\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage13.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 13.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThe results of questionnaire about impressions towards Androids A and C.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F14\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage14.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 14.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThe results of questionnaire about impressions towards Androids A, B, and C.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThe participants were twenty-four university students (nineteen males and five females) who were familiar with the Repliee Q2 android. Each participant participated in both conditions, although the order of the conditions was changed randomly. The participant answered the questionnaire after every condition was presented.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThe average scores of the impressions are shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. A paired t-test revealed significant differences (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E<0.05) in two conditions for the items of “polite” and “graceful,” although there was no significant difference for the item “humanlike.” The android behavior in which the hand quickly moves from the space in proximity to the other person likely gave an impression that the android carefully and deliberately touches the other person. It is inferred that the participants thought that the android had an intention of touching the other person carefully. It is, therefore, that the participants thought that Android C is politer and more graceful. It can be also said that the participants were consciously or subconsciously aware that Android C changed the hand trajectory from the fact that there are significant differences for some items.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EHere, we consider the difference between Androids A and C. In Condition C, the android's arm trajectory varies according to the android-target relationship, and in Condition A, the android's arm trajectory does not vary according to the android-target relationship. Another difference is that, in Condition C, the android shows motion M2, which is not the case in Condition A. In other words, there is a possibility that the presence of motion M2 produced different impressions. In order to show that the different impressions are caused by the difference in social situation, it is necessary to examine the influence of motion M2. Therefore, in the next section, we conducted an additional experiment to assess the android in Condition B.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.4. Experiment 2: comparing Androids A, B, and C\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThe participants in this experiment were twelve of twenty-four participants who participated in experiment 1. They were nine males and three females. Each participant was presented Android B and answered the questionnaire about it. The expectation is that the comparison of the impressions of the human-like nature results in the following:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EAndroid C > Android A, Android B.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThe average scores of the impressions toward Android B are shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E by adding the result to \u003Ca href=\"#F13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. Ryan's multiple comparison test revealed a significant difference (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E<0.05) between Androids A and C for the item “graceful.” This is the same result as the one obtained in the experiment 1. Contrary to our expectation, however, there was no significant difference between Androids B and C.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EWe then considered the influence of the order of stimulus presentation. The participants of the experiment 2 assessed in order of Androids A, C, and B or C, A, and B. Hereinafter, Case O1 and Case O2 indicate the order of ACB and CAB, respectively. A repeated measures two-way ANOVA with a factor of condition order and a factor of android motion was conducted. There were significant interactions at the 5% level for the items of “intellectual”, “friendly”, and “humanlike” and at the 10% level for the item of “conscientious.” It is possible that the effect of the android motion on the impression score depends on the order of conditions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EWe divided the twelve participants into participants who participated in Case O1 (seven persons) and participants who participated in Case O2 (five persons) and analyzed their impression scores. The average impression scores obtained in Cases O1 and O2 are shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and 16, respectively. For each item, three conditions are rearranged in the order of presentation. Two tendencies can be seen in these figures:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThe scores obtained in the condition right after Condition C are smaller than those in Condition C.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp\u003EThe scores obtained in the condition right after Condition A are larger than those in Condition A.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003ERyan's multiple comparison test revealed several significant differences at 5% level among Androids A, B, and C as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and 16. In particular, as expected, the score of “humanlike” for Android C is significantly larger than that for Android B in Case O1. In Case O2, the participants thought the android which touched anything with the motion M2 was more deliberate and careful than the android which touched anything with the motion M1. Furthermore, it is likely that this careful motion gave an impression that Android B was more humanlike than Android A in Case O2. However, the participants thought that Android C with motion variation was more humanlike than Android B when Android C was presented just after Android B in Case O1. It is possible that the participants think the android with the motion variation is more humanlike than the android with only the careful motion.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_7_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.5. Summary\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThe experimental results showed that the variety of the android motion enhances the impression of human-like nature toward the android under the influence of the order of stimulus presentation, although the expected result (i.e., Android C is more humanlike than Androids A and B) was not obtained. In addition, the results showed that motion variety influences impressions such as “conscientious” and “graceful”, which are related to the human-like nature of the android. The number of participants of the experiments was too few to compare the three conditions. The expected effect of the motion variety may be shown by an experiment with a larger number of participants.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EAs an example of motion variety, the present chapter examined the motion variation in which the desired hand position of feedback control varies in two ways when a person returns his\u002Fher hand after touching a target. In addition, the social relationship which causes this variation was also designed to be varied in two cases, that is, android-person and android-object relationships. This is a simple example of variety. However, more complicated motion variation can be designed, for example, by changing the causes of the variation. It is inferred that complicated variation has a different influence on the impression, although there are appropriate variations for enhancing the human-like nature. Further investigation is necessary in order to clarify what motion variety makes the android humanlike.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EIn Section 2, we assumed that the variation of the subject's arm motion is caused by the social relationship between the subject and the target. However, the subconscious motion variation was not verified to be due to the social situation. There is another possibility, i.e., that the variation is, for example, due to the hardness of the target, such as a hard box or a soft human body. In addition, it was not verified that the participants in Section 3 actually attributed the cause of motion variation to the social situation, although the motion variation conditionally enhanced the impression of the android's human-like nature. In other words, it is not clear that the participants think Android C socially behaves like\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F15\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage15.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 15.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EImpressions of participants assessed in order of Androids A, C, and B (Case O1).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F16\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage16.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 16.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EImpressions of participants assessed in order of Androids C, A, and B (Case O2).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003Ehuman beings. One possible design of an experiment is to compare with the android which has same motions but different motion variation, that is, the android which touches objects with motion M2 and persons with motion M1 (this manner is opposite to Android C). If this android is less humanlike than Android C, the motion variation which is congruent with that of human subjects shown in Section 2 contributes the human-likeness of the android. However, further investigation is necessary to verify whether the social relationship caused the arm motion variation observed in Section 2 and the different impressions toward the android obtained in Section 3.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\t\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Conclusion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EWe hypothesized that a motion variety that is not related to a subject's intention and can be consciously controlled influences the humanlike impression of the subject, and we assumed that this motion variety makes the android more humanlike. In order to verify this hypothesis, we constructed a model of the motion variety through the observation of persons’ motions. We examined the variation in a motion of reaching out and touching another person, which occurred in different social relationships between the subject and the other person (or object). The experimental results showed that the modelled motion variety conditionally influences the impression toward the android.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThe results of the present chapter are specific to the android's motion of reaching out and touching a person. The present study is a first step in the exploration of the principles for providing natural robot behaviors. The results revealed that a phenomenon whereby motion variety influences the impression towards the actor can be seen at least in certain motions of a very humanlike robot. Based on these results, it is possible to examine which aspects of the robot's appearance and motion are affected by this phenomenon. This exploration will help to clarify the principles underlying natural human-robot communication.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EFrom the viewpoint of the robot motion design, a motion variety model is also useful. Several studies have proposed a method by which to implement humanlike motion in a humanoid robot by copying human motion as measured by a motion capture system to the robot (\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ERiley et al., 2000\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003ENakaoka et al., 2003\u003C\u002Fa\u003E; \u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003EMatsui et al. 2005\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In order to make a robot motion more humanlike, it is necessary to implement a humanlike motion variation. However, it is not necessary to copy all human motions. This humanlike motion variation can be automatically generated from an original motion by the motion variety model.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\t\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_10\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Acknowledgements\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Cp\u003EThe android robot Repliee Q2 was developed in collaboration with Kokoro Company, Ltd.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\t\n","keywords":null,"chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpdfs\u002F6445.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fsource\u002Fxml\u002F6445.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F6445\u002F1671185113\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F6445","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F6445","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F6445\u002F1512345123\u002F","totalDownloads":2555,"totalViews":431,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"totalAltmetricsMentions":0,"introChapter":false,"impactScore":0,"impactScorePercentile":45,"impactScoreQuartile":2,"hasAltmetrics":0,"dateSubmitted":null,"dateReviewed":null,"datePrePublished":null,"datePublished":"December 1st 2009","dateFinished":null,"readingETA":"0","abstract":null,"reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F6445","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F6445","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"3376","type":"book","title":"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction","slug":"advances-in-human-robot-interaction","publishedDate":"December 1st 2009","bookSignature":"Vladimir A. Kulyukin","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F3376.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F3376\u002F1713434099-1247274619\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F3376\u002F1713434099-1247274619\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F3376\u002F1718270771-1337862255\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F3376\u002F1718270771-1337862255\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F3376\u002F1718107891-1433701099\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F3376\u002F1718107891-1433701099\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0","editedByType":"Edited by","isbn":null,"price":139,"printIsbn":"978-953-307-020-9","pdfIsbn":"978-953-51-5844-8","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","numberOfWosCitations":23,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"134137","title":"Prof.","name":"Vladimir","middleName":null,"surname":"Kulyukin","slug":"vladimir-kulyukin","fullName":"Vladimir Kulyukin"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":null,"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"1257"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"chapters":[{"id":"6438","type":"chapter","title":"Motion Feature Quantification of Different Roles in Nihon-Buyo Dance","slug":"motion-feature-quantification-of-different-roles-in-nihon-buyo-dance","totalDownloads":2420,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"signatures":"Mamiko Sakata, Mieko Marumo, 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Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. A model of human motion variety based on differences in social situation","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_3","title":"3. Experiments","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_3_2","title":"3.1. Repliee Q2 android","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_4_2","title":"3.2. Method","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_5_2","title":"3.3. Experiment 1: comparing Androids A and C","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_6_2","title":"3.4. Experiment 2: comparing Androids A, B, and C","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_7_2","title":"3.5. Summary","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_9","title":"4. Conclusion","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_10","title":"5. Acknowledgements","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cmixed-citation\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cperson-group\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003EBodenheimer\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003EB.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003EShleyfman\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003EA. V.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003EHodgins\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003EJ. 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K. F.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003EIshiguro\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003EH.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fperson-group\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cyear\u003E2005\u003C\u002Fyear\u003E Generating natural motion in an android by mapping human motion, \u003Csource\u003EProceedings of the IEEE\u002FRSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robot Systems\u003C\u002Fsource\u003E, \u003Cfpage\u003E1089\u003C\u002Ffpage\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Clpage\u003E1096\u003C\u002Flpage\u003E , \u003Cisbn\u003E0-78038-912-3\u003C\u002Fisbn\u003E Alberta, Canada, Aug., 2005.\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B8","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B8\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cmixed-citation\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cperson-group\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003EMiyamoto\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003EH.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003ENakano\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003EE.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003EWolpert\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003ED. M.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003EKawato\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003EM.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fperson-group\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cyear\u003E2004\u003C\u002Fyear\u003E Tops (task optimization in the presence of signal-dependent noise) model. \u003Csource\u003ESystems and Computers in Japan\u003C\u002Fsource\u003E, \u003Cvolume\u003E35\u003C\u002Fvolume\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cissue\u003E11\u003C\u002Fissue\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cfpage\u003E48\u003C\u002Ffpage\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Clpage\u003E58\u003C\u002Flpage\u003E , 2004, \u003Cissn\u003E0882-1666\u003C\u002Fissn\u003E.\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B9","body":"\u003Cref 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G.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fperson-group\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cyear\u003E2000\u003C\u002Fyear\u003E Methods for motion generation and interaction with a humanoid robot: Case studies of dancing and catching, \u003Csource\u003EProceedings of AAAI\u002FCMU Workshop on Interactive Robotics and Entertainment\u003C\u002Fsource\u003E, \u003Cfpage\u003E35\u003C\u002Ffpage\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Clpage\u003E42\u003C\u002Flpage\u003E , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, Apr., 2000.\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B13","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B13\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cmixed-citation\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cperson-group\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003ESchaal\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003ES.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003ESternad\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003ED.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fperson-group\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cyear\u003E2001\u003C\u002Fyear\u003E Origins and violations of the 2\u002F3 power law in rhythmic 3d movements, \u003Csource\u003EExperimental Brain Research\u003C\u002Fsource\u003E, \u003Cvolume\u003E136\u003C\u002Fvolume\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cissue\u003E1\u003C\u002Fissue\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cfpage\u003E60\u003C\u002Ffpage\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Clpage\u003E72\u003C\u002Flpage\u003E , 2001, \u003Cissn\u003E0014-4819\u003C\u002Fissn\u003E.\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B14","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B14\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cmixed-citation\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cperson-group\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003ETodorov\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003EE.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003EJordan\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003EM. I.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fperson-group\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cyear\u003E2002\u003C\u002Fyear\u003E Optimal feedback control as a theory of motor coordination, \u003Csource\u003ENature Neuroscience\u003C\u002Fsource\u003E, \u003Cvolume\u003E5\u003C\u002Fvolume\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cissue\u003E11\u003C\u002Fissue\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cfpage\u003E1226\u003C\u002Ffpage\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Clpage\u003E1235\u003C\u002Flpage\u003E , 2002, \u003Cissn\u003E1097-6256\u003C\u002Fissn\u003E.\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B15","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B15\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Cmixed-citation\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cperson-group\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003EUno\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003EY.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003EKawato\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003EM.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Csurname\u003ESuzuki\u003C\u002Fsurname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cgiven-names\u003ER.\u003C\u002Fgiven-names\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fname\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fperson-group\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cyear\u003E1989\u003C\u002Fyear\u003E Formation and control of optical trajectory in human multi-joint arm movement- minimim torque-change model, \u003Csource\u003EBiological Cybernetics\u003C\u002Fsource\u003E, \u003Cvolume\u003E61\u003C\u002Fvolume\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cissue\u003E2\u003C\u002Fissue\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cfpage\u003E89\u003C\u002Ffpage\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Clpage\u003E101\u003C\u002Flpage\u003E , 1989, \u003Cissn\u003E0340-1200\u003C\u002Fissn\u003E.\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"}],"footnotes":[],"contributors":[{"corresp":"yes","contributorFullName":"Takashi Minato","address":null,"affiliation":"\u003Cul class=\"list\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003EAsada Project, ERATO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Japan\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E"},{"corresp":null,"contributorFullName":"Hiroshi Ishiguro","address":null,"affiliation":"\u003Cul class=\"list\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003EAsada Project, ERATO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Japan\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},"book":{"id":"3376","type":"book","title":"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction","slug":"advances-in-human-robot-interaction","publishedDate":"December 1st 2009","bookSignature":"Vladimir A. 