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<!DOCTYPE html> <html > <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/open_search.xml" title="Academia.edu"> <meta content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1" name="viewport"> <meta name="google-site-verification" content="bKJMBZA7E43xhDOopFZkssMMkBRjvYERV-NaN4R6mrs"> <meta name="csrf-param" content="authenticity_token" /> <meta name="csrf-token" content="++H1AYGJlTKMXaPOeaptiQxjeZ0bhFheQIW/lq6Jxwfsm/OB07jROv3T0cwfzPkqeghI3dbU6GUxMIrQChahgQ==" /> <meta name="citation_title" content="DISCRIMINATION, WOMEN, AND WORK: Processes and Variations by Race and Class" /> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2009/01/01" /> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Sociological Quarterly" /> <meta name="citation_author" content="Susan Ortiz" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:url" content="https://www.academia.edu/7964261/DISCRIMINATION_WOMEN_AND_WORK_Processes_and_Variations_by_Race_and_Class" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="DISCRIMINATION, WOMEN, AND WORK: Processes and Variations by Race and Class" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Research on gender and workplace stratification has made clear that persistent employment, wage, and mobility gaps exist, and that discrimination at organizational and interactional levels is playing a role. Few studies, however, have been able to" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://0.academia-photos.com/15183835/78625099/67179062/s200_susan.ortiz.png" /> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="2369844204" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.academia.edu/7964261/DISCRIMINATION_WOMEN_AND_WORK_Processes_and_Variations_by_Race_and_Class" /> <meta property="og:title" content="DISCRIMINATION, WOMEN, AND WORK: Processes and Variations by Race and Class" /> <meta property="og:image" content="http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Research on gender and workplace stratification has made clear that persistent employment, wage, and mobility gaps exist, and that discrimination at organizational and interactional levels is playing a role. Few studies, however, have been able to" /> <meta property="article:author" content="https://independent.academia.edu/SusanOrtiz" /> <meta name="description" content="Research on gender and workplace stratification has made clear that persistent employment, wage, and mobility gaps exist, and that discrimination at organizational and interactional levels is playing a role. Few studies, however, have been able to" /> <title>(PDF) DISCRIMINATION, WOMEN, AND WORK: Processes and Variations by Race and Class | Susan Ortiz - Academia.edu</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.academia.edu/28214081/DISCRIMINATION_WOMEN_AND_WORK_Processes_and_Variations_by_Race_and_Class" /> <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-5VKX33P2DS"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('config', 'G-5VKX33P2DS', { cookie_domain: 'academia.edu', send_page_view: false, }); gtag('event', 'page_view', { 'controller': "single_work", 'action': "show", 'controller_action': 'single_work#show', 'logged_in': 'false', 'edge': 'unknown', // Send nil if there is no A/B test bucket, in case some records get logged // with missing data - that way we can distinguish between the two cases. // ab_test_bucket should be of the form <ab_test_name>:<bucket> 'ab_test_bucket': null, }) </script> <script> var $controller_name = 'single_work'; var $action_name = "show"; var $rails_env = 'production'; var $app_rev = '49879c2402910372f4abc62630a427bbe033d190'; var $domain = 'academia.edu'; var $app_host = "academia.edu"; var $asset_host = "academia-assets.com"; var $start_time = new Date().getTime(); var $recaptcha_key = "6LdxlRMTAAAAADnu_zyLhLg0YF9uACwz78shpjJB"; var $recaptcha_invisible_key = "6Lf3KHUUAAAAACggoMpmGJdQDtiyrjVlvGJ6BbAj"; var $disableClientRecordHit = false; </script> <script> window.require = { config: function() { return function() {} } } </script> <script> window.Aedu = window.Aedu || {}; window.Aedu.hit_data = null; window.Aedu.serverRenderTime = new Date(1732469408000); window.Aedu.timeDifference = new Date().getTime() - 1732469408000; </script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"ScholarlyArticle","abstract":"Research on gender and workplace stratification has made clear that persistent employment, wage, and mobility gaps exist, and that discrimination at organizational and interactional levels is playing a role. Few studies, however, have been able to directly capture processes involved. In this article, we draw on unique qualitative and quantitative data pertaining to verified cases of workplace sex and race discrimination (1988 to 2003), and analyze the discriminatory experiences of African-American and white women across various occupational statuses. Notable are high levels of discriminatory firing for both groups, but higher instances of race-based promotional discrimination for black women—a pattern partially linked to their disparate concentration in sex-segregated workplaces and in positions of lower occupational prestige. Our qualitative immersion into case materials reveals influential mechanisms and employer justifications, unique manifestations of differential treatment on the job, and the use of “soft skill” criteria in gatekeeper decision making. We conclude by discussing important dimensions of workplace discrimination for women, variations by social class and race status, and how complexities of status matter for what women experience and gatekeeper behavior.","author":[{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Susan Ortiz"}],"contributor":[],"dateCreated":"2014-08-13","dateModified":"2023-02-12","datePublished":"2009-01-01","headline":"DISCRIMINATION, WOMEN, AND WORK: Processes and Variations by Race and