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id="toc-Fragmentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecosystem_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecosystem_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Ecosystem function </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecosystem_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Community_assembly" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Community_assembly"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Community assembly </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Community_assembly-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Population genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Applications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Applications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Leaf_litter_accumulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leaf_litter_accumulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Leaf litter accumulation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leaf_litter_accumulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soil_heterogeneity_effects_on_community_heterogeneity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soil_heterogeneity_effects_on_community_heterogeneity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Soil heterogeneity effects on community heterogeneity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soil_heterogeneity_effects_on_community_heterogeneity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invasion_and_restoration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasion_and_restoration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Invasion and restoration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasion_and_restoration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Successional_trajectories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Successional_trajectories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Successional trajectories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Successional_trajectories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sourcing_land_for_restoration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sourcing_land_for_restoration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Sourcing land for restoration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sourcing_land_for_restoration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sourcing_material_for_restoration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sourcing_material_for_restoration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Sourcing material for restoration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sourcing_material_for_restoration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Challenges </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Challenges-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Challenges subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Challenges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Science–practice_gap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science–practice_gap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Science–practice gap </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science–practice_gap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_security_and_nature_degradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_security_and_nature_degradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Food security and nature degradation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_security_and_nature_degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restoration_as_a_substitute_for_steep_emission_reductions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restoration_as_a_substitute_for_steep_emission_reductions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Restoration as a substitute for steep emission reductions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restoration_as_a_substitute_for_steep_emission_reductions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contrasting_restoration_ecology_and_conservation_biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contrasting_restoration_ecology_and_conservation_biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Contrasting restoration ecology and conservation biology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contrasting_restoration_ecology_and_conservation_biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_Principles_&_Standards_for_the_Practice_of_Ecological_Restoration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Principles_&_Standards_for_the_Practice_of_Ecological_Restoration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 International Principles & Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Principles_&_Standards_for_the_Practice_of_Ecological_Restoration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implementation_by_country/region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implementation_by_country/region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Implementation by country/region </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Implementation_by_country/region-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Implementation by country/region subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Implementation_by_country/region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-European_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 European Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-US" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#US"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 US </div> </a> <ul id="toc-US-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 United Kingdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Natural_Capital_Committee's_recommendation_for_a_25-year_plan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_Capital_Committee's_recommendation_for_a_25-year_plan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4.1 Natural Capital Committee's recommendation for a 25-year plan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_Capital_Committee's_recommendation_for_a_25-year_plan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traditional_ecological_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_ecological_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Traditional ecological knowledge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_ecological_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Related journals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ecological restoration</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" > 20 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%85_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="ترميم بيئي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ترميم بيئي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia_de_la_restauraci%C3%B3" title="Ecologia de la restauració – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ecologia de la restauració" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologie_obnovy" title="Ekologie obnovy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ekologie obnovy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaturierungs%C3%B6kologie" title="Renaturierungsökologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Renaturierungsökologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taastamis%C3%B6koloogia" title="Taastamisökoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Taastamisökoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Οικολογική αποκατάσταση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οικολογική αποκατάσταση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_restaurativa" title="Gestión restaurativa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gestión restaurativa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologia_resta%C5%ADro" title="Ekologia restaŭro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ekologia restaŭro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errestaurazio_ekologiko" title="Errestaurazio ekologiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Errestaurazio ekologiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="بوم‌شناسی بازسازی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بوم‌شناسی بازسازی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restauration_%C3%A9cologique" title="Restauration écologique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Restauration écologique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemulihan_lingkungan" title="Pemulihan lingkungan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemulihan lingkungan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemulihan_ekologi" title="Pemulihan ekologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pemulihan ekologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%BD%D3%A9%D1%85%D3%A9%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8D%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Экологийн нөхөн сэргээлт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Экологийн нөхөн сэргээлт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natuurherstel" title="Natuurherstel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Natuurherstel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BE%A9%E5%85%83%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="復元生態学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="復元生態学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_(%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0)" title="Ремедијација (животна средина) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ремедијација (животна средина)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturrestaurering" title="Naturrestaurering – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Naturrestaurering" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Екологія відновлення – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Екологія відновлення" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BE%A9%E8%82%B2%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="復育生態學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="復育生態學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2428433#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage 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noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Scientific study of renewing and restoring ecosystems</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wetland_restoration_in_Australia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Wetland_restoration_in_Australia.jpg/300px-Wetland_restoration_in_Australia.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Wetland_restoration_in_Australia.jpg/450px-Wetland_restoration_in_Australia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Wetland_restoration_in_Australia.jpg/600px-Wetland_restoration_in_Australia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Recently constructed <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland</a> regeneration in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, on a site previously used for agriculture</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johnson_creek_pasture_reclamation_P2222.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Johnson_creek_pasture_reclamation_P2222.jpg/300px-Johnson_creek_pasture_reclamation_P2222.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Johnson_creek_pasture_reclamation_P2222.jpg/450px-Johnson_creek_pasture_reclamation_P2222.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Johnson_creek_pasture_reclamation_P2222.jpg/600px-Johnson_creek_pasture_reclamation_P2222.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Rehabilitation of a portion of <a href="/wiki/Johnson_Creek_(Willamette_River)" class="mw-redirect" title="Johnson Creek (Willamette River)">Johnson Creek</a>, to restore <a href="/wiki/Bioswale" title="Bioswale">bioswale</a> and flood control functions of the land which had long been converted to pasture for cow grazing. The horizontal logs can float, but are anchored by the posts. Newly planted trees will eventually stabilize the soil. The fallen trees with roots jutting into the stream are intended to enhance wildlife habitat.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sankey_diagram_for_the_evolution_of_keywords_used_in_restoration_papers_over_time_-_facets-2022-0157_f4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Sankey_diagram_for_the_evolution_of_keywords_used_in_restoration_papers_over_time_-_facets-2022-0157_f4.jpg/300px-Sankey_diagram_for_the_evolution_of_keywords_used_in_restoration_papers_over_time_-_facets-2022-0157_f4.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Sankey_diagram_for_the_evolution_of_keywords_used_in_restoration_papers_over_time_-_facets-2022-0157_f4.jpg/450px-Sankey_diagram_for_the_evolution_of_keywords_used_in_restoration_papers_over_time_-_facets-2022-0157_f4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Sankey_diagram_for_the_evolution_of_keywords_used_in_restoration_papers_over_time_-_facets-2022-0157_f4.jpg/600px-Sankey_diagram_for_the_evolution_of_keywords_used_in_restoration_papers_over_time_-_facets-2022-0157_f4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1507" data-file-height="637" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sankey_diagram" title="Sankey diagram">Sankey diagram</a> for the evolution of keywords used in publications about ecological restoration in Canada over time</figcaption></figure> Ecological restoration, or ecosystem restoration, is the process of assisting the recovery of an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> that has been degraded, damaged, destroyed<a href="#cite_note-:8-1">[1]</a> or transformed.