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Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003ERepair and regeneration of damaged or lost tissues and organs in patients is a major clinical challenge that costs more than 400 billion dollars annually in the United States for patients and the health system [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Tissue engineering (TE) is an alternative technology for current treatments with the development of engineering techniques. One of the TE strategies is to use biomaterial scaffolds alone or in combination with tissue-specific cells and\u002For growth factors (GFs). Biomaterials with different natural and synthetic origins have been used to design 3D biodegradable and porous scaffolds to support cell growth and new tissue formation [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Various conventional methods for scaffold fabrication such as solvent phase separation, casting\u002Fparticulate leaching, freeze-drying, and electrospinning or new methods such as additive manufacturing techniques have been used to form structures with adjustable porosity and structures [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, despite advances in the design and synthesis of biomaterials, engineered constructs still lack the complex microenvironment and native ECM composition required for tissue regeneration. Modern design methods, especially using 3D printers, have shown to be very efficient for the accurate morphological design of scaffolds, but as mentioned, using synthetic and natural biomaterials, as well as achieving desirable mechanical and physical properties, is still one of the leading design challenges [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Decellularized matrices derived from animal and plant tissue can produce biological scaffolds or cell-scaffold constructs to regenerate tissues and organs. The extracellular matrix (ECM) contains proteins, proteoglycans, glycoproteins, essential growth factors, and signaling molecules important in maintaining and regulating tissue homeostasis and cellular processes such as growth and differentiation [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Decellularized ECM has attracted considerable attention as a biological scaffold by removing cellular components and preserving\u002Fminimizing the nature, architecture, and properties of the ECM of the tissue and\u002For organ, as well as preserving the vascular and neural networks in some cases. The process of decellularization of tissues and organs includes the removal of cellular components and the presence of protein\u002FECM species and ECM-like structures and tissue-like structures. Therefore, it is crucial to balance removing undesirable substances with preserving essential substances and their natural structures and inherent bioactivities [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Decellularization of tissues such as bone, tendon, skin, muscle, cartilage, vessels, and complex organs such as the liver, heart, kidney, and lung [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] to the extracellular matrices of plants [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] has been studied in the field of regenerative medicine. Apart from this, decellularized matrices in different forms (hydrogel, fiber, biological ink, powder, and composite) have also been used as scaffold raw materials, which are mentioned in this article.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Decellularization methods\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EThe complete removal of cells and factors stimulating the immune system while maintaining the structure and biochemical composition of the ECM is the goal of the decellularization process. For this purpose, various techniques have been provided to remove the cell and antigens such as the α-gal epitope, which cause adverse cell\u002Fhost responses, from the extracellular matrix so that transplant rejection does not occur [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Decellularization is done by physical, chemical, and enzymatic methods (\u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It should be noted that, nowadays, more combined methods are used.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1195105\u002F1731674451-847866338\u002Fmedia\u002FF1.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003EDifferent types of decellularization process.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.1 Chemical methods\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.1 Surfactants\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003EBased on charge, they can be classified into ionic, non-ionic, and zwitter-ionic categories. Ionic surfactants such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) can completely remove cells and at least 90% of DNA from the matrix by dissolving the cytoplasmic components of cells and disrupting the function of nucleic acids. SDS is one of the most popular detergents for the decellularization process. However, problems such as reduced mechanical properties, damage to ECM structure and contents, and reduced cell reattachment have been observed in the decellularization of thin tissues [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Non-ionic surfactants such as Triton X-100 disrupt DNA-protein, lipid-lipid, and lipid-protein interactions. On the contrary, SDS maintains the structural proteins and the integrity and mechanical properties of the tissue. But it does not show the high performance of removing cell contents like SDS. Of course, DNA removal occurs to a large extent in combination with other methods and chemicals such as ammonium hydroxide. Zwitterionic surfactants such as 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)-dimethylammonio]-1-propane sulfonate (CHAPS) show the properties of ionic and nonionic surfactants in decellularization. Due to the nature of CHAPS, it does not denature ECM structural proteins such as collagen and elastin and preserves the matrix structure. However, to increase its efficiency in removing cells, they use combined methods such as vacuum (VAD) [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.2 Acids and bases\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003EAcids such as peracetic acid and acetic acid cause the nuclear DNA to separate from the extracellular matrix by disrupting the nucleic acids and dissolving the cytoplasmic contents. The use of acids not only does not cause the complete removal of cells from the matrix but can also cause changes in the structure and removal of proteins, as well as changes in the mechanical properties of the tissue.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003EDecellularization with an alkaline solution such as calcium hydroxide can remove cellular and genetic material as well as be effective in the structural integrity of the tissue. Of course, the induction of a negative charge to the structural collagen causes swelling and, ultimately, a decrease in glycosaminoglycans.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p8\"\u003EChelating agents such as ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid (EGTA) and ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) can cause decellularization of the matrix by binding to divalent metal cations such as Ca2+ which have a fundamental role in the cell-ECM attachment and disrupting cell adhesion to matrix and ultimately release cell components out of ECM. However, EDTA method alone is not effective for removing cell contents from ECM. Decellularization agents such as methanol and ethanol can cause cell disruption and decrease the cell’s genetic content by replacing the intracellular water [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.2 Physical and mechanical methods\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p9\"\u003EBased on the importance of mechanical factors such as hydrostatic force and pressure, electrical stress, ultrasound waves, and physical phenomena caused by fluid pressure difference and the freezing and thawing process, they are classified into physical and mechanical decellularization. In the tissue freezing process, intracellular ice crystals are formed, which can cause cell membrane disruption and ultimately cell lysis. In this method, parameters such as temperature and rate of temperature change must be carefully controlled to control the size of the formed ice crystals and prevent excessive damage to the ECM [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Adverse immune reactions, such as leukocyte infiltration of avascular ECM scaffolds, may be reduced during the freeze-thaw process, so multiple freeze-thaw cycles may be used to decellularize tissues. One of the technique’s advantages is maintaining the matrix’s structure and mechanical properties, but its main problem is not entirely removing the cells from the ECM, which can be improved with other decellularization techniques [\u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Considering the problems associated with using chemical detergents and their adverse effects on ECM, more efficient, biofriendly techniques without adverse effects on the matrix and reducing problems such as the possibility of residual detergents in the matrix are emerging. Hypotonic\u002Fhypertonic solutions are one of these methods. Hypotonic (low salt concentration) and hypertonic (high salt concentration) solutions can cause hydrostatic pressure on the cell membrane by disturbing the osmotic balance from the isotonic state and ultimately causing the cell to burst (shrinking\u002Fswelling) and release the cell contents [\u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In a study, annular fibrosus tissue was decellularized with three different protocols with Triton X-100, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and trypsin. The results indicated that this method successfully removed cellular content as much as chemical and enzymatic methods, but the reduction of collagen content was seen [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Mechanical agitation and sonication and vacuum-assisted decellularization (VAD) are useful processes in combination with a chemical treatment to assist in cell lysis and the removal of cellular debris. In all of these procedures, optimal magnitude or frequency of sonication for the disruption of cells, the optimal speed, the volume of reagent, and the length of mechanical agitation are important parameters [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003EAnother highly enhanced technique is supercritical CO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E (scCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) decellularization. This fluid has high diffusivity and low density, specific viscosity, and surface tension, which increases mass transfer capability. The ultimate decellularization mechanism of scCO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E is unclear, but essential hypothesis high-pressure-assisted supercritical extraction capable of inducing cell bursting. They can be degraded by using co-solvents (such as ethanol) that increase the solubility of the liquid. This method has significant advantages, such as less EMC damage, non-toxic, and environmentally friendly [\u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Bioreactors are valuable tools that can increase the reproducibility and scalability of decellularization protocols [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Perfusion bioreactors and immersion stirrers are efficient techniques for decellularization, and they are highly efficient for tissues and especially whole organs. Perfusion uses a pump to induce artificial circulation of decellularizing agents throughout the body through various pathways such as blood vessels and airways. Adjusting the physical parameters, such as fluid flow, pressure, and temperature, can result in higher performance of this decellularization process. Currently, several decellularization bioreactors are being commercialized [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.3 Enzymatic methods\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003EIn most cases, trypsin proteolytic enzymes and nucleases are used to remove the nucleotides from the cell lysis process. Usually, nucleases such as RNase, DNase, and benzonase are used after high-power chemical methods to complete the decellularization process. These enzymes break down the genetic material so that it can be removed from the biological components of the matrix. Cell lysis can release the contents of lysosomes (enzymes, especially proteases) into the extracellular space, which ultimately causes ECM destruction. Enzymatic agents are usually used in combination with other protocols to achieve effective decellularization. For example, when chemical decellularization agents such as SDS and Triton X-100 are combined with DNase, they result in better removal of cells and genetic material and preservation of structural proteins [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Protease inhibitors such as chelating agents (EDTA) or 1,10-phenanthroline, which bind to metal enzyme cofactors such as magnesium, iron, or zinc, are used in the initial cell lysis stage [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The use of combined decellularization agents such as trypsin\u002FEDTA as the most common combination requires optimization of concentration and control of parameters such as time; otherwise, they can change the structure of the matrix, such as proteins and GAGs. Chemical inhibition of proteases can be achieved by adding any of a number of common protease inhibitors. For example, serine proteases such as trypsin and chymotrypsin are inhibited by phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) (irreversible binding) and aprotinin (reversible binding), while both serine and cysteine proteases are inhibited by leupeptin (low stability in aqueous media) [\u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Forms of decellularized ECM\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.1 Tissue\u002Fpowder\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p12\"\u003EDepending on the decellularization protocol used, the different properties of matrices, especially the mechanical properties of tissues, often change. After decellularization, tissues can be used in tissue regeneration as grafts or raw material for scaffold design. The ECM must maintain its function and provide the necessary signals to support cell proliferation and differentiation to form new tissue while maintaining the original tissue shape and mechanical strength [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, turning decellularized tissue into powder has advantages over healthy tissue. ECM powder is decellularized during freezing and lyophilization of the tissue, followed by pulverization and grinding. As a low-invasive, highly adaptable method, the powder can fill the areas and molds with desired shapes. ECM powders are often made as gels and inks to be injected directly into damaged areas or used as bio-inks in scaffolds [\u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.2 Hydrogels\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003EHydrogels formed from decellularized matrix powder have potential in cell culture substrates and injectable and 3D-printable materials to fill irregular defects minimally invasively and create a precisely controlled decellularized tissue scaffold [\u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The formation of decellularized tissue\u002Forgan-derived hydrogels usually involves solubilization of dECM in pepsin, followed by cross-linking to form a three-dimensional network. Due to the favorable characteristics of these hydrogels, such as the ability to imitate the physiological matrix environment, cell penetration, increased cell proliferation, and adhesion, most show weak mechanical strength and high degradation rate. Although the self-assembly of hydrogels provides gentle cross-linking, as mentioned, their poor mechanical properties and high degradation rate prevent their use in tissue engineering [\u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Conventional chemical and biological crosslinkers have been shown to improve these weaknesses. A systematic study compared physical, chemical, and enzymatic cross-linking methods to develop dECM hydrogels [\u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The hydrogel derived from the human umbilical cord was subjected to genipin cross-linking or EDC [(1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide], and the mechanical stability, degradation, and biocompatibility were evaluated. The cross-linking of Genipin and EDC decreased the gelation time and increased the resistance to enzymatic degradation in vitro compared to hydrogels with physical cross-linking since genipin was more effective. Both genipin cross-linking and EDC increased biostability without affecting MSC proliferation and neural stem cell growth and differentiation. Genipin, as a natural crosslinker, caused crosslinking of the hydrogel derived from decellularized tissue. The in vivo study results showed that this type of modified hydrogel preserved the ECM without any immune system response or increased inflammatory response. Therefore, physical, chemical, or enzymatic crosslinking methods can improve the properties of hydrogels derived from decellularized tissue [\u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In a study, the successful application of bovine eye vitreous gel (VH) as a highly hydrated tissue of glycosaminoglycan and collagen was shown in cartilage tissue regeneration. The decellularized gel induced the proliferation and differentiation of human mesenchymal stromal cells, hMSCs, and human articular cartilage cells, hACs [\u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_10_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.3 Fiber\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003EElectrospinning is one of the techniques for designing fiber scaffolds, mainly nanofibers, and this nanostructural feature can improve cell adhesion performance [\u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The design of such nanofiber scaffolds depends on various factors such as applied voltage, type of solvent, electric charge, feeding speed, the distance between the needle and the collector, concentration, viscosity of the solution, the diameter of the needle, and the type of biomaterial. Decellularized ECM and synthetic and natural biopolymers have been used for this purpose. For example, the extracellular matrix of the spinal cord without cell nucleus and DNA less than 50 ng\u002Fmg of tissue was successfully decellularized while maintaining the structure, and then the nanofiber scaffold was designed from the dECM by electrospinning method. This study showed that scaffolds are compatible with cells and selectively differentiated into nerve cells. Thus, electrospun-like ECM fibers showed a suitable directional design for neuronal cell alignment and migration to improve spinal cord regeneration [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_11_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.4 Composite grafts\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003ESynthetic and natural polymer additives can be used to help the properties of decellularized tissue. The combination of synthetic and natural polymers in ECM grafts has several advantages and causes improvement in mechanical properties, porosity, and degradation rate; an increase in attachment sites, biocompatibility, biological performance; and control of physical and chemical properties [\u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Various types of dECM-based composites have been studied by combining them with natural or synthetic polymers or additives, such as bioactive factors, to improve the regeneration process of damaged tissues or organs [\u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B37\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Core-shell fibers were designed from the decellularized neural matrix (shell) and PCL (core) by coaxial electrospinning for neural regeneration. This study showed that these fibers have faster degradation with lower tensile strength, but their remarkable toughness can be a suitable nerve guidance conduit and cause axon expansion and Schwann cell migration [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In another study, polycaprolactone\u002Fchitosan (PCL-CTS) nanofibrous scaffolds with lyophilized decellularized ECM (dECM) derived from human periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs) were designed. The scaffolds significantly increased cell proliferation. Incorporating lyophilized dECM with polymers is an interesting strategy to obtain a scaffold for treating periodontitis in vivo [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Bovine vitreous as a biological material was cross-linked to silk fibroin with EDC chemical linker to design a suitable substrate for tissue regeneration. Silk fibroin as an additive can increase the mechanical strength of the hydrogel [\u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Composite scaffolds also allow the combination of peptides and GF to enhance further the bioactivity and performance of dECM [\u003Ca href=\"#B43\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In addition to the composition of polymer fibers, bone-inducing agents such as hydroxyapatites and calcium phosphates can be used as additives to improve bone formation performance [\u003Ca href=\"#B44\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E44\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_12_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.5 Whole organ\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p16\"\u003EDecellularization of the whole organ and recellularization as an ideal strategy in tissue engineering ideal strategies in tissue engineering that can solve the graft shortage. When preparing for whole organ decellularization, it is important to consider the structural and morphological nature of the decellularized organ and the host response after transplantation. In addition, preservation of the vascular and neural network of the decellularized organ provides recellularization. In this technique, decellularization agents are mainly transferred. This technique mainly transfers decellularization agents to the organs through blood vessels or through the airways and alveolar system [\u003Ca href=\"#B45\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Perfusion of an organ such as the heart is performed. An organ such as the heart has perfusion by transferring and decellularizing chemical agents (Triton X-100 and SDS) through a cannulated aorta, followed by perfusion of PBS and water to wash the organ. The ability to control the time of the decellularization process by adjusting the pumping pressure is one of the advantages of the perfusion decellularization technique [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A gradual increase in pressure causes the blood vessels to dilate, resulting in an increase in flow rate and faster cell removal. Due to the gradual increase in pressure, the vessels are not damaged by dilation. To further remove cellular content, organs can be exposed to NaCl and DNase or supercritical carbon dioxide to preserve the original structure and mechanical integrity of the organ’s original structure and mechanical integrity [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. \u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the decellularization process and also different forms derived from dECM.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1195105\u002F1731674451-847866338\u002Fmedia\u002FF2.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003EThe decellularization process and different decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) forms are used for tissue regeneration.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_14\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Applications of decellularized ECM\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003EDecellularization methods depend highly on the mechanical properties, thickness\u002Fdensity, and type of tissue or organ. Complex organs often require higher concentrations of decellularizing agents and longer exposure times. Decellularized tissue can be clamped directly inside the body to be exposed to surrounding factors and cells, which causes cell growth, migration, and proliferation. Either the producing cells are cultured outside the body on the decellularized tissue or organ, matured in the bioreactor medium, or trapped inside the body. Many tissues and organs have been decellularized, including skin, heart, liver, lung, bone, and kidney. \u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows different decellularized tissues and organs.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1195105\u002F1731674451-847866338\u002Fmedia\u002FF3.