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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remote_sensing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remote_sensing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Remote sensing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remote_sensing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-LTERs_and_long-term_data_sets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#LTERs_and_long-term_data_sets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>LTERs and long-term data sets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-LTERs_and_long-term_data_sets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_effects_on_the_environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_effects_on_the_environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Urban effects on the environment</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Urban_effects_on_the_environment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Urban effects on the environment subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Urban_effects_on_the_environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modification_of_land_and_waterways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modification_of_land_and_waterways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Modification of land and waterways</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modification_of_land_and_waterways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade,_shipping,_and_spread_of_invasive_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade,_shipping,_and_spread_of_invasive_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Trade, shipping, and spread of invasive species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade,_shipping,_and_spread_of_invasive_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_urban_animals_on_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_urban_animals_on_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Effects of urban animals on humans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_urban_animals_on_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Positive_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positive_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Positive effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positive_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negative_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negative_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Negative effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negative_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_effects_on_biogeochemical_pathways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_effects_on_biogeochemical_pathways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Human effects on biogeochemical pathways</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_effects_on_biogeochemical_pathways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_effects_on_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_effects_on_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Urban effects on climate</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Urban_effects_on_climate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Urban effects on climate subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Urban_effects_on_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Urban_heat_island_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_heat_island_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Urban heat island effect</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_heat_island_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greenhouse_gases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greenhouse_gases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Greenhouse gases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greenhouse_gases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acid_rain_and_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acid_rain_and_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Acid rain and pollution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acid_rain_and_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_environment_as_an_anthropogenic_biome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_environment_as_an_anthropogenic_biome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Urban environment as an anthropogenic biome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_environment_as_an_anthropogenic_biome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biodiversity_and_urbanization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity_and_urbanization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Biodiversity and urbanization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biodiversity_and_urbanization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biodiversity and urbanization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity_and_urbanization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Changes_in_diversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_in_diversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Changes in diversity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_in_diversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cause_of_diversity_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cause_of_diversity_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Cause of diversity change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cause_of_diversity_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ways_to_improve_urban_ecology:_civil_engineering_and_sustainability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ways_to_improve_urban_ecology:_civil_engineering_and_sustainability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Ways to improve urban ecology: civil engineering and sustainability</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ways_to_improve_urban_ecology:_civil_engineering_and_sustainability-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ways to improve urban ecology: civil engineering and sustainability subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ways_to_improve_urban_ecology:_civil_engineering_and_sustainability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Need_for_remediation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Need_for_remediation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Need for remediation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Need_for_remediation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Species_reintroduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Species_reintroduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Species reintroduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Species_reintroduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sustainability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sustainability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Sustainability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sustainability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Green_Infrastructure_Implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Green_Infrastructure_Implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.1</span> <span>Green Infrastructure Implementation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Green_Infrastructure_Implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_green_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_green_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Urban green space</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_green_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indigenous_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indigenous_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Indigenous knowledge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indigenous_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Summary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Summary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Summary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Summary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="علم البيئة الحضري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم البيئة الحضري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbana_ekologija" title="Urbana ekologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Urbana ekologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/By%C3%B8kologi" title="Byøkologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Byøkologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadt%C3%B6kologie" title="Stadtökologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Stadtökologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linna%C3%B6koloogia" title="Linnaökoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Linnaökoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolog%C3%ADa_urbana" title="Ecología urbana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ecología urbana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urba_ekologio" title="Urba ekologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Urba ekologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiri_ekologia" title="Hiri ekologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hiri ekologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="بوم‌شناسی شهری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بوم‌شناسی شهری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cologie_urbaine" title="Écologie urbaine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Écologie urbaine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%84%EC%8B%9C%EC%83%9D%ED%83%9C%ED%95%99" title="도시생태학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="도시생태학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A2%D5%B8%D5%A7%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Ուրբոէկոլոգիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ուրբոէկոլոգիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia_urbana_e_sociale" title="Ecologia urbana e sociale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ecologia urbana e sociale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadsecologie" title="Stadsecologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Stadsecologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%83%BD%E5%B8%82%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="都市生態学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="都市生態学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/By%C3%B8kologi" title="Byøkologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Byøkologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%9A%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A_%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="ښاري چاپېريالپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ښاري چاپېريالپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologia_miasta" title="Ekologia miasta – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ekologia miasta" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia_urbana" title="Ecologia urbana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ecologia urbana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologie_urban%C4%83" title="Ecologie urbană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ecologie urbană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Экология города – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Экология города" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbana_ekologija" title="Urbana ekologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Urbana ekologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaupunkiekologia" title="Kaupunkiekologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kaupunkiekologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Urban_Ecology_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban Ecology (journal)">Urban Ecology (journal)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Central_Park_from_Rock.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Central_Park_from_Rock.jpg/260px-Central_Park_from_Rock.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Central_Park_from_Rock.jpg/390px-Central_Park_from_Rock.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Central_Park_from_Rock.jpg/520px-Central_Park_from_Rock.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Central_Park" title="Central Park">Central Park</a> represents an ecosystem fragment within a larger urban environment.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Urban ecology</b> is the scientific study of the relation of living organisms with each other and their surroundings in an <a href="/wiki/Urban_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban environment">urban environment</a>. An urban environment refers to environments dominated by <a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">high-density</a> residential and commercial buildings, <a href="/wiki/Impervious_surface" title="Impervious surface">paved surfaces</a>, and other urban-related factors that create a unique landscape. The goal of urban ecology is to achieve a balance between human culture and the natural environment.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urban ecology is a recent field of study compared to ecology.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently, most of the information in this field is based on the easier to study species of mammals and birds [source needed]. To close the gap in knowledge, attention should be paid to all species in the urban space like insects and fish [says who?]. This study should also expand to suburban spaces with its unique mix of development and surrounding nature.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The methods and studies of urban ecology is a subset of ecology. The study of urban ecology carries increasing importance because more than 50% of the world's population today lives in urban areas.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also estimated that within the next 40 years, two-thirds of the world's population will be living in expanding urban centers.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ecological processes in the urban environment are comparable to those outside the urban context. However, the types of urban <a href="/wiki/Habitats" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitats">habitats</a> and the species that inhabit them are poorly documented which is why more research should be done in urban ecology. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_d%27Eau_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Plan_d%27Eau_2.jpg/260px-Plan_d%27Eau_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Plan_d%27Eau_2.jpg/390px-Plan_d%27Eau_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Plan_d%27Eau_2.jpg/520px-Plan_d%27Eau_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>The creation of an important stream water garden in <a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a>'s centre during the early 1970s was one of the materializations of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Pelt" title="Jean-Marie Pelt">Jean-Marie Pelt</a>'s works on urban ecology.</figcaption></figure> <p>Historically, ecology has focused on natural environments, but by the 1970s many ecologists began to turn their interest towards ecological interactions taking place in and caused by urban environments. In the nineteenth century, naturalists such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustin_Pyramus_de_Candolle" title="Augustin Pyramus de Candolle">De Candolle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Lyell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a> found that competition for resources was crucial in controlling population growth and is a driver of extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept was the basis of evolutionary ecology. <a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Pelt" title="Jean-Marie Pelt">Jean-Marie Pelt</a>'s 1977 book <i>The Re-Naturalized Human</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brian Davis' 1978 publication <i>Urbanization and the diversity of insects</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Sukopp et al.'s 1979 article "The soil, flora and vegetation of Berlin's wastelands"<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are some of the first publications to recognize the importance of urban ecology as a separate and distinct form of ecology the same way one might see <a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">landscape ecology</a> as different from <a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">population ecology</a>. Forman and Godron's 1986 book <i>Landscape Ecology</i> first distinguished urban settings and landscapes from other landscapes by dividing all landscapes into five broad types. These types were divided by the intensity of human influence ranging from pristine <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">natural environments</a> to <a href="/wiki/Urban_centers" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban centers">urban centers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This is the book review. This is not the book. (December 2022)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Early ecologists defined ecology as the study of organisms and their environment. As time progressed urban ecology was recognized as a diverse and complex concept which differs in application between North America and Europe. The European concept of urban ecology examines the <a href="/wiki/Biota_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Biota (ecology)">biota</a> of urban areas, the North American concept has traditionally examined the social sciences of the urban landscape,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the ecosystem fluxes and processes,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Latin American concept examines the effect of human activity on the biodiversity and fluxes of urban ecosystems. A renaissance in the development of urban ecology occurred in the 1990s that was initiated by the US National Science in funding two urban long-term ecological research centers and this promoted the study of urban ecology.