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class="section__main"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="auteur"> <span>Author Definition</span> </h2> <div class="section__content"> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-apercu" class="definition-section-title">Definition</h3> <div class="crayon article-chapo-108814 apercu surlignable"><p>An exclusive purchasing agreement is a contract through which a buyer - commonly a distributor – promises to buy all or specific goods and services only from a particular seller, being prohibited to buy those products from any other competitor (<i>inter-brand competition restriction</i>) during the exclusivity period. Most of these agreements would lead to a “single-branding” strategy, in which a company targets a specific market sector with each of its brands. Antitrust concerns about these vertical agreements are related to the possibility of affecting substantially inter-branding competition in the relevant market.</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-texte" class="definition-section-title">Commentary</h3> <div class="crayon article-texte-108814 texte surlignable"><p>According to TFEU, agreements that have as the object or effect to restrict competition are prohibited. Abuse of a dominant position is also prohibited. The EU case law has developed a doctrine (<i>Delimitis</i> test) on abuse of dominant position which started with <i>Delimitis v Henninger Bräu AG</i> (1991). In this case, there was a brew supply contract between Henninger Brau AG and Mr. Delimitis, which stipulated that Mr. Delimitis, to maintain the tenure of the tavern, must buy a certain amount of beer and soft drinks each year from the brewery. There was a preliminary request before the ECJ about the interpretation of Art 101 TFEU and its compatibility with the referred agreement. The Court analysis aimed to determine the existence of possible cumulative foreclosure effects, due to the combination of this agreement with others similar in the same relevant market. The Court judgment was based on the consideration of three components: (1) market shares of the contracting parties and proportion of outlets tied to the manufacturer, (2) the duration of the agreement, and (3) other factors related to barriers to entry on the relevant market. The doctrine of <i>Delimitis</i> has been applied in several following cases by the CFI (currently, the General Court). In <i>Langnese</i> (1995), the Court upheld the decision of the Commission, considering that the agreement between the parties infringed the Article 85(1) of the EEC Treaty, now Art. 101 TFEU, based on the determination of the cumulative effects of the network of similar agreements – for which the CFI considered the rate of outlets tied to the other fundamental ice-cream producer in Germany, which was more than 10%-. Another case that continued the application of the <i>Delimitis</i> test was <i>Van der Bergh Foods</i> (1998). Through this case, it is possible to point out that when the level of entry barrier is high, the importance of the contract duration is reduced. In other words, when there is a significant participant in the network involved in the agreement, the cumulative effect of the exclusivity contract becomes the main factor to analyze the legality of the agreement.</p> <p>In general terms, exclusive contracts between manufacturers and suppliers are lawful in the US legal system. Nevertheless, exclusive purchasing agreements have the potential to violate the prescriptions of Section 2 of the US Sherman Act 1980 – which prohibits the acquisition or maintenance of monopoly power or the attempts to monopolize the relevant market through improper ways, such as exclusionary conducts- and Section 5 of the FTC Act– which prohibits ‘‘unfair or deceptive acts or practices in or affecting commerce’’-, when a monopolist firm through an exclusive contract prevents the entry of new competitors for sales, blocking the smaller rivals. Therefore, to violate Section 2 of the Sherman Act the agreement must harm consumers. For example, in the case <i>In the Matter of McWane, Inc, and Star Pipe Products, Ltd.</i>, the FTC actioned against McWane Inc, due to it unlawfully maintained its monopoly in the domestic pipe fittings market by the implementation of an exclusive dealing policy called “Full Support Program”, as a response to Star’s forthcoming entry in the market. Before Star entered into the market in 2009, McWane was the only manufacturer of domestic fittings and by 2010 Star rapidly gained a 5% market share. The policy implemented by McWane was considered a threat for the distributors who would not be able to buy any more domestic fittings from McWane if they purchased those items from McWane’s competitor, Star. As a result of the implementation of the Full Support Program, several distributors decided to cancel orders or to not purchase domestic fittings from Star. The FTC concluded that the Full Support Program harmed competition and lacked offsetting procompetitive benefits for the consumers, violating Section 5 of the FTC Act, based on: (1) McWane possessed monopoly power in the relevant market (ductile iron pipe fittings) and (2) McWane’s Full Support Program McWane produced the maintenance of that power illegally. Furthermore, the Commission’s Final Order prohibited McWane to require exclusivity from its customers, which was upheld by the Eleventh Circuit. Considering this case, it is possible to conclude that although exclusive purchasing agreements are not unlawful in themselves, in the case of monopolist firms abusing their dominant situation in the market, they can impose obligations and conditions downstream that significantly reduce the competition and prevent the entry of new competitors. The case <i>United States of America, Appellant, v. Dentsply International, Inc</i> (2005), contains an interesting analysis in which the US Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit concluded that the monopolist manufacturer-supplier of dental supplies, Dentsply, violated Section 2 of the Sherman Act. Dentsply enjoyed a dominant position in the relevant market of sale of prefabricated artificial teeth in the US, with a 75% to 80% market share on a revenue basis. In 1993 this manufacturer adopted an exclusive dealing agreement called Dealer Criterion 6 which the Third Court considered anti-competitive, due to “(…) Dealer Criterion 6 has a significant effect in preserving Dentsply’s monopoly. It helps keep sales of competing teeth below the critical level necessary for any rival to pose a real threat to Dentsply’s market share. As such, Dealer Criterion 6 is a solid pillar of harm to competition” (399 F.3d at 191). Regarding the legality of exclusive purchasing agreements, the Third Court affirmed that they are not illegal <i>per se</i> and the prerequisites that must be met are: (1) “a finding that monopoly power exists” and (2) “the exclusionary conduct must have anti-competitive effect” (399 F.3d at 187). In conclusion, through the application of Dealer Criterion 6, Dentsply was able to exclude rivals from the dealer’s network.</p> <p>The US courts have adopted for the analysis of these cases the effects analysis and the rule of reason. The harm experienced by consumers in the cited cases from the US (the anti-competitive effects) is related to the acquisition or maintenance of monopolist power which impeded and prevented the entry of more competition into the market, through exclusive contracts, excluding the possibility to benefit the society from lower prices and better goods and services.</p> <p>In conclusion, through the cases previously analysed, it is possible to distinguish a slight difference between the EU and the US regulation of exclusive purchasing agreements to consider them anticompetitive. On the one hand, Article 102 TFEU requires a “dominant position”, on the other hand, Section 2 of the Sherman Act refers to the conduct of any competitor who has the effect of “monopolization”.