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p31\"\u003EDecellularized tissues\u002Forgans. (a) Skin [\u003Ca href=\"#B48\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], heart [\u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], liver [\u003Ca href=\"#B50\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], kidney [\u003Ca href=\"#B51\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], bone [\u003Ca href=\"#B52\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E52\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], skeletal muscle [\u003Ca href=\"#B53\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E53\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and cornea [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_14_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.1 Skin\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p19\"\u003EAs the body’s largest organ, the skin is composed of a multi-layered structure, including cells, ECM, blood vessels, hair follicles, nerves, and sweat glands. Despite the advances, most designed scaffolds are still unable to fully simulate ECM properties fully. Their most important disadvantages are lack of biological activity, inability to imitate the complex structure of the skin, and inability to regenerate the skin fully. Studies have shown that dECM, with its abundance of biomolecules and three-dimensional structure, plays a significant role in skin regeneration and wound healing. In addition to having a three-dimensional network, the matrix structure can cause many cell behaviors, such as adhesion, proliferation, and migration, as well as immune regulation in wound healing due to bioactive molecules. The first commercial dermal matrix was developed in 1995 and transplanted into humans a year later. Since then, various dECM-based materials have been proposed for wound healing and skin regeneration [\u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B56\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E56\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B58\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E58\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Among the dECM sources derived from animals such as bovine and porcine, porcine is the main source due to its high availability and large size. Studies have shown that the ECM of porcine skin has many similarities with human skin regarding composition and function. Currently, porcine skin and submucosa of the small intestine are used in wound healing due to many angiogenic factors such as ANG, FGF, SDF-1, and VEGF [\u003Ca href=\"#B59\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E59\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B60\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E60\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, due to incomplete decellularization, animal-derived dECM faces complex challenges such as the risk of disease transmission and immune system rejection. The skin dECM of human cadavers have promoters associated with human modulation and innate immune response and have much higher levels of proteases than pigs and mice. Hence, human-derived dECM creates a better microenvironment for wound healing [\u003Ca href=\"#B61\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Human skin and perinatal tissues, including the placenta, umbilical cord, and amniotic membrane, have an important role in the migration of fibroblast cells, differentiation of stem cells, epithelization, and neovascularization of wounds due to the presence of various influencing factors such as TGF-𝛽, FGF, EGF, PDGF, and VEGF [\u003Ca href=\"#B62\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E62\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Wharton’s jelly of peri-umbilical cord connective tissue contains high amounts of collagen and hyaluronic acid (HA) and has been reported to have the potential to improve wound healing [\u003Ca href=\"#B63\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E63\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Despite all these descriptions, human-derived dECM is a major challenge in clinical applications due to its limited presentation. Aquatic tissues, especially fish skin, can be a better alternative to the skin due to their excellent properties, such as easy production, no religious concepts, less biological risks, antiviral and antibacterial properties, and better wound healing ability. Fish skin contains unsaturated omega-3 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), DHA, and collagen I and III. The good antibacterial and antioxidant activity is due to the omega-3 unsaturated fatty acids present in the skin. Fish skin such as cod, tilapia, or grass carp are decellularized with combined decellularization methods. The results of the studies showed that the fish skins were well decellularized while maintaining the ECM, and compared to the commercial decellularized pig skin matrix, it showed no disease transmission, better morphology, favorable temperature stability and degradability, and good physical and mechanical properties [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B48\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B64\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E64\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B65\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E65\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B67\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E67\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The Icelandic company “Kerecis” has marketed the decellularized Atlantic codfish skin to treat chronic wounds such as pressure ulcers, diabetic ulcers, draining ulcers, and vascular ulcers. Due to its elasticity, tensile strength, and optimal compressibility, this type of skin has received permission for skin repair and regeneration from the FDA. In addition, products derived from human and animal tissues are also available in the market, some of which are mentioned here: AlloDerm (human fresh cadaver skin), AlloPatch (acellular human dermis allograft derived from the reticular layer of the dermis), Cymetra ((injectable form of human skin), Cortiva (non-cross-linked human dermis), Flex (Acellular Hydrated Dermis of human skin), DermaMatrix (freeze-dried ADM derived from donated human skin tissue), GammaGraft® (Promethean Lifesciences, Inc.), DermaPure (singlelayer decellularized human dermal allograft), GraftJacket (acellular matrix from human skin), and other products derived from human tissues (Glyaderm, Matrix HD™, Memoderm™, Puros Dermis®, and Repliform®) [\u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Products derived from animals include Helicoll (an acellular collagen matrix derived from the bovine dermis), Kerecis Omega3 Wound (cod fish skin), Cytal (porcine-derived urinary bladder matrix), Oasis Wound Matrix (a collagen scaffold (extracellular matrix) derived from porcine small intestinal mucosa), Permacol (cross-linked porcine dermal collagen), PriMatrix (fetal bovine dermis), SurgiMend PRS (fetal and neonatal bovine dermis), Strattice Reconstructive Tissue Matrix (non-cross-linked porcine-derived ADM), Xenoderm (porcine skin), XenMatrix™(porcine skin), and SurgiMend™ PRS (Fetal bovine skin) [\u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B68\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E68\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Cell-derived dECM has fewer immune components and less potential for pathogen transmission than organ\u002Ftissue sources [\u003Ca href=\"#B69\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E69\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. dECM can be obtained by culturing the patient’s cells in vitro. In addition, during the ECM production in vitro, certain changes can be achieved by changing the culture conditions or adding specific stimuli. The decellularized extracellular matrix extracted from fibroblasts (the most abundant cell type in the dermis) mainly comprises collagen [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Meanwhile, dECM from adipose-derived stem cells has also been developed in skin wound healing. Compared with fibroblast sources, ADSC-derived dECM showed a better angiogenic effect. However, cell-derived dECM has problems due to the lack of three-dimensional structure. Also, dECM has various bioactive molecules and growth factors that cause growth and migration, cell proliferation, and other biological functions during skin repair [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B70\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E70\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. dECM can be shaped into various forms such as powder, gel, foam, and porous scaffold or bio-ink and combined with cells, growth factors, and other synthetic composites to improve its properties.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_15_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.2 Heart\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003EIn 2008, the first decellularization of the rat heart by coronary perfusion was presented. After recellularization with cardiomyocytes, clear decellularized tissue showed electrical and contractile responses to electrical stimulation [\u003Ca href=\"#B71\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E71\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Supercritical carbon solvents and ethanol have been developed instead of chemical detergents to optimize the decellularization methods for functional properties. Decellularized tissue using supercritical carbon dioxide compared to detergents preserved ECM components such as proteins, GAGs, and angiogenic factors [\u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B72\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E72\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B73\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E73\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B74\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B75\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E75\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B76\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E76\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B77\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E77\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B78\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E78\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B79\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B80\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E80\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B81\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E81\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B82\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E82\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B84\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E84\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B85\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E85\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A whole tissue-engineered porcine heart with intrinsic electrical activity after cellularization with myocytes was engineered for the first time [\u003Ca href=\"#B77\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E77\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Then, an attempt was made to decellularize a whole porcine heart and culture it with mesenchymal stem cells. On the third day, the hearts were analyzed. While MSCs were not found in the vascular lumen, coronary thrombosis was observed [\u003Ca href=\"#B78\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E78\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Lee et al. showed that decellularization of the whole porcine heart through inverting the heart offers a patent coronary vascular architecture, increases the perfusion efficiency of the coronary vessels, and ultimately removes more native cells from the ECM, improves ECM preservation, and preserves matrix microstructures [\u003Ca href=\"#B79\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The human left ventricle was decellularized and cultured with human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), bone marrow mesenchymal cells (hBMSCs), human cardiac progenitor cells (hCPC), H9c1 and HL-1 CMs. The results showed that HUVECs covered the endocardium and vasculature well, and the differentiated primary cardiomyocytes were properly organized into nascent muscle bundles [\u003Ca href=\"#B80\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E80\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In mice, implanted human cadaveric and decellularized myocardium subcutaneously showed CD68+ mononuclear cells after 2 weeks. High amounts of M2 macrophages appeared in decellularized human myocardium in proinflammatory response. The whole heart was recultured with cardiomyocytes derived from pluripotent stem cells. At 14 days, visible contractions were detectable [\u003Ca href=\"#B81\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E81\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B84\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E84\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In a new method, researchers kept the aortic valve closed with a pressurized pouch during the perfusion of detergents to the myocardium, thus increasing myocardial blood flow and improving tissue decellularization [\u003Ca href=\"#B82\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E82\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B85\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E85\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Studies have also been carried out to design the acellular heart valves with anti-calcification properties [\u003Ca href=\"#B86\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E86\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B87\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E87\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B88\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E88\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B89\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E89\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B90\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E90\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. An efficient protocol was used to remove cells using detergents (Tergitol), enzymes, and hyper and hypotonic shocks to reduce toxicity and preserve the ECM. The decellularized scaffold was recultured with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. The results showed that the surface of leaflets represents the most suitable surface for cell growth [\u003Ca href=\"#B88\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E88\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A scaffold composed of polylactic acid (PLA)\u002Fdecellularized heart valve with nanofibers was designed to improve the mechanical properties. The results showed that the mechanical properties of the composite heart valve were significantly improved and had a specific promoting effect on the proliferation behavior of human umbilical vein endothelial cells [\u003Ca href=\"#B89\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E89\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Ovine aortic heart valves were exposed to different hypoxia\u002Fnormoxia and high\u002Fnegative pressure cycles. The results showed that hypoxic conditions increase cellular infiltration into the valve leaflet tissue compared to normoxia conditions [\u003Ca href=\"#B90\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E90\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Much research has focused on creating cardiac patches with functional vascularization for myocardial repair and valve regeneration [\u003Ca href=\"#B91\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E91\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A bioink based on hdECM was 3D printed to design patches cultured from multiple cells (cardiac progenitor cells and MSCs). The tissue-specific bioink increased angiogenesis with subcutaneous implantation of VEGF in mice. Also, studies showed that decellularized myocardial slices (dPMS) with cultured mesenchymal stem cells support the attachment, cell survival, and endothelial differentiation of hMSCs. Attempts have been made by other researchers using perfusion bioreactors to increase cell density and subsequent angiogenesis, especially in thick tissues [\u003Ca href=\"#B92\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E92\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_16_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.3 Liver\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003EOne of the significant problems and concerns of liver patients is the lack of liver donation, which is the only primary treatment method for acute liver disease. In recent years, decellularized scaffolds from animals such as cows, pigs, sheep, and human livers have been considered an alternative treatment method. Decellularized scaffolds can cause cell growth, proliferation, differentiation, and neovascularization due to having appropriate growth factors and a reservoir of cytokines and signaling molecules. The decellularized scaffolds are re-cultured with primary hepatocytes, endothelial cells, and stem cells to design new livers for transplantation into liver patients eventually. These scaffolds can sustain implanted cells for extended periods, enabling subsequent implantation; therefore, recellularization of the scaffolds has excellent therapeutic potential to create transplantable grafts for treating liver diseases [\u003Ca href=\"#B93\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E93\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B94\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E94\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Many efforts have been made to accelerate and improve the efficiency of liver tissue decellularization [\u003Ca href=\"#B50\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B93\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E93\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B94\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E94\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B95\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E95\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B96\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E96\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B97\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E97\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B98\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E98\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The porcine liver was decellularized using chemical detergents such as Triton X-100 or Triton X-100\u002FSDS under constant pressure perfusion (120 mmHg) [\u003Ca href=\"#B94\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E94\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Effective cell and DNA removal and more collagen and sGAG reduction were observed with the Triton X-100 protocol. When Triton X-100 decellularization was applied to the human liver by pressure-controlled perfusion, the translucent liver was obtained within 20 hours. Milder agents such as saponin, sodium deoxycholate, and deionized water were used to decellularize porcine liver through perfusion. An acellular scaffold with an intact vascular layer and preservation of ECM structure and content was obtained in less than 24 hours [\u003Ca href=\"#B95\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E95\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Coating decellularized livers with fibronectin and perfusion culture at 4.7 ml\u002Fmin caused angiogenesis compared to static conditions. Therefore, mechanical factors and surface modification can play a role in vascular networks [\u003Ca href=\"#B96\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E96\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_17_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.4 Lung\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003EPathways of lung decellularization include airways and blood vessels. Lung decellularization has been investigated using the perfusion method with various agents, including SDS, Triton X-100, and 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl) dimethylam monio]-1-propanesulfonate (CHAPS) [\u003Ca href=\"#B51\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B99\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E99\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B100\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E100\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B101\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E101\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B102\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E102\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B103\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E103\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B104\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E104\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Pulmonary artery perfusion was performed with SDS and Triton X-100, and then decellularized whole lungs were recultured with HUVECs and mouse fetal lung cells. CHAPS with Triton X-100 and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) detergents were used to decellularize rat lungs. The best treatments were obtained with 2 mM CHAPS +0\u002F1% SDS for 48 h [\u003Ca href=\"#B105\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E105\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Using a natural fatty acid such as potassium laurate soap (PL) as an alternative to detergents such as SDS showed cell removal with preservation of ECM structure compared to SDS decellularization. The decellularized scaffold with this detergent showed an increase in the uniform distribution of mouse epithelial cells. Mouse lung decellularization was performed with detergents such as 0.1% Triton-X100, 1 M NaCl, and 0.1% DNaseI. Pulmonary vascularization was performed using human umbilical vein endothelial cells using a novel perfusion-based bioreactor. Engineered lungs transplanted into the orthotopic thoracic cavity performed well as an efficient ex vivo screening platform for lung tissue engineering. Blood perfusion without significant hemorrhage was demonstrated in the engineered vessels in the lung scaffold [\u003Ca href=\"#B106\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E106\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_18_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.5 Kidney\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003EThe kidney is usually decellularized through the renal artery and ureter. For the first time in 2009, rat kidneys were decellularized using the arterial perfusion technique with chemical detergents (Triton X-100, Sodium deoxycholate, SDS) and DNase. Research has focused on minimizing renal microstructure and vasculature damage for re-endothelialization and creatinine\u002Furic acid production. Decellularized kidneys with Triton X-100 + SDS showed intact microvascular architecture. However, platelet adhesion decreased with the re-cultivation of endothelial cells, leading to blood vessel thrombosis. In another study, decellularization of sheep kidneys was performed by perfusion with Triton X-100\u002FSDS and SDS. The results showed that using SDS alone causes incoherent vessels and blood leakage [\u003Ca href=\"#B107\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E107\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B108\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E108\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B109\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E109\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B110\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E110\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B111\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E111\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B112\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E112\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B113\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E113\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B114\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E114\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B115\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E115\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B116\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E116\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Kidney organoids produced by human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have shown good potential as disease models and in regenerative medicine [\u003Ca href=\"#B117\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E117\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B118\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E118\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Porcine kidneys were decellularized with 0.5% Triton X-100, 1 M NaCl, and DNase. Lyophilized kidney dECM tissue was dissolved in acetic acid and pepsin to prepare the kidney dECM solution. The hydrogels differentiated human inducible PSCs (iPSCs) into kidney organoids. The hydrogels led to robust angiogenesis from the blood vessels of the host mice’s kidney, caused the vessels’ integrity, and increased the maturation of glomerular-like structures [\u003Ca href=\"#B118\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E118\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Other decellularization techniques have been developed for tissues without vascular networks instead of perfusion-based methods. The most commonly developed methods used stirring, but immersion systems, pressure gradients, and supercritical fluids were also used [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_19_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.6 Intestine\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003EReconstruction of the small intestine (SI) is difficult due to its complex structure and function [\u003Ca href=\"#B119\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E119\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Decellularized SI submucosal ECM (dSIS-ECM) has been widely used in regenerative medicine, particularly in bone [\u003Ca href=\"#B120\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E120\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], skin [\u003Ca href=\"#B121\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E121\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B122\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E122\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], cardiovascular [\u003Ca href=\"#B123\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E123\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and other tissues [\u003Ca href=\"#B119\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E119\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B124\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E124\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. As a sample, Oasis® Wound Matrix is a scaffold derived from porcine intestine submucosa approved by the FDA for managing partial and full-thickness wounds [\u003Ca href=\"#B125\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E125\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. dSIS-ECM with 3D architecture for the ingrowth of host cells supports the proliferation and differentiation of small interstitial cells; conversely, this material is absorbable and stimulates the host’s immune system to a limited extent. The decellularized rat intestine was decellularized using an enzymatic method, was re-cultured with amniotic fluid stem cells, and implanted in the chicken chorioallantoic membrane; the results indicated limited tissue angiogenesis [\u003Ca href=\"#B119\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E119\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Decellularized porcine SI supported the proliferation of human adipose-derived MSCs with significant preservation of GAGs and showed no signs of immune reactions after implantation in the underlying abdominal muscle in a mouse model [\u003Ca href=\"#B126\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E126\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Injectable gels from SI decellularized matrices have properties comparable to collagen or Matrigel for cell culture. In addition, intestinal organoids