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The field of urban ecology is rapidly expanding, with an increasing number of dedicated research centers emerging. Among the pioneers are the Urban Ecology Research Laboratory (UERL) at the University of Washington, established in 2001, and the Urban Ecology Laboratory (LEU) at the Costa Rican Distance University, founded in 2008. The UERL in Washington specializes in analyzing urban landscape patterns, ecosystem functions, modeling land cover changes, and developing scenarios for urban adaptation within the state. In contrast, Costa Rica's LEU holds distinction as the world's first research center exclusively devoted to studying tropical urban ecosystems. Research conducted there spans various facets of urban ecology, including biodiversity, the impacts of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> on cities and their surrounding areas (particularly tropical highlands), and the intricate interactions between human activities and urban environments.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since urban ecology is a subfield of ecology, many of the techniques are similar to that of ecology. Ecological study techniques have been developed over centuries, but many of the techniques use for urban ecology are more recently developed. Methods used for studying urban ecology involve chemical and biochemical techniques, temperature recording, heat mapping <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a>, and long-term ecological research sites. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_and_biochemical_techniques">Chemical and biochemical techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Chemical and biochemical techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution_measurement" title="Air pollution measurement">Air pollution measurement</a></div> <p>Chemical techniques may be used to determine <a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">pollutant</a> concentrations and their effects. Tests can be as simple as dipping a manufactured test strip, as in the case of pH testing, or be more complex, as in the case of examining the spatial and temporal variation of <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_contamination" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metal contamination">heavy metal contamination</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Industrial_runoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial runoff">industrial runoff</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that particular study, livers of birds from many regions of the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> were ground up and <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> was extracted. Additionally, mercury bound in feathers was extracted from both live birds and from museum specimens to test for mercury levels across many decades. Through these two different measurements, researchers were able to make a complex picture of the spread of mercury due to industrial runoff both spatially and temporally. </p><p>Other chemical techniques include tests for <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfates</a>, etc. which are commonly associated with urban <a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">pollutants</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a> and industrial byproducts. These biochemical fluxes are studied in the atmosphere (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a>), <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">aquatic ecosystems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_nematode" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil nematode">soil nematodes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-grim2008_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grim2008-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Broad reaching effects of these biochemical fluxes can be seen in various aspects of both the urban and surrounding rural ecosystems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature_data_and_heat_mapping">Temperature data and heat mapping</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Temperature data and heat mapping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">Temperature</a> data can be used for various kinds of studies. An important aspect of temperature data is the ability to correlate temperature with various factors that may be affecting or occurring in the environment. Oftentimes, temperature data is collected long-term by the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Research" title="Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research">Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research</a> (OAR), and made available to the scientific community through the <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA).<sup id="cite_ref-Gallo_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallo-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Data can be overlaid with maps of terrain, urban features, and other spatial areas to create heat maps. These heat maps can be used to view trends and distribution over time and space.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallo_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallo-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Roth_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roth-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remote_sensing">Remote sensing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Remote sensing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boston_forest_cover_460.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of urban tree canopy in Boston. Remote sensing allows collection of data using sources including satellites." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Boston_forest_cover_460.gif/260px-Boston_forest_cover_460.gif" decoding="async" width="260" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Boston_forest_cover_460.gif/390px-Boston_forest_cover_460.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Boston_forest_cover_460.gif 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="332" /></a><figcaption>Urban tree canopy in Boston. <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a> allows collection of data using sources including <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a> is the technique in which data is collected from distant locations through the use of satellite imaging, <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, and aerial photographs. In urban ecology, remote sensing is used to collect data about terrain, weather patterns, light, and vegetation. One application of remote sensing for urban ecology is to detect the productivity of an area by measuring the photosynthetic wavelengths of emitted light.<sup id="cite_ref-Schochat_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schochat-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Satellite images can also be used to detect differences in temperature and landscape diversity to detect the effects of urbanization.<sup id="cite_ref-Roth_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roth-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="LTERs_and_long-term_data_sets">LTERs and long-term data sets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: LTERs and long-term data sets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Long_Term_Ecological_Research_Network" title="Long Term Ecological Research Network">Long-term ecological research</a> (LTER) sites are research sites funded by the government that have collected reliable long-term data over an extended period of time in order to identify long-term climatic or ecological trends. These sites provide long-term temporal and spatial data such as average temperature, rainfall and other ecological processes. The main purpose of LTERs for urban ecologists is the collection of vast amounts of data over long periods of time. These long-term data sets can then be analyzed to find trends relating to the effects of the urban environment on various ecological processes, such as species diversity and abundance over time.<sup id="cite_ref-Schochat_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schochat-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example is the examination of temperature trends that are accompanied with the growth of urban centers.<sup id="cite_ref-brazel_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brazel-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are currently two active urban LTERs: Central Arizona-Phoenix (CAP), first launched in 1997 and housed at <a href="/wiki/Arizona_State_University" title="Arizona State University">Arizona State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area (MSP).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Baltimore Ecosystem Study (BES) was originally funded in 1998 as an urban LTER but as is no longer funded by the National Science Foundation as of 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Urban_effects_on_the_environment">Urban effects on the environment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Urban effects on the environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Humans are the driving force behind urban ecology and influence the environment in a variety of ways - urbanization being a key example. Urbanization is tied to social, economic and environmental processes. There are six core aspects: air pollution, ecosystems, land use, biogeochemical cycles, water pollution, solid waste management, and the climate. Urbanization was driven by migration into cities and the rapid environmental implications that came with it; increased carbon emissions, energy consumption, impaired ecology; all primarily negative. Despite the impacts, the perception of urbanization at present is shifting from challenges to solutions. Cities are home to an abundant amount of financially well-off, knowledgeable and innovative initiators who are increasing the involvement of science in urban policy processes and concepts. The intersection of the multiple processes/integrated systems approach which can easily emerge within a city, includes five characteristics that can emphasize this fundamental shift at a low cost. These solutions are integrated, comprehensive, multifunctional approaches that speak to the social, economic, and cultural contexts of cities. They take into account the chemical, biophysical, and ecological aspects that define urban systems, including lifestyle choices that are interlinked with the culture of a city. However, despite adapting the opportunities that a city can participate in, the results of the concepts that researchers have developed remains uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modification_of_land_and_waterways">Modification of land and waterways</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Modification of land and waterways"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph from space showing deforestation in Europe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg/260px-Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg/390px-Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg/520px-Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5568" data-file-height="3712" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Humans place high demand on land not only to build urban centers, but also to build surrounding suburban areas for housing. Land is also allocated for agriculture to sustain the growing population of the city. Expanding cities and suburban areas necessitate corresponding deforestation to meet the land-use and resource requirements of urbanization. Key examples of this are <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_United_States" title="Deforestation in the United States">Deforestation in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rudel_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rudel-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Along with manipulation of land to suit human needs, natural water resources such as rivers and streams are also modified in urban establishments. Modification can come in the form of dams, artificial canals, and even the reversal of rivers. Reversing the flow of the Chicago River is a major example of urban environmental modification.<sup id="cite_ref-Hill_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urban areas in natural desert settings often bring in water from far areas to maintain the human population and will likely have effects on the local desert climate.<sup id="cite_ref-Schochat_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schochat-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modification of aquatic systems in urban areas also results in decreased stream diversity and increased pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-Paul_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paul-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade,_shipping,_and_spread_of_invasive_species"><span id="Trade.2C_shipping.2C_and_spread_of_invasive_species"></span>Trade, shipping, and spread of invasive species</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Trade, shipping, and spread of invasive species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clyde_shipping.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A ship in the Firth of Clyde, potentially carrying invasive species" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Clyde_shipping.jpg/260px-Clyde_shipping.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Clyde_shipping.jpg/390px-Clyde_shipping.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Clyde_shipping.jpg/520px-Clyde_shipping.jpg 2x" data-file-width="935" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption>Potentially carrying invasive species through the <a href="/wiki/Firth_of_Clyde" title="Firth of Clyde">Firth of Clyde</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kudzu_on_trees_in_Atlanta,_Georgia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Kudzu vines smothering trees in Atlanta" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kudzu_on_trees_in_Atlanta%2C_Georgia.jpg/260px-Kudzu_on_trees_in_Atlanta%2C_Georgia.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kudzu_on_trees_in_Atlanta%2C_Georgia.jpg/390px-Kudzu_on_trees_in_Atlanta%2C_Georgia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kudzu_on_trees_in_Atlanta%2C_Georgia.jpg/520px-Kudzu_on_trees_in_Atlanta%2C_Georgia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="1242" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kudzu" title="Kudzu">Kudzu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Both local shipping and long-distance trade are required to meet the resource demands important in maintaining urban areas. <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a> emissions from the transport of goods also contribute to accumulating greenhouse gasses and nutrient deposits in the soil and air of urban environments. In addition, shipping facilitates the unintentional spread of living organisms, and introduces them to environments that they would not naturally inhabit. Introduced or <a href="/wiki/Alien_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Alien species">alien species</a> are populations of organisms living in a range in which they did not naturally evolve due to intentional or inadvertent human activity. Increased transportation between urban centers furthers the incidental movement of animal and plant species. Alien species often have no natural predators and pose a substantial threat to the dynamics of existing ecological populations in the environment into which they are introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> are successful when they are able to have proliferate reproduction due to short life cycles, contain or adapt to have traits that suit the environment and appear in high densities.