</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-jurisprudence" class="definition-section-title">Case references</h3> <div class="crayon article-reference-108814 reference"><p><i>European Union:</i></p> <p><a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/bulletin/news-issues/march-1998/The-European-Commission-condemns-39468">Case T-65/98, Van den Bergh Foods v Commission [1998] ECR II-04653</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/bulletin/news-issues/june-1995/The-European-Court-of-First-39596">Case T-7/93., Langnese-Iglo GmbH v Commission [1995] ECR II-01533</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/bulletin/news-issues/february-1991/the-eu-court-of-justice-considers-that-a-provision-in-an-agreement-between-a">Case C-234/89, Delimitis v Henninger Bräu AG [1991] ECR I-00935</a></p> <p><i>United States:</i></p> <p><a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/bulletin/news-issues/april-2015/A-US-Court-of-Appeals-holds-that-a-72658">In the Matter of McWane, Inc, and Star Pipe Products, Ltd., FTC No. 101 0080b (2015)</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/bulletin/news-issues/february-2005/A-US-Court-of-Appeals-finds">United States of America, Appellant, v. Dentsply International, Inc, 399 F.3d 181 (3d Cir. 2005)</a></p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-biblio" class="definition-section-title">Bibliography</h3> <div class="crayon article-ps-108814 jurisprudence"><p>Areeda, Phillip and Herbert Hovenkamp. <i>Antitrust Law: An Analysis of Antitrust Principles and their Application</i>. Tercera. Vol. 3. 14 vols. Nueva York: Wolters Kluwer Law and Business, 2008.</p> <p>Baker, Jonathan, <i>Exclusion as a Core Competition Concern</i>, Antitrust Law Journal 78, nº 3 (2013):527-89.</p> <p>Elhauge, Einer, <i>Defining Better Monopolization Standards</i>, Standford Law Review 56 (Noviembre 2003): 253-344.</p> <p>Frank Montag, Joanna Goyder, <i>Exclusive dealing: Presumptions and bright lines</i>, December 2013, Concurrences N° 4-2013, Art. N° 58815.</p> <p>Innes, Robert, and Richard Sexton, <i>Strategic Buyers and Exclusionary Contracts</i>, The American Economic Review 84, nº 3 (1994): 566-84.</p></div> </div> </div> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"> <div class="miniplan miniplan_definition sticky-top" id="definition-index"> <ul class="nav nav-list"> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#part-apercu" data-target="#part-apercu">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#part-texte" data-target="#part-texte">Commentary</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#part-jurisprudence" data-target="#part-jurisprudence">Case references</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#part-biblio" data-target="#part-biblio">Bibliography</a></li> </ul> </div> <h2>Author</h2> <div class="auteurs"> <ul class="liste-items liste-items-well"> <li class="item"><div class="entry auteur" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <strong class="entry-title"> <a href="en/authors/maria-luisa-ilharreborde-illanes" itemprop="url"> <span class='logo-img-wrapper spip_logo' style="width:50px;"><span class="img" style="display:block;position:relative;height:0;width:100%;padding-bottom:100%;overflow:hidden;background:url(local/cache-vignettes/L100xH100/photoo-3418c.jpg?1727190960) no-repeat center;background-size:100%;"> </span></span> <span itemprop="name" class="nom">María Luisa Ilharreborde Illanes</span></a> </strong> <div class="entry-content"> <span class='organisation' itemprop="worksFor" itemtype="http://schema.org/Organization">Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile (Santiago)</span> </div> <div class="entry-meta"> <span class="pays">Chile</span> <span class="articles"><em>3</em> contributions</span> <span class="visites"><em>12635</em> visits</span> </div> </div></li> </ul> </div> <div class="well citation"> <h2>Quotation</h2> <article class="entry article article-dictionary hentry"> <span class="authors">María Luisa Ilharreborde Illanes, </span> <span class="entry-title">Exclusive purchasing agreements</span><span class="rubrique"><span class="sep">, </span> Global Dictionary of Competition Law, Concurrences, Art. N° 86064</span> </article> </div> <div class="well stats"> <p><i class="picto picto-eye"></i> <b>Visits</b> <em class="number">12441</em></p> </div> </aside> </div> </section> <section class="section section_primary section_cols section_author scrollable-anchor"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="section__main"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="institution"> <span>Institution Definition</span> </h2> <div class="section__content"> <div class="crayon article-texte-86064 texte surlignable"><p>"In exclusive purchasing agreements, the reseller agrees to purchase the contract goods only from the other party and not from any other supplier. The supplier is entitled to supply other resellers in the same sales area and at the same level of distribution. Unlike an exclusive distributor, the tied reseller is not protected against competition from other resellers who, like himself, receive the contract goods direct from the supplier. On the other hand, he is free of restrictions as to the area over which he may make his sales effort." <a href="IMG/pdf/commission_notice_concerning_commission_regulations_eec_no_1983_83_and_eec_no_1984_83_of_22_june_1983_on_the_application_of_article_85_3_of_the_treaty_to_categories_of_exclusive_distribution_and_exclusive_purchasing_agreements.pdf?39258/22cc1476a096854338120eb5a82628f95d8df5a6934c4c5a941b55b054fd54f0" class="spip_in" type='application/pdf'>The Commission notice concerning Commission Regulations (EEC) No 1983/83 and (EEC) No 1984/83 of 22 June 1983 on the application of Article 85 (3) of the Treaty to categories of exclusive distribution and exclusive purchasing agreements</a></p></div> </div> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"></aside> </div> </section> <section class="section section_primary section_cols section_references scrollable-anchor"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="section__main"> <section class="subsection subsection_jurisprudence related-section related-jurisprudence scrollable-anchor"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="related-jurisprudence"> <span id="references">Case Comments</span> </h2> <div class="liste articles articles-related"> <div class="liste-items"> <div class='ajaxbloc' data-ajax-env='1yVjRxW9uyhvoads3ooL2VxJEbr9Hh1c/XjGB8MEI9LRRzhXRfkQ79mmrIBBUHqOqoMOsjVGh5SlroQJCwnfSfAxm33sSpAVQ3IqT2k8S+injpIV2MCDiQ4kkXtbvR0b72I+6HS2EhfgmjH1s8D0VrwwU57eCg5OIlO2Iaij9R5vZBVzbWLBqSr6avuKxLUeOXzZ4KAKwj+bKozmlsdtaV+3OcEy8WcTFrokBdamvs4S+W2656gSxNzf+9yB0oEt7Xfo2KA2W4/KRybme72qidz8qjCVPFyGJ965mouiXJTVsQ5m4ErRJZe/EuH4xX2Jev++Y5SGGFeC1gQGgSwKehX/R2NRfhx5atUn' data-origin="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en"> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/pedro-callol">Pedro Callol</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/may-2024/the-eu-commission-fines-a-chocolate-and-biscuit-producer-eur337-5m-for-engaging" rel="bookmark">The EU Commission fines a chocolate and biscuit producer €337.5M for engaging in anticompetitive agreements to restrict cross-border trade between Member States <em>(Mondelēz)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-05-22T22:00:00Z">23 May 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-119829 introduction entry-content"> <p>The European Commission has fined Mondelēz International, Inc (Mondelēz), one of the world’s leading chocolate and biscuit producers, € 337.5 million for obstructing cross-border trade in chocolate, biscuit and coffee products between Member States. <br class='autobr' /> The Commission has found that Mondelēz has: (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/olga-sipka">Olga Sipka</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/dusan-đuric">Dušan Đurić</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/march-2024/the-serbian-competition-authority-prohibits-a-major-pharmaceutical-firm-from" rel="bookmark">The Serbian Competition Authority prohibits a major pharmaceutical firm from entering into an exclusivity arrangement with a distributor, and conditionally approves a similar arrangement involving another pharmaceutical firm with the same distributor <em>(Phoenix Pharma / Roche)</em>, <em>(Phoenix Pharma / Novo Nordisk)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-03-14T23:00:00Z">15 March 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-118868 introduction entry-content"> <p>In April 2024, the Serbian Competition Authority (“SCA”) published two decisions in the individual exemption process. In the first case, which involves one of the largest medicine manufacturers – Roche, and the distributor - Phoenix Pharma, exemption was denied. In a similar case involving a (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/jean-michel-vertut">Jean-Michel Vertut</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-2-2024/alerts/upstream-marketing-of-agricultural-products-the-paris-court-of-appeal-provides" rel="bookmark"><strong>Upstream marketing of agricultural products</strong>: The Paris Court of Appeal sheds some light on the upstream marketing of agricultural products, particularly fruits and vegetables, and essentially dismisses a producer’s various claims for compensation