<a href="#cite_note-:15-2">[2]</a> It is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">conservation</a> in that it attempts to retroactively repair already damaged ecosystems rather than take preventative measures.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Ecological restoration can reverse <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> loss, combat <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, support the provision of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a> and support local economies.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> has named 2021-2030 the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Habitat restoration involves the deliberate rehabilitation of a specific area to reestablish a functional ecosystem. This may differ from historical baselines (the ecosystem's original condition at a particular point in time).<a href="#cite_note-:16-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:17-8">[8]</a> To achieve successful habitat restoration, it is essential to understand the life cycles and interactions of species, as well as the essential elements such as food, water, nutrients, space, and shelter needed to support species populations. Scientists estimate that the current species extinction rate, or the rate of the <a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a>, is 1,000 to 10,000 times higher than the normal, background rate.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Habitat_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss">Habitat loss</a> is a leading cause of species extinctions<a href="#cite_note-:5-11">[11]</a> and ecosystem service decline.<a href="#cite_note-:6-12">[12]</a> Two methods have been identified to slow the rate of species extinction and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem service</a> decline: <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation</a> of quality habitat and restoration of degraded habitat. The number and size of ecological restoration projects have increased exponentially in recent years.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Restoration goals reflect political choices, and differ by place and culture.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> On a global level, the concept of <a href="/wiki/Nature-positive" title="Nature-positive">nature-positive</a> has emerged as a societal goal to achieve full nature recovery by 2050, including through restoration of degraded ecosystems to reverse <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Ecological_Restoration" title="Society for Ecological Restoration">Society for Ecological Restoration</a> defines restoration as "the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed."<a href="#cite_note-:8-1">[1]</a> Restoration ecology is the academic study of the science of restoration, whereas ecological restoration is the implementation by practitioners.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Ecological restoration includes a wide diversity of methods including <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> control, <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a>, removal of <a href="/wiki/Non-native_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-native species">non-native species</a> and weeds, <a href="/wiki/Revegetation" title="Revegetation">revegetation</a> of disturbed areas, <a href="/wiki/Daylighting_(streams)" title="Daylighting (streams)">daylighting streams</a>, the reintroduction of <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">native species</a>, habitat and range improvement for targeted species<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> and establishing <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_corridor" title="Wildlife corridor">wildlife corridors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Many scholars and practitioners argue that ecological restoration must include local communities and stakeholders: they call this process the "social-ecological restoration".<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The goal of ecosystem restoration depends on the specific context of each location. Traditionally, the aim has been to return ecosystems to a past state (historic baseline), based on the idea that past conditions represent a 'pristine' or ideal functioning state.<a href="#cite_note-:15-2">[2]</a> However, this approach is now questioned because human-driven environmental changes, including climate change, continuously alter ecosystems, resulting in a <a href="/wiki/Shifting_baseline" title="Shifting baseline">shifting baseline</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:17-8">[8]</a> Today, it’s widely recognized that there may be several possible targets for restoration, based on a range of factors.<a href="#cite_note-:16-7">[7]</a> Targets are set based on factors such as the level of ecosystem degredation, how much ecosystem functionality can realistically be restored, local community views, and the costs of restoration efforts.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rationale">Rationale</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Rationale">edit</a>]</div> There are many reasons to restore ecosystems. Some include:<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <ul><li>Restoring <a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">natural capital</a> such as drinkable water or wildlife populations</li> <li>Restoring <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a></li> <li>Helping human communities and the ecosystems upon which they depend adapt to the impacts of climate change (through <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">ecosystem-based adaptation</a>)</li> <li>Mitigating <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> (e.g. through <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>)<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></li> <li>Helping threatened or <a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">endangered species</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></li> <li>Aesthetic reasons<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></li> <li>Moral reasons: human intervention has unnaturally destroyed many habitats, and there exists an innate obligation to restore these destroyed habitats</li> <li>Regulated use/harvest, particularly for subsistence<a href="#cite_note-:132-30">[30]</a></li> <li>Cultural importance to indigenous people<a href="#cite_note-:132-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></li> <li>The environmental health of nearby populations <a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Restoration_in_action_at_Buffelsdraai.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Buffelsdraai Community Reforestation Project." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Restoration_in_action_at_Buffelsdraai.jpg/250px-Restoration_in_action_at_Buffelsdraai.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Restoration_in_action_at_Buffelsdraai.jpg/375px-Restoration_in_action_at_Buffelsdraai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Restoration_in_action_at_Buffelsdraai.jpg/500px-Restoration_in_action_at_Buffelsdraai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3775" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>Forest restoration in action at the <a href="/wiki/Buffelsdraai_Landfill_Site_Community_Reforestation_Project" title="Buffelsdraai Landfill Site Community Reforestation Project">Buffelsdraai Landfill Site Community Reforestation Project</a> in South Africa</figcaption></figure> There are considerable differences of opinion on how to set restoration goals and define their success.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> As Laura J. Martin writes, "Restoration targets are moral and political matters as well as logistical and scientific ones."<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Some restorationists urge active restoration (e.g. killing invasive animals) and others believe that protected areas should have the bare minimum of human interference, such as <a href="/wiki/Rewilding_(conservation_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rewilding (conservation biology)">rewilding</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Young_Trees_Planted_to_Restore_a_Damaged_Ecosystem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Young_Trees_Planted_to_Restore_a_Damaged_Ecosystem.jpg/220px-Young_Trees_Planted_to_Restore_a_Damaged_Ecosystem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Young_Trees_Planted_to_Restore_a_Damaged_Ecosystem.jpg/330px-Young_Trees_Planted_to_Restore_a_Damaged_Ecosystem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Young_Trees_Planted_to_Restore_a_Damaged_Ecosystem.jpg/440px-Young_Trees_Planted_to_Restore_a_Damaged_Ecosystem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Young Trees Planted to Restore a Damaged Ecosystem</figcaption></figure> Skeptics doubt that the benefits justify the economic investment or point to failed restoration projects and question the feasibility of restoration altogether. It can be difficult to set restoration goals because, as Anthony Bradshaw writes, "ecosystems are not static, but in a state of dynamic equilibrium."<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Some scientists argue that, though an ecosystem may not be returned to its original state, the functions of a "<a href="/wiki/Novel_ecosystem" title="Novel ecosystem">novel ecosystem</a>" are still valuable.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Ecosystem restoration can <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigate climate change</a> through activities such as <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a>. However, afforestation can have negative impacts on biodiversity especially when considering <a href="/wiki/Tree_planting" title="Tree planting">tree-planting</a> initiatives in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">tropical savannas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The impacts of afforestation on water supply and quality are also debated and vary by region, climate and age of afforestation projects.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Forestry-based <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsetting" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon offsetting">carbon offsetting</a> is controversial and sometimes critiqued as carbon colonialism.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Another driver of restoration projects in the United States is the legal framework of the <a href="/wiki/Clean_Water_Act" title="Clean Water Act">Clean Water Act</a>, which often requires mitigation for damage inflicted on aquatic systems by development or other activities.<a href="#cite_note-auto-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_foundations">Theoretical foundations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Theoretical foundations">edit</a>]</div> Ecological restoration draws on a wide range of ecological concepts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disturbance">Disturbance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Disturbance">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a> is a change in environmental conditions that disrupt the functioning of an ecosystem. Disturbance can occur at a variety of spatial and temporal scales, and is a natural component of many communities.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> For example, many forest and grassland restorations implement <a href="/wiki/Fire_ecology" title="Fire ecology">fire as a natural disturbance regime</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> However the severity and scope of anthropogenic impact has grown in the last few centuries. Differentiating between human-caused and naturally occurring disturbances is important if we are to understand how to restore natural processes and minimize <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic</a> impacts on the ecosystems. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Succession">Succession</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Succession">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a> is the process by which a community changes over time, especially following a disturbance. In many instances, an ecosystem will change from a simple level of organization with a few dominant <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_species" title="Pioneer species">pioneer species</a> to an increasingly complex community with many interdependent species. Restoration often consists of initiating, assisting, or accelerating ecological successional processes, depending on the severity of the disturbance.