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such invasive species are numerous and include <a href="/wiki/House_sparrow" title="House sparrow">house sparrows</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ring-necked_pheasant" class="mw-redirect" title="Ring-necked pheasant">ring-necked pheasants</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_starling" class="mw-redirect" title="European starling">European starlings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brown_rat" title="Brown rat">brown rats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asian_carp" title="Asian carp">Asian carp</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_bullfrog" title="American bullfrog">American bullfrogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emerald_ash_borer" title="Emerald ash borer">emerald ash borer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kudzu" title="Kudzu">kudzu</a> vines, and <a href="/wiki/Zebra_mussels" class="mw-redirect" title="Zebra mussels">zebra mussels</a> among numerous others, most notably domesticated animals. Brown rats are a highly invasive species in urban environments, and are commonly seen in the streets and subways of New York City, where they pose multiple negative effects to infrastructure, native species and human health.<sup id="cite_ref-Combs_83–98_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Combs_83–98-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brown rats carry several types of parasites and pathogens that can possibly infect humans and other animals.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">In New York City</a> a genetic study exploring genome wide variation concluded that multiple rats were originally from Great Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-Combs_83–98_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Combs_83–98-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Australia, it has been found that removing Lantana (<i><a href="/wiki/Lantana_camara" title="Lantana camara">L. camara</a>,</i> an alien species) from <a href="/wiki/Urban_green_space" title="Urban green space">urban green spaces</a> can have negative impacts on bird diversity locally, as it provides refugia for species like the superb fairy (<a href="/wiki/Superb_fairywren" title="Superb fairywren">Malurus cyaneus</a>) and silvereye (<a href="/wiki/Silvereye" title="Silvereye">Zosterops lateralis</a>), in the absence of native plant equivalents. Although, there seems to be a density threshold in which too much <a href="/wiki/Lantana" title="Lantana">Lantana</a> (thus homogeneity in vegetation cover) can lead to a decrease in bird species richness or abundance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_urban_animals_on_humans">Effects of urban animals on humans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Effects of urban animals on humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Positive_effects">Positive effects</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Positive effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some urban animals can have a positive impact on the lives of humans. Studies show that the presence of domestic animals can reduce stress, anxiety and loneliness. Additionally some urban animals act as predators to animals like insects, etc., that can be harmful to humans<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also urban species can serve many more purposes including agriculture, transport, and protection. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Negative_effects">Negative effects</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Negative effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some urban species have a negative impact on humans. For example, pests' urine fecal matter, and skin fragments can spread germs if ingested by humans<sup id="cite_ref-:122_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:122-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diseases caused by pests or insects can be fatal. They include: <a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">salmonella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leptospirosis" title="Leptospirosis">Weil's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-:122_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:122-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some people are allergic to certain insects like bees, wasps and therefore being exposed to them will cause serious allergic responses (rashes for example). </p><p>According to Seth Magle, attacks from wildlife in an urban setting, while rare are detrimental to societal views on wildlife. Due to media coverage of these rare attacks, urban populations assume these interactions as more common than they really are which further affects the tolerance of urban wildlife.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_effects_on_biogeochemical_pathways">Human effects on biogeochemical pathways</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Human effects on biogeochemical pathways"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urbanization results in a large demand for chemical use by industry, construction, agriculture, and energy providing services. Such demands have a substantial impact on <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycles" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogeochemical cycles">biogeochemical cycles</a>, resulting in phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-grim2008_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grim2008-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, natural biogeochemical cycles in the urban environment can be impeded due to impermeable surfaces that prevent nutrients from returning to the soil, water, and atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaye_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaye-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg/220px-Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg/330px-Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg/440px-Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Demand for fertilizers to meet agricultural needs exerted by expanding urban centers can alter chemical composition of soil. Such effects often result in abnormally high concentrations of compounds including sulfur, phosphorus, nitrogen, and heavy metals. In addition, nitrogen and phosphorus used in fertilizers have caused severe problems in the form of <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">agricultural runoff</a>, which alters the concentration of these compounds in local rivers and streams, often resulting in adverse effects on native species.<sup id="cite_ref-Roach_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roach-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A well-known effect of agricultural runoff is the phenomenon of eutrophication. When the fertilizer chemicals from agricultural runoff reach the ocean, an <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algal bloom</a> results, then rapidly dies off.<sup id="cite_ref-Roach_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roach-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dead algae biomass is decomposed by bacteria that also consume large quantities of oxygen, which they obtain from the water, creating a "dead zone" without oxygen for fish or other organisms. A classic example is the dead zone in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> due to agricultural runoff into the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>. </p><p>Just as pollutants and alterations in the biogeochemical cycle alter river and ocean ecosystems, they exert likewise effects in the air. Some stems from the accumulation of chemicals and pollution and often manifests in urban settings, which has a great impact on local plants and animals. Because urban centers are often considered point sources for pollution, local plants have adapted to withstand such conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-grim2008_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grim2008-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Urban_effects_on_climate">Urban effects on climate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Urban effects on climate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urban environments and outlying areas have been found to exhibit unique local temperatures, <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a>, and other characteristic activity due to a variety of factors such as pollution and altered geochemical cycles. Some examples of the urban effects on climate are <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">urban heat island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oasis_effect" title="Oasis effect">oasis effect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gases">greenhouse gases</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>. This further stirs the debate as to whether urban areas should be considered a unique <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a>. Despite common trends among all urban centers, the surrounding local environment heavily influences much of the climate. One such example of regional differences can be seen through the urban heat island and oasis effect.<sup id="cite_ref-brazel_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brazel-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_heat_island_effect">Urban heat island effect</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Urban heat island effect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Temperature_inversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperature inversion">Temperature inversion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:HeatIsland_Kanto_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Rising temperature in Kanto due to urban heat island" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/HeatIsland_Kanto_en.png/260px-HeatIsland_Kanto_en.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/HeatIsland_Kanto_en.png/390px-HeatIsland_Kanto_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/HeatIsland_Kanto_en.png/520px-HeatIsland_Kanto_en.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">urban heat island</a> is a phenomenon in which central regions of urban centers exhibit higher mean temperatures than surrounding urban areas.<sup id="cite_ref-bornstein2000_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bornstein2000-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of this effect can be attributed to low city <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a>, the reflecting power of a surface, and the increased surface area of buildings to absorb solar radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-brazel_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brazel-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">Concrete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a>, and metal surfaces in urban areas tend to absorb heat energy rather than reflect it, contributing to higher urban temperatures. Brazel et al.<sup id="cite_ref-brazel_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brazel-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found that the urban heat island effect demonstrates a positive correlation with population density in the city of Baltimore. The heat island effect has corresponding ecological consequences on resident species.<sup id="cite_ref-grim2008_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grim2008-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this effect has only been seen in <a href="/wiki/Temperate_climates" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate climates">temperate climates</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greenhouse_gases">Greenhouse gases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Greenhouse gases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emissions of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> allow humans to inhabit the earth because they capture heat from the sun to make the climate adequate. In 1896, Swedish scientist <a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a> established that fossil fuels caused carbon dioxide emissions (the most abundant and harmful greenhouse gas) .<sup id="cite_ref-:023_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:023-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 20th century, American climate scientist <a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James E. Hansen</a> concluded that Greenhouse effect is changing the climate for the worse.<sup id="cite_ref-:023_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:023-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carbon dioxide is the most abundant greenhouse gas and accounts for 3/4 of emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-:023_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:023-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is emitted by burning coal, oil, gas, wood, and other organic material. Another greenhouse gas is methane. it can come from landfill, natural gases, and or petroleum industries. Nitrous oxide accounts for about 6% of the emissions, and can come from fertilizers, manure, burning of agricultural residues, and or fuel.<sup id="cite_ref-:023_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:023-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, fluorinated gases account for 2% of greenhouse gas emissions and can come from refrigerants, solvents, etc. The excessive emission of greenhouse gases is responsible for much of the harm that can be observed today including global warming, respiratory diseases due to pollution, extinction or migration of certain species, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-:023_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:023-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These issues can be reduced if not resolved by eliminating the use of fossil fuels in favor of renewable energy sources. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Emission_of_Greenhouse_Gases.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Emission_of_Greenhouse_Gases.jpg/220px-Emission_of_Greenhouse_Gases.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Emission_of_Greenhouse_Gases.jpg/330px-Emission_of_Greenhouse_Gases.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Emission_of_Greenhouse_Gases.jpg/440px-Emission_of_Greenhouse_Gases.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1505" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Smokestacks from a wartime production plant releasing pollutants into the atmosphere" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg/260px-Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg/390px-Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg/520px-Alfred_Palmer_Smokestacks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1548" /></a><figcaption>Wartime industry</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acid_rain_and_pollution">Acid rain and pollution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Acid rain and pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Processes related to urban areas result in the emission of numerous pollutants, which change corresponding <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">nutrient cycles</a> of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, and other elements.<sup id="cite_ref-Lohse_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lohse-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ecosystems in and around the urban center are especially influenced by these point sources of pollution. High <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> concentrations resulting from the industrial demands of urbanization cause <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">rainwater to become more acidic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Singh_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such an effect has been found to have a significant influence on locally affected populations, especially in aquatic environments.<sup id="cite_ref-Singh_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wastes from urban centers, especially large urban centers in developed nations, can drive biogeochemical cycles on a global scale.