cultured on dSIS-ECM gels showed higher expression of crypt markers (such as SMOC2, OLFM4, SMOC2, and LYZ) than those grown on Matrigel. Therefore, decellularized SI can be a suitable scaffold in the repair and regeneration of SI in vivo [\u003Ca href=\"#B124\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E124\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Currently, one challenge is developing strategies to design scaffolds based on appropriate size in clinical applications. Implantation of dSIS-ECM in animals such as dogs failed to develop any coherent architectural organization with enteric neurons. Therefore, recellularization is essential and necessary for producing functionally engineered tissues and organs [\u003Ca href=\"#B127\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E127\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In one study, a rat’s large intestine was separated into pieces and decellularized by a freeze\u002Fthaw process and SDS detergent. The decellularized scaffolds were then cultured with human adipose-derived MSCs. Adhesion, migration, division, and differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells were shown after 14 days. Therefore, this dECM can be a suitable scaffold for studying cell behaviors [\u003Ca href=\"#B128\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E128\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The goat’s small intestine was successfully decellularized with sodium dodecyl sulfate as a patch to repair perforations created in the small intestine. Then, the decellularized scaffold was transplanted on the perforations created in the intestine of the rat model. Results showed no leakage or obstruction in the small intestine in the animal model and expression of high levels of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), E-cadherin, Zonnula occluden (ZO-1), occludin, Ki 67, and Na+\u002FK + -ATPase [\u003Ca href=\"#B129\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E129\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In one study, the surface of the decellularized intestinal matrix was modified with polydopamine, and then the scaffolds were cultured with adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ADSC) for intestinal wound healing. The results showed that the scaffold with good biocompatibility can cause the growth and proliferation of ADSC. The modified dECM also had anti-infective ability and could promote secretory activity for paracrine effects of ADSC as well. Higher levels of anti-inflammatory and proangiogenic cytokines were observed in samples cultured with stem cells. In the animal model, the modified dECM with the cells increased neovascularization and immunoregulation to accelerate wound healing [\u003Ca href=\"#B130\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E130\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_20_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.7 Bone\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003EDecellularized bone has been investigated for bone repair and regeneration strategies. Many studies have focused on the demineralization of bone using acid to remove mineral components while preserving proteins. Later studies focused on the decellularization of bone tissue, and the potential of decellularized bone ECM as a natural bioactive material was studied. The ability to differentiate and induce osteogenesis with decellularization matrices was demonstrated in vitro and in vivo [\u003Ca href=\"#B131\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E131\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B132\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E132\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B133\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E133\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In addition, the combination of decellularized bone tissue with collagen, hydroxyapatite (HA), BMP, and other growth factors stimulates and improves osteogenesis. Transverse sections from the porcine femur were decellularized with decellularization reagents such as DNase\u002FRNase, Peracetic Acid, and Triton X-100. The results showed that the scaffold was free of cell material and DNA (p < 0.01), and also, during the decellularization process, the microarchitectural properties and the bone osteoconductive potential were preserved. The study suggests that porcine-derived bone scaffolds require extensive studies as a potential bone graft alternative [\u003Ca href=\"#B52\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E52\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In a study, peptides derived from bone morphogenetic protein-2 were encapsulated in a smart hydrogel and then incorporated into decellularized bone pores to improve osteogenic function. Functionalized scaffolds showed good mechanical properties and biocompatibility with appropriate release of peptides, which significantly increased cell proliferation and differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, as well as the expression of genes related to ossification [\u003Ca href=\"#B134\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E134\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In addition to the decellularized tissue, its hydrogel form has also shown the capacity of bone regeneration. Since using hydrogels in bone tissue repair is often limited due to mechanical weakness and load bearing, various reinforcements can overcome this defect [\u003Ca href=\"#B135\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E135\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Decellularized bovine bone matrix (DBM) hydrogel with 45S5 BG microparticles with different weight percentages was designed to evaluate the properties of an osteogenic and angiogenic graft. HCl, trypsin-EDTA solutions, and CO\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E were used to demineralize and decellularize spongy bone tissues of the bovine femur head, and the samples were finally lyophilized. Decellularized bone ECM powders were digested in pepsin solution to obtain hydrogel, and finally, bioglasses were added with different concentrations to the hydrogel. The biocompatibility and angiogenic properties of composite hydrogels were confirmed in laboratory conditions by cytotoxicity analyses and chick embryo aortic arch and ex ovo chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assays. The staining showed the osteogenic potential of biomaterials in the Ex Vivo model [\u003Ca href=\"#B136\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E136\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_21_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.8 Cartilage\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p26\"\u003ETissue-derived dECM can recruit mesenchymal stem cells or progenitor cells from the bone marrow or synovium of the joint and allow them to migrate through the gap between the tissue fragments as well as the cavities in the tissue. Biomaterials derived from decellularized matrix have shortcomings, including pathogen transmission, inflammation, and anti-host immune response, as well asti-host immune response, and variable degradation rates [\u003Ca href=\"#B137\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E137\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B138\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E138\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In a study, decellularized cartilage tissue with Triton X-100 and hypotonic buffer and enzymes was cultured with MSCs. The results showed that the cells and DNA were removed well, but the main problem was the mechanical weakness of the formed tissue [\u003Ca href=\"#B139\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E139\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Various methods, such as cross-linking and additives, have been used to mechanically strengthen dcECMstrengthen dcECM mechanically. In addition to chemical treatments, physical methods such as ultrasound have also been used to improve the performance of the decellularization process [\u003Ca href=\"#B140\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E140\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B141\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E141\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B142\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E142\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Channels are embedded to improve the penetration of decellularization agents in the decellularization process. Laser surface engineering to create micropores on the surface of cartilage implants is one of these designs [\u003Ca href=\"#B143\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E143\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B144\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E144\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. dECM materials can be converted into hydrogels without affecting the intrinsic biological activity of the matrix; therefore, dECM hydrogels can be easily injected in the form of viscous liquid pre-gel at physiological temperature [\u003Ca href=\"#B145\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E145\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Decellularized porcine cartilage-derived extracellular matrix (dECM) hydrogels were developed for the injectable repair of cartilage defects. The hydrogels composed of dECM, in addition to proliferation and survival, can enhance the chondrogenic differentiation of human urine-derived stem cells (USCs) and eventually secrete cartilage-specific extracellular matrix containing collagen II and aggrecan [\u003Ca href=\"#B146\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E146\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A light-sensitive injectable hydrogel was designed from decellularized cartilage extracellular matrix and hyaluronic acid methacrylate (HAMA) with ruthenium (Ru)\u002Fsodium persulfate (SPS) initiator under visible light (450 nm). In addition to the hydrogel formation in a short time, the samples were strengthened by tyrosine cross-linking. This hybrid hydrogel showed strong adhesion to the cartilage tissue and significant mechanical performance. Cartilaginous differentiation of porcine bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells was observed after 21 days on the hydrogel. Subcutaneous implantation of hydrogel in rat model for 2 and 4 weeks proved the good biocompatibility of the sample, so this type of hybrid hydrogel can be promising for cartilage regeneration through minimally invasive arthroscopic injection in clinical practice [\u003Ca href=\"#B147\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E147\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Vitreous humor hydrogels from bovine were decellularized by freezing and centrifuge methods. Freezing and centrifuge methods decellularized vitreous humor hydrogels from bovine. The results showed that acellular hydrogel can support cartilage differentiation and tissue regeneration with uniform distribution of GAGs and type II collagen [\u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Studies have shown that the ECM secreted by chondrocytes cultured in vitro is similar to that of normal AC tissue. Rabbit chondrocytes were cultured in vitro to design cell sheets, and then chondrocytes were removed by chemical decellularization process. The normal standard structure of the ECM was preserved, and the matrices showed the adhesion and migration of stem cells well. The designed matrix successfully repaired AC defects of the rabbit knee joint [\u003Ca href=\"#B148\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E148\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. ECM scaffolds were designed from mesenchymal stem cells of rabbit bone marrow by using the chemical decellularization (SDS) method. The results of the study showed that ECM scaffolds provide a superior microenvironment for cells and can cause the reconstruction of osteochondral defects in rabbit knee joints [\u003Ca href=\"#B149\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E149\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In another study, a decellularized scaffold extracted from synovial mesenchymal stem cells of rabbit knee joints was produced by Triton-100 and ammonium hydroxide detergents. In addition to increasing anti-inflammatory properties, these dECMs increased the ability of cartilage cells to multiply [\u003Ca href=\"#B150\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E150\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_22_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.9 Skeletal muscle\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003EMore than 40% of the human body is skeletal muscle with vascular and nervous structures. Many studies have focused on obtaining structures with micro\u002Fnano architecture to mimic myofiber and network structures to regenerate damaged tissue [\u003Ca href=\"#B151\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E151\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Decellularized skeletal muscle tissue increased the proliferation of muscle progenitor cells and vascular cells in vitro [\u003Ca href=\"#B152\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E152\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A decellularized skeletal muscle was designed to regenerate skeletal muscles in a mouse tibialis anterior defect model. The results showed that a better myofiber was formed at the defect site than the control [\u003Ca href=\"#B153\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E153\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The results of muscle dECM transplantation for gastrocnemius defects in a mouse model showed more de novo neuromuscular receptors and skeletal muscle regeneration with less fibrosis in this type of graft than autograft or collagen. Studies have also shown a reduction in the inflammatory response in muscle defects with muscle dECM compared to skin matrices [\u003Ca href=\"#B154\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E154\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A study investigated the effect of decellularization detergents such as EDTA + Tris, SDS, and Triton X-100 on rat skeletal muscle tissue. Cell removal and DNA content were observed with SDS detergent while preserving the tissue microstructure. Of course, the results showed that freezing the samples before decellularization can improve the performance of removing cells from the matrix [\u003Ca href=\"#B53\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E53\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Growth factors have been used to stimulate cells and help in muscle functional regeneration. Perfusion-based methods were also used for large and thick tissues, such as muscle tissue, to decellularize homogeneously and preserve the bioactive architecture. dECM scaffolds with microchannel structures were evaluated to improve the regeneration process of skeletal muscle defects. The synergistic effect of the myogenic factor and insulin growth factor-1 (IGF-1), together with muscle dECM on the tibialis anterior muscle defect model, showed that muscle IGF-1\u002FdECM compared to the muscle dECM group without growth factor had significantly more myofibers [\u003Ca href=\"#B155\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E155\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_23_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.10 Tendon\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003EMany tendon injuries, especially in athletes, have led researchers to design biomechanical and biomechanical tendons for repair. Thin slices of tendon tissue have been mainly developed for decellularization due to its compact and dense structure [\u003Ca href=\"#B156\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E156\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Porcine tendon dECM was more effective and less inflammatory in vivo in mice than commercially obtained scaffolds. DNA content on decellularized scaffolds that recultured with cells was similar to pre-decellularized samples, demonstrating the effective regeneration potential of dECM [\u003Ca href=\"#B157\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E157\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The regeneration potential in ruptured.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003EAchilles tendon of rabbit with xenogenic dECM cultured with BMSCs was compared with the autograft. Both methods showed the synthesis of collagen fibers and biomechanical parameters similar to the native tissue, and complete movement skills were observed in the animal model [\u003Ca href=\"#B158\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E158\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Complete reconstruction of the injured rabbit rotator cuff with a decellularized matrix was successfully performed, and the animal model results showed preservation of body mass and full range of motion of the limb [\u003Ca href=\"#B159\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E159\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Dynamic culture\u002Fmechanical stimulation has been investigated to improve the homogeneous distribution of cells in the recellularization process. Bioreactors have shown the homogeneous distribution of cells with proper collagen production compared to static culture [\u003Ca href=\"#B160\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E160\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Similar to tissues, adding growth factors such as TGF-β3 and BMP-12 to decellularized tendons can improve cell proliferation and distribution [\u003Ca href=\"#B161\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E161\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B162\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E162\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_24_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.11 Cornea\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003ECorneal keratoconus, bullous keratopathy, and scarring may cause damage to the cornea and, ultimately, vision impairment and blindness. Many researchers have tried to replace the artificial cornea to solve the problem of cornea transplant and the lack of donors. Corneal substitutes are divided into two categories: keratoprostheses and tissue-engineered cornea. Keratoprostheses still have problems, such as melting of the cornea. The basis of tissue-engineered cornea is the culture and proliferation of cells in a biocompatible polymer matrix [\u003Ca href=\"#B163\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E163\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B164\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E164\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Several tissue-engineered corneal of collagen [\u003Ca href=\"#B165\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E165\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] or in combination with glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) [\u003Ca href=\"#B165\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E165\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B166\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E166\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B167\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E167\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B168\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E168\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and silk fibroin [\u003Ca href=\"#B169\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E169\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] have been designed with corneal cells derived from rabbits, mice, and humans. Also, cell sheet engineering has been proposed to regenerate the corneal epithelium layer for ocular surface diseases. Another strategy for preparing corneal scaffolds is decellularized corneal tissue, where decellularization methods remove cells and antigen molecules. The decellularized corneal stroma is designed using nonionic detergents and\u002For several enzymes. The researchers reported that the decellularized cornea was preserved compared to the native cornea. However, cytotoxic substances cause detergent problems, and the processes are critical. Detergent-free high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) technology is used for decellularization [\u003Ca href=\"#B170\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E170\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. One study used high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) to decellularize porcine corneas [\u003Ca href=\"#B171\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E171\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B172\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E172\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Hydrostatic pressure at 980 MPa for 10 minutes compressed and opacified the porcine cornea. No immune reaction was observed in the implant of this decellularized cornea to the rabbit cornea, and the cloudy corneas became clear after some time [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_26\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Tissue-inks for 3D printing\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p32\"\u003EDue to biochemical markers and the possibility of mimicking cell interactions with ECM and bioactive properties, decellularized tissue can be used as a biological biomaterial for guided tissue regeneration (GTR). Bioinks derived from dECM have appropriate biochemical\u002Fphysical markers and are required for cellular activities [\u003Ca href=\"#B173\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E173\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Different bioinks derived from ECM decellularization have been developed as tissue substitutes such as muscle, cartilage, liver, kidney, tendon, heart, cornea, and skin. Studies on decellularized human ECM-based bioinks for cardiac tissue engineering have been successfully performed using different materials [\u003Ca href=\"#B174\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E174\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B175\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E175\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B176\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E176\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B177\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E177\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A bio-ink made from decellularized human heart tissue with methacrylated gelatin (GelMA) or methacrylated hyaluronic acid as photopolymerization components with microbial transglutaminase showed good growth and proliferation of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes and fibroblasts [\u003Ca href=\"#B178\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E178\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Studies on vascular tissue engineering with bio-inks derived from decellularized matrix were performed [\u003Ca href=\"#B179\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E179\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B180\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E180\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. As an example, discarded varicose veins were decellularized and then formulated into bio-ink. The results showed that these inks’ 3D-printed blood vessels had an excellent potential for vascular regeneration [\u003Ca href=\"#B181\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E181\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Bio-ink made from decellularized porcine lung tissue was used for 3D culture of lung mesenchymal stem cells. Good viability and cell-matrix interactions were observed in 3D-printed scaffolds designed from this bio-ink [\u003Ca href=\"#B182\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E182\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Gelatin and polyethylene glycol improved the mechanical properties and printing of bio-ink made from decellularized liver tissue. The designed bio-ink was printed with HepG2 cells, and a 3D network was created at 37°C. This hydrogel was then cross-linked with mushroom tyrosinase for long-term applications. A multifold increase in physical and mechanical properties along with high cell viability (85–93%) resulted in the good performance of this type of bioink [\u003Ca href=\"#B183\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E183\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A commercial ECM-based hydrogel (ECM-α) containing 2% FEFEFKFK octapeptide and 98% water in combination with amorphous magnesium phosphate (AMP) was used as a bioink for maxillofacial bone tissue repair. The results showed that this bioink significantly improves bone formation, which can be a potential material for bone regeneration [\u003Ca href=\"#B184\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E184\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Bioinks have performed well in meniscal tissue engineering [\u003Ca href=\"#B185\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E185\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B186\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E186\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B187\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E187\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A mixture of polyurethane and polycaprolactone and a decellularized meniscus matrix was used as a bio-ink for 3D printing of the meniscus. Bio-ink, with favorable biocompatibility, excellent mechanical properties, and improved biological performance, supports cell growth and promotes stem cell differentiation, providing a favorable biochemical environment both in vitro and in vivo [\u003Ca href=\"#B185\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E185\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Researchers used oxidized cellulose nanofibers and sodium alginate to decellularize the extracellular matrix and improve bio-inks mechanical properties for cartilage tissue engineering. Viscoelasticity, stability, mechanical properties, and printing ability of the scaffold were among the results of adding the bio-ink [\u003Ca href=\"#B188\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E188\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Bioink from tendon tissue-derived dECM was 3D-printed to treat chronic rotator cuff repairs. This patch provides an excellent microenvironment for cell viability, high proliferation, and differentiation of stem cells. The results showed that the 3D printing of the patch with bioink dECM significantly accelerated and facilitated the recovery of the tendon-to-bone interface (TBI) in the mouse chronic tear model [\u003Ca href=\"#B189\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E189\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A bioink consisting of a decellularized extracellular matrix combined with methacrylate gelatin was used to design an artificial cornea with high precision and programmable curvature, and it was designed using 3D bioprinting. High optical transmission and cell viability in a composite hydrogel with human corneal fibroblast. Excellent transparency and epithelial regeneration ability of this printed hydrogel were achieved in an in vivo model [\u003Ca href=\"#B190\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E190\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Good physicochemical and biological properties of 3D bioprinted constructs for corneal TE applications were achieved with a combination of soft and hard bio-inks. A cell-filled soft bioink combined with a cell-free rigid bioink enabled mimicking the microstructure of the corneal stroma. Soft bioink caused cell growth and tissue formation in 3D-bioprinted composites, and hard bioink provided mechanical support and guidance for cell organization [\u003Ca href=\"#B191\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E191\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Goat skin was decellularized with hypotonic\u002Fhypertonic sodium chloride solutions and compared with decellularization methods with chemical detergents. This method showed residual DNA of less than 50 ng\u002Fmg, and the glycosaminoglycans and collagen content were preserved. Bioink designed with this decellularized matrix showed good shear thinning and shear recovery properties. 