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Following mild to moderate natural and <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic</a> disturbances, restoration in these systems involves hastening natural successional trajectories through careful management. However, in a system that has experienced a more severe disturbance (such as in urban ecosystems), restoration may require intensive efforts to recreate environmental conditions that favor natural successional processes.<a href="#cite_note-wallace2017-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fragmentation">Fragmentation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fragmentation">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a> describes spatial discontinuities in a biological system, where ecosystems are broken up into smaller parts through land-use changes (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>) and natural disturbance. This both reduces the size of the population and increases the degree of isolation. These smaller and isolated populations tend to be more vulnerable to extinction. Fragmenting ecosystems decreases the quality of the habitat. The <a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">edge of a fragment</a> has a different range of environmental conditions and therefore supports different species than the interior. Restorative projects can increase the effective size of a population by adding suitable habitat and decrease isolation by creating <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_corridor" title="Wildlife corridor">habitat corridors</a> that link isolated fragments. Reversing the effects of fragmentation is an important component of restoration ecology.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-repairing1-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tracey-48">[48]</a> The composition of the surrounding landscape can also influence the effectiveness of restoration projects. For example, a restoration site that is closer to remaining vegetation will be more likely to be naturally regenerated through <a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">seed disperal</a> than a site that is further away.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecosystem_function">Ecosystem function</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ecosystem function">edit</a>]</div> Ecosystem function describes the most basic and essential foundational processes of any natural systems, including <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">nutrient cycles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">energy fluxes</a>. An understanding of the complexity of these ecosystem functions is necessary to address any ecological processes that may be degraded. Ecosystem functions are <a href="/wiki/Emergent_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergent properties">emergent properties</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">system as a whole</a>, thus monitoring and <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">management</a> are crucial for the long-term stability of ecosystems. A completely self-perpetuating and fully functional ecosystem is the ultimate goal of restorative efforts. We must understand what ecosystem properties influence others to restore desired functions and reach this goal.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Community_assembly">Community assembly</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Community assembly">edit</a>]</div> Community assembly "is a framework that can unify virtually all of <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">(community) ecology</a> under a single conceptual umbrella".<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Community assembly theory attempts to explain the existence of environmentally similar sites with differing assemblages of species. It assumes that species have similar <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a> requirements, so that community formation is a product of random fluctuations from a common <a href="/wiki/Species_pool" title="Species pool">species pool</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Essentially, if all species are fairly ecologically equivalent, then random variation in colonization, and migration and extinction rates between species, drive differences in <a href="/wiki/Species_composition" class="mw-redirect" title="Species composition">species composition</a> between sites with comparable environmental conditions.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_genetics">Population genetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Population genetics">edit</a>]</div> Genetic diversity has shown to be as important as species diversity for restoring ecosystem processes.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Hence ecological restorations are increasingly factoring genetic processes into management practices. Population genetic processes that are important to consider in restored populations include <a href="/wiki/Founder_effect" title="Founder effect">founder effects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding_depression" title="Inbreeding depression">inbreeding depression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Outbreeding_depression" title="Outbreeding depression">outbreeding depression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maladaptation" title="Maladaptation">maladaption</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">gene flow</a>. Such processes can predict whether or not a species successfully establishes at a restoration site.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leaf_litter_accumulation">Leaf litter accumulation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Leaf litter accumulation">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Leaf_litter" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaf litter">Leaf litter</a> accumulation plays an important role in the restoration process. Higher quantities of leaf litter hold higher humidity levels, a key factor for the establishment of plants. The process of accumulation depends on factors like wind and <a href="/wiki/Species_composition" class="mw-redirect" title="Species composition">species composition</a> of the forest. The leaf litter found in primary forests is more abundant, deeper, and holds more humidity than in secondary forests. These technical considerations are important to take into account when planning a restoration project.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soil_heterogeneity_effects_on_community_heterogeneity">Soil heterogeneity effects on community heterogeneity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Soil heterogeneity effects on community heterogeneity">edit</a>]</div> Spatial heterogeneity of resources can influence plant community composition, diversity, and assembly trajectory. Baer et al. (2005) manipulated <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> resource heterogeneity in a tallgrass <a href="/wiki/Prairie_restoration" title="Prairie restoration">prairie restoration</a> project. They found increasing resource heterogeneity, which on its own was insufficient to ensure <a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">species diversity</a> in situations where one species may dominate across the range of resource levels. Their findings were consistent with the theory regarding the role of ecological filters on community assembly. The establishment of a single species, <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">best adapted</a> to the physical and biological conditions can play an inordinately important role in determining the community structure.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasion_and_restoration">Invasion and restoration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Invasion and restoration">edit</a>]</div> Restoration is used as a tool for reducing the spread of invasive plant species many ways. The first method views restoration primarily as a means to reduce the presence of invasive species and limit their spread. As this approach emphasizes the control of invaders, the restoration techniques can differ from typical restoration projects.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-60">[60]</a> The goal of such projects is not necessarily to restore an entire ecosystem or habitat.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> These projects frequently use lower diversity mixes of aggressive native species seeded at high density.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> They are not always actively managed following seeding.<a href="#cite_note-:1-63">[63]</a> The target areas for this type of restoration are those which are heavily dominated by invasive species. The goals are to first remove the species and then in so doing, reduce the number of invasive seeds being spread to surrounding areas. An example of this is through the use of biological control agents (such as herbivorous insects) which suppress invasive weed species while restoration practitioners concurrently seed in native plant species that take advantage of the freed resources.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> These approaches have been shown to be effective in reducing weeds, although it is not always a sustainable solution long term without additional weed control, such as mowing, or re-seeding.<a href="#cite_note-:0-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Restoration projects are also used as a way to better understand what makes an ecological community resistant to invasion. As restoration projects have a broad range of implementation strategies and methods used to control invasive species, they can be used by ecologists to test theories about invasion.<a href="#cite_note-:1-63">[63]</a> Restoration projects have been used to understand how the diversity of the species introduced in the restoration affects invasion. We know that generally higher diversity prairies have lower levels of invasion.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The incorporation of functional ecology has shown that more functionally diverse restorations have lower levels of invasion.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Furthermore, studies have shown that using native species functionally similar to invasive species are better able to compete with invasive species.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Restoration ecologists have also used a variety of strategies employed at different restoration sites to better understand the most successful management techniques to control invasion.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> To develop restoration ecology into a full science and to improve its practice requires generalizations about the processes governing the development of restored communities. While new experiments can be designed, one way forward is to use data from existing restoration studies to relate plant species performance to their ecological trait.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Successional_trajectories">Successional trajectories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Successional trajectories">edit</a>]</div> Progress along a desired successional pathway may be difficult if multiple stable states exist. Looking over 40 years of wetland restoration data, Klötzli and Gootjans (2001) argue that unexpected and undesired vegetation assemblies "may indicate that environmental conditions are not suitable for target communities".<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Succession may move in unpredicted directions, but constricting environmental conditions within a narrow range may rein in the possible successional trajectories and increase the likelihood of the desired outcome.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-repairing-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sourcing_land_for_restoration">Sourcing land for restoration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sourcing land for restoration">edit</a>]</div> A study quantified <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> potentials of 'high-income' nations <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">shifting diets – away from meat-consumption</a> – and restoration of the spared land. They find that the hypothetical dietary change "could reduce annual agricultural production emissions of high-income nations' diets by 61% while sequestering as much as 98.3 (55.6–143.7) GtCO2 equivalent, equal to approximately 14 years of current global agricultural emissions until natural vegetation matures", outcomes they call "double climate dividend".<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sourcing_material_for_restoration">Sourcing material for restoration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sourcing material for restoration">edit</a>]</div> For most restoration projects it is generally recommended to source material from local populations, to increase the chance of restoration success and minimize the effects of <a href="/wiki/Maladaptation" title="Maladaptation">maladaptation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> However the definition of local can vary based on species, habitat and region.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> US Forest Service recently developed provisional seed zones based on a combination of minimum winter temperature zones, aridity, and the Level III ecoregions.