<sup id="cite_ref-grim2008_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grim2008-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_environment_as_an_anthropogenic_biome">Urban environment as an anthropogenic biome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Urban environment as an anthropogenic biome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The urban environment has been classified as an <a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_biome" title="Anthropogenic biome">anthropogenic biome</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ellis_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ellis-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is characterized by the predominance of certain species and climate trends such as urban heat island across many urban areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Niemela_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niemela-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Forman_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forman-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of species characteristic of many urban environments include, cats, dogs, mosquitoes, rats, flies, and pigeons, which are all <a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">generalists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilby_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilby-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these are dependent on human activity and have adapted accordingly to the niche created by urban centers. However, the large number of wild species being discovered in urban areas around the world suggest that a bewildering diversity of life is able to call urban areas their home. The relationship between urbanisation and wildlife diversity may not be as straightforward as previously imagined. This change in imagination has been possible due to coverage of a much larger number of cities in varied parts of the world that now show that past trends and assumptions were largely due to a bias in coverage of cities in temperate, developed countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biodiversity_and_urbanization">Biodiversity and urbanization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Biodiversity and urbanization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research in countries of temperate areas indicates that, on a small scale, <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> often increases the <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> of non-native species while reducing that of native species. This normally results in an overall reduction in <a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">species richness</a> and increase in total biomass and <a href="/wiki/Species_abundance" class="mw-redirect" title="Species abundance">species abundance</a>. Urbanization reduces diversity on a large scale in cities of developed countries, but in <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subtropics" title="Subtropics">subtropical</a> cities, despite the high human densities, can retain very high diversity if small patches of habitats are retained across the city.<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even domestic urban and suburban properties near high density city centres can support well over a thousand macro-organism species, many of which are often native.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These urban landscapes can also support many complex ecosystem interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, urbanization disrupts many other species interactions that would occur in undeveloped natural habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Urban_Stream_Syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban Stream Syndrome">Urban stream syndrome</a> is a consistently observed trait of urbanization characterized by high nutrient and contaminant concentration, altered stream morphology, increased dominance of dominant species, and <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_biodiversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of biodiversity">decreased biodiversity</a><sup id="cite_ref-Paul_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paul-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Walsh_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walsh-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two primary causes of urban stream syndrome are <a href="/wiki/Storm_water_runoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm water runoff">storm water runoff</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment" title="Wastewater treatment">wastewater treatment</a> plant effluent.<sup id="cite_ref-grim2008_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grim2008-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Walsh_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walsh-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changes_in_diversity">Changes in diversity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Changes in diversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Diversity is normally reduced at intermediate-low levels of urbanization but is always reduced at high levels of urbanization. These effects have been observed in vertebrates and invertebrates while plant species tend to increase with intermediate-low levels of urbanization<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney23_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney23-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marzluff2_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marzluff2-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but these general trends do not apply to all organisms within those groups. For example, McKinney's (2006)<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney23_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney23-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> review did not include the effects of urbanization on fishes and of the 58 studies on invertebrates, 52 included insects while only 10 included spiders. There is also a geographical bias as most of the studies either took place in North America or Europe. </p><p>The effects of urbanization also depend on the type and range of resources used by the organism.<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney4_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney4-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Devictor2_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Devictor2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grimm23_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grimm23-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generalist species, those that use a wide range of resources and can thrive under a large range of living conditions, are likely to survive in uniform environments. <a href="/wiki/Specialist_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialist species">Specialist species</a>, those that use a narrow range of resources and can only cope with a narrow range of living conditions, are unlikely to cope with uniform environments.<sup id="cite_ref-Devictor2_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Devictor2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There will likely be a variable effect on these two groups of organisms as urbanization alters habitat uniformity.<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney23_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney23-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Endangered plant species have been reported to occur throughout a wide range of urban ecosystems, many of them being novel ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-Planchuelo2_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Planchuelo2-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A study of 463 bird species reported that urban species share dietary traits. Specifically, urban species were larger, consumed more vertebrates and <a href="/wiki/Carrion" title="Carrion">carrion</a>, and fed more frequently on the ground or aerially, and also had broader diets than non‐urban species.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cause_of_diversity_change">Cause of diversity change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cause of diversity change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The urban environment can decrease diversity through <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat removal</a> and species homogenization—the increasing similarity between two previously distinct biological communities. <a href="/wiki/Habitat_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat degradation">Habitat degradation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">habitat fragmentation</a><sup id="cite_ref-Grimm23_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grimm23-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reduces the amount of suitable habitat by urban development and separates suitable patches by inhospitable terrain such as <a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">roads</a>, neighborhoods, and open parks.<sup id="cite_ref-Reed22_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reed22-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although this replacement of suitable habitat with unsuitable habitat will result in <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinctions</a> of native species, some shelter may be artificially created and promote the survival of non-native species (e.g. <a href="/wiki/House_sparrow" title="House sparrow">house sparrow</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_mice" class="mw-redirect" title="House mice">house mice</a> nests).<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney4_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney4-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urbanization promotes species homogenization through the extinction of native <a href="/wiki/Endemic_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic species">endemic species</a> and the introduction of non-native species that already have a widespread abundance.<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney4_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney4-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Changes to the habitat may promote both the extinction of native endemic species and the introduction of non-native species.<sup id="cite_ref-Rahel2_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rahel2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effects of habitat change will likely be similar in all urban environments as urban environments are all built to cater to the needs of humans.<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney4_55-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney4-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wildlife in cities are more susceptible to suffering ill effects from exposure to toxicants (such as heavy metals and pesticides).<sup id="cite_ref-:322_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:322-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In China, fish that were exposed to industrial wastewater had poorer body condition; being exposed to toxicants can increase susceptibility to infection.<sup id="cite_ref-:322_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:322-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humans have the potential to induce patchy food distribution, which can promote animal aggregation by attracting a high number of animals to common food sources; “this aggregation may increase the spread of <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasites</a> transmitted through close contact; parasite deposition on soil, water, or artificial feeders; and stress through inter‐ and intraspecific competition.”<sup id="cite_ref-:322_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:322-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The results of a study performed by Maureen Murray (et al.), in which a phylogenetic meta-analysis of 516 comparisons of overall wildlife condition reported in 106 studies was performed, confirmed these results; “our <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta‐analysis</a> suggests an overall negative relationship between urbanization and wildlife health, mainly driven by considerably higher toxicant loads and greater parasite abundance, greater parasite diversity, and/or greater likelihood of infection by parasites transmitted through close contact.”<sup id="cite_ref-:322_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:322-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The urban environment can also increase diversity in a number of ways. Many foreign organisms are introduced and dispersed naturally or artificially in urban areas. Artificial introductions may be intentional, where organisms have some form of human use, or accidental, where organisms attach themselves to <a href="/wiki/Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation">transportation</a> vehicles.<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney4_55-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney4-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humans provide food sources (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Birdfeeder" class="mw-redirect" title="Birdfeeder">birdfeeder</a> seeds, trash, garden <a href="/wiki/Compost" title="Compost">compost</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney23_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney23-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and reduce the numbers of large natural <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predators</a> in urban environments,<sup id="cite_ref-Grimm23_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grimm23-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allowing large populations to be supported where food and predation would normally limit the population size. There are a variety of different habitats available within the urban environment as a result of differences in land use<sup id="cite_ref-McKinney23_53-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinney23-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allowing for more species to be supported than by more uniform habitats. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ways_to_improve_urban_ecology:_civil_engineering_and_sustainability">Ways to improve urban ecology: civil engineering and sustainability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ways to improve urban ecology: civil engineering and sustainability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></div> <p>Cities should be planned and constructed in such a way that minimizes the urban effects on the surrounding environment (urban heat island, precipitation, etc.) as well as optimizing ecological activity. For example, increasing the <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a>, or reflective power, of surfaces in urban areas, can minimize urban heat island,<sup id="cite_ref-Rosenfeld_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenfeld-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rosenfeld2_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenfeld2-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> resulting in a lower magnitude of the urban heat island effect in urban areas. By minimizing these abnormal temperature trends and others, ecological activity would likely be improved in the urban setting.<sup id="cite_ref-Niemela_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niemela-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Felson_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Felson-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Need_for_remediation">Need for remediation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Need for remediation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">Environmental remediation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Urbanization_in_Shibuya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Urbanization_in_Shibuya.jpg/220px-Urbanization_in_Shibuya.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Urbanization_in_Shibuya.jpg/330px-Urbanization_in_Shibuya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Urbanization_in_Shibuya.jpg/440px-Urbanization_in_Shibuya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> taking place in <a href="/wiki/Shibuya" title="Shibuya">Shibuya</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Urbanization has indeed had a profound effect on the environment, on both local and global scales. Difficulties in actively constructing <a href="/wiki/Habitat_corridor" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat corridor">habitat corridors</a> and returning <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">biogeochemical cycles</a> to normal raise the question as to whether such goals are feasible. However, some groups are working to return areas of land affected by the urban landscape to a more natural state.