against his buyer <em>(La Fraiserie de Sologne / Prosol)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-03-12T23:00:00Z">13 March 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-119035 introduction entry-content"> <p>Facts. The dispute was between an agricultural fruit and vegetable producer, EARL La Fraiserie de Sologne ("the producer" or "the Fraiserie") and a distributor, S.A.S Prosol, operating Grand Frais stores ("the distributor" or "Prosol" or "the buyer"). The relationship, not formalized in a (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/jean-michel-vertut">Jean-Michel Vertut</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-2-2024/alerts/exclusivity-clause-the-bordeaux-court-of-appeal-condemns-a-supplier-for-having" rel="bookmark"><strong>Exclusivity clause</strong>: The Bordeaux Court of Appeal condemns a supplier for having carried out an equivalent activity in indirect breach of a valid exclusivity clause, regarding similar conditions of lawfulness of those for non-compete clauses <em>(Océano Loisirs / Baz Industries)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-01-23T23:00:00Z">24 January 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-118758 introduction entry-content"> <p>Facts. Océano Loisirs ("Océano") operated a leisure and sports park in the Vendée department. In October 2013, it entered into a " service provision contract " with Baz Industries ("BAZ"), entrusting it with the design and management of installation work for an activity called " Water Jump ", (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/hong-kong-competition-commission">Hong Kong Competition Commission</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/december-2023/the-hong-kong-competition-authority-accepts-commitments-of-two-leading-online" rel="bookmark">The Hong Kong Competition Authority accepts commitments of two leading online food delivery platforms to address concerns over their restrictive agreements with restaurants <em>(Foodpanda / Deliveroo)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-12-28T23:00:00Z">29 December 2023</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-116583 introduction entry-content"> <p>Competition Commission accepts commitments offered by Foodpanda and Deliveroo* <br class='autobr' /> The Competition Commission (“Commission”) today announced the acceptance of commitments offered under section 60 of the Competition Ordinance (“Ordinance”) by two leading online food delivery platforms in Hong Kong, (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/irish-competition-authority">Irish Competition Authority</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/december-2023/the-irish-competition-authority-concludes-examination-of-complaints-relating-to" rel="bookmark">The Irish Competition Authority concludes the examination of complaints relating to the exclusive anticompetitive agreement involving the national athletics association <em>(Athletics Association of Ireland)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-12-20T23:00:00Z">21 December 2023</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-116559 introduction entry-content"> <p>CCPC concludes examination of complaints relating to the Athletics Association of Ireland* <br class='autobr' /> The Competition and Consumer Protection Commission (CCPC) has concluded its recent engagement with the Athletics Association of Ireland (AAI). The AAI are the national governing body for athletics in (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/us-department-of-justice-antitrust-division">US Department of Justice Antitrust Division</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/november-2023/the-us-doj-files-a-lawsuit-and-proposes-consent-decree-to-prohibit-the-fifth" rel="bookmark">The US DoJ files a lawsuit and proposes a consent decree to prohibit the fifth largest poultry processor in the country from imposing unfair and anticompetitive termination penalties in contracts with chicken growers <em>(Koch Foods)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-11-08T23:00:00Z">9 November 2023</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-115527 introduction entry-content"> <p>Justice Department Files Lawsuit and Proposed Consent Decree to Prohibit Koch Foods from Imposing Unfair and Anticompetitive Termination Penalties in Contracts with Chicken Growers* <br class='autobr' /> Decree Would Restore Competition for Chicken Growing Services, Expanding Opportunities for Poultry Farmers <br class='autobr' /> The (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/polish-competition-authority">Polish Competition Authority</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/july-2023/the-polish-competition-authority-obliges-a-sugar-manufacturer-to-change-the" rel="bookmark">The Polish Competition Authority obliges a sugar manufacturer to change the provisions in the contracts that it concluded with farmers and which required them to buy sugar beet seeds exclusively from it</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-07-30T22:00:00Z">31 July 2023</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-113445 introduction entry-content"> <p>Pfeifer & Langen to change its practice towards sugar beet suppliers* The Pfeifer & Langen company is changing its practice following an intervention of President of UOKiK. Farmers - sugar beet planters will gain access to an extended seed offer and will not need to buy them exclusively (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/new-caledonia-competition-authority-noumea">New Caledonian Competition Authority</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/july-2023/the-new-caledonian-competition-authority-fines-an-exclusive-import-agreement" rel="bookmark">The New Caledonian Competition Authority fines a cartel for concluding an exclusive import agreement in the market for importing food products of Asian origin <em>(Kerl Distribution, Rockman Australia)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-07-19T22:00:00Z">20 July 2023</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-113260 introduction entry-content"> <p>The Autorité sanctions an exclusive import agreement and a cartel in the sector of importing food products of Asian origin* <br class='autobr' /> In October 2021, the company International Foodies seized the Autorité of anti-competitive practices implemented in the sector of the import and distribution of food (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/pedro-callol">Pedro Callol</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/july-2023/the-spanish-competition-authority-fines-two-big-tech-companies-for-restricting" rel="bookmark">The Spanish Competition Authority fines two Big-Tech companies for restricting competition in the online marketplace for electronic products in the country <em>(Apple / Amazon)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-07-11T22:00:00Z">12 July 2023</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-116939 introduction entry-content"> <p>The CNMC has issued a decision condemning both companies for restricting the possibility of competing Apple products being advertised in Amazon’s platform. According to the CNMC, Amazon and Apple reached a deal which comprised a series of clauses in the contracts managing Amazon’s conditions as (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/nicolas-ereseo">Nicolas Éréséo</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-3-2023/chroniques/exclusive-distribution-the-montpellier-court-of-appeal-rules-that-proof-of" rel="bookmark"><strong>Exclusive distribution</strong>: The Montpellier Court of Appeal rules that proof of breach of a non-competition obligation cannot be provided by means of false clients <em>(P&M Distribution / Abris Conseil)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-06-05T22:00:00Z">6 June 2023</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-113694 introduction entry-content"> <p>A company supplying swimming pool covers entrusts an exclusive marketing territory to another company specializing in the sale and installation of this type of product. In return, the latter undertakes not to market any competing products. <br class='autobr' /> In order to prove the breach of this non-compete (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/karine-biancone">Karine Biancone</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-3-2023/alertes/inadmissibility-of-evidence-the-montpellier-court-of-appeal-dismisses-an-action" rel="bookmark"><strong>Inadmissibility of evidence</strong> : The Montpellier Court of Appeal dismisses an action for early termination of an exclusive distribution contract on the grounds that the evidence