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Rather than putting strict distance recommendations, other guidelines recommend sourcing seeds to match similar environmental conditions that the species is exposed to, either now, or under projected climate change. For example, sourcing for <a href="/wiki/Castilleja_levisecta" title="Castilleja levisecta">Castilleja levisecta</a> found that farther source populations that matched similar environmental variables were better suited for the restoration project than closer source populations.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Similarly, a suite of new methods are surveying <a href="/wiki/Gene%E2%80%93environment_interaction" title="Gene–environment interaction">gene-environment interactions</a> in order to identify the optimum source populations based on genetic adaptation to environmental conditions.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenges">Challenges</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Challenges">edit</a>]</div> Some view ecosystem restoration as impractical, partially because restorations often fall short of their goals. Hilderbrand et al. point out that many times uncertainty (about ecosystem functions, species relationships, and such) is not addressed, and that the time-scales set out for 'complete' restoration are unreasonably short, while other critical markers for full-scale restoration are either ignored or abridged due to feasibility concerns.<a href="#cite_note-:9-84">[84]</a> In other instances an ecosystem may be so degraded that abandonment (allowing a severely degraded ecosystem to recover on its own) may be the wisest option.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Local communities sometimes object to restorations that include the introduction of large predators or plants that require <a href="/wiki/Disturbance_regimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Disturbance regimes">disturbance regimes</a> such as regular fires, citing threat to human habitation in the area.<a href="#cite_note-:10-86">[86]</a> High economic costs can also be perceived as a negative impact of the restoration process.<figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Regenerated_habitat_for_superb_parrot_on_the_abandoned_Boorowa_railway_line.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Regenerated_habitat_for_superb_parrot_on_the_abandoned_Boorowa_railway_line.jpg/250px-Regenerated_habitat_for_superb_parrot_on_the_abandoned_Boorowa_railway_line.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Regenerated_habitat_for_superb_parrot_on_the_abandoned_Boorowa_railway_line.jpg/375px-Regenerated_habitat_for_superb_parrot_on_the_abandoned_Boorowa_railway_line.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Regenerated_habitat_for_superb_parrot_on_the_abandoned_Boorowa_railway_line.jpg/500px-Regenerated_habitat_for_superb_parrot_on_the_abandoned_Boorowa_railway_line.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Ecosystem restoration for the <a href="/wiki/Superb_parrot" title="Superb parrot">superb parrot</a> on an abandoned railway line in Australia</figcaption></figure> Public opinion is very important in the feasibility of a restoration; if the public believes that the costs of restoration outweigh the benefits they will not support it.<a href="#cite_note-:10-86">[86]</a> Many failures have occurred in past restoration projects, many times because clear goals were not set out as the aim of the restoration, or an incomplete understanding of the underlying ecological framework lead to insufficient measures. This may be because, as Peter Alpert says, "people may not [always] know how to manage natural systems effectively".<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Furthermore, many assumptions are made about myths of restoration such as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_copy" title="Carbon copy">carbon copy</a>, where a restoration plan, which worked in one area, is applied to another with the same results expected, but not realized.<a href="#cite_note-:9-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science–practice_gap">Science–practice gap</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Science–practice gap">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Restored_Prairie_at_the_West_Eugene_Wetlands_(8745659774).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Restored_Prairie_at_the_West_Eugene_Wetlands_%288745659774%29.jpg/252px-Restored_Prairie_at_the_West_Eugene_Wetlands_%288745659774%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="252" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Restored_Prairie_at_the_West_Eugene_Wetlands_%288745659774%29.jpg/378px-Restored_Prairie_at_the_West_Eugene_Wetlands_%288745659774%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Restored_Prairie_at_the_West_Eugene_Wetlands_%288745659774%29.jpg/504px-Restored_Prairie_at_the_West_Eugene_Wetlands_%288745659774%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1224" /></a><figcaption>Restored <a href="/wiki/Prairie" title="Prairie">prairie</a> at the West Eugene Wetlands in <a href="/wiki/Eugene,_Oregon" title="Eugene, Oregon">Eugene, Oregon</a> </figcaption></figure>One of the struggles for both fields is a divide between restoration ecology and ecological restoration in practice. Many restoration practitioners as well as scientists feel that science is not being adequately incorporated into ecological restoration projects.<a href="#cite_note-:2-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> In a 2009 survey of practitioners and scientists, the "science-practice gap" was listed as the second most commonly cited reason limiting the growth of both science and practice of restoration.<a href="#cite_note-:3-89">[89]</a> There are a variety of theories about the cause of this gap. However, it has been well established that one of the main issues is that the questions studied by restoration ecologists are frequently not found useful or easily applicable by land managers.<a href="#cite_note-:2-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-92">[92]</a> For instance, many publications in restoration ecology characterize the scope of a problem in-depth, without providing concrete solutions.<a href="#cite_note-:4-92">[92]</a> Additionally many restoration ecology studies are carried out under controlled conditions and frequently at scales much smaller than actual restorations.<a href="#cite_note-:1-63">[63]</a> Whether or not these patterns hold true in an applied context is often unknown. There is evidence that these small-scale experiments inflate type II error rates and differ from ecological patterns in actual restorations.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> One approach to addressing this gap has been the development of International Principles & Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration by the Society for Ecological restoration (see below) – however, this approach is contended, with scientists active in the field suggesting that this is restrictive, and instead principles and guidelines offer flexibility.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> There is further complication in that restoration ecologists who want to collect large-scale data on restoration projects can face enormous hurdles in obtaining the data. Managers vary in how much data they collect, and how many records they keep. Some agencies keep only a handful of physical copies of data that make it difficult for the researcher to access.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Many restoration projects are limited by time and money, so data collection and record-keeping are not always feasible.<a href="#cite_note-:3-89">[89]</a> However, this limits the ability of scientists to analyze restoration projects and give recommendations based on empirical data. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_security_and_nature_degradation">Food security and nature degradation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Food security and nature degradation">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> is a driver of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a>. However it is vital that ecosystem restoration efforts do not clash with increasing needs for food production.<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.oneear.2022.06.002-97">[97]</a> Restoration frameworks aim to assist policy decisions by minimizing trade-offs between ecological restoration and production<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> and evaluating the best use of land to balance carbon storage and food growing.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry">agroforestry</a> is increasing considered as a viable ecosystem restoration strategy, especially in countries with large agriculture footprints.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Restoration_as_a_substitute_for_steep_emission_reductions">Restoration as a substitute for steep emission reductions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Restoration as a substitute for steep emission reductions">edit</a>]</div> Climate benefits from nature restoration are "dwarfed by the scale of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">ongoing fossil fuel emissions</a>".<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.oneear.2022.06.002-97">[97]</a> It risks "over-relying on land for mitigation at the expense of phasing out fossil fuels". Despite these issues, nature restoration is receiving increasing attention, with a study concluding that "Land restoration is an important option for tackling climate change but cannot compensate for delays in reducing fossil fuel emissions" as it is "unlikely to be done quickly enough to notably reduce the global peak temperatures expected in the next few decades".<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.oneear.2022.06.002-97">[97]</a> Researchers have found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as the former leads to irreversible effects in terms of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil degradation">soil degradation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may have been substantially underestimated until around 2019.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Additionally, the effects of af- or reforestation will be farther in the future than keeping existing forests intact.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Therefore, scientists consider "the protection and recovery of carbon-rich and long-lived ecosystems, especially natural forests" to be "the major climate <a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">solution</a>".<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contrasting_restoration_ecology_and_conservation_biology">Contrasting restoration ecology and conservation biology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Contrasting restoration ecology and conservation biology">edit</a>]</div> Both restoration ecologists and conservation biologists agree that protecting and restoring habitat is important for protecting biodiversity. However, <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation biology</a> is primarily rooted in <a href="/wiki/Population_biology" title="Population biology">population biology</a>. Because of that, it is generally organized at the <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetic</a> level and assesses specific species populations (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">endangered species</a>). Restoration ecology is organized at the <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">community</a> level, which focuses on broader groups within ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-:7-109">[109]</a> In addition, conservation biology often concentrates on <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> and invertebrate animals because of their salience and popularity, whereas restoration ecology concentrates on <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>. Restoration ecology focuses on plants because restoration projects typically begin by establishing plant communities. Ecological restoration, despite being focused on plants, may also have "<a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">umbrella species</a>" for individual ecosystems and restoration projects.<a href="#cite_note-:7-109">[109]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly" title="Monarch butterfly">Monarch butterfly</a> is an umbrella species for conserving and restoring <a href="/wiki/Asclepias" title="Asclepias">milkweed</a> plant habitat, because Monarch butterflies require milkweed plants to reproduce. Finally, restoration ecology has a stronger focus on <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">soil structure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> because soils provide the foundation of functional terrestrial ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_Principles_&_Standards_for_the_Practice_of_Ecological_Restoration">International Principles & Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: International Principles & Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Ecological_Restoration" title="Society for Ecological Restoration">Society for Ecological Restoration</a> (SER) released the second edition of the International Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration on September 27, 2019, in Cape Town, South Africa, at SER's 8th World Conference on Ecological Restoration.