<sup id="cite_ref-Blum_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blum-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes using landscape architecture to model natural systems and restore rivers to pre-urban states.<sup id="cite_ref-Blum_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blum-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is becoming increasingly critical that conservation action be enacted within urban landscapes. Space in cities is limited; urban infill threatens the existence of <a href="/wiki/Urban_open_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban open space">green spaces</a>. Green spaces that are in close proximity to cities are also vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a>. It is common that urban development comes at the cost of valuable land that could host wildlife species. Natural and financial resources are limited; a larger focus must be placed on conservation opportunities that factor in feasibility and maximization of expected benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-:06_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:06-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the securing of land as a <a href="/wiki/Protected_area" title="Protected area">protected area</a> is a luxury that cannot be extensively implemented, alternative approaches must be explored in order to prevent mass extinction of species.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Borgström et al. 2006 hold that urban ecosystems are especially prone to "scale mismatch" whereby the right course of action is heavily dependent on species size. For some species conservation can be achieved in a single isolated garden because their small size permits a large population, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Soil_microorganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil microorganism">soil microorganisms</a>. Meanwhile, that is the wrong scale for species that are more mobile and/or larger, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seed_disperser" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed disperser">seed dispersers</a>, which will require larger and/or connected spaces.<sup id="cite_ref-Goddard-et-al-2010_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goddard-et-al-2010-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The need to pursue conservation outcomes in urban environments is most pronounced for species whose global distribution is contained within a human-modified landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fact is that many threatened wildlife species are prevalent among land types that were not originally intended for conservation.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of Australia's 39 urban-restricted threatened species, 11 species occur at roadsides, 10 species occur in private lands, 5 species occur in military lands, 4 species in schools, 4 species in golf courses, 4 species at utility easements (such as railways), 3 species at airports and 1 species at hospitals.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spiked rice flower species <a href="/wiki/Pimelea_spicata" title="Pimelea spicata">Pimelea spicata</a> persists mainly at a golf course, while the guinea-flower hibbertia puberula glabrescens is known mainly from the grounds of an airport.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unconventional landscapes as such are the ones that must be prioritized. The goal in the management of these areas is to bring about a “win-win” situation where conservation efforts are practiced while not compromising the original use of the space. While being near to large human populations can pose risks to endangered species inhabiting urban environments, such closeness can prove to be an advantage as long as the human community is conscious and engaged in local conservation efforts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Species_reintroduction">Species reintroduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Species reintroduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reintroduction of species to urban settings can help improve the local biodiversity previously lost; however the following guidelines should be followed in order to avoid undesired effects.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>No <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predators</a> capable of killing children will be reintroduced to urban areas.</li> <li>There will be no introduction of species that significantly threaten human health, pets, crops or property.</li> <li>Reintroduction will not be done when it implies significant suffering to the organisms being reintroduced, for example stress from capture or captivity.</li> <li>Organisms that carry <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a> will not be reintroduced.</li> <li>Organisms whose genes threaten the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_pool" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic pool">genetic pool</a> of other organisms in the urban area will not be reintroduced.</li> <li>Organisms will only be reintroduced when scientific data support a reasonable chance of long-term survival (if funds are insufficient for the long-term effort, reintroduction will not be attempted).</li> <li>Reintroduced organisms will receive <a href="/wiki/Food_supplement" class="mw-redirect" title="Food supplement">food supplementation</a> and veterinary assistance as needed.</li> <li>Reintroduction will be done in both experimental and control areas to produce reliable assessments (monitoring must continue afterwards to trigger interventions if necessary).</li> <li>Reintroduction must be done in several places and repeated over several years to buffer for <a href="/wiki/Stochastic_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Stochastic event">stochastic events</a>.</li> <li>People in the areas affected must participate in the decision process, and will receive education to make reintroduction sustainable (but final decisions must be based on objective information gathered according to scientific standards).</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sustainability">Sustainability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Sustainability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biogas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Biogas.jpg/260px-Biogas.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Biogas.jpg/390px-Biogas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Biogas.jpg/520px-Biogas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2046" data-file-height="1389" /></a><figcaption>Pipes carrying biogas produced by anaerobic digestion or fermentation of biodegradable materials as a form of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a></figcaption></figure> <p>With the ever-increasing <a href="/wiki/Resource_demand" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource demand">demands for resources</a> necessitated by urbanization, recent campaigns to move toward <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">sustainable energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Resource_consumption" title="Resource consumption">resource consumption</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/LEED_certification" class="mw-redirect" title="LEED certification">LEED certification</a> of buildings, <a href="/wiki/Energy_Star" title="Energy Star">Energy Star</a> certified appliances, and <a href="/wiki/Zero_emission" title="Zero emission">zero emission</a> vehicles, have gained momentum. <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a> reflects techniques and consumption ensuring reasonably low resource use as a component of urban ecology. Techniques such as carbon recapture may also be used to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_Sequestration" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon Sequestration">sequester</a> carbon compounds produced in urban centers rather continually emitting more of the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nowak_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nowak-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of other types of renewable energy like <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">bioenergy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermal energy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind energy</a> would also help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Green_Infrastructure_Implementation">Green Infrastructure Implementation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Green Infrastructure Implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urban areas can be converted to areas that are more conducive to hosting wildlife through the application of <a href="/wiki/Green_infrastructure" title="Green infrastructure">green infrastructure</a>. Although the opportunities of green infrastructure (GI) to benefit human populations have been recognized, there are also opportunities to conserve wildlife diversity. Green infrastructure has the potential to support wildlife robustness by providing a more suitable habitat than conventional, “grey” infrastructure as well as aid in stormwater management and air purification.<sup id="cite_ref-:06_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:06-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:23_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> GI can be defined as features that were engineered with natural elements or natural features.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This natural constitution helps prevent wildlife exposure to man-made toxicants.<sup id="cite_ref-:322_62-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:322-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although research on the benefits of GI on biodiversity has increased exponentially in the last decade, these effects have rarely been quantified. In a study performed by Alessandro Filazzola (et al.), 1,883 published manuscripts were examined and meta-analyzed in reference to 33 relevant studies in order to determine the effect of GI on wildlife. Although there was variability in the findings, it was determined that the implementation of GI improved <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> compared to conventional infrastructure.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, GI even preserved comparable measures of biodiversity to natural components.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_75-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_green_space">Urban green space</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Urban green space"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Urban_green_space" title="Urban green space">Urban green space</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Urban_green_space&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup_rewrite plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/40px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/60px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/80px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may need to be rewritten</b> to comply with Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit">You can help</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Talk:Urban_ecology" title="Talk:Urban ecology">talk page</a> may contain suggestions.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Utf%C3%A4rder_och_solbad_i_Kuppisparken_2011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Utf%C3%A4rder_och_solbad_i_Kuppisparken_2011.jpg/220px-Utf%C3%A4rder_och_solbad_i_Kuppisparken_2011.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Utf%C3%A4rder_och_solbad_i_Kuppisparken_2011.jpg/330px-Utf%C3%A4rder_och_solbad_i_Kuppisparken_2011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Utf%C3%A4rder_och_solbad_i_Kuppisparken_2011.jpg/440px-Utf%C3%A4rder_och_solbad_i_Kuppisparken_2011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kupittaa_Park&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kupittaa Park (page does not exist)">Kupittaa Park</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kupittaanpuisto" class="extiw" title="fi:Kupittaanpuisto">fi</a>]</span> (<i>Kupittaanpuisto</i>) is a large urban open space area in <a href="/wiki/Turku" title="Turku">Turku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southwest_Finland" title="Southwest Finland">Southwest Finland</a>. At the same time, it is also the largest and oldest park in <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_Asramam_Maidan,_Kollam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/View_of_Asramam_Maidan%2C_Kollam.jpg/220px-View_of_Asramam_Maidan%2C_Kollam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/View_of_Asramam_Maidan%2C_Kollam.jpg/330px-View_of_Asramam_Maidan%2C_Kollam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/View_of_Asramam_Maidan%2C_Kollam.jpg/440px-View_of_Asramam_Maidan%2C_Kollam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3834" data-file-height="2584" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Asramam_Maidan" title="Asramam Maidan">Asramam Maidan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Kollam</a> city, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. It is the largest open space available in any of the city limits in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> state.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WashingtonPark.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A grassy area with tall trees leaving shadows from the sun above. In the distance are small rowhouses, and a street is at the right." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/WashingtonPark.jpg/220px-WashingtonPark.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/WashingtonPark.jpg/330px-WashingtonPark.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/WashingtonPark.jpg/440px-WashingtonPark.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6923" data-file-height="2893" /></a><figcaption>Washington Park in <a href="/wiki/Troy,_New_York" title="Troy, New York">Troy, NY</a>, U.S, an example of privately owned urban open space.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land-use planning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urban_green_space" title="Urban green space">urban green space</a> is <a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">open-space</a> areas reserved for <a href="/wiki/Park" title="Park">parks</a> and other "green spaces", including <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant life</a>, water features — also referred to as <a href="/wiki/Blue_space" title="Blue space">blue spaces</a> — and other kinds of natural environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Urban_green_space_:5_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urban_green_space_:5-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most urban open spaces are green spaces, but occasionally include other kinds of open areas. The landscape of <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban</a> open spaces can range from <a href="/wiki/Playing_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Playing field">playing fields</a>, to highly maintained environments, to relatively <a href="/wiki/Natural_landscape" title="Natural landscape">natural landscapes</a>. </p><p>Generally considered open to the public, urban green spaces are sometimes privately owned, such as <a href="/wiki/Campus" title="Campus">higher education campuses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Community_gardening" title="Community gardening">neighborhood/community parks/gardens</a>, and institutional or corporate grounds. Areas outside city boundaries, such as <a href="/wiki/State_park" title="State park">state</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_park" title="National park">national parks</a> as well as open space in the countryside, are not considered urban open space. Streets, <a href="/wiki/Piazza" class="mw-redirect" title="Piazza">piazzas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plazas" class="mw-redirect" title="Plazas">plazas</a> and urban squares are not always defined as urban open space in land use planning. Urban green spaces have wide reaching positive impacts on the health of individuals and communities near the green space.<sup id="cite_ref-Urban_green_space_:5_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urban_green_space_:5-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urban greening policies are important for revitalizing <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">communities</a>, reducing financial burdens of healthcare and increasing quality of life. By promoting the development of parks, green roofs, and community gardens, these policies contribute to cleaner air, mitigate urban heat effects, and create spaces for recreation and social interaction. Most policies focus on community benefits, and reducing negative effects of urban development, such as <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">urban heat island</a> effect.