established through the use of a false customer was inadmissible (<em>P&M Distribution / Abris conseil</em>)</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-06-05T22:00:00Z">6 June 2023</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-114403 introduction entry-content"> <p>Facts. A company specializing in the sale of swimming pool enclosures (the "Supplier") entered into a five-year exclusive distribution contract for a conceded territory with a company specializing in the sale and home installation of swimming pool enclosures (the "Distributor"). In return for (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/ludovic-bernardeau">Ludovic Bernardeau</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-3-2023/chroniques/passive-sales-the-french-competition-authority-fines-several-entities-belonging" rel="bookmark"><strong>Passive sales</strong> : The French Competition Authority fines several entities belonging to a group that produces and sells bakery equipment for agreeing on prices and prohibiting passive sales as part of a settlement procedure <em>(L’ACB)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-04-17T22:00:00Z">18 April 2023</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-113659 introduction entry-content"> <p>Nowadays, Pagnol’s succulent film would seem to be a dinosaur in the so-called "bakery industry". In this case, the traditional baguette industry. It can’t be invented. The proof is in the decision reported here, in which the French Competition Authority [hereinafter "the Authority"] sanctioned (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/french-competition-authority">French Competition Authority</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/march-2023/the-french-competition-authority-fines-a-group-of-companies-and-two-wholesale" rel="bookmark">The French Competition Authority fines a group of companies and two wholesale importers for maintaining exclusive import rights in French Guiana and Guadeloupe <em>(Arvitis group / Sodis Chrismay / Sodipa)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-03-07T23:00:00Z">8 March 2023</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-111457 introduction entry-content"> <p>Canard-Duchêne champagnes: Several Arvitis group companies and two wholesale importers fined for maintaining exclusive import rights* <br class='autobr' /> Canard-Duchêne champagnes: The Autorité de la concurrence fines several Arvitis group companies and two wholesale importers for maintaining exclusive import (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/ludovic-bernardeau">Ludovic Bernardeau</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/etienne-bodere">Etienne Bodéré</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-2-2023/chroniques/exclusive-right-to-import-the-french-competition-authority-sanctions-several" rel="bookmark"><strong>Exclusive right to import</strong>: The French Competition Authority sanctions several companies of a champagne producing group for granting exclusive import rights, and two importing wholesalers - located in Guyana and Guadeloupe - for having benefited from these exclusive import rights <em>(Arvitis / Sodis Chrismay / Sodipa)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-03-07T23:00:00Z">8 March 2023</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-112505 introduction entry-content"> <p>Champagne, as we know, is drunk at exactly the right temperature and cannot be cut with anything - even more so, with no exclusive import rights, as the French Competition the Competition Authority in its decision n° 23-D-02 of March 8, 2023. <br class='autobr' /> By the decision under review, the Authority (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="pagination more"><a id='pagination_articles_related' class='pagination_ancre'></a> <ul class="pager"> <li class="next"><a href='//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en?debut_articles_related=15#pagination_articles_related' class='lien_pagination more' rel='next'>More…</a></li> </ul></div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section class="subsection subsection_articles related-section related-articles scrollable-anchor"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="related-articles"> <span>Articles</span> </h2> <div class="liste articles articles-related"> <div class="liste-items"> <div class='ajaxbloc' data-ajax-env='1yXTRhKtp6jRgLddfS4ets+kFpo3qRWT0cnPo+GUw3HcJ9YDARBuDdkjohQNAyvY9N5NfaeB+X7/xYWOsas1bDzIDO6tGcU8P8zgew7lv8gL2BtFToW0MGuaIchw5kd15Ws7T5YPCnA5LKluPy94V2wO8KUbeSEqB+cuTXi0VaAD+n7mAUDC4xh47o30WDhiJY8OKURgYpooJxWnkVUNaD4dLlMEo2GtmAFp3kSED4xU48KxidBvb7nUpJh4idndb4gMdAsWWq6fEGBsEyeEG3JYXRWsqDV1FDxcyglJBGWo4SaY8t7f/zocx2uTB3g9t/0o576cOqf6b9j0ZBDLkK9JjFKqjg==' data-origin="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en"> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/herbert-hovenkamp-2156">Herbert Hovenkamp</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/mark-d-janis">Mark D. Janis</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/mark-a-lemley">Mark A. Lemley</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/christopher-r-leslie">Christopher R. Leslie</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/michael-a-carrier">Michael A. Carrier</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-1-2021/livres/ip-and-antitrust-an-analysis-of-antitrust-principles-applied-to-intellectual" rel="bookmark">IP and Antitrust: An Analysis of Antitrust Principles Applied to Intellectual Property Law, Herbert J. HOVENKAMP, Mark D. JANIS, Mark A. LEMLEY, Christopher R. LESLIE and Michael A. CARRIER</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2021-01-31T23:00:00Z">February 2021</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-102246 introduction entry-content"> <p>This section selects books on themes related to competition laws and economics. This compilation does not attempt to be exhaustive but rather a survey of themes important in the area. The survey usually covers publication over the last three months after publication of the latest issue of (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/stephane-rodrigues">Stéphane Rodrigues</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-1-2018/livres/european-distribution-law-french-distribution-law-joseph-vogel-and-louis-vogel" rel="bookmark">European Distribution Law: French Distribution Law, Joseph VOGEL and Louis VOGEL</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2018-01-31T23:00:00Z">February 2018</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-86293 introduction entry-content"> <p>This section selects books on themes related to competition laws and economics. This compilation does not attempt to be exhaustive but rather a survey of themes important in the area. The survey usually covers publication over the last three months after publication of the latest issue of (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/stephane-rodrigues">Stéphane Rodrigues</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-1-2018/livres/droit-de-la-distribution-didier-ferrier-and-nicolas-ferrier" rel="bookmark">Droit de la distribution, Didier FERRIER and Nicolas FERRIER</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2018-01-31T23:00:00Z">February 2018</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-86297 introduction entry-content"> <p>This section selects books on themes related to competition laws and economics. This compilation does not attempt to be exhaustive but rather a survey of themes important in the area. The survey usually covers publication over the last three months after publication of the latest issue of (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/frank-montag">Frank Montag</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/joanna-goyder">Joanna Goyder</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-4-2013/pratiques/exclusive-dealing-presumptions-and-bright-lines-58815" rel="bookmark">Exclusive dealing: Presumptions and bright lines</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2013-11-30T23:00:00Z">December 2013</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-58815 introduction entry-content"> <p>The principal competition issue raised by exclusive dealing is the possible foreclosure of equally efficient competitors from the market. Exclusive dealing may constitute an infringement either of the rules that govern unilateral anti-competitive conduct, such as abuse of dominance, or of the (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/david-spector">David Spector</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/etienne-pfister">Etienne Pfister</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/joseph-vogel">Joseph