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The publication provides updated and expanded guidance on the practice of ecological restoration, clarifies the breadth of ecological restoration and allied environmental repair activities, and includes ideas and input from a diverse international group of restoration scientists and practitioners. The second edition builds on the first edition of the Standards, which was released December 12, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a>'s 13th Conference of the Parties in Cancun, Mexico. The development of these Standards has been broadly consultative. The first edition was circulated to dozens of practitioners and experts for feedback and review. After release of the first edition, SER held workshops and listening sessions, sought feedback from key international partners and stakeholders, opened a survey to members, affiliates and supporters, and considered and responded to published critiques. The International Principles and Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration: <ul><li>Present a robust framework to guide restoration projects toward achieving intended goals.</li> <li>Address restoration challenges including: effective design and implementation, accounting for complex ecosystem dynamics (especially in the context of climate change), and navigating trade-offs associated with land management priorities and decisions.</li> <li>Highlight the role of ecological restoration in connecting social, community, productivity, and sustainability goals.</li> <li>Recommend performance measures for restorative activities for industries, communities, and governments to consider.</li> <li>Enhance the list of practices and actions that guide practitioners in planning, implementation, and monitoring activities, including: appropriate approaches to site assessment and identification of reference ecosystems, different restoration approaches including natural regeneration, and the role of ecological restoration in global restoration initiatives.</li> <li>Include an expanded glossary of restoration terminology.</li> <li>Provide a technical appendix on sourcing of seeds and other propagules for restoration.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementation_by_country/region">Implementation by country/region</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Implementation by country/region">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a>, land managers, stewards, and laypeople have been practicing ecological restoration or ecological management for thousands of years.<a href="#cite_note-anderson2005-113">[113]</a> Restoration ecology emerged as a separate field in <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> in the late twentieth century.<a href="#cite_note-auto-16">[16]</a> The term was coined by <a href="/wiki/John_Aber" title="John Aber">John Aber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bill_Jordan_(environmental_critic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill Jordan (environmental critic)">William Jordan III</a> when they were at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jordan2011-114">[114]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Overly_detailed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-overly_detailed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience. Please help by removing excessive detail that may be against <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">Wikipedia's inclusion policy</a>. (March 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Union">European Union</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: European Union">edit</a>]</div> In 2024, the European Union passed a nature restoration law aiming to restore 20% of degraded ecosystems by 2030 and 100% by 2050. The representative of Austria, <a href="/wiki/Leonore_Gewessler" title="Leonore Gewessler">Leonore Gewessler</a>, voted against the will of its government and can face up to 10 years in prison for doing so.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="US">US</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: US">edit</a>]</div> Prior to the emergence of ecology as a scientific discipline, large-scale restoration began with big game restoration in the early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-auto-16">[16]</a> The first native plant restoration project in the United States was established in 1907 by Eloise Butler in Minneapolis, Minnesota.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> This was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Vassar_College" title="Vassar College">Vassar College</a> Ecological Laboratory restoration program, founded by Professor <a href="/wiki/Edith_A._Roberts" title="Edith A. Roberts">Edith Roberts</a> in 1921.<a href="#cite_note-auto-16">[16]</a> The first <a href="/wiki/Tallgrass_prairie" title="Tallgrass prairie">tallgrass prairie</a> restoration was the 1936 Curtis Prairie at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison_Arboretum" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison Arboretum">University of Wisconsin–Madison Arboretum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-court2012-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-jordan2011-114">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps" title="Civilian Conservation Corps">Civilian Conservation Corps</a> workers replanted nearby prairie species onto a former horse pasture, overseen by university faculty including <a href="/wiki/Aldo_Leopold" title="Aldo Leopold">Aldo Leopold</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodore_Sperry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theodore Sperry (page does not exist)">Theodore Sperry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_C._Greene" title="Henry C. Greene">Henry C. Greene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Thomas_Curtis" title="John Thomas Curtis">John T. Curtis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-curtis1971-120">[120]</a> The UW Arboretum was the center of tallgrass prairie research through the first half of the 20th century and the study of techniques like <a href="/wiki/Controlled_burn" title="Controlled burn">prescribed burning</a>.<a href="#cite_note-court2012-119">[119]</a> It was followed by the 40-hectare Schulenberg Prairie at the <a href="/wiki/Morton_Arboretum" title="Morton Arboretum">Morton Arboretum</a>, initiated in 1962 by Ray Schulenberg and Robert Betz. Betz then worked with <a href="/wiki/The_Nature_Conservancy" title="The Nature Conservancy">The Nature Conservancy</a> to establish the 260-hectare <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermi National Laboratory</a> tallgrass prairie in 1974.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Restoration ecology emerged as a distinct sub-discipline of ecology and natural resources management with the dramatic increase in the number of protected natural areas in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-auto-16">[16]</a> In 1997 the National Wildlife Federation signed a memorandum of understanding with the Intertribal Bison Cooperative, the first-ever conservation agreement between an environmental organization and an inter-tribal group, to advocate for the restoration of wild bison to tribal lands.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Anishinaabek/Neshnabék throughout the Great Lakes region are leading ecological restoration projects that, in the words of Kyle Whyte, "seek to learn from, adapt, and put into practice local human and nonhuman relationships and stories at the convergence of deep Anishinaabe history and the disruptiveness of industrial settler campaigns."<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</div> Australia has been the site of historically significant ecological restoration projects, commencing in the 1930s. These projects were responses to the extensive environmental damage inflicted by colonising settlers, following the forced dispossession of the First Nations communities of Australia. The substantial Traditional Ecological Knowledge of First Nations communities was not utilised in the historical restoration projects. Many of the first Australian settler restoration projects were initiated by volunteers, often in the form of community groups. Many of these volunteers appreciated and utilised science resources, such as botanical and ecological knowledge. Local and state government agencies participated, and also industry. Australian scientists came to play an increasingly important role. A prominent scientist who took an interest in the reversal of vegetation degradation was botanist and plant ecologist Professor <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Osborn" title="Theodore Osborn">T G Osborn</a>, University of Adelaide, who, in the 1920s, conducted pioneering research into the causes of arid-zone indigenous vegetation degradation. From this time, Australian botanists, plant ecologists and soil erosion researchers have increasingly developed interests in the recovery of ecological functioning on degraded sites. The earliest known attempt by Australian settlers to restore a degraded natural ecosystem commenced in 1896, at Nairm (as it is known to people of the Kulin nation), or Port Phillip Bay, Melbourne.<a href="#cite_note-:14-124">[124]</a> Local government and community groups replanted degraded areas of the foreshore reserves with the indigenous plant species, coastal teatree (<a href="/wiki/Leptospermum_laevigatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Leptospermum laevigatum">Leptospermum laevigatum</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:14-124">[124]</a> The projects were motivated by utilitarian considerations: to conserve recreation sites, and promote tourism. However, some local residents, including Australian journalist, nature writer and amateur ornithologist, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Alaster_Macdonald" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Alaster Macdonald">Donald Macdonald</a>, were distressed at the loss of valued biological qualities, and campaigned to fully restore the Teatree ecosystems and conserve them and their indigenous fauna.<a href="#cite_note-:14-124">[124]</a> The degraded arid-zone regions of Australia were the site of historical ecological restoration projects. Pastoral industry established in the arid-zone regions of South Australia and New South Wales resulted in the substantial degradation of these areas by ca.1900 resulting in severe wind erosion. From approximately 1930, Australian pastoralists implemented revegetation projects aiming to the substantial to full restoration of indigenous flora to degraded, wind eroded areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArdill2022-125">[125]</a> At his arid-zone Koonamore research station in South Australia, established in 1925, Professor T G Osborn studied the loss of indigenous vegetation caused by overstocking and the resultant wind erosion and degradation, concluding that restoration of the indigenous saltbushes (<a href="/wiki/Atriplex" title="Atriplex">Atriplex</a> spp.), bluebushes (<a href="/wiki/Maireana" title="Maireana">Maireana</a> spp.) and mulga (<a href="/wiki/Acacia_aneura" title="Acacia aneura">Acacia aneura</a>) vegetation communities was possible, if a stock exclosure and natural regeneration revegetation technique was applied to degraded paddocks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArdill20229-126">[126]</a> Most likely influenced by Osborn's research, throughout the 1930s South Australian pastoralists adopted this revegetation technique. For example, at Wirraminna station (or property, ranch), following fencing to exclude stock, severe soil-drifts were fully revegetated and stabilised through natural regeneration of the indigenous vegetation. It was also found that furrowing (or ploughing) of eroded areas resulted in the natural regeneration of indigenous vegetation. So successful were these programs that the South Australian government adopted them as approved state soil conservation policies in 1936. Legislation introduced in 1939 codified these policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArdill202232–34-127">[127]</a> In 1936 mining assayer <a href="/wiki/Albert_Morris" title="Albert Morris">Albert Morris</a> and his restoration colleagues initiated the Broken Hill regeneration area project. This project involved the natural regeneration of indigenous flora on a severely wind eroded site of hundreds of hectares, located in arid western New South Wales.<a href="#cite_note-:12-128">[128]</a> Local and state governments, and the Broken Hill mining industry, supported and funded the project.<a href="#cite_note-:12-128">[128]</a> In fact, as the regeneration area project was so well adapted to the harsh arid-zone conditions, the New South Wales state government adopted it as a model for the proposed restoration of the twenty million hectares of the arid western portion of the state that had been reduced to a severely eroded condition. Legislation to this effect was passed in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Another significant early Australian settler ecological restoration project occurred on the north coast of New South Wales. From approximately 1840 settlers forcibly occupied the coastal hinterlands, dispossessed First Nations communities, destroyed extensive areas of biologically diverse rainforest and converted the land to farms. Only small patches of rainforest survived. In 1935 dairy farmer Ambrose Crawford began restoring a degraded four acre (1.7 hectare) patch of local rainforest, or "Big Scrub" (Lowland Tropical Rainforest), as it was referred to, at Lumley Park reserve, Alstonville.