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, access to green space has favored wealthier, and more privileged communities, thus recent focus in urban greening has increasingly focused on <a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</a> concerns, and community engagement in the greening process.<sup id="cite_ref-Urban_green_space_:6_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urban_green_space_:6-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, in cities with economic decline, such as the <a href="/wiki/Rust_Belt" title="Rust Belt">Rust Belt</a> in the United States, urban greening has broad community revitalization impacts.<sup id="cite_ref-Urban_green_space_:6_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urban_green_space_:6-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> Urban areas have greatly expanded, resulting in over half of the world's population being located in urban locations.<sup id="cite_ref-Urban_green_space_Kondo_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urban_green_space_Kondo-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the population continues to grow, this number is predicted to be at two-thirds of people living in urban areas by 2050.<sup id="cite_ref-Urban_green_space_Kondo_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urban_green_space_Kondo-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div><p>A barrier associated with finding the right amount of urban green space is the variety of space needed by different species to complete their life cycles. This is also compounded with the man-made barriers neighboring green spaces that can restrict movement of certain species from other urban green spaces located nearby.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Increasing Wildlife Habitat Connectivity</b> </p><p>The implementation of wildlife corridors throughout urban areas (and in between wildlife areas) would promote wildlife habitat <a href="/wiki/Landscape_connectivity" title="Landscape connectivity">connectivity</a>. Habitat connectivity is critical for ecosystem health and wildlife conservation yet is being compromised by increasing <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>. Urban development has caused green spaces to become increasingly <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">fragmented</a> and has caused adverse effects in genetic variation within species, population abundance and species richness. Urban green spaces that are linked by <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_corridor" title="Wildlife corridor">ecosystem corridors</a> have higher ecosystem health and resilience to global environmental change.<sup id="cite_ref-:06_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:06-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Employment of corridors can form an ecosystem network that facilitates movement and dispersal.<sup id="cite_ref-:06_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:06-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, planning these networks requires a comprehensive spatial plan. </p><p>One approach is to target “shrinking” cities (such as <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit, Michigan</a>, USA) that have an abundance of vacant lots and land that could be repurposed into greenways to provide <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a> (although even cities with growing populations typically have vacant land as well).<sup id="cite_ref-:06_67-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:06-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, even cities with high vacancy rates sometimes can present social and environmental challenges. For instance, vacant land that stands on <a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">polluted soils</a> may contain heavy metals or <a href="/wiki/Construction_waste" title="Construction waste">construction debris</a>; this must be addressed before the repurposing.<sup id="cite_ref-:06_67-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:06-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once land has been repurposed for ecosystem services, avenues must be pursued that could allow this land to contribute to structural or functional connectivity. </p><p>Structural connectivity refers to parts of the landscape that are physically connected.<sup id="cite_ref-:06_67-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:06-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Functional connectivity refers to species-specific tendencies that indicate interaction with other parts of the landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-:06_67-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:06-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout the City of Detroit, spatial patterns were detected that could promote structural connectivity.<sup id="cite_ref-:06_67-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:06-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The research performed by Zhang “integrates <a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">landscape ecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Graph_theory" title="Graph theory">graph theory</a>, spatial modeling, and <a href="/wiki/Landscape_design" title="Landscape design">landscape design</a> to develop a methodology for planning multifunctional green infrastructure that fosters social-ecological sustainability and resilience”.<sup id="cite_ref-:06_67-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:06-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using a functional connectivity index, there was found to be a high correlation between these results (structural and functional connectivity), suggesting that the two metrics could be indicators of each other and could guide green space planning.<sup id="cite_ref-:06_67-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:06-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although urban wildlife corridors could serve as a potential mitigation tool, it is important that they are constructed so as to facilitate wildlife movement without restriction. As humans may be perceived as a threat, the success of the corridors is dependent on human population density proximity to roads.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study performed by Tempe Adams (et al.), remote-sensor camera traps and data from GPS collars were utilized to assess whether or not the African elephant would use narrow urban wildlife corridors. The study was performed in three different urban-dominated land use types (in <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, South Africa) over a span of two years. </p><p>The results of the study indicated that elephants tended to move through unprotected areas more quickly, spending less time in those areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using vehicular traffic as a measure of human activity, the study indicated that elephant presence was higher during times when human activity was at a minimum.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was determined that “formal protection and designation of urban corridors by the relevant governing bodies would facilitate coexistence between people and wildlife at small spatial scales.”<sup id="cite_ref-:42_83-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the only way this co-existence could be feasible is by creating structural connectivity (and thus promoting functional connectivity) by implementing proper wildlife corridors that facilitate easy movement between habitat patches.<sup id="cite_ref-:06_67-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:06-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:42_83-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The usage of <a href="/wiki/Green_infrastructure" title="Green infrastructure">green infrastructure</a> that is connected to natural habitats has been shown to reap greater biodiversity benefits than GI implemented in areas far from natural habitats. GI close to natural areas may also increase functional connectivity in natural environments.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_75-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Roadkill Mitigation</b> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wild_turkeys_chase_a_police_car_in_Moorhead,_MN,_on_Monday,_Apr._29,_2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Wild_turkeys_chase_a_police_car_in_Moorhead%2C_MN%2C_on_Monday%2C_Apr._29%2C_2013.jpg/220px-Wild_turkeys_chase_a_police_car_in_Moorhead%2C_MN%2C_on_Monday%2C_Apr._29%2C_2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Wild_turkeys_chase_a_police_car_in_Moorhead%2C_MN%2C_on_Monday%2C_Apr._29%2C_2013.jpg/330px-Wild_turkeys_chase_a_police_car_in_Moorhead%2C_MN%2C_on_Monday%2C_Apr._29%2C_2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Wild_turkeys_chase_a_police_car_in_Moorhead%2C_MN%2C_on_Monday%2C_Apr._29%2C_2013.jpg/440px-Wild_turkeys_chase_a_police_car_in_Moorhead%2C_MN%2C_on_Monday%2C_Apr._29%2C_2013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2383" data-file-height="1420" /></a><figcaption>Turkeys on a <a href="/wiki/Moorhead,_Minnesota" title="Moorhead, Minnesota">Moorhead, Minnesota</a> road</figcaption></figure> <p>In the United States, <a href="/wiki/Roadkill" title="Roadkill">roadkill</a> takes the lives of hundreds of thousands to hundreds of millions of mammals, birds and amphibians each year.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roadkill mortality has detrimental effects on the persistence probability, abundance and genetic diversity of wildlife populations (more so than reduced movement through habitat patches).<sup id="cite_ref-:5_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roadkill also has an effect on driver safety.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If green areas cannot be reserved, the presence of wildlife habitats in close proximity to urban roads must be addressed. The optimal situation would be to avoid constructing roads next to these natural habitats, but other preventative measures can be pursued to reduce animal mortality. One way these effects could be mitigated is through implementation of wildlife fencing in prioritized areas. Many countries utilize underpasses and overpasses combined with wildlife fencing to reduce roadkill mortality in an attempt to restore habitat connectivity. It is unrealistic to try to fence entire road networks because of financial constraints. Therefore, areas in which the highest rates of mortality occur should be focused on.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_84-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indigenous_knowledge">Indigenous knowledge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Indigenous knowledge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urban sprawl is one of many ways that <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous people's</a> land is taken and developed in cities of the global north, thus the intimate knowledge of the native area (ecology) is often lost due to the effects of <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> or because the land has been majorly altered. Urban development occurs around areas where Indigenous Peoples lived as these areas are easy for transport and the natural environmental is fruitful. When developing areas of urban land, consideration should go towards the intimate levels of knowledge held by Indigenous Peoples and the <a href="/wiki/Biocultural_diversity" title="Biocultural diversity">biocultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_diversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic diversity">linguistic diversity</a> of the place.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urban ecology follows western science frameworks and compartmentalizes nature. Urban ecology has the opportunity to be viewed in an interconnected and holistic way, through "<a href="/wiki/Two-Eyed_Seeing" title="Two-Eyed Seeing">Two-Eyed Seeing</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and be inclusive of the <a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">Traditional Ecological Knowledge</a> held by the local Indigenous Peoples of the area. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Urban restoration ecology</a> would be enriched by partnerships with the local Indigenous Peoples, if done in a respectful way that addresses the currently inequitable relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-:023_40-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:023-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-indigenous people can support their local Indigenous communities by learning about the history of the land and ecosystems that is being restored or studied.<sup id="cite_ref-:023_40-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:023-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ecological_restoration" title="Ecological restoration">Ecological restoration</a> built with strong Indigenous partnerships benefits the Indigenous culture and identity, as well as all urban dwellers.<sup id="cite_ref-:023_40-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:023-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Summary">Summary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Summary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urbanization results in a series of both local and far-reaching effects on <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">biogeochemical cycles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, among other stresses. Many of these effects are not fully understood, as urban ecology has only recently emerged as a scientific discipline and more research remains to be done. Research on cities outside the US and Europe remains limited. Observations on the impact of urbanization on biodiversity and species interactions are consistent across many studies but definitive mechanisms have yet to be established. Urban ecology constitutes an important and highly relevant subfield of ecology, and further study must be pursued to more fully understand the effects of human urban areas on the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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of Sustainability">Circles of Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_track" title="Green track">Green track</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenway_(landscape)" title="Greenway (landscape)">Greenway (landscape)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest_inequity" title="Urban forest inequity">Urban forest inequity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest" title="Urban forest">Urban forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forestry" title="Urban forestry">Urban forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_green_space" title="Urban green space">Urban green space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_park" title="Urban park">Urban park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_studies" title="Urban studies">Urban studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_corridor" title="Wildlife corridor">Wildlife corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zebra_mussel" title="Zebra mussel">Zebra mussel</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_ecology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist 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title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Natural resource management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollution control">Pollution control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">Public transport encouragement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">Remediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">Road ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">Sewage treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_purification" title="Water purification">Water purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_degrees" title="List of environmental degrees">Degrees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_journals#Environmental_sciences" title="List of environmental journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_research_institutes" title="List of environmental research institutes">Research institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" title="Glossary of environmental science">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_environment" title="List of years in the environment">Environment by year</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technogaianism" title="Technogaianism">Technogaianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_science" title="Category:Environmental science">Category</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_scientists" title="Category:Environmental scientists">scientists</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Environmental sciences">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Environment" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Environment">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Environmental_social_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Environmental_social_science" title="Template:Environmental social science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Environmental_social_science" title="Template talk:Environmental social science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental_social_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental social science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Environmental_social_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Environmental communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environmental history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_politics" title="Environmental politics">Environmental politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_psychology" title="Environmental psychology">Environmental psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sustainable_development.