3D scaffolds printed with this bio-ink showed good cell adhesion and mechanical properties [\u003Ca href=\"#B192\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E192\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_27\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E6. Plant-derived ECMs\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p33\"\u003EPlants and substances derived from them have various applications in pharmaceutical and medical sciences. In tissue engineering, decellularized scaffolds can be designed by removing the cellular components of plants. The advantage of using plants is the abundance and rapid growth of plant species and their affordability. In addition, their unique chemical and structural properties can cause proper cellular interactions. Decellularized plants have no limitations associated with traditional tissues derived from animals and ethical considerations. The decellularization of plants uses the same traditional methods that are applied to animal tissues. Due to the inherent similarities between the vascular network of plants and animal tissues, suitable scaffolds can be designed in tissue engineering [\u003Ca href=\"#B193\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E193\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Olive leaves as a plant matrix were decellularized with chemical detergents (Triton X-100 and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)) at different concentrations to be used as scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. The best morphology and the least toxicity were observed for the decellularized samples with Triton X-100 detergent. On the other hand, a threefold increase in swelling and water vapor transmission, along with a decrease in modulus of elasticity, was reported in decellularized samples compared to the control [\u003Ca href=\"#B194\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E194\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In addition, enzymes were also used to decellularize tobacco BY-2 cells and rice cells. Several factors, such as plant type, structure, scaffold production method, surface modification, biological function, absorbability, and mechanical properties, are involved in the design of decellularized plant scaffolds. Leaf vessels have been used as a perfusion platform to engineer prevascular scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. The studied plant scaffolds retained the ability to transport microparticles after decellularization, and good results were observed in the reculture of human endothelial cells and colonization of the inner surfaces of plant vessels [\u003Ca href=\"#B195\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E195\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Spinach leaf is one of the plants that have been researched for decellularization due to its suitable properties, especially in the vascular network [\u003Ca href=\"#B196\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E196\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B197\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E197\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B198\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E198\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Decellularized spinach leaves coated with fibronectin or collagen IV and recellularized with a combination of hiPSC-CMs, human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs), and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The results showed that all cell types adhered and matured during the 21-day study. The coated dECM cultured with cells showed no significant changes in binding, contractility, or sarcomeric length [\u003Ca href=\"#B198\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E198\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Different plant-derived decellularization scaffolds with pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) were used for osteoblast differentiation. Apples, carrots, persimmons, and other fruits were successfully decellularized. Detergents like sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) have been used to decellularize apple tissue. Apple with regular pores of 300 μm showed the most favorable plant scaffold. Studies showed that decellularized apple hypanthium tissue with 100–200 μm pore sizes had similar physical properties to trabecular bone. This study showed the ossification ability of this scaffold with collagen coating [\u003Ca href=\"#B199\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E199\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_28\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E7. Host responses to dECM\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p34\"\u003ETwo body defense mechanisms are activated against the foreign agent introduced into the body. Within 24 to 48 hours after implantation, the innate immune system is activated in the early phase of the immune response. Then, after the innate immune response, the adaptive immune response usually starts within a few days, at which point T cells usually play an important role in the cellular and humoral immune responses. The foreign body response (FBR) is activated by introducing artificial scaffolds and implants into the body and causes the migration of neutrophils and macrophages, followed by inflammatory cytokines at the implant site [\u003Ca href=\"#B200\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E200\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Within a few days, macrophages, mainly of the inflammatory phenotype (M1 macrophages), cause the formation of foreign body giant cells (FBGCs), which destroy the material by releasing potent enzymes [\u003Ca href=\"#B201\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E201\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A dense fibrotic capsule encapsulates most implants. Fibrous tissue remains around the material until the implant is destroyed or removed and can cause chronic inflammation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p35\"\u003EThe purpose of extracellular matrix decellularization as a biological scaffold is to remove cellular contents that stimulate the body’s immune system and, at the same time should, preserve the macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of the tissue. dECM is lysed during primary degradation in the body and causes the release of some cryptic peptides and growth factors that can play an important role in changing macrophage polarization toward the regenerative phenotype (M2 macrophages), angiogenesis, migration of progenitor\u002Fstem cells, and the regeneration process. Studies have shown that dECM-based scaffolds are more biocompatible and have lower rejection rates than other implants [\u003Ca href=\"#B202\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E202\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B203\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E203\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B204\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E204\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In the decellularization process, avoiding immunogenic residues that lead to differential immune responses is impossible. dECM residues are categorized into exogenous substances (endotoxins [lipopolysaccharide (LPS)], microorganisms, decellularization reagents, and viruses) and biogenic substances (cell composition and d-ECM components). Cellular components in the extracellular matrix (MHC-encoded antigens, Gal antigens, nucleic acids, and DAMPs) and dECM components such as collagens, GAGs, adhesion molecules, proteoglycans, and ECM1 protein can be recognized by immune cells in the body. DAMPs include purine metabolites, heat shock proteins (HSPs), high mobility protein 1 (HMGb1), and matrix components. During the process of decellularization and release of DNA into the matrix and its incomplete removal, immune cells are stimulated through the TLR9 receptor pathway that binds DNA. Finally, DNA and the remnants of the cell membrane and mitochondria in the extracellular matrix activate a pro-inflammatory macrophage phenotype M1 [\u003Ca href=\"#B205\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E205\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A group of transmembrane and cytoplasmic receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRR) located on different immune cells recognize DAMPs. DAMPs identified by receptors cause the transcription of genes that contribute to the inflammatory process. Stimulation of the innate immune response results from the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukins (IL1, IL6), and chemokines in which an increase in the production of these pro-inflammatory cytokines causes the polarization of macrophages toward the M1 phenotype, that can eventually cause matrix destruction.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p36\"\u003ET cells, as the primary agent of the adaptive immune response, require the simultaneous presence of several signals (donor antigens, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and costimulatory molecules) to be activated [\u003Ca href=\"#B206\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E206\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Usually, some antigens, such as MHC molecules and minor histocompatibility antigens, remain in the decellulrized extracellular matrixes after decellularization. The presence of such antigens, such as Gal antigens and MHC-encoded antigens, which are found on the surface of most mammalian cells except humans and some monkeys, can stimulate immune cells such as T and B lymphocytes. Two exogenous MHC-encoded antigen molecules, including MHC-I and MHC-II, can cause the activation of cytotoxic CD8+ T cells and CD4+ Th1 and Th2 cells, respectively, which ultimately cause chronic allograft rejection [\u003Ca href=\"#B205\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E205\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p37\"\u003EDAMPs caused by decellularization increase the expression of MHC II and costimulatory molecules in the recipient APCs, facilitate the recognition of these antigens by T cells, and also cause the activation of the complement cascade and the release of C3a, C3b, and C5a. C3a and C5a can induce T1 and T17 polarization in CD4+ T cells, which ultimately increases pro-inflammatory cytokine production and intensifies the inflammatory response by inducing M1 polarization in macrophages. C3b causes the release of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) by affecting M1 macrophages and, finally, the enzymatic degradation of ECM. In addition, the activation of T cells can cause the production of antibodies against the remaining antigens in the scaffold with the maturation of B cells (\u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) [\u003Ca href=\"#B207\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E207\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1195105\u002F1731674451-847866338\u002Fmedia\u002FF4.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 4.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p38\"\u003EInnate and adaptive immune response against decellularized scaffolds. Stimulation of PRRs in antigen-presenting cells (APCs) activates T cells by including pro-inflammatory cytokine, co-stimulatory molecules, and complement cascade (C3a, C3b, and C5a). T cells activate B cells to produce antibodies against different antigens.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p39\"\u003EThe efficiency of the decellularization process, the matrix’s structure, the tissue’s origin, the place of implantation, and the characteristics of the recipient are the main factors that determine the immune response of the host against the decellularized tissues\u002Forgans. The best decellularization method should leave no more than 50 ng of DNA in the matrix. However, some commercially available products that contain more than 50 ng\u002Fmg residual DNA have shown good tolerance [\u003Ca href=\"#B208\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E208\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The remaining proteins, including cytosol, cell membrane, organelles, nucleus, and cytoskeleton components, cause a high immune response [\u003Ca href=\"#B209\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E209\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, preservation of some of these cellular proteins, such as vimentin, may be beneficial due to their intrinsic antigenic nature. Using harsh decellularization methods to remove these immune system stimulating factors can ultimately damage the matrix’s structure and the scaffold’s performance in tissue regeneration. For example, the loss of proteins such as collagen IV, fibronectin, and laminin causes a disturbance in the angiogenesis process, and the removal of glycosaminoglycans, which leads to a decrease in growth factors, causes a disturbance in the process of cell migration and cell differentiation. Disruption of the matrix structure during the decellularization process can increase the stimulation of the immune system. As an example, the denaturation of the elastin structure during tissue decellularization leads to the release of elastin particles. The release of elastin particles exposes latent immunogenic determinants, which enhance monocyte chemotaxis, T-helper cell differentiation to inflammatory phenotypes (TH1 and TH17), and antibody-mediated inflammatory response. Also, glycine-rich sites on elastin particles can cause calcification of decellularized tissue. The origin of tissues or organs used to make decellularized scaffolds is critical. Tissues\u002Forgans derived from humans have shown the least immunogenicity among different sources. Due to the low availability of these types of tissues, non-human tissues can be a suitable option. However, due to the abundance of products derived from non-human tissues such as cattle and pigs for transplantation and due to the presence of antigenic glycans such as alpha-1,3-galactose (α-gal), N-glycolyl-neuraminic acid (Neu5Gc), and SDA, there are still concerns about the use of products derived from such mammals. High amounts of α-gal in the tissues of these mammals are the most important and challenging obstacle in their transplantation. However, dECM derived from porcine small intestinal submucosa (SIS) has less α-gal antigen due to low carbohydrate chains and abundant collagen fibers, so it has been used in the clinic for many years without immunological complications. Therefore, these epitopes’ amounts are probably insufficient to activate the complement cascade. On the contrary, the ECM of tissues with a high abundance of proteoglycans, such as bone, heart valves, tendon, and cartilage, even after a decellularization process with strong detergents, can contain α-Gal epitopes, which is an important barrier in the rejection of bone and tendon grafts and also cause calcification of bioprosthetic heart valves [\u003Ca href=\"#B210\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E210\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p40\"\u003ESialic acids are one of the non-alpha-gal antigens found in glycolipids and glycoproteins, which play a role in xenograft rejection [\u003Ca href=\"#B210\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E210\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B211\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E211\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B212\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E212\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B213\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E213\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The use of α-galactosidase can significantly reduce the cytotoxic effects of receptor antibodies on grafts. In addition, detergents such as SDS can help remove α-Gal antigen and MHC-encoded antigen molecules from tissues [\u003Ca href=\"#B214\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E214\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B215\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E215\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Neu5Gc and Neu5Ac are the predominant sialic acids expressed in mammals. Sda antigen, another subgroup of glycan antigens, is different in humans from pigs; hence, it is one of the factors of rejection of xenografts. Genetically modified pig tissues that do not express Sda antigens have shown reduced immune responses in non-human primates and humans [\u003Ca href=\"#B216\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E216\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Also, one of the ways to weaken the host’s immune response against glycan antigens can be recellularization with human stem cells [\u003Ca href=\"#B217\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E217\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In addition to immunological concerns related to glycan antigens, an immune response can also be induced due to some matrix protein compounds. The collagen structure consists of triple helix and non-helical regions (telopeptides). Despite the conservation of the triple helical segment during evolution, the non-helical segment of collagen varies significantly between species, which can cause inflammatory reactions in their application [\u003Ca href=\"#B218\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E218\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B219\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E219\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B220\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E220\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. For example, stimulation of the immune response has been observed in some people with animal collagen (mainly bovine collagen) [\u003Ca href=\"#B221\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E221\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Matrix age is another parameter determining immunological stimulation [\u003Ca href=\"#B222\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E222\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. ECMs derived from aged individuals have shown a reduced ability to switch macrophage polarization from M1 to M2. As a result, they can cause chronic inflammation and ultimately have a lower regeneration capacity [\u003Ca href=\"#B223\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E223\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B224\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E224\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. With aging, the structure content of collagen, GAG, laminin, fibronectin, growth factor, and mechanical properties of dECM change [\u003Ca href=\"#B225\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E225\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The rate of tissue destruction is another important and influential factor in the immunogenicity of dECM scaffolds. Due to the unique properties of each tissue, dECM scaffolds from different sources have different degradation rates. The degradation rate of dECM determines the time required to completely replace the ECM with a newly synthesized ECM by the host cells. If the graft survives this time, it can probably survive rejection. The site of implantation of decellularized extracellular matrices plays an important role in the strong or mild response of the immune system. Implantation of dECMs with residual antigens in highly vascularized areas, such as the omentum, causes a stronger immune response than in less vascularized areas, such as subcutaneous areas. For example, corneal transplants show relatively less transplant rejection due to the lack of blood and lymphatic circulation and immunoregulatory factors [\u003Ca href=\"#B226\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E226\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B227\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E227\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_29\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E8. Conclusion and future perspective\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p41\"\u003EDecellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) has received much attention in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine in the last decade. The FDA has approved the therapeutic potential of these types of scaffolds in the reconstruction of bone, skin and ligament structure without minerals. Because these biomaterials are bioactive and have effective factors and biochemical signaling markers, they play an important role in supporting the regeneration of cells and tissues. Using dECM in different forms, such as powder, gel, sheet, and bio-ink, can play an important role in improving tissue regeneration methods and protocols. However, there are still challenges in using these matrices, which can be tried to reduce these problems with protocols such as the following: choosing the best tissue origin with structural similarity to human tissues, better methods and techniques for decellularization to effectively remove cellular materials and maintaining better integrity of ECM, finding methods to remove remaining effective antigens and residual cytotoxic agents after decellularization, more efficient quantitative and qualitative assay techniques such as specialized tissue staining, control of degradation rate, more efficient washing, appropriate sterilization to minimize damage to the decellularized matrix, as well as the use of new technologies, such as lab-on-a-chip (LOC) for studies to measure the effectiveness before the human model. Also, using other resources with greater access, such as plant tissues and disposable tissues and organs such as bone and skin of creatures such as fish with less immunogenicity, can increase the efficiency of this field of tissue engineering. Also, using exosomes derived from stem cells enriched with growth factors and anti-inflammatory cytokines can be effective in accelerating the regeneration process and reducing immunogenicity. Experts in biological sciences and engineering sciences can provide new solutions for reconstructing body tissues and organs in the near future.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"regenerative medicine,tissue engineering,scaffold,extracellular matrix (ECM),decellularized extracellular matrices (dECM)","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000004049aIAA\u002Fa09Tc000000y4jtIAA\u002FFinal-DECELLULARIZED%20SCAFFOLDS%20FOR%20TISSUE%20REGENERATION%20%282024-11-13%2016%3A05%3A27%29.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000004049aIAA\u002Fa09Tc000000y4jtIAA\u002FFinal%20%28xml%29-DECELLULARIZED%20SCAFFOLDS%20FOR%20TISSUE%20REGENERATION%20%282024-11-13%2017%3A14%3A40%29.