Vogel</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-1-2012/law-economics/distribution-networks-and-competition-law" rel="bookmark">Distribution networks and competition law</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2012-01-31T23:00:00Z">February 2012</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-41688 introduction entry-content"> <p>Paradoxically, competition law today is frequently used more as a weapon of defence than to challenge networks, and notably against certain rules of national law. When relied on as a means of challenging networks, competition law is mainly used either to circumvent the networks, or to gain entry (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteur/Laurent-Francois-Martin">Laurent François-Martin</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-1-2010/articles-en/The-control-of-distributors-by-the" rel="bookmark">The control of distributors by the heads of distribution - Definition and issues</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2010-01-31T23:00:00Z">February 2010</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-30360 introduction entry-content"> <p>The relations between heads of distribution networks and their distributors are currently the subject of renewed antitrust focus. In light of both EU and domestic case law, certain criteria can be applied to determine whether the head of a network should be deemed to have taken control over its (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteur/Frederic-Puel">Frédéric Puel</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteur/Stephanie-Chantre">Stephanie Chantre</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-2-2009/articles-en/REACH-A-highly-technical" rel="bookmark">Reach: A highly technical regulation that raises distribution and competition issues</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2009-04-30T22:00:00Z">May 2009</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-25741 introduction entry-content"> <p>Le règlement communautaire REACH a été adopté le 18 décembre 2006, et est entré dans sa phase active depuis le 1er janvier 2009. Il impose aux entreprises de coopérer en vue d’enregistrer toutes substances chimiques qu’elles produisent, importent ou utilisent sur le territoire de l’UE, sous (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteur/anne-de-cadaran">Anne de Cadaran</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/christophe-barthelemy">Christophe Barthélémy</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteur/Ines-Zenke">Ines Zenke</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/jean-baptiste-siproudhis">Jean-Baptiste Siproudhis</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/jean-patrice-de-la-laurencie">Jean-Patrice de La Laurencie</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/jean-paul-tran-thiet">Jean-Paul Tran Thiet</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteur/Markus-Kerber">Markus Kerber</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/olivier-freget">Olivier Fréget</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteur/Philippe-Redaelli">Philippe Redaelli</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-1-2009/dossier/ten-years-of-liberalisation-of-energy-contrasted-points-of-view" rel="bookmark">Ten years of liberalisation of energy: Contrasted points of view</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2009-01-31T23:00:00Z">February 2009</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-23381 introduction entry-content"> <p>The set of six articles covers a wide panel of points of views ten years after the 1999 EC Directive. 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Update on Wholesale Energy Market Regulation - Philippe Redaelli, General Counsel and Chief Financial Officer, Powernext; 2. (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/francois-leveque">François Lévêque</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-2-2006/droit-et-economie/antitrust-enforcement-in-the-electricity-and-gas-industries-problems-and" rel="bookmark">Antitrust enforcement in the electricity and gas industries - Problems and solutions for the EU</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2006-04-30T22:00:00Z">May 2006</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-740 introduction entry-content"> <p>This articles shows how antitrust enforcement in the electricity and gas industries raises specific problems that call for specific solutions. It examines inter alia the following questions: How can the anticompetitive effects of mergers be assessed in a changing regulatory environment? Should (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteur/jerome-gstalter">Jérôme Gstalter</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-4-2005/livres/an-economic-approach-to-article-82-eagcp-coll-669" rel="bookmark">An Economic Approach to Article 82</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2005-11-30T23:00:00Z">December 2005</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-669 introduction entry-content"> <p>With a view to giving better guidance, DG Competition reviewed its policy on the abuse of dominant position under Article 82. In this context, the Chief Economist of DG Competition has commissioned a report from the EAGCP, which is a group of distinguished academic economist advising DG COMP and (…)</p> </div> </article></div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section class="subsection related-section related-articles scrollable-anchor"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="related-events"> <span>Events</span> </h2> <div class="liste articles articles-related"> <div class="liste-items"> <div class='ajaxbloc' data-ajax-env='1yXvRhW9uyjRg789gxnPB1eyuUI8aCNxLLBzHMoQDLlevybAm18qOjBQ7LGuocr5E8O8Ii0sVWriNcWDf9QGQTl4oRak7foPfi8lqiG8d1jUsAuVYmeVUl+421oN2ytNKqw1LMJMKDeiALDVMHdmeG5qnuBzcGEIhZ4dHWTc8ru5ZrTQr25RktPovSUW8Bac/YS+kdDLzQ9LBhyStlXNbQ/w6r+ge4sFcgV5Ncyrap6NUYF6Zego3PQvvMX4nJlIrH9m/llmQmLi8ou3VMH9ozQ4Ht35bvLD8Z3LZ1OEe/Ed/PA25wndJZcfndWb0is6/ezoze+GCI/vrQQR0gtyuiuUFQPvGBK7' data-origin="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en"> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/esther-bitton">Esther Bitton</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/paul-csiszar">Paul Csiszar</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/emmanuel-durand">Emmanuel Durand</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/joel-tozzi">Joël Tozzi</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/jean-louis-fourgoux">Jean-Louis Fourgoux</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/events/distribution-competition-and-restrictive-practices-1-joint-purchasing" rel="bookmark">Distribution, competition and restrictive practices #1: Joint purchasing agreements</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2020-11-17T14:30:00Z">17 November 2020</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-93524 introduction entry-content"><p>1st Webinar of the « 1st Distribution, competition & restrictive practices Conference » organised by Concurrences, in partnership with De Pardieu Brocas Maffei and Fidal, with <a href="en/authors/paul-csiszar" class="spip_in">Paul Csiszar</a> (Director - Markets and cases IV: Basic industries, Manufacturing and Agriculture, DG COMP), <a href="en/authors/esther-bitton" class="spip_in">Esther Bitton</a> (Head of Antitrust, Casino), <a href="en/authors/emmanuel-durand" class="spip_in">Emmanuel Durand</a> (Partner, De Pardieu Brocas Maffei), <a href="en/authors/jean-louis-fourgoux" class="spip_in">Jean-Louis Fourgoux</a> (Partner, Fidal) and <a href="en/authors/joel-tozzi" class="spip_in">Joël Tozzi</a> (Deputy General Rapporteur, Autorité de la concurrence).</p></div> </article></div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section class="subsection subsections_books related-section related-articles scrollable-anchor"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="related-books"> <span>Books</span> </h2> <div class="liste articles articles-related"> <div class="liste-items"> <div class='ajaxbloc' data-ajax-env='1yXTRhKtp6jRgLfd5OEVPLDMa+blU9mq4aJi7tOhnDizXbvOSVAqDd1/ZSXKucqOtzCcvOXJt69sj+8o9G1txrYWed/mD9tR1dGiVutTdNGl8TrDliHM4GiAjBDka+9G8YASLEb0wF3D67bw6BsHca0jjuld8eTOfd+6bW9N6pgL+vbeMcN6etPoRcXW8BacR3bQrTqHdYZK4w69bqvGJ0Jg3FsMSGZ4y/KRaVh2HSWw4/J+6dH9HrSuow8YTebrql5eZbk6XGph/bW7djr+MeVjYN35zvLD8Z7LEIISmdTvPjYJD2kcEQuVHW6Hszn64xuVuxMjMlcxfM8fVt36F/oevNP+4G4sQg==' data-origin="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en"> <div class='item short'>  <article class="entry article article-doc-livre hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/douglas-h-ginsburg">Douglas H. Ginsburg</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/joshua-d-wright">Joshua D. Wright</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/livre/choice-a-new-standard-for-competition-law-analysis#id=42680" rel="bookmark">Choice - A New Standard for Competition Law Analysis? <small>The goals of antitrust: welfare trumps choice</small></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2016-06-19T22:00:00Z"><span class="dm"><span class="d">20 </span><span class="m">Jun</span></span><span class="y"> 2016</span></time></p> <div class="introduction entry-content">CHOICE – A NEW STANDARD FOR COMPETITION LAW ANALYSIS? 