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/150px-Sustainable_development.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/225px-Sustainable_development.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/300px-Sustainable_development.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="326" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li>Design <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_design" title="Ecological design">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">environmental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_humanities" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li>Economics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_economics" title="Energy economics">energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoeconomics" title="Thermoeconomics">thermo</a></li></ul></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobiology" title="Ethnobiology">Ethnobiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoecology" title="Ethnoecology">ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnozoology" title="Ethnozoology">zoology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Science, technology and society">Science, technology and society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">science studies</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sustainability <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_science" title="Sustainability science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_studies" title="Sustainability studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li>Urban <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_studies" title="Urban studies">studies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Architecture <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">sustainable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopsychology" title="Ecopsychology">Ecopsychology</a></li> <li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">environmental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_criminology" title="Green criminology">Green criminology</a></li> <li>Health <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_epidemiology" title="Environmental epidemiology">epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">occupational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public</a></li></ul></li> <li>Management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_resources_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental resources management">environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">waste</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning" title="Spatial planning">spatial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li>Policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy" title="Energy policy">energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy" title="Environmental policy">environmental</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_social_science" title="Category:Environmental social science">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_social_science_concepts" title="Category:Environmental social science concepts">Concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_degrees" title="List of environmental degrees">Degrees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_social_science_journals" title="List of environmental social science journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environment_research_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of environment research institutes">Research institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_social_scientists" title="Category:Environmental social scientists">Scholars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Industrial_ecology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#7FBF7F;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Industrial_ecology" title="Template:Industrial ecology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Industrial_ecology" title="Template talk:Industrial ecology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Industrial_ecology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Industrial ecology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Industrial_ecology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#7FBF7F;;width:1%">Tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model" title="Agent-based model">Agent-based model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">Cost–benefit analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DPSIR" title="DPSIR">DPSIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecolabel" title="Ecolabel">Ecolabel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_full-cost_accounting" title="Environmental full-cost accounting">Environmental full-cost accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_management_system" title="Environmental management system">Environmental management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EIO-LCA" title="EIO-LCA">EIO-LCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Input%E2%80%93output_model" title="Input–output model">Input–output model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_chain_management" title="Integrated chain management">Integrated chain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_14000" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 14000">ISO 14000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment" title="Life-cycle assessment">Life-cycle assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_cost_analysis" title="Life-cycle cost analysis">Life-cycle cost analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_flow_analysis" title="Material flow analysis">Material flow analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MET_Matrix" title="MET Matrix">MET Matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stakeholder_analysis" title="Stakeholder analysis">Stakeholder analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#7FBF7F;;width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">Circular economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cradle-to-cradle_design" title="Cradle-to-cradle design">Cradle-to-cradle design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-efficiency" title="Eco-efficiency">Eco-efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-industrial_development" title="Eco-industrial development">Eco-industrial development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-industrial_park" title="Eco-industrial park">Eco-industrial park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_modernization" title="Ecological modernization">Ecological modernization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exergy" title="Exergy">Exergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_producer_responsibility" title="Extended producer responsibility">Extended producer responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_metabolism" title="Industrial metabolism">Industrial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_symbiosis" title="Industrial symbiosis">Industrial symbiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">Polluter pays principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">Precautionary principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebound_effect_(conservation)" title="Rebound effect (conservation)">Rebound effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_hierarchy" title="Waste hierarchy">Waste hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_valorization" title="Waste valorization">Waste valorization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#7FBF7F;;width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_for_the_Environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Design for the Environment">Design for environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_systems_engineering_and_management" title="Earth systems engineering and management">Earth systems engineering and management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_modernization" title="Ecological modernization">Ecological modernization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Urban_planning" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Urban_Planning" title="Template:Urban Planning"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Urban_Planning" title="Template talk:Urban Planning"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Urban_Planning" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Urban Planning"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Urban_planning" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_planning" title="History of urban planning">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_urban_planning" title="Theories of urban planning">Theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_urban_planning_articles" title="Index of urban planning articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_urban_planning" title="Outline of urban planning">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">Urban area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City" title="City">City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">Metropolitan area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suburb" title="Suburb">Suburb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_and_zoning_commission" title="Planning and zoning commission">Planning and zoning commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_management" title="Growth management">Growth management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Urbanism_Day" title="World Urbanism Day">World Urbanism Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_market_area" title="Labor market area">Labor market area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major<br />branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">Land-use planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_planning" title="Comprehensive planning">Comprehensive planning</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_planning" title="History of urban planning">History of urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning" title="Spatial planning">Spatial planning</a> (Eur)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redevelopment" title="Redevelopment">Redevelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_design" title="Urban design">Urban design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_green_space" title="Urban green space">Urban green space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanism" title="Urbanism">Urbanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Rural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_development" title="Conservation development">Conservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preservation_development" title="Preservation development">Preservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_housing" title="Rural housing">Rural housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Village_design_statement" title="Village design statement">Village design statement</a> (UK)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">Regional planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Planning_Association_of_America" title="Regional Planning Association of America">Regional Planning Association of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">Environmental planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">Environmental design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreation_resource_planning" title="Recreation resource planning">Recreation resource planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Transportation_planning" title="Transportation planning">Transportation planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_forecasting" title="Transportation forecasting">Transportation forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trip_distribution" title="Trip distribution">Trip distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_planning_model" title="Rational planning model">Rational planning model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit-oriented_development" title="Transit-oriented development">Transit-oriented development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_transportation_planner" title="Professional transportation planner">Professional transportation planner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_freight_distribution" title="Urban freight distribution">Urban freight distribution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_economic_development" title="Community economic development">Community economic development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts/ <br />theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athens_Charter" title="Athens Charter">Athens Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car-free_movement" title="Car-free movement">Car-free movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_Beautiful_movement" title="City Beautiful movement">City Beautiful movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark-sky_movement" title="Dark-sky movement">Dark-sky movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_city_movement" title="Garden city movement">Garden city movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_planning" title="Indigenous planning">Indigenous planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIMBY" title="NIMBY">NIMBY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_movement" title="Settlement movement">Settlement movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">Smart growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(architecture)" title="Structuralism (architecture)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_towns" class="mw-redirect" title="Transition towns">Transition towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIMBY_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="YIMBY movement">YIMBY</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_urban_planning" title="Theories of urban planning">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborative planning">Collaborative planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Context theory">Context theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekistics" title="Ekistics">Ekistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Intelligent_Urbanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of Intelligent Urbanism">Intelligent urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livable_streets" class="mw-redirect" title="Livable streets">Livable streets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_urbanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Market urbanism">Market urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical planning">Radical planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_renewal" title="Urban renewal">Urban renewal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Cities_by_type" title="Category:Cities by type">Cities by type</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Company_town" title="Company town">Company town</a> / <a href="/wiki/Monotown" title="Monotown">Monotown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commuter_town" title="Commuter town">Commuter town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_town" title="Ghost town">Ghost town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_city" title="Global city">Global city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_community" title="Mining community">Mining community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pit_village" title="Pit village">Pit