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F1195105\u002F1731494181-1940539562\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F1195105","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F1195105","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1195105\u002F1731674451-847866338\u002F","totalDownloads":29,"totalViews":0,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"dateSubmitted":"July 8th 2024","dateReviewed":"September 12th 2024","datePrePublished":"November 15th 2024","datePublished":null,"dateFinished":null,"readingETA":"0","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003ERegenerative medicine has shown good potential in regenerating tissues and organs. Tissue engineering, as a sub-branch of this technology, helps the process of tissue and organ regeneration by using enginenering techniques. Biomaterials play a pivotal role in the success of tissue engineering. Of course, challenges such as the origin of biomaterials, synthesis and extraction, biocompatibility and cell adhesion, scaffold design techniques, and physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of scaffolds designed with synthetic biomaterials can create limitations inlimit their use in scaffold design. A promising option for designing scaffolds is the use of tissues and extracellular matrix (ECM). By removing cellular factors and inflammatory factors, a unique microenvironment called the decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) is prepared, which regulates and directs cellular processes. In this chapter, we discuss various decellularization techniques to preserve the structural, physicochemical, and biological properties of dECM products and some of its applications in tissue regeneration.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F1195105","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F1195105","signatures":"Esmaeil Biazar","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"1004190","type":"book","title":"Advances in Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"Advances in Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering","slug":null,"isPublished":false,"publishedDate":null,"bookSignature":"Dr. Manash Paul, Dr. Bharti Bisht and Assistant Prof. Bhisham Narayan Singh","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000004049aIAA\u002F0016094_TrikoderCover%20%282024-02-26%2007%3A36%3A47%29.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004190\u002F1713450038-398439670\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004190\u002F1713450038-398439670\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":null,"cdnWebCoverURL300":null,"cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004190\u002F1721426426-743087909\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004190\u002F1721426426-743087909\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 4.0","editedByType":null,"isbn":"978-0-85014-723-0","printIsbn":"978-0-85014-724-7","pdfIsbn":"978-0-85014-725-4","isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isDeactivated":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"319365","title":"Assistant Prof.","name":"Manash","middleName":null,"surname":"Paul","slug":"manash-paul","fullName":"Manash Paul"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},"authors":[{"id":"596453","title":"Assistant Prof.","name":"esmaeil","middleName":null,"surname":"biazar","fullName":"esmaeil biazar","slug":"esmaeil-biazar","email":"kia_esm@yahoo.com","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.123\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":null}],"sections":[{"id":"sec_1","title":"1. Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Decellularization methods","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2_2","title":"2.1 Chemical methods","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_2_3","title":"2.1.1 Surfactants","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_3_3","title":"2.1.2 Acids and bases","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_5_2","title":"2.2 Physical and mechanical methods","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_6_2","title":"2.3 Enzymatic methods","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_8","title":"3. Forms of decellularized ECM","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_8_2","title":"3.1 Tissue\u002Fpowder","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_9_2","title":"3.2 Hydrogels","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_10_2","title":"3.3 Fiber","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_11_2","title":"3.4 Composite grafts","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_12_2","title":"3.5 Whole organ","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_14","title":"4. Applications of decellularized ECM","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_14_2","title":"4.1 Skin","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_15_2","title":"4.2 Heart","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_16_2","title":"4.3 Liver","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_17_2","title":"4.4 Lung","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_18_2","title":"4.5 Kidney","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_19_2","title":"4.6 Intestine","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_20_2","title":"4.7 Bone","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_21_2","title":"4.8 Cartilage","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_22_2","title":"4.9 Skeletal muscle","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_23_2","title":"4.10 Tendon","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_24_2","title":"4.11 Cornea","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_26","title":"5. Tissue-inks for 3D printing","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_27","title":"6. Plant-derived ECMs","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_28","title":"7. Host responses to dECM","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_29","title":"8. Conclusion and future perspective","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003EAjmal L, Ajmal S, Ajmal M, Nawaz G. Organ regeneration through stem cells and tissue engineering. Cureus. 2023;\u003Cbold\u003E15\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(1):e34336. DOI: 10.7759\u002Fcureus.34336\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B2","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B2\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003EBiazar E. Application of polymeric nanofibers in soft tissues regeneration. Polymers for Advanced Technologies. 2016;\u003Cbold\u003E27\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(11):1404-1412\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B3","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B3\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003EAavani F, Biazar E, Kheilnezhad B, Amjad F. 3D bio-printing for skin tissue regeneration: Hopes and hurdles. 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He worked as a system engineer at Research Institute of Automatic Machine of Beijing from 1986 to 1992. He was an Academic Visitor of School of Computer Science, The University of Manchester, U.K. in 2008. He was an assistant professor in Division of Information Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Technology for Innovation at Yamaguchi University, Japan, from 1997 to 2021. Currently he is a professor in Department of Information Technology and Media Design, Faculty of Advanced Engineering, Nippon Institute of Technology. His research interests include artificial neural networks, bioinformatics, machine learning, complex systems, time series forecasting and swarm intelligence and with more than 300 publications.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Nippon Institute of Technology","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Japan"}}},{"id":"33308","title":"Dr.","name":"Seiki","surname":"Chiba","slug":"seiki-chiba","fullName":"Seiki Chiba","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F33308\u002F1720082427\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Chiba Institute of Science","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Japan"}}},{"id":"207114","title":"Ph.D.","name":"Kourosh","surname":"Meshgi","slug":"kourosh-meshgi","fullName":"Kourosh Meshgi","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F207114\u002F1725954022\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Kourosh Meshgi received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in Hardware Engineering (2008) and Artificial Intelligence (2010) respectively, from Tehran Polytechnic and his Ph.D. in Informatics in 2015 from Kyoto University. He is currently a post-doc researcher at Kyoto University. His research interests include machine learning, computer vision, robotics, computational linguistics, and automation. Dr. Meshgi\\'s current research focuses on investigating the use of active learning in visual tracking.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Kyoto University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Japan"}}},{"id":"208250","title":"Dr.","name":"Shigeyuki","surname":"Oba","slug":"shigeyuki-oba","fullName":"Shigeyuki Oba","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.123\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Kyoto University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Japan"}}},{"id":"208510","title":"Prof.","name":"Shingo","surname":"Mabu","slug":"shingo-mabu","fullName":"Shingo Mabu","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.123\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Yamaguchi University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Japan"}}},{"id":"208511","title":"Prof.","name":"Kunikazu","surname":"Kobayashi","slug":"kunikazu-kobayashi","fullName":"Kunikazu Kobayashi","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.123\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Aichi Prefectural University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Japan"}}}]},"generic":{"page":{"slug":"publication-agreement-journals","title":"Publication Agreement - Journal Article","intro":"\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving  significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.intechopen.com\u002Fpage\u002Fcopyright-policy\"\u003ECopyright  Policy\u003C\u002Fa\u003E guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain  exclusive copyright to their Work.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","metaTitle":"Publication Agreement - Journals","metaDescription":"IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors","metaKeywords":null,"canonicalURL":"\u002Fpage\u002Fpublication-agreement-journals","contentRaw":"[{\"type\":\"htmlEditorComponent\",\"content\":\"\u003Cp\u003EThe Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN  LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number  11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom,  SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Journal  Article:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E1. DEFINITIONS \u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003ECorresponding Author: The Author of the Article who serves as a Signatory to this  Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author. Co-Author: All other Authors of the Article besides the Corresponding Author. IntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Journal. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EJournal: The publication as a collection of Articles compiled by IntechOpen .\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EArticle: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co Author that is the subject of this Agreement.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS \u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E2.1\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall  ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright  and any extensions or renewals of that term the following: \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable,  non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish,  transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use and make available the Article in whole,  partial or adapted from and\u002For incorporated in or in conjunction with other works, in  electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works and on any  platform owned and\u002For operated by IntechOpen, throughout the world, in all  languages, and in all media and formats now known or later developed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable,  non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Article,  including the right to deposit the Article in open access digital repositories.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable,  non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and  distribute the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and\u002For incorporated in or in  conjunction with other works under the condition that the Corresponding Author  and each Co-Author is attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the  Article under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence). \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this  Agreement for any reason.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E2.2 \u003C\u002Fstrong\u003EThe Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author)  reserves the following rights to the Article but agrees not to exercise them in such a  way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this  Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which  subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Article as published by IntechOpen;  and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as  amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world. The Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will  remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any  successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic  reproduction of copyright works. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003ESubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Article and all versions of it  created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is  retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003ESubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author  retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Article.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E2.3\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or  otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any  Co-Author’s specific approval. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E2.4\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988  to object to derogatory treatment of the Article as a consequence of IntechOpen's  changes to the Article arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house  style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E3. 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The Corresponding Author warrants that each  Co-Author will also credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the  source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re publishing the Article. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E3.2\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E When submitting the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E• Comply with all instructions and guidelines provided by IntechOpen;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E• Produce the Article with all due skill, care and diligence, and in accordance  with good scientific practice; \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E• Submit all the corrections in due time as defined during the publishing process  schedule. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Article  Processing Charge. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The  Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors'  behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E3.3\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the  reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations,  photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Article worldwide for the full  term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the  original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or  photocopies of such consents.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication  from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from  case reports or photographs). \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E3.4 \u003C\u002Fstrong\u003EThe Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights  during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all  correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between  IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and  are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and  are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying,  or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY \u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E4.1\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Article does not and  will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically,  that the Article contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or  proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The  Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Article is the original  work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially  from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Article has not been  formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a Journal or edited  collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they  themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the  Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author  have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement  purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAgreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from  any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full  power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of  each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and\u002For title in and to the  Article to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights  and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Article  was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the  Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to  the submission, license and publication of the Article on the terms of this Publication  Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement  on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure  each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement,  including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party  to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and\u002For  omissions of each such Co-Author. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless  against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal  costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in  connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties.  This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results  from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E4.2\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or  limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other  liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E5. 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INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS \u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E6.1\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control,  IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Article attributing it to the  Corresponding Author and any Co-Author. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E6.2\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s  names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving,  web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Article and has the right to contact  the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Article is publicly available on  any platform owned and\u002For operated by IntechOpen. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E6.3\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication  Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third  parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of  any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Article, \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which  is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including  issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E7. 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It replaces and extinguishes all  prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral  contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that  subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication  Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other  warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on  behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication  Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"),  other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby  waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to  such Pre-Contractual Statements. 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Fraietta"},{"id":"375326","title":"Dr.","name":"Vanessa","middleName":null,"surname":"Pirrone","slug":"vanessa-pirrone","fullName":"Vanessa Pirrone"},{"id":"375327","title":"Dr.","name":"Zsofia","middleName":null,"surname":"Szep","slug":"zsofia-szep","fullName":"Zsofia Szep"}]},{"id":"26435","title":"Laboratory Typing Methods for Diagnostic of Salmonella Strains, the “Old” Organism That Continued Challenges","slug":"laboratory-typing-methods-for-diagnostic-of-salmonella-strains-the-old-organism-that-continued-chall","totalDownloads":21254,"totalCrossrefCites":2,"totalDimensionsCites":4,"abstract":null,"isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"book":{"id":"799","slug":"salmonella-a-dangerous-foodborne-pathogen","title":"Salmonella","fullTitle":"Salmonella - A Dangerous Foodborne Pathogen","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true},"signatures":"Ben Salem Imen, Mzoughi Ridha and Aouni Mahjoub","authors":[{"id":"76184","title":"Dr.","name":"Imen","middleName":null,"surname":"Ben Salem","slug":"imen-ben-salem","fullName":"Imen Ben Salem"},{"id":"82760","title":"Prof.","name":"Ridha","middleName":null,"surname":"Mzoughi","slug":"ridha-mzoughi","fullName":"Ridha Mzoughi"},{"id":"82765","title":"Prof.","name":"Mahjoub","middleName":null,"surname":"Aouni","slug":"mahjoub-aouni","fullName":"Mahjoub Aouni"}]},{"id":"34778","title":"Echinococcosis","slug":"echinococcosis","totalDownloads":3307,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"abstract":null,"isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"book":{"id":"1668","slug":"zoonosis","title":"Zoonosis","fullTitle":"Zoonosis","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true},"signatures":"Mesut Akarsu, Funda Ugur Kantar and Aytaç Gülcü","authors":[{"id":"114583","title":"Prof.","name":"Mesut","middleName":null,"surname":"Akarsu","slug":"mesut-akarsu","fullName":"Mesut Akarsu"},{"id":"118587","title":"Dr.","name":"Funda","middleName":null,"surname":"Ugur Kantar","slug":"funda-ugur-kantar","fullName":"Funda Ugur Kantar"},{"id":"138654","title":"Dr.","name":"Aytac","middleName":null,"surname":"Gulcu","slug":"aytac-gulcu","fullName":"Aytac Gulcu"}]},{"id":"68538","title":"Commercial Mosquito Repellents and Their Safety Concerns","slug":"commercial-mosquito-repellents-and-their-safety-concerns","totalDownloads":2500,"totalCrossrefCites":6,"totalDimensionsCites":25,"abstract":"Mosquitoes are serious vectors of diseases threading millions of humans and animals worldwide, as malaria, filariasis, and important arboviruses like dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya, West Nile virus, and Zika viruses. The swift spread of arboviruses, parasites, and bacteria in conjunction with the development of resistance in the pathogens, parasites, and vectors represents a great challenge in modern parasitology and tropical medicine. Unfortunately, synthetic insecticides had led to some serious health and risk concerns. There are no vaccines or other specific treatments for arboviruses transmitted by mosquitoes. Accordingly, avoidance of mosquito bites remains the first line of defense. Insect repellents usually work by providing a vapor barrier deterring mosquitoes from coming into contact with the skin surface, and this chapter focused on assets and liabilities, mechanism of action, improving efficacy, safety, and future perspective of synthetic and natural repellents that could potentially prevent mosquito-host interactions, thereby playing an important role in reducing mosquito-borne diseases when used correctly and consistently.","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"book":{"id":"7839","slug":"malaria","title":"Malaria","fullTitle":"Malaria","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true},"signatures":"Hanem Fathy Khater, Abdelfattah M. Selim, Galal A. Abouelella, Nour A. Abouelella, Kadarkarai Murugan, Nelissa P. Vaz and Marimuthu Govindarajan","authors":[{"id":"71812","title":"Prof.","name":"Hanem Fathy","middleName":"Fathy","surname":"Khater","slug":"hanem-fathy-khater","fullName":"Hanem Fathy Khater"},{"id":"191392","title":"Dr.","name":"Marimuthu","middleName":null,"surname":"Govindarajan","slug":"marimuthu-govindarajan","fullName":"Marimuthu Govindarajan"},{"id":"192870","title":"Dr.","name":"Nelissa","middleName":null,"surname":"P. Vaz","slug":"nelissa-p.-vaz","fullName":"Nelissa P. Vaz"},{"id":"229581","title":"Prof.","name":"Kadarkarai","middleName":null,"surname":"Murugan","slug":"kadarkarai-murugan","fullName":"Kadarkarai Murugan"},{"id":"310230","title":"Dr.","name":"Abdelfattah M.","middleName":null,"surname":"Selim","slug":"abdelfattah-m.-selim","fullName":"Abdelfattah M. Selim"},{"id":"310231","title":"Dr.","name":"Galal A.","middleName":null,"surname":"Abouelella","slug":"galal-a.-abouelella","fullName":"Galal A. Abouelella"},{"id":"310232","title":"Dr.","name":"Nour A.","middleName":null,"surname":"Abouelella","slug":"nour-a.