185 The goals of antitrust: welfare trumps choice * JOSHUA D. WRIGHT † jwrightg@gmu.edu Professor of Law, George Mason University School of Law Former Commissioner, US Federal Trade Commission DOUGLAS H. GINSBURG ‡ dginsbur@gmu.edu Senior (…)</div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"> <div class="miniplan miniplan_related sticky-top" id="related-index"> <ul class="nav nav-list"> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#related-jurisprudence" data-target="#related-jurisprudence">Case Comments</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#related-articles" data-target="#related-articles">Articles</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#related-events" data-target="#related-events">Events</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#related-books" data-target="#related-books">Books</a></li> </ul> </div> </aside> </div> </section> <div class="index-overlay collapse" id="index"> <span class="arrow-top"></span> <button class="close">×</button> <div class="glossaire-index"> <div class="main"> <div class="index"> <a class="lettre" 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href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#l" data-anchor="#l">l</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#m" data-anchor="#m">m</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#n" data-anchor="#n">n</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#o" data-anchor="#o">o</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#p" data-anchor="#p">p</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#r" data-anchor="#r">r</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#s" data-anchor="#s">s</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#t" data-anchor="#t">t</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#u" data-anchor="#u">u</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#v" data-anchor="#v">v</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en#w" data-anchor="#w">w</a> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="a"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">a</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/absolute-territorial-protection">Absolute territorial protection </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/abuse-of-dominant-position-en">Abuse of dominant position</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/abuse-of-economic-dependence">Abuse of economic dependence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/access-to-the-file-en">Access to the file</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/actual-competitor">Actual competitor </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/administered-prices">Administered prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/advisory-committee-118302">Advisory committee</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/agent-en">Agent</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/agreement-notion-en">Agreement (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ai-collusion-algorithm">AI Collusion (Algorithm)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/AKZO-Procedure">AKZO Procedure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/amicus-curiae">Amicus curiae</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ancillary-restraints">Ancillary restraints </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/annulment">Annulment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-market-distortions">Anticompetitive Market Distortions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-object-or-effect-en">Anticompetitive object or effect</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-practices">Anticompetitive practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Antitrust">Antitrust</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/applicable-law">Applicable law</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/arbitration">Arbitration</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/article-11-letter">Article 11 letter </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/artificial-intelligence">Artificial Intelligence </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/aec-as-efficient-competitor-principle-and-test">As-Efficient Competitor (AEC)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="b"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">b</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/barriers-to-entry-en">Barriers to entry</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bertrand-nash-equilibrium">Bertrand (Nash) equilibrium</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bid-rigging">Bid rigging</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/block-exemption-regulation">Block exemption (Regulation) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/boycott">Boycott</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/brand-competition-en">Brand competition</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bundling">Bundling</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/burden-of-proof">Burden of proof</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/buyer-power">Buyer power </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="c"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">c</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/cartel">Cartel </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/clearance-phase-ii-merger">Clearance phase II (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collecting-society">Collecting society </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collective-dominance">Collective dominance</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collective-redress-class-action">Collective redress (class action)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/comity">Comity </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/commission-communication">Commission communication</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/competence">Competence </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/competition-policy-89181">Competition policy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/complaint">Complaint </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Compliance-programme">Compliance programme </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/compulsory-license">Compulsory license</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concentration-indexes-en">Concentration indexes</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concerted-practices-en">Concerted practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concession-86056">Concession</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concurrent-jurisdiction">Concurrent jurisdiction</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Consortium-12192">Consortium </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/consumer-protection">Consumer protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/consumers-associations-en">Consumers’ associations</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/control-change">Control (change)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/control-notion">Control (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cooperation-between-competition-authorities-en">Cooperation between competition authorities</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/coordinated-effects">Coordinated effects</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/copyright">Copyright</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/corruption">Corruption</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cost-based-access">Cost-based access</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cournot-nash-equilibrium">Cournot (Nash) equilibrium</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/criminal-sanctions">Criminal sanctions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cross-subsidisation">Cross subsidisation </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="d"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">d</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/damages">Damages</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/de-minimis-notice">De minimis notice</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/digital-markets-act">Digital Markets Act</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/direct-effect">Direct effect</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/discriminatory-practices">Discriminatory practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/distribution-agreement">Distribution agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/divestiture">Divestiture</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/dominance-notion">Dominance (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/downstream-market-117440">Downstream market</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="e"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">e</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/echr">ECHR</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economic-analysis">Economic analysis</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economic-efficiency">Economic efficiency</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economies-of-scale">Economies of scale </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ecosystem-failures">Ecosystem Failures</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effect-on-trade-between-member-states">Effect on trade between Member States</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effective-judicial-protection">Effective judicial protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effects-doctrine-118100">Effects doctrine</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/efta-surveillance-authority-esa-court">EFTA Surveillance Authority (ESA) & Court </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/environmental-protection-en">Environmental protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/error-costs-108946">Error costs</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/essential-facility">Essential facility</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/european-competition-network-ecn-en">European Competition Network (ECN)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/excessive-prices-en">Excessive prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exchange-of-information">Exchanges of information</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusionary-practice">Exclusionary practice </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Exclusive-distribution-12218">Exclusive distribution </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en">Exclusive purchasing agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusive-right-art-106-tfeu">Exclusive right (Art. 106 TFEU)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause">Exclusivity clause</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Exhaustion">Exhaustion </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Extra-territoriality">Extra-territoriality</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="f"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">f</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/Failing-firm-defence">Failing firm defence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/fidelity-rebates">Fidelity rebates</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Fine">Fine</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/fintech">Fintech</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreclosure-117887">Foreclosure</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreign-direct-investment-fdi">Foreign direct investment (FDI)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreign-subsidies">Foreign Subsidies</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/form-co">Form CO (EU) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/frand">FRAND</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Free-riding">Free riding </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="g"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">g</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/geographic-market">Geographic market</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/corporate-group">Group of undertakings</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/group-purchasing-organization">Group purchasing organization</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/guidelines-119080">Guidelines</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/gun-jumping">Gun jumping</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="h"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">h</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/hard-core-restrictions">Hard core restrictions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Hearing-officer">Hearing officer </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/horizontal-agreement">Horizontal cooperation agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/hsr-filing-us-108854">HSR Filing (US)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="i"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">i</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/independence-and-impartiality">Independence and impartiality</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/individual-exemption-86377">Individual exemption</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/industrial-policy">Industrial policy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/intellectual-property-right-en">Intellectual property right</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/inter-brand-competition">Inter-brand competition </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Interim-measures">Interim measures </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/international-co-operation">International co-operation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/international-competition-network-icn">International competition network (ICN) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/investigations-inquiries-en">Investigations / inquiries</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="j"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">j</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/judicial-review">Judicial review</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="k"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">k</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/Know-how">Know-how </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="l"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">l</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/legal-privilege">Legal privilege</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Leniency-programme">Leniency</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/lerner-index">Lerner index</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/letter-of-formal-notice-118055">Letter of formal notice </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/licensing">Licensing</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/limitation-period-119083">Limitation Period </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="m"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">m</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/margin-squeeze">Margin squeeze</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/marginal-costs">Marginal costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-economy-investor">Market economy investor</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-power">Market power</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-share">Market share </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/media-pluralism">Media pluralism</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-notion-12318-en">Merger (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-prohibition">Merger (prohibition)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-withdrawal-118046">Merger (withdrawal)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Merger-control-procedure">Merger control procedure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-remedies-100323">Merger remedies</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/minority-shareholdings-89176">Minority shareholdings</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/misinformation">Misinformation</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/mobility-barriers-117741">Mobility Barriers</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Monopoly">Monopoly </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="n"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">n</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/ne-bis-in-idem-86490">Ne bis in idem</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/negative-clearance-118047">Negative clearance</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Network-effect">Network effect </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/non-compete-obligation-12156-en">Non-compete obligation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/non-horizontal-mergers">Non-Horizontal Mergers </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/notification-12310">Notification</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/nullity">Nullity </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="o"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">o</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/oligopoly">Oligopoly </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/online-platforms">Online Platforms</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="p"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">p</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/parallel-imports-parallel-trade-en">Parallel imports (parallel trade)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/passing-on-en">Passing-on</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Passive-sales">Passive sales </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/patents">Patents</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/pay-for-delay">Pay-for-delay</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/periodic-penalty-payment">Periodic penalty payment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/potential-competition">Potential competition </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/predatory-pricing">Predatory pricing</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/preliminary-rulings-art-267-tfue">Preliminary ruling (Art. 267 TFUE) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-discrimination-en">Price discrimination </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-leadership">Price leadership</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-signaling">Price signalling</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-fixing-agreement">Price-fixing agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/prices-en">Prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-equal-treatment">Principle of equal treatment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-equivalence">Principle of equivalence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-proportionality">Principle of proportionality</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/privacy-and-data-protection">Privacy and data protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/private-enforcement">Private enforcement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/privatization-en">Privatization</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/procedural-autonomy">Procedural autonomy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/professional-association-86373-en">Professional association</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/public-procurement">Public procurement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Public-undertaking">Public undertaking</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="r"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">r</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/r-d-agreement">R&D agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/case-referral-system-mergers">Referral (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/refusal-to-deal">Refusal to deal</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/the-registry-of-the-general-court-of-the-european-union">Registry of the General Court of the European Union</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Relevant-market">Relevant market</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/remedies-antitrust-en">Remedies (antitrust)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/request-for-information">Request for information</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/resale-below-cost-en">Resale below cost </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/resale-price-maintenance-rpm">Resale price maintenance (RPM)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/restriction-on-exportation">Restriction on exportation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/rule-of-reason">Rule of reason</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="s"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">s</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/sunk-costs-117836"> Sunk Costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sector-inquiry">Sector inquiry</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/selective-distribution">Selective distribution </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/self-preference-111802">Self-Preference</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Services-of-general-economic">Services of general economic interest </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Single-branding">Single branding </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sole-control">Sole control</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/specialization-agreements">Specialization agreements </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Spill-over-effects">Spill-over effects </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/standard-essential-patent-sep">Standard-Essential Patent (SEP)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-action-defense">State action defence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-compatibility">State aid (compatibility)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-existing-aid">State aid (existing aid) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-notification-en">State aid (notification)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid">State aid (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-recovery">State aid (recovery) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-unlawful-aid">State aid (unlawful aid) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/State-measure">State measure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Statement-of-objections-SO">Statement of objections (SO) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Substitutability">Substitutability </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sustainability">Sustainability</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/switching-costs">Switching Costs</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="t"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">t</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/technology-transfer">Technology transfer</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/test-siec-merger-en">Test SIEC (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-slc-src-sdc-tests">Test SLC (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/tipping">Tipping</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/business-secrets">Trade Secrets</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/trademark">Trademark</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/trustee-mergers-en">Trustee (mergers)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/turnover-threshold-merger">Turnover threshold (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/two-sided-market">Two-sided market</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="u"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">u</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/undertaking-notion">Undertaking (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/unfair-competition">Unfair competition</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/universal-service-118054">Universal Service</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/upstream-market">Upstream market </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="v"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">v</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/variable-costs">Variable costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Vertical-agreement">Vertical agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/vertical-restraints-or-restrictions">Vertical restraints (or restrictions)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="w"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">w</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a 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