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> His main restoration techniques were clearing weeds that were smothering the rainforest plants and planting of suitable indigenous rainforest species. Crawford utilised professional government botanists as advisors, and received support from his local government council. The restored rainforest reserve still exists today. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: United Kingdom">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Natural_Capital_Committee's_recommendation_for_a_25-year_plan">Natural Capital Committee's recommendation for a 25-year plan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Natural Capital Committee's recommendation for a 25-year plan">edit</a>]</div> The UK <a href="/wiki/Natural_Capital_Committee" title="Natural Capital Committee">Natural Capital Committee</a> (NCC) made a recommendation in its second State of Natural Capital report published in March 2014 that in order to meet the Government's goal of being the first generation to leave the environment in a better state than it was inherited, a long-term 25-year plan was needed to maintain and improve England's natural capital. The Secretary of State for the UK's <a href="/wiki/Department_for_Environment,_Food_and_Rural_Affairs" title="Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs">Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Owen_Paterson" title="Owen Paterson">Owen Paterson</a>, described his ambition for the natural environment and how the work of the Committee fits into this at an NCC event in November 2012: "I do not, however, just want to maintain our natural assets; I want to improve them. I want us to derive the greatest possible benefit from them, while ensuring that they are available for generations to come. This is what the NCC's innovative work is geared towards".<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Traditional_ecological_knowledge">Traditional ecological knowledge</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Traditional ecological knowledge">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">Traditional ecological knowledge</a> (TEK) from <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous Peoples</a> demonstrates how restoration ecology is a historical field, lived out by humans for thousands of years.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Indigenous people have acquired ecological knowledge through observation, experience, and management of the natural resources and the environment around them. In the past, they managed their environment and changed the structure of the vegetation to not only meet their basic needs (food, water, shelter, medicines) but also to improve desired characteristics and even increasing the populations and biodiversity. In that way, they achieved a close relationship with the environment and learned lessons that indigenous people keep in their culture.<a href="#cite_note-anderson2005-113">[113]</a> This means there is much that could be learned from local people indigenous to the ecosystem being restored<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> because of the deep connection and <a href="/wiki/Biocultural_diversity" title="Biocultural diversity">biocultural and linguistic diversity</a> of place.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> The use of natural resources by indigenous people considers many cultural, social, and environmental aspects, since they have always had an intimate connection with the animals and plants around them over centuries since they obtained their livelihood from the environment around them.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Restoration ecologists must consider that TEK is place dependent due to intimate connection<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> and thus when engaging Indigenous Peoples to include knowledge for restoration purposes, respect and care must be taken to avoid appropriation of the TEK.<a href="#cite_note-:11-137">[137]</a> Successful ecological restoration which includes Indigenous Peoples must be led by Indigenous Peoples<a href="#cite_note-:11-137">[137]</a> to ensure non-indigenous people acknowledge the unequal relationship of power.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> For example, the California Indians have a rigid and complex harvesting, management and production practice, largely typical horticultural techniques and concentrated forest burning. The California Indians had a rich knowledge of ecology and natural techniques to understand burn patterns, plant material, cultivation, pruning, digging; what was edible vs. what was not. This knowledge extends into wildlife management – how abundant, where the distribution was, and how diverse the large mammal population was.<a href="#cite_note-:13-139">[139]</a> While the United States has counteracted the degradation, fragmentation and loss of habitat through land set aside from all human influence, indigenous practices could inform ecosystem restoration and wildlife management.<a href="#cite_note-:13-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_journals">Related journals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Related journals">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Ecology_(journal)" title="Restoration Ecology (journal)">Restoration Ecology</a>, journal of the Society for Ecological Restoration (SER)<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_Management_%26_Restoration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ecological Management & Restoration (page does not exist)">Ecological Management & Restoration</a>, published by the <a href="/wiki/Ecological_Society_of_Australia" title="Ecological Society of Australia">Ecological Society of Australia</a> (ESA)<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_Restoration_(journal)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ecological Restoration (journal) (page does not exist)">Ecological Restoration</a>, published by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin Press</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ecology" title="Applied ecology">Applied ecology</a> – sub-field within ecology that considers the application of the science of ecology to real-world (usually management) questionsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a> – Process used to treat contaminated media such as water and soil</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_regeneration" title="Bush regeneration">Bush regeneration</a> – Type of ecological restoration in Australia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a> – Study of threats to biological diversity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_greening" title="Desert greening">Desert greening</a> – Process of man-made reclamation of deserts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_design" title="Ecological design">Ecological design</a> – Design approach sensitive to environmental impacts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a> – Environmental engineering</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_triage" title="Ecological triage">Ecological triage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecologically_based_invasive_plant_management" title="Ecologically based invasive plant management">Ecologically based invasive plant management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floodplain_restoration" title="Floodplain restoration">Floodplain restoration</a> – Restoration of a river's floodplain</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_restoration" title="Forest restoration">Forest restoration</a> – Actions to reinstate forest health</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">Groundwater remediation</a> – Process used to treat polluted groundwater</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_restoration" title="Island restoration">Island restoration</a> – Ecological restoration of islands and island groups</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_rehabilitation" title="Land rehabilitation">Land rehabilitation</a> – Part of environmental remediation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_Restoration_Law" title="Nature Restoration Law">Nature Restoration Law</a> – regulation of the European UnionPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconciliation_ecology" title="Reconciliation ecology">Reconciliation ecology</a> – Study of maintaining biodiversity in human-dominated ecosystems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_economy" title="Restoration economy">Restoration economy</a> – Economic activity associated with regenerative land use</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone_restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Riparian zone restoration">Riparian zone restoration</a> – Ecological restoration of river banks and floodplainsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_restoration" title="Stream restoration">Stream restoration</a> – Work to improve the environmental health of a river or stream</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:8-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output 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BioScience. 68 (12): 1007–1019. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbiosci%2Fbiy126">10.1093/biosci/biy126</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10072%2F382942">10072/382942</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0006-3568">0006-3568</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.atitle=Spatial+Restoration+Ecology%3A+Placing+Restoration+in+a+Landscape+Context&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1007-1019&rft.date=2018-12-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10072%2F382942&rft.issn=0006-3568&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbiosci%2Fbiy126&rft.aulast=Gilby&rft.aufirst=Ben+L&rft.au=Olds%2C+Andrew+D&rft.au=Connolly%2C+Rod+M&rft.au=Henderson%2C+Christopher+J&rft.au=Schlacher%2C+Thomas+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbioscience%2Farticle%2F68%2F12%2F1007%2F5162986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+restoration" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallaceLaughlinClarksonSchipper2018" class="citation journal cs1">Wallace, K. 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Ecosphere. 9 (12): e02534. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Ecosp...9E2534W">2018Ecosp...9E2534W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fecs2.2534">10.1002/ecs2.2534</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10289%2F13010">10289/13010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecosphere&rft.atitle=Forest+canopy+restoration+has+indirect+effects+on+litter+decomposition+and+no+effect+on+denitrification&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=e02534&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10289%2F13010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fecs2.2534&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Ecosp...9E2534W&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=K.+J.&rft.au=Laughlin%2C+Daniel+C.&rft.au=Clarkson%2C+Bruce+D.&rft.au=Schipper%2C+Louis+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fecs2.2534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+restoration" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas,_Ian2014" class="citation book cs1">Douglas, Ian (October 30, 2014). 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New Zealand Journal of Ecology. 43 (3). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20417%2Fnzjecol.43.34">10.20417/nzjecol.43.34</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Zealand+Journal+of+Ecology&rft.atitle=Kaitiakitanga%2C+place+and+the+urban+restoration+agenda&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.20417%2Fnzjecol.43.34&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=E.T.&rft.au=Wehi%2C+P.M.&rft.au=Nelson%2C+N.J.&rft.au=Beggs%2C+J.R.&rft.au=Whaanga%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewzealandecology.org%2Fnzje%2F3381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+restoration" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-137">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_137-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_137-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallWehiWhaangaWalker2021" class="citation journal cs1">Hall, Monique Mae; <a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Wehi" title="Priscilla Wehi">Wehi, Priscilla M.</a>; Whaanga, Hēmi; Walker, Erana T.; Koia, Jonni Hazeline; Wallace, Kiri Joy (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/rec.13305">"Promoting social and environmental justice to support Indigenous partnerships in urban ecosystem restoration"</a>. Restoration Ecology. 29 (1): e13305. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021ResEc..2913305H">2021ResEc..2913305H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Frec.13305">10.1111/rec.13305</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10289%2F15955">10289/15955</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1526-100X">1526-100X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228960211">228960211</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Restoration+Ecology&rft.atitle=Promoting+social+and+environmental+justice+to+support+Indigenous+partnerships+in+urban+ecosystem+restoration&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e13305&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10289%2F15955&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A228960211%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021ResEc..2913305H&rft.issn=1526-100X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Frec.13305&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Monique+Mae&rft.au=Wehi%2C+Priscilla+M.&rft.au=Whaanga%2C+H%C4%93mi&rft.au=Walker%2C+Erana+T.&rft.au=Koia%2C+Jonni+Hazeline&rft.au=Wallace%2C+Kiri+Joy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2Frec.13305&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+restoration" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroughton(Te_Aitanga-a-Hauiti,_Taranaki,_NgāMcBreen(Waitaha,_Kāti_Māmoe,_Ngāi_Tahu)2015" class="citation journal cs1">Broughton, D; (Te Aitanga-a-Hauiti, Taranaki, Ngā; McBreen, K; (Waitaha, Kāti Māmoe, Ngāi Tahu) (April 3, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03036758.2015.1011171">"Mātauranga Māori, tino rangatiratanga and the future of New Zealand science"</a>. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 45 (2): 83–88. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015JRSNZ..45...83B">2015JRSNZ..45...83B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03036758.2015.1011171">10.1080/03036758.2015.1011171</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0303-6758">0303-6758</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129384221">129384221</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Society+of+New+Zealand&rft.atitle=M%C4%81tauranga+M%C4%81ori%2C+tino+rangatiratanga+and+the+future+of+New+Zealand+science&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=83-88&rft.date=2015-04-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03036758.2015.1011171&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129384221%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0303-6758&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015JRSNZ..45...83B&rft.aulast=Broughton&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=%28Te+Aitanga-a-Hauiti%2C+Taranaki%2C+Ng%C4%81&rft.au=McBreen%2C+K&rft.au=%28Waitaha%2C+K%C4%81ti+M%C4%81moe%2C+Ng%C4%81i+Tahu%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F03036758.2015.1011171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+restoration" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_139-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2005" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, M. Kat (2005). Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge and the Management of California's Natural Resources. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 1–10, 358–364.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tending+the+Wild%3A+Native+American+Knowledge+and+the+Management+of+California%27s+Natural+Resources&rft.pages=1-10%2C+358-364&rft.pub=Berkeley%3A+University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=M.+Kat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+restoration" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ser.org/resources/resources-detail-view/restoration-ecology-journal">"Restoration Ecology", SER.</a> Accessed: September 14, 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1442-8903">"Ecological Management & Restoration", John Wiley & Sons.</a> Accessed: September 14, 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uwpress.wisc.edu/journals/journals/er.html">"Ecological Restoration", University of Wisconsin Press.</a> Accessed: September 14, 2015. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Allen, M.F., Jasper, D.A. & Zak, J.C. (2002). Micro-organisms. In Perrow M.R. & Davy, A.J. (Eds.), Handbook of Ecological Restoration, Volume 1 Principles of Restoration, pp. 257–278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-79128-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-79128-6">0-521-79128-6</a></li> <li>Anderson, M.K. (2005). Tending the Wild: Native American knowledge and the management of California's natural resources. Berkeley: University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-23856-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-23856-7">0-520-23856-7</a></li> <li>Ardill, Peter J. (2017) Albert Morris and the Broken Hill regeneration area: time, landscape and renewal. Australian Association of Bush Regenerators (AABR). Sydney. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.aabr.org.au/morris-broken-hill/">http://www.aabr.org.au/morris-broken-hill/</a></li> <li>Ardill, Peter J (2021) ‘Innovative Federation and Inter-war Period repair of degraded natural areas and their ecosystems: local government and community restoration of Coast Teatree Leptospermum laevigatum at Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, Australia’ The Repair Press Sydney (February) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://ecologicalrestorationhistory.org/articles/">https://ecologicalrestorationhistory.org/articles/</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArdill2022" class="citation journal cs1">Ardill, Peter J. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ecologicalrestorationhistory.files.wordpress.com/2022/01/ardill-2022-rekindling-memory-of-environmental-repair-responses.pdf">"Rekindling memory of environmental repair responses to the Australian wind erosion crisis of 1930–45: ecologically aligned restoration of degraded arid-zone pastoral lands and the resultant shaping of state soil conservation policies"</a> (PDF). Ecological Restoration History. The Repair Press Sydney.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Restoration+History&rft.atitle=Rekindling+memory+of+environmental+repair+responses+to+the+Australian+wind+erosion+crisis+of+1930%E2%80%9345%3A+ecologically+aligned+restoration+of+degraded+arid-zone+pastoral+lands+and+the+resultant+shaping+of+state+soil+conservation+policies&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Ardill&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fecologicalrestorationhistory.files.wordpress.com%2F2022%2F01%2Fardill-2022-rekindling-memory-of-environmental-repair-responses.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcological+restoration" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Baer, S.G., Collins, S.L., Blair, J.M., Knapp, A.K. & Fiedler, A.K. 2005. "Soil heterogeneity effects on tallgrass prairie community heterogeneity: an application of ecological theory to restoration ecology". Restoration Ecology 13 (2), 413–424.</li> <li>Bradshaw, A.D. (1987). Restoration: the acid test for ecology. In Jordan, W.R., Gilpin, M.E. & Aber, J.D. (Eds.), Restoration Ecology: A Synthetic Approach to Ecological Research, pp. 23–29. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-33728-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-33728-3">0-521-33728-3</a></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>Bradshaw, A. D. 1997. What do we mean by restoration?. Restoration ecology and sustainable development., eds. Krystyna M., Urbanska, Nigel R., Webb, Edwards P. University Press, Cambridge.</li> <li>Court, Franklin E. (2012) Pioneers of ecological restoration: the people and legacy of the University of Wisconsin Arboretum. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299286644" title="Special:BookSources/9780299286644">9780299286644</a></li> <li>Daily, G.C., Alexander, S., Ehrlich, P.R., Goulder, L., Lubchenco, J., Matson, P.A., Mooney, H.A., Postel, S., Schneider, S.H., Tilman, D. & Woodwell, G.M. (1997) "Ecosystem Services: Benefits Supplied to Human Societies by Natural Ecosystems". Issues in Ecology 1 (2), 1–18.</li> <li>Harris, J.A. (2003) Measurements of the soil microbial community for estimating the success of restoration. European Journal of Soil Science. 54, 801–808.</li> <li>Harris, J.A., Hobbs, R.J, Higgs, E. and Aronson, J. (2006) Ecological restoration and global climate change. Restoration Ecology 14(2) 170 - 176.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Hilderbrand et al. 2005. The myths of restoration ecology. Ecology and Society 10(2): 19. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol10/iss1/art19/ES-2005-1277.pdf">Full Article</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Holl, K. 2006. Professor of environmental studies at the university of California santa cruz. Personal Communication.</li> <li>Jordan, William R. & Lubick, George M. (2012) Making nature whole: a history of ecological restoration. Washington, D.C. Island Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781597265126" title="Special:BookSources/9781597265126">9781597265126</a></li> <li>Klotzi, F. & Gootjans, A.P. (2001). Restoration of natural and semi-natural wetland systems in Central Europe: progress and predictability of developments. Restoration Ecology 9 (2), 209–219.</li> <li>Liu, John D (2011). Finding Sustainability in Ecosystem Restoration. Kosmos Fall | Winter 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kosmosjournal.org/LiteratureRetrieve.aspx?ID=108645">Full Article</a></li> <li>Luken, J.O. (1990). Directing Ecological Succession. New York: Chapman and Hall. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-412-34450-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-412-34450-5">0-412-34450-5</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">MacDonald et al. 2002. The ecological context: a species population perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.</li> <li>Novacek, M.J. & Cleland, E.E. (2001). "The current biodiversity extinction event: Scenarios for mitigation and recovery". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98 (10), 5466–5470.</li> <li>Seabloom, E.W., Harpole, W.S., Reichman, O.J. & Tilman, D. 2003. "Invasion, competitive dominance, and resource use by exotic and native California grassland species". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100 (23), 13384–13389.</li> <li>SER (2004). The SER Primer on Ecological Restoration, Version 2. Society for Ecological Restoration Science and Policy Working Group. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060207050251/http://www.ser.org/reading_resources.asp">https://web.archive.org/web/20060207050251/http://www.ser.org/reading_resources.asp</a></li> <li>Shears N.T. (2007) Biogeography, community structure and biological habitat types of subtidal reefs on the South Island West Coast, New Zealand. Science for Conservation 281. p 53. Department of Conservation, New Zealand. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/sfc281.pdf">[1]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Speth, J. G. 2004. Red Sky at Morning: America and the Crisis of the Global Environment. Yale University Press, Connecticut.</li> <li>van Andel, J. & Grootjans, A.P. (2006). Restoration Ecology: The New Frontier . In van Andel, J. & Aronson, J. (Eds.), Restoration Ecology, pp. 16–28. Massachusetts: Blackwell. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-05834-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-05834-X">0-632-05834-X</a></li> <li>White, P.S. & Jentsch, A. (2004). Disturbance, succession and community assembly in terrestrial plant communities. In Temperton, V.K., Hobbs, R.J., Nuttle, T. & Halle, S. (Eds.), Assembly Rules and Restoration Ecology: Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice, pp. 342–366. Washington, DC: Island Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55963-375-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-55963-375-1">1-55963-375-1</a></li> <li>Wilson, E. O. (1988). Biodiversity. Washington DC: National Academy. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-309-03739-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-309-03739-5">0-309-03739-5</a></li> <li>Young, T.P. (2000). "Restoration ecology and conservation biology". Biological Conservation. 92, 73–83.</li> <li>Young, T.P., Chase, J.M. & Huddleston, R.T. (2001). "Succession and assembly as conceptual bases in community ecology and ecological restoration". Ecological Restoration. 19, 5–19.</li> <li>Young, T.P., Petersen, D.A. & Clary, J.J. (2005). "The ecology of restoration: historical links, emerging issues and unexplored realms". Ecology Letters 8, 662–673.