Class","inLanguage":"en","keywords":[],"locationCreated":null,"publication":"Sociological Quarterly","publisher":{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Organization","name":"Informa UK Limited"},"image":null,"thumbnailUrl":null,"url":"https://www.academia.edu/7964261/DISCRIMINATION_WOMEN_AND_WORK_Processes_and_Variations_by_Race_and_Class","sourceOrganization":[{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"EducationalOrganization","name":null}]}</script><link rel="stylesheet" media="all" 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"https://www.academia.edu/login?post_login_redirect_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7964261%2FDISCRIMINATION_WOMEN_AND_WORK_Processes_and_Variations_by_Race_and_Class%3Fauto%3Ddownload"; window.loswp.translateUrl = "https://www.academia.edu/login?post_login_redirect_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7964261%2FDISCRIMINATION_WOMEN_AND_WORK_Processes_and_Variations_by_Race_and_Class%3Fshow_translation%3Dtrue"; window.loswp.previewableAttachments = [{"id":48272208,"identifier":"Attachment_48272208","shouldShowBulkDownload":false}]; window.loswp.shouldDetectTimezone = true; window.loswp.shouldShowBulkDownload = true; window.loswp.showSignupCaptcha = false window.loswp.willEdgeCache = false; window.loswp.work = {"work":{"id":7964261,"created_at":"2014-08-13T12:33:04.061-07:00","from_world_paper_id":125941888,"updated_at":"2021-01-13T11:11:36.062-08:00","_data":{"abstract":"Research on gender and workplace stratification has made clear that persistent employment, wage, and mobility gaps exist, and that discrimination at organizational and interactional levels is playing a role. Few studies, however, have been able to directly capture processes involved. In this article, we draw on unique qualitative and quantitative data pertaining to verified cases of workplace sex and race discrimination (1988 to 2003), and analyze the discriminatory experiences of African-American and white women across various occupational statuses. Notable are high levels of discriminatory firing for both groups, but higher instances of race-based promotional discrimination for black women—a pattern partially linked to their disparate concentration in sex-segregated workplaces and in positions of lower occupational prestige. Our qualitative immersion into case materials reveals influential mechanisms and employer justifications, unique manifestations of differential treatment on the job, and the use of “soft skill” criteria in gatekeeper decision making. We conclude by discussing important dimensions of workplace discrimination for women, variations by social class and race status, and how complexities of status matter for what women experience and gatekeeper behavior.","publication_date":"2009,,","publication_name":"Sociological Quarterly"},"document_type":"paper","pre_hit_view_count_baseline":null,"quality":"high","language":"en","title":"DISCRIMINATION, WOMEN, AND WORK: Processes and Variations by Race and Class","broadcastable":true,"draft":null,"has_indexable_attachment":true,"indexable":true}}["work"]; window.loswp.workCoauthors = [15183835]; window.loswp.locale = "en"; window.loswp.countryCode = "SG"; window.loswp.cwvAbTestBucket = ""; window.loswp.designVariant = "ds_vanilla"; window.loswp.fullPageMobileSutdModalVariant = "full_page_mobile_sutd_modal"; window.loswp.useOptimizedScribd4genScript = false; window.loswp.appleClientId = 'edu.academia.applesignon';</script><script defer="" src="https://accounts.google.com/gsi/client"></script><div class="ds-loswp-container"><div class="ds-work-card--grid-container"><div class="ds-work-card--container js-loswp-work-card"><div class="ds-work-card--cover"><div class="ds-work-cover--wrapper"><div class="ds-work-cover--container"><button class="ds-work-cover--clickable js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"swp-splash-paper-cover","attachmentId":48272208,"attachmentType":"pdf"}"><img alt="First page of “DISCRIMINATION, WOMEN, AND WORK: Processes and Variations by Race and Class”" class="ds-work-cover--cover-thumbnail" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/attachment_thumbnails/48272208/mini_magick20190204-9426-qt7kph.png?1549305542" /><img alt="PDF Icon" class="ds-work-cover--file-icon" src="//a.academia-assets.com/assets/single_work_splash/adobe.icon-574afd46eb6b03a77a153a647fb47e30546f9215c0ee6a25df597a779717f9ef.svg" /><div class="ds-work-cover--hover-container"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span><p>Download Free PDF</p></div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-container">Download Free PDF</div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-triangle"></div></button></div></div></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-information"><h1 class="ds-work-card--work-title">DISCRIMINATION, WOMEN, AND WORK: Processes and Variations by Race and Class</h1><div class="ds-work-card--work-authors ds-work-card--detail"><a class="ds-work-card--author js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="15183835" href="https://independent.academia.edu/SusanOrtiz"><img alt="Profile image of Susan Ortiz" class="ds-work-card--author-avatar" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/15183835/78625099/67179062/s65_susan.ortiz.png" />Susan Ortiz</a></div><p class="ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-sm">2009, Sociological Quarterly</p><p class="ds-work-card--work-abstract ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-md">Research on gender and workplace stratification has made clear that persistent employment, wage, and mobility gaps exist, and that discrimination at organizational and interactional levels is playing a role. Few studies, however, have been able to directly capture processes involved. In this article, we draw on unique qualitative and quantitative data pertaining to verified cases of workplace sex and race discrimination (1988 to 2003), and analyze the discriminatory experiences of African-American and white women across various occupational statuses. Notable are high levels of discriminatory firing for both groups, but higher instances of race-based promotional discrimination for black women—a pattern partially linked to their disparate concentration in sex-segregated workplaces and in positions of lower occupational prestige. Our qualitative immersion into case materials reveals influential mechanisms and employer justifications, unique manifestations of differential treatment on the job, and the use of “soft skill” criteria in gatekeeper decision making. We conclude by discussing important dimensions of workplace discrimination for women, variations by social class and race status, and how complexities of status matter for what women experience and gatekeeper behavior.