-abouelella","fullName":"Nour A. Abouelella"}]},{"id":"30069","title":"Bronchial Challenge Testing","slug":"challenge-testing-in-the-diagnosis-of-asthma","totalDownloads":10589,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":3,"abstract":null,"isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"book":{"id":"566","slug":"bronchial-asthma-emerging-therapeutic-strategies","title":"Bronchial Asthma","fullTitle":"Bronchial Asthma - Emerging Therapeutic Strategies","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true},"signatures":"Lutz Beckert and Kate Jones","authors":[{"id":"72797","title":"Prof.","name":"Lutz","middleName":null,"surname":"Beckert","slug":"lutz-beckert","fullName":"Lutz Beckert"}]}],"onlineFirstChaptersFilter":{"topicId":"185","limit":6,"offset":0},"onlineFirstChaptersCollection":[{"id":"1203343","title":"Online Respiratory Rehabilitation in Patients with COPD","slug":null,"totalDownloads":9,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1007322","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EChronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common preventable and treatable disease characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation caused by airway or alveolar abnormalities. With the advent of the pandemic, online respiratory rehabilitation for patients with COPD has become a major point of interest for both patients and doctors. Pulmonary rehabilitation is an integrative approach to achieve quality, accessibility, cost-effectiveness, and patient participation. Studies confirm that remotely supported RP with various telemedicine devices is not inferior to traditional RP. Most PR interventions could be delivered in primary care by adopting telemedicine solutions (e.g., via smartphone) and chronic care model to improve timely access, enrollment and engagement for COPD patients.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1004186","title":"Immunopathology of Chronic Respiratory Diseases","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000004049WIAQ\u002F0016090_TrikoderCover%20%282024-02-26%2007%3A36%3A47%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Paula Irina Barata and Maria Daniela Mot"},{"id":"1204999","title":"Common Immunopathogenesis of Three Pediatric Chronic Lung Disorders","slug":null,"totalDownloads":14,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1007459","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EThe epithelial cells lining the airways serve as a physical barrier to various external potential injurious agents. Therefore, injury to the epithelial layer results in an immunological reaction to protect the body from infections and other potential toxins. However, these processes can also lead to deleterious effects if the injury is continuous and\u002For extreme and therefore result in disorders such as asthma and other chronic lung diseases. This chapter will review the potential immunopathogenesis of three childhood lung diseases: asthma, neonatal chronic bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) and cystic fibrosis (CF). Asthma is one of the most common chronic respiratory diseases in both adults and children. Although BPD and CF are not as common both are a source of significant morbidity and mortality and requires not a small amount of resources to manage and treat. Specifically, it will review evidence showing that there is production of various cytokines by epithelial (and other immune cells in the lung) as well as an influx of inflammatory cells upon exposure to various materials such as gas and particles from car emissions, tobacco smoke, pathogens and various allergens such as pollens and animal dander. It will attempt to correlate the pathology with current therapy and suggest future treatment options.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1004186","title":"Immunopathology of Chronic Respiratory Diseases","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000004049WIAQ\u002F0016090_TrikoderCover%20%282024-02-26%2007%3A36%3A47%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Terry Chin"},{"id":"1206593","title":"Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease","slug":null,"totalDownloads":16,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1007270","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EChronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a long-term and worsening lung condition that results in irreversible damage to the airways and lung tissue, causing difficulty in breathing. The development of COPD is contributed to by cellular senescence, inflammation, protease-antiprotease imbalance, epigenetic changes, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis, and cell death. Endoplasmic reticulum stress and cellular protein homeostasis are critical processes for maintaining the healthy function of cells. In response to ER stress, cells initiate a protective process called the unfolded protein response (UPR). Endoplasmic reticulum stress and UPR activation in the airways can be triggered by cigarette smoke, air pollution, bacteria, viruses, or other pathogenic microorganisms. In chronic diseases like COPD, persistent inflammation and oxidative stress can increase ER stress. This can cause continuous activation of UPR mechanisms, which can impair cell function. Chronic ER stress and insufficient protein homeostasis can lead to apoptosis and harm to lung tissue. The disruption of these vital processes, which are crucial for maintaining healthy cell functions, is a key factor in the development of chronic conditions such as COPD. Regulation of ER stress and maintaining protein balance may be a potential target for managing these diseases.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1004186","title":"Immunopathology of Chronic Respiratory Diseases","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc000004049WIAQ\u002F0016090_TrikoderCover%20%282024-02-26%2007%3A36%3A47%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Tugba Raika Kıran"},{"id":"89675","title":"The Role of TB Biomarkers in Diagnosis, Prognosis and Prevention of Tuberculosis","slug":"the-role-of-tb-biomarkers-in-diagnosis-prognosis-and-prevention-of-tuberculosis","totalDownloads":18,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.115129","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EThis chapter focuses on how biomarkers of tuberculosis can be utilized in the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment monitoring of TB. Tuberculosis biomarkers are measurable molecular indicators present and\u002For whose levels are altered in disease states. Found in blood, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage or sputum, biomarkers can originate from the bacteria (e.g. Ag85, lipoarabinomannan (LAM) and bacterial DNA) or from the host (e.g. cytokines\u002Fchemokines, metabolites, transcriptomics, mixed signatures and other proteins). Despite the lack of tuberculous specificity, Ag85 can facilitate early detection of mycobacterial infection, giving room for early commencing of treatment and, hence, better disease prognosis. Findings indicate that latent TB Infection (LTBI) can be diagnosed by Interferon Gamma Release Assay (IGRA) and piRNAs but is distinctively detected by TAM-TB (based on Ki-67, HLA-DR and SD38) and the CD4+; CCR6+, CXCR3+ and CCR4 signatures. Active Tuberculosis (ATB) in children can be diagnosed early by pyridoxate, quinolinate and N-acetylneuraminate metabolites signature, while gamma-glutamylalanine, pyridoxate, glutamine and gamma-glutamylglycine metabolites identify treatment response in this population. Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP), MMP-7 and C-reactive protein signature can reliably differentiate Extrapulmonary TB (EPTB) from Pulmonary TB (PTB) and health controls among juveniles. Irrespective of age, Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) can distinguish EPTB from PTB, since the later has significantly higher MBL than PTB and Controls. RISK11 has excellent diagnostic and prognostic capabilities in identifying ambulatory People living with HIV\u002FAIDS+Active TB (PLWH+ATB) patients and the likelihood that latent conditions will advance to incident TB. Furthermore, IFN-α, IL-1α, IFN-γ, sCD40L, MMP-2, MMP-9 and IFN-α2 are the most reliable biosignature for the diagnosis of smear-negative TB. Neutrophil-driven IFN types 1 and 2 have the ability to monitor treatment course and predict prognosis since the INF levels reduce with effective treatment. Transthyretin, neopterin and C-reactive protein signature can be used to detect immune response to TB infection, prognosis and monitoring treatment course since the biomarkers levels decrease with a decrease in disease activity. IL-17 and Th-17 are crucial for vaccine-mediated protection against tuberculosis. Encouraging the elucidation, adoption and integration of biomarker-based technology into healthcare systems can facilitate individual and public health gain, as well as saving on tuberculosis-associated economic loss.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"13413","title":"Improving Societal Systems to End Tuberculosis","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F13413.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Peter Matuku-Kisaumbi"},{"id":"1195032","title":"Current Topics in \u003Ci\u003EChlamydia trachomatis\u003C\u002Fi\u003E Infections","slug":null,"totalDownloads":19,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1007204","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EChlamydia trachomatis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E is a significant human pathogen responsible for a broad spectrum of infections, predominantly affecting the urogenital tract, eyes, and respiratory system. This chapter provides a thorough review of the latest advancements and emerging topics in the study of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. trachomatis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E infections. The chapter begins with an overview of recent epidemiological trends, emphasizing the widespread nature of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. trachomatis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E infections and the populations most at risk. Advances in diagnostic methods are explored, including molecular techniques that offer improved sensitivity and specificity, enabling more accurate and timely detection of infections. The growing concern of antibiotic resistance is also addressed, highlighting the implications for treatment strategies and the necessity of novel therapeutic approaches. The chapter also focuses on the progress made in vaccine development, discussing the challenges faced and the promising strategies being explored. By integrating the latest research on molecular biology, immunology, and clinical practice, this chapter aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EC. trachomatis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E infections, guiding future research and public health initiatives aimed at controlling and ultimately preventing these infections.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"1003836","title":"Current Topics in \u003Cem\u003EChlamydia trachomatis\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Infections","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000011YN11QAG\u002F0015740_TrikoderCover%20%282023-10-30%2008%3A04%3A07%29.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Krishna Sarkar and Vikas Saini"},{"id":"89692","title":"Improving Social Determinants to End Tuberculosis","slug":"improving-social-determinants-to-end-tuberculosis","totalDownloads":5,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.115394","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EThis chapter discusses a comprehensive approach to addressing tuberculosis (TB) by addressing the social determinants that influence the prevalence and spread of the disease. First, the role played by social determinants is evaluated. It is emphasized that the efforts made on tuberculosis control must go beyond the traditional biomedical model. On the contrary, it is recommended to carry out more comprehensive approaches that consider the living conditions and environments of the affected people. The model focuses on improving physical, social, and political environments, including housing, food security, economic stability, and increasing public health budgets. It also recommends interventions at multiple levels, such as the Community level promoting equity in access to health care services and encouraging a more participatory role among health workers in early diagnosis and treatment and, at the socio-political level, with better policies that address the root causes of TB, such as poverty and social inequalities, to ensure sustained funding for TB control program. Finally, monitoring and situational analysis are recommended to identify underserved populations, barriers to early diagnosis and treatment, and the social and economic consequences of TB for better disease control outcomes.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EThe misery (Cristobal Rojas, 1886). Wikimedia Commons\u002FNational Art Gallery, Caracas, Venezuela. The Two Faces of Tuberculosis: Stigma and Loneliness.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"book":{"id":"13413","title":"Improving Societal Systems to End Tuberculosis","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F13413.jpg","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":false},"signatures":"Rafael Reaño Ortega"}],"onlineFirstChaptersTotal":14},"preDownload":{"success":null,"errors":{}},"subscriptionForm":{"success":null,"errors":{}},"aboutIntechopen":{},"privacyPolicy":{},"cookiePolicy":{},"recruitmentPrivacyNotice":{},"peerReviewing":{},"howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks":{},"sponsorshipBooks":{"sponsorshipBooks":[],"offset":0,"limit":8,"total":null},"allSeries":{"pteSeriesList":[],"lsSeriesList":[],"hsSeriesList":[],"sshSeriesList":[],"testimonialsList":[]},"series":{"item":{"id":"6","title":"Infectious Diseases","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.71852","issn":"2631-6188","scope":"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.","coverUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fseries\u002Fcovers\u002F6.jpg","latestPublicationDate":"November 11th, 2024","hasOnlineFirst":true,"numberOfPublishedBooks":31,"editor":{"id":"131400","title":"Prof.","name":"Alfonso J.","middleName":null,"surname":"Rodriguez-Morales","slug":"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales","fullName":"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F131400\u002F1730415984\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"SDr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (notably arboviral diseases), and more recently COVID-19 and Monkeypox.\nHe is the president of the Publications and Research Committee of\nthe Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as\nthe president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases\n(ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine,\nZoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is a vice-president\nof the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a member of the\nCouncil of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has\nbeen recognized as a senior researcher at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a\nprofessor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las\nAmericas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia, and a professor, Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, at Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. He is also a\nnon-resident adjunct faculty member at the Gilbert and Rose-Marie Chagoury School\nof Medicine, Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon, and an external professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, at Universitat\nde Barcelona, Spain. Additionally, an invited professor, Master in Biomedicine, at\nUniversidad Internacional SEK, Quito, Ecuador, and a visiting professor, Master Program of Epidemiology, at Diponegoro University, Indonesia. In 2021 he was awarded\nthe “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API and, the same year, the “Jose Felix Patiño”\nAsclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College due to his scientific contributions to the topic of COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in\nChief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 55\n(Google Scholar H index 77) with a total of 725 publications indexed in Scopus","institutionString":"Fundación Universitaria Autónoma De Las Américas","institution":{"name":"Fundación Universitaria Autónoma De Las Américas","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Colombia"}}},"editorTwo":null,"editorThree":null},"subseries":{"paginationCount":2,"paginationItems":[{"id":"1","title":"Oral Health","coverUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fseries_topics\u002Fcovers\u002F1.jpg","editor":{"id":"173955","title":"Dr.","name":"Sandra","middleName":null,"surname":"Marinho","slug":"sandra-marinho","fullName":"Sandra Marinho","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F173955\u002F1712065544\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"State University of Paraíba","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Brazil"}}},"editorTwo":{"id":"312094","title":"Prof.","name":"Esra","middleName":null,"surname":"Guzeldemir-Akcakanat","slug":"esra-guzeldemir-akcakanat","fullName":"Esra Guzeldemir-Akcakanat","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F312094\u002F1703170864\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Guzeldemir is a periodontist with 24 years of clinical experience and a full Professor (Turkey). She received her DDS degree at Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey in 1998, Ph.D. degree and became a specialist in Periodontology at Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey in 2005, Associate Professor of Periodontology in 2011, and Professor in 2016 at Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey. Dr. Guzeldemir is both Republic of Turkey Ministry of Health and Dubai Health Authority licensed specialist periodontist. \r\nShe worked as a Research Associate at Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Division of Periodontology and Oral Biology, Boston, MA, USA in 2004 – 2005 under the supervision of Prof. Dr. T. Van Dyke and the University of Louisville School of Dentistry, Oral Health and Systemic Disease Research Group, Louisville, KY, USA in 2007 under the supervision of Prof. Dr. T. Denis F. Kinane. \r\nDr. Guzeldemir is the founder of the Department of Periodontology at Kocaeli University. She was the Vice Dean of the Faculty of Dentistry for 3 years (2019 – 2022). She also held many administrative positions at the Faculty of Dentistry and the President’s Office at Kocaeli University between 2010 and 2022. \r\nHer areas of clinic interest include aesthetic smiles, treatment of gingival recessions, and gum diseases, and gingival management around the implants. Her areas of research include genetics of periodontal diseases, the relationship between periodontal diseases and systemic health, and studies related to patients' oral health-related quality of life. \r\nDr. Guzeldemir is the co-author of 4 periodontology and endodontics books published in Turkish and English. She has also been an editor and translator of a periodontics book and co-translator of one book. She has published highly cited more than 50 articles in peer-reviewed journals and presented more than 80 presentations in national and international meetings. She is an Editorial Board Member and an ad-hoc reviewer of many peer reviewed national and international journals. 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Dr. Lechuga received a BS. Degree in Biomedicine from the Fluminense Federal University (UFF) and an MS. and Ph.D. in Science and Biotechnology from UFF with experience in cell biology and biochemistry techniques for application to preclinical drug development studies. One line of his research is focused on studying metabolic targets against Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease. Another applies data mining to direct rational drug design and the repositioning of existing drugs to treat infectious diseases affecting neglected, under-served populations. In addition, he is currently working on the study of heme and iron dysmetabolism in COVID-19.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation","country":{"name":"Brazil"}}},{"id":"217006","title":"Prof.","name":"Salvatore","middleName":"Giovanni","surname":"De-Simone","slug":"salvatore-de-simone","fullName":"Salvatore De-Simone","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F217006\u002F1712699934\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Salvatore Giovanni De-Simone obtained a BSc in Biomedical Sciences from the Rio de Janeiro State University, Brazil in 1976, and an MSc and DSc in Biochemistry from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1980 and 1986, respectively. He was a visiting researcher at the Laboratory of Genetic Recombination, Institut d'Hematologie-Centre Hayem Hospital Saint Louis, France in 1987; Department of Medical Parasitology, New York University, USA in 1988–1989; and European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Germany in 1990. He was a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Federal Fluminense University (UFF), Brazil in 1984–2012. He was Chief of the Biochemistry of Protein and Peptides Laboratory and Coordinator of the Peptide Synthesis Platform at Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Brazil, from 1992 to 2012. He is a permanent member of the Post-Graduation Program in Science and Biotechnology, UFF, and the Post-Graduation Program in Parasitic Disease, FIOCRUZ. He is the primary advisor of more than forty master’s and thirty doctorate candidates and more than twenty-seven visiting researchers. Dr. De-Simone coordinates seventeen national and international symposiums and courses and thirty-five research projects sponsored by national and international agencies. He is an advisor of Brazilian universities and projects for several national and international agencies and an ad hoc reviewer for more than fifty international journals. He is also a guest editor of special issues of the International Journal of Molecular Science and Toxins. Furthermore, Dr. De-Simone is a specialist in science and technology production and innovation in health for the Center for Technological Development in Health (CDTS), FIOCRUZ; a member of the National Institute of Neglected Population Disease (IDN-Pd) of Brazil; a scientist at the Carlos Chagas Filho Foundation for Research Support of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ); and a researcher for the National Council of Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq|).","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation","country":{"name":"Brazil"}}},{"id":"169552","title":"Prof.","name":"Nihal","middleName":null,"surname":"Dogan","slug":"nihal-dogan","fullName":"Nihal Dogan","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F169552\u002F1724307273\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Prof. Dr Nihal Dogan has worked in the Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Osmangazi University, Turkey, since 1986. Her master’s and Ph.D. thesis focused on the diagnosis and sero-epidemiology of toxoplasmosis. She was a visiting researcher on the diagnosis of Entamoeba histolytica at the University of Virginia, USA, in 2003 and an observer researcher working on trypanosomes at the Faculty of Medicine, Universidad De Chile, in 2016. She was appointed a professor in 2008 and is the leading academic in the field of parasitology, with expertise in the epidemiology of parasitic diseases. Her research interests include medical ethics; seroepidemiological surveys; intestinal, blood, tissue, and ocular parasites; vector-borne diseases; and zoonotic parasites. Her research has been published in more than 40 national and international journals. She also made 85 poster presentations, plus many oral presentations and keynote speeches at international and national congresses. She has written numerous book chapters on infectious diseases, clinical parasitology, and clinical microbiology, as well as medical microbiology laboratory applications and manuals.","institutionString":"Eskisehir Osmangazi University","institution":null},{"id":"511397","title":"Dr.","name":"Sachin","middleName":"Namdeo","surname":"Kothawade","slug":"sachin-kothawade","fullName":"Sachin Kothawade","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F511397\u002F1712122570\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Sachin Namdeo Kothawade \nDesignation: Associate Professor\nQualification: M.Pharm, PhD \nContact: 7768097206\nE-mail Id: sachin.kothawade23@gmail.com \nDate of joining: 22nd August 2022\nResearch Area: Nanotechnology, Solubility enhancement\nTotal experience in Years: Teaching:15 Years, Industry: 00, Research: 00\nPapers published: National: 20, International: 03, Review: 07\nPapers presented in conferences: National:\t 02, International: 02\nBook Published: 09 \nPatents (Filed\u002FPublished\u002FGranted): Published: 01 \nProfessional Memberships: Lifetime Member of APTI (MA\u002FLM-1972) \nHonours\u002FAwards\u002FAchievements: \nGrants Received (Research\u002FS&T\u002FConference): Research Grant: Received the grant of rupees 2 Lakh for research project entitled 'Preparation and In-Vitro Characterization of Telmisartan Solid Dispersions” under SPPU, Pune during the period October 2010 to October 2012.