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_restoration&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservation_of_species" title="Template:Conservation of species"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservation_of_species" title="Template talk:Conservation of species"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservation_of_species" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservation of species"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Conservation_of_species" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation of species</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_conservation_articles" title="Index of conservation articles">Index of conservation articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity#Conservation" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captive_breeding" title="Captive breeding">Captive breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassionate_conservation" title="Compassionate conservation">Compassionate conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_behavior" title="Conservation behavior">Conservation behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation-dependent_species" title="Conservation-dependent species">Conservation-dependent species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation-induced_extinction" title="Conservation-induced extinction">Conservation-induced extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_status" title="Conservation status">Conservation status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-situ_conservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex-situ conservation">Ex-situ conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_threshold" title="Extinction threshold">Extinction threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-situ_conservation" title="In-situ conservation">In-situ conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_extinction_risk" title="Latent extinction risk">Latent extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualisms_and_conservation" title="Mutualisms and conservation">Mutualisms and conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_conservation" title="Nature conservation">Nature conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology_of_parasites" title="Conservation biology of parasites">Conservation biology of parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_translocation" title="Species translocation">Species translocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_welfare" title="Conservation welfare">Conservation welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threatened_species" title="Threatened species">Threatened species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_and_susceptibility_in_conservation_biology" title="Vulnerability and susceptibility in conservation biology">Vulnerability and susceptibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_agriculture" title="Conservation agriculture">Conservation agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_development" title="Conservation development">Conservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_finance" title="Conservation finance">Conservation finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_grazing" title="Conservation grazing">Conservation grazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_management_system" title="Conservation management system">Conservation management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">Conservation movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_photography" title="Conservation photography">Conservation photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_psychology" title="Conservation psychology">Conservation psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspicuous_conservation" title="Conspicuous conservation">Conspicuous conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community-based_conservation" title="Community-based conservation">Community-based conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion_conservation_status" title="Ecoregion conservation status">Ecoregion conservation status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_conservation" title="Evidence-based conservation">Evidence-based conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Forest management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_protection" title="Forest protection">Forest protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest_conservation" title="Tropical rainforest conservation">Tropical rainforest conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Conservation_and_Development_Project" title="Integrated Conservation and Development Project">Integrated Conservation and Development Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_effective_area-based_conservation_measures" title="Other effective area-based conservation measures">Other effective area-based conservation measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_buffer" title="Riparian buffer">Riparian buffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadless_area_conservation" title="Roadless area conservation">Roadless area conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadside_conservation" title="Roadside conservation">Roadside conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Site-based_conservation" title="Site-based conservation">Site-based conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland_conservation" title="Wetland conservation">Wetland conservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protected_area" title="Protected area">Protected areas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_designation" title="Conservation designation">Conservation designation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation district">Conservation district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_easement" title="Conservation easement">Conservation easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_reserve" title="Conservation reserve">Conservation reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gap_analysis_(conservation)" title="Gap analysis (conservation)">Gap analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">Habitat conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_conservation_value_area" class="mw-redirect" title="High conservation value area">High conservation value area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape-scale_conservation" title="Landscape-scale conservation">Landscape-scale conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxan" title="Marxan">Marxan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">Open space reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_corridor" title="Wildlife corridor">Wildlife corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/30_by_30" title="30 by 30">30 by 30 target</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_refugee" title="Conservation refugee">Conservation refugee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortress_conservation" title="Fortress conservation">Fortress conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93wildlife_conflict" title="Human–wildlife conflict">Human–wildlife conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_natural_regeneration" title="Assisted natural regeneration">Assisted natural regeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem restoration">Ecosystem restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_restoration" title="Island restoration">Island restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rewilding" title="Rewilding">Rewilding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_rewilding" title="Sea rewilding">marine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_reintroduction" title="Species reintroduction">Species reintroduction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By taxon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insect_hotel" title="Insect hotel">Arthropod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_conservation" title="Bird conservation">Bird</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_honeycreeper_conservation" title="Hawaiian honeycreeper conservation">Hawaiian honeycreeper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raptor_conservation" title="Raptor conservation">Raptor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Status_and_conservation_of_the_golden_eagle" title="Status and conservation of the golden eagle">Golden eagle</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_fungi" title="Conservation of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li>Land mammal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_American_bison" title="Conservation of American bison">American bison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_oryx_reintroduction" title="Arabian oryx reintroduction">Arabian oryx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_conservation" title="Bear conservation">Bear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polar_bear_conservation" title="Polar bear conservation">Polar bear</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheetah_reintroduction_in_India" title="Cheetah reintroduction in India">Cheetah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_elephants" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of elephants">Elephant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Elephant" title="Project Elephant">Indian elephant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_slow_lorises" title="Conservation of slow lorises">Slow loris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_conservation" title="Tiger conservation">Tiger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Tiger" title="Project Tiger">Bengal Tiger</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_reintroduction" title="Wolf reintroduction">Wolf</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Dolphin_(India)" title="Project Dolphin (India)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey_nurse_shark_conservation" title="Grey nurse shark conservation">Gray nurse shark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manatee_conservation" title="Manatee conservation">Manatee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_painted_turtles" title="Conservation of painted turtles">Painted turtle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_conservation" title="Salmon conservation">Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_otter_conservation" title="Sea otter conservation">Sea otter</a></li></ul></li> <li>Plant <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cryopreservation" title="Plant cryopreservation">Cryopreservation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Angola" title="Conservation in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Australia" title="Conservation in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Belize" title="Conservation in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Brazil" title="Conservation in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_Central_African_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Costa_Rica" title="Conservation in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Hong_Kong" title="Conservation in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Iceland" title="Conservation in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_India" title="Conservation in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Indonesia" title="Conservation in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Conservation in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Italy" title="Conservation in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Malaysia" title="Conservation in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Mauritius" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_Wildlife_Conservancies_in_Namibia" class="mw-redirect" title="Communal Wildlife Conservancies in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_New_Zealand" title="Conservation in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Pakistan" title="Conservation in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Conservation in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_South_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Uganda" title="Conservation in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conservation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Scotland" title="Conservation in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_United_States" title="Conservation in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_conservation_in_the_United_States" title="Forest conservation in the United States">forests</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_officer" title="Conservation officer">Conservation officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-extinction" title="De-extinction">De-extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IUCN_Red_List" title="IUCN Red List">IUCN Red List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NatureServe_conservation_status" title="NatureServe conservation status">NatureServe conservation status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Area_of_Conservation" title="Special Area of Conservation">Special Area of Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">Soil conservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conservation_issues" class="mw-redirect" title="List of conservation issues">List of conservation issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nature_conservation_organizations" title="List of nature conservation organizations">List of organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conservationists" title="List of conservationists">List of people</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservation_biology" title="Category:Conservation biology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense, counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory">r/K selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 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