</p><div class="ds-work-card--button-container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--work-card","attachmentId":48272208,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/7964261/DISCRIMINATION_WOMEN_AND_WORK_Processes_and_Variations_by_Race_and_Class"}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--work-card","attachmentId":48272208,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/7964261/DISCRIMINATION_WOMEN_AND_WORK_Processes_and_Variations_by_Race_and_Class"}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download 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class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2010</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"African American men and the experience of employment discrimination","attachmentId":44388172,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/24004273/African_American_men_and_the_experience_of_employment_discrimination","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/24004273/African_American_men_and_the_experience_of_employment_discrimination"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="2" data-entity-id="56052822" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/56052822/Race_and_Sex_Discrimination_in_Hiring_Effects_of_Subject_Sex_and_Job_Status">Race and Sex Discrimination in Hiring: Effects of Subject Sex and Job Status</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="191475228" href="https://bucknell.academia.edu/EugeniaGerdes">Eugenia Gerdes</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">1986</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Race and Sex Discrimination in Hiring: Effects of Subject Sex and Job Status","attachmentId":71628482,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/56052822/Race_and_Sex_Discrimination_in_Hiring_Effects_of_Subject_Sex_and_Job_Status","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/56052822/Race_and_Sex_Discrimination_in_Hiring_Effects_of_Subject_Sex_and_Job_Status"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="3" data-entity-id="12567613" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/12567613/African_American_Women_in_the_Workplace_Relationships_Between_Job_Conditions_Racial_Bias_at_Work_and_Perceived_Job_Quality1">African American Women in the Workplace: Relationships Between Job Conditions, Racial Bias at Work, and Perceived Job Quality1</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="31486981" href="https://independent.academia.edu/DianeHughes6">Diane Hughes</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2000</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Although studies have described work processes among employed African American women, few have examined the influence of these processes on job outcomes. This study examined relationships between African American women&#39;s exposure to a range of occupational stressors, including two types of racial bias—institutional discrimination and interpersonal prejudice—and their evaluations of job quality. Findings indicated that institutional discrimination and interpersonal prejudice</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"African American Women in the Workplace: Relationships Between Job Conditions, Racial Bias at Work, and Perceived Job Quality1","attachmentId":37725614,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/12567613/African_American_Women_in_the_Workplace_Relationships_Between_Job_Conditions_Racial_Bias_at_Work_and_Perceived_Job_Quality1","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/12567613/African_American_Women_in_the_Workplace_Relationships_Between_Job_Conditions_Racial_Bias_at_Work_and_Perceived_Job_Quality1"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="4" data-entity-id="14306866" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/14306866/Employment_Discrimination_in_Organizations_Antecedents_and_Consequences">Employment Discrimination in Organizations: Antecedents and Consequences</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="33262586" href="https://arizona.academia.edu/BarryGoldman">Barry Goldman</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Management, 2006</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Employment Discrimination in Organizations: Antecedents and Consequences","attachmentId":44338349,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/14306866/Employment_Discrimination_in_Organizations_Antecedents_and_Consequences","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/14306866/Employment_Discrimination_in_Organizations_Antecedents_and_Consequences"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="5" data-entity-id="37908145" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/37908145/Workplace_Racial_Discrimination_and_Middle_Class_Vulnerability">Workplace Racial Discrimination and Middle Class Vulnerability</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="15925209" href="https://southwestern.academia.edu/RByron">Reggie Byron</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Middle-class minority workers have skill and human capital credentials which should confer protections and relative workplace power. Moreover, they often work in more bureaucratic contexts where culturally proscribed status markers, such as race, should matter little if at all. In this article, we challenge such assumptions by quantitatively and qualitatively examining several hundred cases of workplace racial discrimination and the degree of middle-class African American vulnerability. Notable are significant levels of firing discrimination for all African American workers and a heightened likelihood of mobility-based discrimination and day-to-day racial harassment for middle-class African Americans. Through qualitative case immersion, we show the core practices and processes through which these patterns manifest.