village</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_camp" title="Man camp">Man camp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logging_camp" title="Logging camp">Logging camp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_village" title="Model village">Model village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_community" title="Planned community">Planned community</a> (New town)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_community" title="Intentional community">Intentional community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcology" title="Arcology">Arcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_village" title="Urban village">Urban village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomtown" title="Boomtown">Boomtown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing" title="Affordable housing">Affordable housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">Cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_development" title="Cluster development">Cluster development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complete_Communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Complete Communities">Complete Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation community">Conservation community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_city" title="Creative city">Creative city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtering_(housing)" title="Filtering (housing)">Filtering (housing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentrification" title="Gentrification">Gentrification</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brusselization" title="Brusselization">Brusselization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infill" title="Infill">Infill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_city" title="Healthy city">Healthy cities</a> / <a href="/wiki/Healthy_community_design" title="Healthy community design">Healthy community design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LEED-ND" class="mw-redirect" title="LEED-ND">LEED-ND</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrog_development" title="Leapfrog development">Leapfrog development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-use_development" title="Mixed-use development">Mixed-use development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_Cities_Program" title="Model Cities Program">Model cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(spatial_and_transport_planning)" title="Permeability (spatial and transport planning)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placemaking" title="Placemaking">Placemaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_gain" title="Planning gain">Planning gain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_Permission" class="mw-redirect" title="Planning Permission">Planning Permission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_flight" title="Rural flight">Rural flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_use" title="Temporary use">Temporary use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_place" title="Third place">Third place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tract_housing" title="Tract housing">Tract housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transferable_development_rights" title="Transferable development rights">Transferable development rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_decay" title="Urban decay">Urban decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_growth_boundary" title="Urban growth boundary">Urban growth boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">Urban sprawl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peri-urbanisation" title="Peri-urbanisation">Peri-urbanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_vitality" title="Urban vitality">Urban vitality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verticalization" title="Verticalization">Verticalization</a> / <a href="/wiki/High-rise" class="mw-redirect" title="High-rise">High-rise urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">Zoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Urban_planner" title="Urban planner">Theorists/<br />practitioners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Duany" title="Andrés Duany">Andrés Duany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Perry" title="Clarence Perry">Clarence Perry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Stein" title="Clarence Stein">Clarence Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Buchanan_(town_planner)" title="Colin Buchanan (town planner)">Colin Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Burnham" title="Daniel Burnham">Daniel Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Appleyard" title="Donald Appleyard">Donald Appleyard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Howard" title="Ebenezer Howard">Ebenezer Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Bacon_(architect)" title="Edmund Bacon (architect)">Edmund Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Benveniste" title="Guy Benveniste">Guy Benveniste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_McHarg" title="Ian McHarg">Ian McHarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rouse" title="James Rouse">James Rouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantinos_Apostolos_Doxiadis" class="mw-redirect" title="Konstantinos Apostolos Doxiadis">Konstantinos Doxiadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_A._Lynch" title="Kevin A. Lynch">Kevin A. Lynch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loretta_Lees" title="Loretta Lees">Loretta Lees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Calthorpe" title="Peter Calthorpe">Peter Calthorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Geddes" title="Patrick Geddes">Patrick Geddes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Unwin" title="Raymond Unwin">Raymond Unwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Adams_(architect)" title="Thomas Adams (architect)">Thomas Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_theorists" title="List of urban theorists">List of urban theorists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_planners" title="List of urban planners">List of urban planners</a></li></ul> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Farrelly" title="Elizabeth Farrelly">Elizabeth Farrelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Jacobs" title="Jane Jacobs">Jane Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Howard_Kunstler" title="James Howard Kunstler">James Howard Kunstler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Mumford" title="Lewis Mumford">Lewis Mumford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randal_O%27Toole" title="Randal O'Toole">Randal O'Toole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_education" title="Urban planning education">Planning education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planning_Accreditation_Board" title="Planning Accreditation Board">Planning Accreditation Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_real_estate_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate real estate education">Real estate education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Professional_planning_institutes" title="Category:Professional planning institutes">Professional organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Australia" title="Urban planning in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_China" title="Urban planning in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Urban planning in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Russia" title="Urban planning in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning_in_Serbia" title="Spatial planning in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Singapore" title="Urban planning in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_and_country_planning_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Town and country planning in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Barcelona" title="Urban planning of Barcelona">Barcelona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Shanghai" title="Urban planning of Shanghai">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Sydney" title="Urban planning of Sydney">Sydney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Africa" title="Urban planning in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_communist_countries" title="Urban planning in communist countries">Communist countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Urban planning in Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br />disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development economics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">Land development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_spatial_planning" title="Marine spatial planning">Marine spatial planning </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_development" title="Real estate development">Real estate development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">Social sciences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/28px-COL-city_icon.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/42px-COL-city_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/56px-COL-city_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Cities" title="Portal:Cities">Cities portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Urban_planning" title="Category:Urban planning">Category</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planned_cities" title="List of planned cities">List of planned cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planning_journals" title="List of planning journals">List of planning journals</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_resources" title="Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_resources" title="Template talk:Natural resources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_resources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_resources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Pollution / quality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">Ambient standards <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airshed" title="Airshed">Airshed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Deforestation (REDD)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy resources">Resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuels</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_coal" title="Peak coal">peak coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_gas" title="Peak gas">peak gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shade_(shadow)" title="Shade (shadow)">shade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">Land</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_land" title="Agricultural land">Agricultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_farmland" title="Peak farmland">peak farmland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(agriculture)" title="Field (agriculture)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">Landscape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seascape" title="Seascape">seascape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundscape" title="Soundscape">soundscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewshed" title="Viewshed">viewshed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law" title="Land law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">habitat conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_mineral" title="Industrial mineral">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mining_law" title="Mining law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">sand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">peak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_copper" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak copper">copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_phosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak phosphorus">phosphorus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">reserve</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushfood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushfood">Bushfood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">Fisheries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber products</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">Game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">Meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant Treaty">FAO Plant Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_bank" title="Gene bank">gene banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism" title="List of plants used in herbalism">herbal medicines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPOV" class="mw-redirect" title="UPOV">UPOV Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland" title="Rangeland">Rangeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Types / location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer_storage_and_recovery" title="Aquifer storage and recovery">storage and recovery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">Fresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">remediation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">bergs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">huerta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_resources" title="Marine resources">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">harvesting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">reclaimed water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Watershed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">Leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">improved</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_efficiency" title="Water efficiency">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_water" title="Peak water">Peak water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_privatization" title="Water privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">improved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">Exploitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_management" title="Adaptive management">adaptive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">Natural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital_accounting" title="Natural capital accounting">accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_good" title="Environmental good">good</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_heritage" title="Natural heritage">Natural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">Nature reserve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remnant_natural_area" title="Remnant natural area">remnant natural area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">Resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict <span style="font-size:85%;">(perpetuation)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_curse" title="Resource curse">Curse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource extraction">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_nationalism" title="Resource nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">Renewable</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_resources" title="Category:Natural resources">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_ecology" style="border-spacing:0.2em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_ecology" title="Template:Branches of ecology"><abbr title="View this 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title="Quantitative ecology">Quantitative ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_scale" title="Spatial scale">Spatial scale</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microecology" title="Microecology">Microecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Organisation</a> or scope</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autecology" title="Autecology">Autecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synecology" 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phenomena#Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">Ecological phenomena</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behavioral ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_ecology" title="Chemical ecology">Chemical ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_ecology" title="Disease ecology">Disease ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecophysiology" title="Ecophysiology">Ecophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotoxicology" title="Ecotoxicology">Ecotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ecology" title="Fire ecology">Fire ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_ecology" 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