\nCore Competency Area: Research Skill Development, Communication Skill\nCitation Indices: H-Index: 06, i10-Index: 02, No. of Citations: 87 \nORCID ID: 0000-0002-8143-856X\nSCOPUS ID: https:\u002F\u002Fwww.scopus.com\u002Fauthid\u002Fdetail.uri?authorId=36113705100\nLinkedIn Profile: https:\u002F\u002Fwww.linkedin.com\u002Fin\u002Fsachin-kothawade-78222620\u002F \nGoogle Scholar Link: https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?hl=en&user=CcKhqAUAAAAJ","institutionString":"RSM's N N Sattha College of Pharmacy, Ahmednagar-414001, MH, India","institution":null},{"id":"455161","title":"Dr.","name":"Abdulaziz","middleName":null,"surname":"Aloufﬁ","slug":"abdulaziz-alouf","fullName":"Abdulaziz Aloufﬁ","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F455161\u002F1728462063\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Abdulaziz Alouffi is an associate research professor at King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Saudi Arabia. He obtained a DVM from Qassim University, Saudi Arabia, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham, UK, with a thesis focused on understanding the roles of immunoglobulin E (IgE) in human resistance to infection with metazoan parasites (e.g., Schistosoma spp.) and how this knowledge can be exploited for vaccination. Currently, Dr. Alouffi is working on zoonoses, using different diagnostic methods, such as a metagenomics approach, to identify zoonotic diseases. In addition, he is using technology to find new targets for the development of more efficient vaccines against zoonotic disease.","institutionString":"King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology","institution":{"name":"King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology","country":{"name":"Saudi Arabia"}}},{"id":"442086","title":"Dr.","name":"Danielle","middleName":null,"surname":"Graham","slug":"danielle-graham","fullName":"Danielle Graham","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F442086\u002F1724655721\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Danielle Graham received her Ph.D. in Poultry Science from the University of Arkansas in 2021. She is now an Assistant Professor in the Poultry Science Department at the University of Arkansas focusing on avian intestinal health and parasitology research. She has experience working with bacterial, parasitic, and viral enteropathogens. Much of her group’s current research has been related to Enterococcus cecorum infections in young broiler chickens, investigating formaldehyde fumigation alternatives, and identifying novel strategies to mitigate or control protozoal diseases, such as coccidiosis and histomonosis.","institutionString":"University of Arkansas at Fayetteville","institution":{"name":"University of Arkansas at Fayetteville","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"514799","title":"Prof.","name":"Ebtesam","middleName":"M.","surname":"Al Olayan","slug":"ebtesam-al-olayan","fullName":"Ebtesam Al Olayan","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F514799\u002F1706001220\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Doctor Ebtsam Al-Olayan is a Professor of Parasitology at the Department College of Science, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia. She is also a supervisor of Chair Vaccines Research of Infectious Diseases, at King Saud University. Dr. Al-Olayan has been involved in research of parasitic diseases and vaccines. She has received several awards and is an academic reviewer for many journals. She has registered several patents and has more than eighty-eight publications to her credit.","institutionString":"King Saud University","institution":{"name":"King Saud University","country":{"name":"Saudi Arabia"}}},{"id":"73465","title":"Dr.","name":"Guillermo","middleName":null,"surname":"Téllez-Isaías","slug":"guillermo-tellez-isaias","fullName":"Guillermo Téllez-Isaías","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F73465\u002F1730271226\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias received his DVM degree and his MS degree in Veterinary Sciences from the National Autonomous University of Mexico, and his PhD from Texas A&M University. He worked as a Professor at UNAM for 16 years, 8 as head of the Avian Medicine Department at the College of Veterinary Medicine. Tellez was President of the National Poultry Science Association of Mexico and is a member of the Mexican Veterinary Academy and the Mexican National Research System. Currently, he works as a Research Professor at the Center of Excellence in Poultry Science at the University of Arkansas. His research is focused on poultry gastrointestinal models to evaluate the beneficial effects of functional foods to enhance intestinal health and disease resistance.","institutionString":"Gut Health LLC, USA","institution":null},{"id":"510740","title":"Dr.","name":"Luís Manuel Madeira","middleName":null,"surname":"de Carvalho","slug":"luis-manuel-madeira-de-carvalho","fullName":"Luís Manuel Madeira de Carvalho","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F510740\u002F1706001002\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Doctor Luís Manuel Madeira de Carvalho is a Full Professor of Parasitology, Parasitic and Wildlife Diseases at the Integrated Master of Veterinary Medicine (MIMV), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, Portugal. His main areas of interest in teaching and research focus on helminths of domestic animals, exotic pets, and wildlife, namely concerning gastrointestinal and vector-borne parasites as zoonotic agents, interconnected with ecosystem health and conservation medicine. He has more than 200 scientific publications to his credit and has coordinated and\u002For collaborated in more than 30 research projects concerning parasitology of domestic animals and wildlife. He has supervised around 180 graduate works, including intern and undergraduate reports, master’s dissertations, Ph.D. theses, and training at the Parasitology and Parasitological Diseases Laboratory. He is also a reviewer of several international journals.","institutionString":"University of Lisbon","institution":{"name":"University of Lisbon","country":{"name":"Portugal"}}},{"id":"209746","title":"Dr.","name":"Saeed","middleName":null,"surname":"El-Ashram","slug":"saeed-el-ashram","fullName":"Saeed El-Ashram","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F209746\u002F1731650512\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"aeed El-Ashram is a professor at Kafrelsheikh University, Egypt, and Foshan University, China, and a research professor at Zhaoqing Dahuanong Biology Medicine Co., Ltd., China. His primary research focus is to understand how the animal immune system recognizes and responds to parasitic infections with or without a microbial community. Some of these infections, such as toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis, alveolar echinococcosis, and fascioliasis, cause significant diseases in humans, while others, including cryptosporidiosis and coccidiosis, represent a substantial financial burden for food producers. Dr. El-Ashram has more than 120 journal publications to his credit, holds several registered patents, and is an academic editor and reviewer.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Kafrelsheikh University","country":{"name":"Egypt"}}},{"id":"519490","title":"Dr.","name":"Abeer","middleName":null,"surname":"M. Abdalhamed","slug":"abeer-m.-abdalhamed","fullName":"Abeer M. Abdalhamed","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F519490\u002F1715360309\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Abeer M Abdalhamed\nAss. Professor\nNational Research Center- Cairo\nEgypt\nBiography\nDr. Abeer Mostafa Abdalhamed has completed his PhD from Cairo University. Currently, she is Associate Professor of infectious Diseases at National Research Center (NRC) – Cairo – Egypt. She worked as a lecturer of Microbiology and Virology at Collage of Medicine and Applied Medical sciences – 2010-2015. Dr. Abeer Mostafa Abdalhamed worked as Assistant professor and head of Medical laboratory Science department at Shaqra University. She has published more than 27 papers in reputed journals and has been serving as an editorial board member and reviewer in many journals .\nResearch Interest\nMolecular and Immunological diagnosis of human and animals diseases.","institutionString":"NRC","institution":null},{"id":"72288","title":"Dr.","name":"Arli Aditya","middleName":null,"surname":"Parikesit","slug":"arli-aditya-parikesit","fullName":"Arli Aditya Parikesit","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F72288\u002F1706865204\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Prof.Dr. rer. nat. Arli Aditya is Vice Rector of Research and Innovation at Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences (I3L). He obtained bachelor’s and master’s degrees in chemistry at the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Indonesia. In order to pursue a degree in bioinformatics, Prof. Parikesit accepted an offer from DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service) to conduct doctorate research at the Bioinformatics Group, Faculty of Informatics and Mathematics, University of Leipzig, Germany. His doctoral research is focused on the utilization of modern protein domain annotation techniques in the three domains of life. In addition, Prof. Parikesit is also an expert on immunoinformatics, bioinformatics algorithms, structural bioinformatics, silico drug design, and in silico transcriptomics. Currently, he is devising a pipeline to apply his expertise to COVID-19 drug and vaccine designs.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences","country":{"name":"Indonesia"}}},{"id":"277501","title":"Dr.","name":"Elena","middleName":null,"surname":"Dantes","slug":"elena-dantes","fullName":"Elena Dantes","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F277501\u002F1693378833\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Elena Danteș is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine, “Ovidius” University of Constanta, Romania, where she is also the head of the Research and Innovation Department. With her specialization in pulmonology, Dr. Danteș has expertise in bronchology, special pulmonary function tests, somnology, and health management. Dr. Danteș is actively involved in scientific research and has participated in international grants and multicenter clinical trials, with particular emphasis on obstructive pulmonary disease, interstitial lung disease, lung cancer, and tuberculosis. She is leading the project \\\"Establishment and Development of the South-East Regional Center for Research Career Guidance - Ad Augusta.\\\" Her accomplishments include several leadership positions (hospital medical director, department head, and county coordinator for the National Programme for Prevention, Surveillance and Control of Tuberculosis). Dr. Danteș has contributed significantly to science through her publications, including books and book chapters. In addition, her articles in prestigious databases, as well as her lectures and expert opinions, have had a lasting impact on the field of pulmonology in Romania.","institutionString":"Faculty of Medicine, Ovidius University of Constanta","institution":{"name":"Ovidius University","country":{"name":"Romania"}}},{"id":"189892","title":"Dr.","name":"Elena","middleName":null,"surname":"Dumea","slug":"elena-dumea","fullName":"Elena Dumea","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F189892\u002F1693378835\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Elena Dumea is the head of Department 4 - Medical Clinical\nDisciplines II and a university lecturer at “Ovidius” University\nof Constanta, Romania. She also serves as the medical director at\nthe Infectious Diseases Clinical Hospital Constanta. Dr. Dumea\nobtained her medical degree from Iasi, Romania, and completed\nher residency in infectious diseases and epidemiology at Constanta. Her Ph.D. research focused on HIV and viral hepatitis\nB co-infection, which she pursued at the University “Carol Davila,” Bucharest. Dr.\nDumea’s research interests encompass a wide range of areas, including HIV infection,\nviral hepatitis, emerging infectious diseases, antibacterial activity, bacterial drug\nresistance, molecular microbiology, and epidemiology in relation to microbiota. She\nhas made significant contributions to the field through the publication of numerous\ninternational research articles, books, book chapters, and congress proceedings, all\ncentered around infectious diseases and immunocompromised hosts. Dr. Dumea’s\nscholarly work demonstrates her dedication to advancing knowledge and understanding in the field of infectious diseases, particularly in the context of HIV, viral hepatitis, and related topics.","institutionString":"Ovidius University of Constanta","institution":null},{"id":"527297","title":"Mr.","name":"Victor","middleName":"Agevi","surname":"Agevi Muhoma","slug":"victor-agevi-muhoma","fullName":"Victor Agevi Muhoma","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F527297\u002F1703015374\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Agevi Victor Muhoma is a highly analytical research and laboratory technologist with over 8 years of exemplary and successful experience. He has a strong passion for understanding how things work and why things happen. His extensive experience spans across clinical & medical, veterinary, and wildlife research settings. Victor has consistently been recognized for his performance excellence and contribution to success in laboratory and research environments. He possesses strong communication skills and excels at working positively with diverse scientific teams. His expertise lies in molecular diagnostics, serology, hematology, parasitology, in vitro & in vivo formulations and stimulations, viral & microbial culture, tick & Glossina spp rearing and identification, vaccine research\u002Fproduction processes, research, and project management. Victor is a reliable individual who is committed to delivering exceptional results.\nVictor\\'s research interests include veterinary entomology, focusing on Trypanosomiasis, Glossina species, and tick-borne diseases. He is also interested in immunology, veterinary and human vaccine development processes, including diseases such as East Coast Fever, heartwater, and cervical cancer. He is involved in one health research, studying zoonotic viral, bacterial, and fungal diseases. Additionally, Victor conducts research on human papilloma oncology, HIV prevalence, immunosurveillance, prenatal and drug resistance. He is experienced in laboratory animal modeling programs and small lab animal care, as well as veterinary, clinical, and medical molecular and serological diagnostics. He also has knowledge in plant tissue culture and integrated pest management activities, quality control and assurance, and laboratory management systems.\nVictor obtained his BSc in Biomedical Science (Medical Laboratory Science with IT) from Maseno University in December 2015. He has also completed various trainings and short courses in security and crime management, neglected tropical diseases in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, immunization, and prenatal mother HIV\u002FAIDS transmission.\nCurrently, Victor works as a Research Technologist at the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization VSRI Muguga North. His responsibilities include collecting samples and analyzing data using serological tests and nucleic acid extraction techniques. He performs molecular diagnostic techniques such as Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Gel Electrophoresis, and cultures viruses and microbes. Victor also rears, identifies, and dissects ticks, as well as inoculates, produces, characterizes, and fills vaccines. He liaises with stakeholders and external researchers, supervises and mentors junior researchers, and ensures project deadlines are met. He is responsible for laboratory equipment maintenance, result preparation and organization, database updating, and communication of findings. Victor also contributes to scientific presentations and publications.\nPrior to his current role, Victor worked as a Laboratory Technologist Intern at the Trypanosomiasis Research Centre-KALRO-TRC Alupe, where he conducted hematological, serological, and biochemical testing, as well as Glossina spp dissection and strains identification. He also served as a Field Assistant Volunteer at the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization-FCR-Kitale, promoting integrated pest management activities and providing technical training to farmers. Victor has also worked as a Molecular Biologist Contract at the Institute of Primate Research, where he conducted studies on fertility control, spermicidal development, and in vitro fertilization techniques. He was also involved in the molecular characterization of Baboon Papilloma Virus (BPV). Additionally, he volunteered as a Research Assistant at the Kenya Medical Research Institute Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (KEMRI-CDC), where he conducted sample analysis, STIs analysis, and participated in various research projects.\nVictor possesses a diverse range of skills, including expertise in molecular biology techniques, laboratory management, cell culture and tissue analysis, animal handling and care, data analysis, and research design","institutionString":"Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization","institution":null},{"id":"543693","title":"B.Sc.","name":"Nunekpeku","middleName":null,"surname":"Xorlali","slug":"nunekpeku-xorlali","fullName":"Nunekpeku Xorlali","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F45.123\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Ghana","country":{"name":"Ghana"}}},{"id":"520015","title":"Dr.","name":"Amir","middleName":null,"surname":"Afzal","slug":"amir-afzal","fullName":"Amir Afzal","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F520015\u002F1710055781\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":"Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad (Pakistan)","institution":null},{"id":"503144","title":"Dr.","name":"Saurabh","middleName":"Krishna","surname":"Krishna Misra","slug":"saurabh-krishna-misra","fullName":"Saurabh Krishna Misra","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F503144\u002F1726812862\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":"Autonomous State Medical College Kaushambi UP","institution":null},{"id":"189561","title":"Dr.","name":"Mihaela Laura","middleName":null,"surname":"Vică","slug":"mihaela-laura-vica","fullName":"Mihaela Laura Vică","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F189561\u002F1680680794\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Mihaela Laura Vică, MSc, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Cell and Molecular Biology Department, “Iuliu Haţieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Romania, where she obtained her Ph.D. in Medicine. She obtained her MSc in Cellular Biology from the Faculty of Biology, “Babeş-Bolyai” University, Romania. Since 2006, Dr. Vică has been involved in scientific research activities, coordinating an international cooperation research project and participating in more than thirty national and international conferences where she received five awards. She has published two books, two book chapters, and more than fifty research papers in international journals. Her areas of research are microbiology and molecular biology.","institutionString":"‘Iuliu Haţieganu’ University of Medicine and Pharmacy","institution":{"name":"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy","country":{"name":"Romania"}}},{"id":"76041","title":"Dr.","name":"Pier Paolo","middleName":null,"surname":"Piccaluga","slug":"pier-paolo-piccaluga","fullName":"Pier Paolo Piccaluga","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F76041\u002F1732175881\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Pier Paolo Piccaluga is an Associate Professor of Pathology in the Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Bologna University School of Medicine, Italy, as well as co-founder and Executive Physician at the Biobank of Research, IRCCS S. Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, Italy. He has been responsible for the Molecular Hematopathology Laboratory there for many years. \nIn 2018, he was appointed to teach at Queen Mary University of London, UK, and Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya. He has also been teaching at the University of Nairobi and the University of Botswana since 2023. Dr. Piccaluga \nis the author of several international journal publications and has presented at national and international conferences. He is involved in several clinical trials and research projects. He is also the winner of several prizes for study and research. Dr. Piccaluga is editor-in-chief of several journals, including World Journal of Hematology, Digital Medicine and Healthcare Technology, Advances in Precision Medicine, and Journal of Cancer Biomoleculars and Therapeutics.","institutionString":"University of Bologna","institution":{"name":"University of Bologna","country":{"name":"Italy"}}},{"id":"444803","title":"Dr.","name":"Abu","middleName":null,"surname":"Huraira","slug":"abu-huraira","fullName":"Abu Huraira","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F444803\u002F1684607082\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Abuhuraira is a dedicated radiology student and passionate author based in Faisalabad, Pakistan. Currently pursuing studies at Government College University Faisalabad, he has shown a deep interest in the field of medical research.\n\nAbuhuraira's academic journey in radiology has provided him with a solid foundation in understanding medical imaging techniques and their application in diagnosing and treating various conditions. Alongside his studies, he has actively engaged in research, aiming to contribute valuable insights to the field.\n\nAs an author, Abuhuraira's work primarily revolves around scientific research. His writing explores topics related to radiology, focusing on advancements, techniques, and emerging trends in medical imaging. He strives to disseminate knowledge and bridge the gap between research and clinical practice, ultimately improving patient care.\n\nDriven by curiosity and a thirst for knowledge, Abuhuraira is constantly seeking opportunities to expand his expertise and connect with professionals in the field. Through his participation in author panels, he hopes to share his experiences, exchange ideas, and inspire fellow students and researchers to delve deeper into the fascinating world of radiology.\n\nWith a firm belief in the power of research and education, Abuhuraira envisions a future where innovative imaging technologies and evidence-based practices enhance healthcare outcomes. He is committed to making a meaningful contribution to the field of radiology and strives to create a positive impact on the lives of patients and the medical community","institutionString":"GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERSITY FAISALABAD PAKISTAN","institution":null},{"id":"178641","title":"Dr.","name":"Samuel","middleName":null,"surname":"Okware","slug":"samuel-okware","fullName":"Samuel Okware","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F178641\u002F1712122578\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Dr. Samuel Okware is a public health specialist with a Ph.D. in Emerging Infections. He pioneered HIV research and control in Sub-Saharan Africa. His work on HIV\u002FAIDS led to the earliest strategies for HIV prevention, which resulted in significant declines in incidence among key populations. He has spent many years coordinating and leading national public health programs against communicable diseases in Uganda. He served on several technical advisory committees, including the WHO Expert Committee on Research and Development. He is the Director General of the Uganda National Health Research Organization, which coordinates health research in the country. He has received several awards in recognition of his contribution to HIV prevention and control. Dr. Okware has published extensively on HIV and remerging infections.","institutionString":"Busitema University","institution":null},{"id":"505347","title":"M.D.","name":"Mehmet Besir","middleName":null,"surname":"Akpinar","slug":"mehmet-besir-akpinar","fullName":"Mehmet Besir Akpinar","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F505347\u002F1688542012\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Istinye University","country":{"name":"Turkey"}}},{"id":"514185","title":"MSc.","name":"Glenda B.","middleName":null,"surname":"Obra","slug":"glenda-b.-obra","fullName":"Glenda B. Obra","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F514185\u002F1683092856\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Currently, a Supervising Science Research Specialist at the Philippine Nuclear Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology. Specializing in entomology, she has devoted research to studying the applications of radiation against pests that damage crops, which include controlling the infestation of mangoes, a technique that made fruit flies in Guimaras Island sterile to prevent their reproduction.\nShe was among the winners of the Presidential Lingkod Bayan Award for her role in the development of irradiation as a quarantine treatment for the mango pulp weevil, which is now certified under the US Federal Register.\nHer team is currently developing techniques that sterilize mosquitos such as Aedes aegypti, the vector for the dreaded dengue virus. 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For example, tackling the question of what distinguishes human beings from other animals, and what humans’ possible development trajectory might look like, calls for a multidisciplinary approach. Consequently, contributions to such an inquiry might come from very different scientific fields, ranging from cognitive neuroscience to socioeconomics. For instance, in the field of neuroscience, self-awareness—the most specific characteristic of human beings—has been investigated in connection with its neural correlates. Recent research points to self-awareness as the particular ability of our species, directly connecting it to our abstract thinking which in turn enables envisioning new possible futures and self-development\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv\u003E\r\n\tTo achieve a broad, multidisciplinary perspective on possible human development, subjects will be considered through varied— yet related—approaches. 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