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Workplace Racial Discrimination and Middle Class Vulnerability","attachmentId":57918709,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/37908145/Workplace_Racial_Discrimination_and_Middle_Class_Vulnerability","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/37908145/Workplace_Racial_Discrimination_and_Middle_Class_Vulnerability"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="6" data-entity-id="27318815" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/27318815/Perceived_Work_Related_Discrimination_by_Women">Perceived Work-Related Discrimination by Women</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="3264752" href="https://yeshiva.academia.edu/RichardCaputo">Richard K Caputo</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Policy Practice, 2007</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">ABSTRACT This study used data from the National Longitudinal Survey, Young Women&amp;#39;s cohort, to assess the relationship between perceived discrimination and investments in human capital. Nearly 45% of the study sample (N = 654) reported job-related discrimination between 1972 and 2003. Women who perceived work-related discrimination were 1.6 times as likely to complete additional schooling, 2.4 times as likely to participate in occupational training, and nearly twice as likely to participate in on-the-job training (OJT) than those perceiving no such discrimination when controlling for a variety of measures. They also had higher average annual earnings.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Perceived Work-Related Discrimination by Women","attachmentId":54463715,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/27318815/Perceived_Work_Related_Discrimination_by_Women","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/27318815/Perceived_Work_Related_Discrimination_by_Women"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="108586502" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/108586502/Evidence_on_Discrimination_in_Employment_Codes_of_Color_Codes_of_Gender">Evidence on Discrimination in Employment: Codes of Color, Codes of Gender</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="26476539" href="https://independent.academia.edu/SandyDarity">Sandy Darity</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Economic Perspectives, 1998</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">There is substantial racial and gender disparity in the American economy. As we will demonstrate, discriminatory treatment within the labor market is a major cause of this inequality. Yet, there appear to have been particular periods in which racial minorities, and then women, experienced substantial reductions in economic disparity and discrimination. Some questions remain: Why did the movement toward racial equality stagnate after the mid-1970s? What factors are most responsible for the remaining gender inequality? What is the role of the competitive process in elimination or reproduction of discrimination in employment? How successful has the passage of federal antidiscrimination legislation in the 1960s been in producing an equal opportunity environment where job applicants are now evaluated on their qualifications? To give away the answer at the outset, discrimination by race has diminished somewhat, and discrimination by gender has diminished substantially; neither employment ...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Evidence on Discrimination in Employment: Codes of Color, Codes of Gender","attachmentId":106929330,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/108586502/Evidence_on_Discrimination_in_Employment_Codes_of_Color_Codes_of_Gender","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/108586502/Evidence_on_Discrimination_in_Employment_Codes_of_Color_Codes_of_Gender"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="8" data-entity-id="40264855" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/40264855/Bureaucracy_Discrimination_and_the_Racialized_Character_of_Organizational_Life">Bureaucracy, Discrimination, and the Racialized Character of Organizational Life</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="15925209" href="https://southwestern.academia.edu/RByron">Reggie Byron</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 2019</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Research on racial inequality in organizations typically (1) assumes constraining effects of bureaucratic structure on the capacity of powerful actors to discriminate or (2) reverts to individualistic interpretations emphasizing implicit biases or self-expressed motivations of gatekeepers. Such orientations are theoretically problematic because they ignore how bureaucratic structures and practices are immersed within and permeated by culturally normative racial meanings and hierarchies. This decoupling ultimately provides a protective , legitimating umbrella for organizational practices and gatekeeping actors À an umbrella under which differential treatment is enabled and dis-cursively portrayed as meritocratic or even organizationally good. In this chapter, we develop a race-centered conception of organizational practices by drawing from a sample of over 100 content-coded workplace discrimination cases and analyzing both discriminatory encounters and employer justifications for inequality-generating conduct. Results show three non-mutually exclusive patterns that highlight the fundamentally racial character of organizations: (1) the racialization of bureaucracies themselves via the organizational valuation and pursuit of "ideal workers," (2) the ostensibly bureaucratic and neutral, yet inequitable, policing of minority worker performance , and; (3) the everyday enforcement of racial status boundaries through harassment on the job, protection afforded to perpetrators, and bureaucratically enforced retaliation aimed at victims. The permeation of</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Bureaucracy, Discrimination, and the Racialized Character of Organizational Life","attachmentId":60500284,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/40264855/Bureaucracy_Discrimination_and_the_Racialized_Character_of_Organizational_Life","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/40264855/Bureaucracy_Discrimination_and_the_Racialized_Character_of_Organizational_Life"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="9" data-entity-id="15036459" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/15036459/What_We_Know_and_Dont_Eradicating_Employment_Discrimination_50_Years_After_the_Civil_Rights_Act">What We Know and Don't: Eradicating Employment Discrimination 50 Years After the Civil Rights Act</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="34051974" href="https://independent.academia.edu/EdenKing1">Eden King</a><span>, </span><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="34194220" href="https://dtc-wsuv.academia.edu/KristenJones">Kristen Jones</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2013</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"What We Know and Don't: Eradicating Employment Discrimination 50 Years After the Civil Rights Act","attachmentId":43641922,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/15036459/What_We_Know_and_Dont_Eradicating_Employment_Discrimination_50_Years_After_the_Civil_Rights_Act","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/15036459/What_We_Know_and_Dont_Eradicating_Employment_Discrimination_50_Years_After_the_Civil_Rights_Act"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--wrapper js-loswp-sticky-ctas hidden"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--grid-container"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":48272208,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":48272208,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div></div></div><div class="ds-below-fold--grid-container"><div class="ds-work--container js-loswp-embedded-document"><div class="attachment_preview" data-attachment="Attachment_48272208" style="display: none"><div class="js-scribd-document-container"><div class="scribd--document-loading js-scribd-document-loader" style="display: block;"><img alt="Loading..." src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/loaders/paper-load.gif" /><p>Loading Preview</p></div></div><div style="text-align: center;"><div class="scribd--no-preview-alert js-preview-unavailable"><p>Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. 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href="https://www.academia.edu/11888625/Racial_Inequalities_at_Work"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="3" data-entity-id="53516789" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/53516789/Gender_Discrimination_in_Management_Theoretical_and_Empirical_Perspectives">Gender Discrimination in Management: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="34170956" href="https://apubb.academia.edu/CorneliaMacarie">Cornelia Macarie</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2011</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button 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class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="4" data-entity-id="81582148" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/81582148/Gender_discrimination_in_the_United_States_Experiences_of_women">Gender discrimination in the United States: Experiences of women</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="42395212" href="https://independent.academia.edu/AsepSupriadi26">Asep Supriadi</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Health Services Research, 2019</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Gender discrimination in the United States: Experiences of 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data-entity-id="67542518" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/67542518/An_Integrative_Framework_on_the_Nature_Antecedents_and_Outcomes_of_Perceived_Discrimination_in_the_Workplace">An Integrative Framework on the Nature, Antecedents and Outcomes of Perceived Discrimination in the Workplace</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="144066244" href="https://independent.academia.edu/SocorroMendoza3">Socorro Mendoza</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2010</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"An Integrative Framework on the Nature, Antecedents and Outcomes of Perceived Discrimination in the Workplace","attachmentId":78319792,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/67542518/An_Integrative_Framework_on_the_Nature_Antecedents_and_Outcomes_of_Perceived_Discrimination_in_the_Workplace","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/67542518/An_Integrative_Framework_on_the_Nature_Antecedents_and_Outcomes_of_Perceived_Discrimination_in_the_Workplace"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="4171512" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title 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