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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_architectural_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_architectural_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Roman architectural revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_architectural_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Domes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_on_later_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_later_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Influence on later architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_later_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Materials</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Materials-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Materials subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Stone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_brick" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_brick"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Roman brick</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_brick-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_concrete" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_concrete"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Roman concrete</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_concrete-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Building_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Building_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Building types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Building_types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Building types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Building_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Amphitheatre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amphitheatre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Amphitheatre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amphitheatre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Basilica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basilica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Basilica</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basilica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Circus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Circus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Circus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Circus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Forum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Horreum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Horreum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Horreum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Horreum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insula" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insula"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Insula</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insula-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lighthouses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lighthouses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Lighthouses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lighthouses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Thermae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Temples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theatres" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theatres"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10</span> <span>Theatres</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theatres-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Villa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Villa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.11</span> <span>Villa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Villa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Watermills" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Watermills"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.12</span> <span>Watermills</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Watermills-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decorative_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decorative_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Decorative structures</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Decorative_structures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Decorative structures subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Decorative_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Monoliths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monoliths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Monoliths</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monoliths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Obelisks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Obelisks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Obelisks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Obelisks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_gardens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_gardens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Roman gardens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_gardens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Triumphal_arches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Triumphal_arches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Triumphal arches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Triumphal_arches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victory_columns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victory_columns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Victory columns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victory_columns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infrastructure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infrastructure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Infrastructure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Infrastructure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Infrastructure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Infrastructure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Roads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aqueduct" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aqueduct"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Aqueduct</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aqueduct-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bridges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bridges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Bridges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bridges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Canals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cisterns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cisterns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Cisterns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cisterns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dams" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dams"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Dams</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dams-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defensive_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defensive_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Defensive walls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defensive_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architectural_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architectural_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Architectural features</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Architectural_features-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Architectural features subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Architectural_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mosaics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mosaics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Mosaics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mosaics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypocaust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypocaust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Hypocaust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypocaust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_roofs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_roofs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Roman roofs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_roofs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spiral_stairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spiral_stairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Spiral stairs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spiral_stairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-City_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#City_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>City design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-City_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Significant_buildings_and_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Significant_buildings_and_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Significant buildings and areas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Significant_buildings_and_areas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Significant buildings and areas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Significant_buildings_and_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_buildings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_buildings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Public buildings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_buildings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Private_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Private_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Private architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Private_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Civil engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Military engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Roman architecture</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 52 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-52" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">52 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="عمارة رومانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عمارة رومانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arquiteutura_de_l%27Antigua_Roma" title="Arquiteutura de l'Antigua Roma – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Arquiteutura de l'Antigua Roma" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99dim_Roma_memarl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Qədim Roma memarlığı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qədim Roma memarlığı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Римска архитектура – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Римска архитектура" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimska_arhitektura" title="Rimska arhitektura – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rimska arhitektura" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arquitectura_romana_antiga" title="Arquitectura romana antiga – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Arquitectura romana antiga" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architektura_starov%C4%9Bk%C3%A9ho_%C5%98%C3%ADma" title="Architektura starověkého Říma – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Architektura starověkého Říma" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_arkitektur" title="Romersk arkitektur – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Romersk arkitektur" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6mische_Architektur" title="Römische Architektur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Römische Architektur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Rooma_arhitektuur" title="Vana-Rooma arhitektuur – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vana-Rooma arhitektuur" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arquitectura_de_la_Antigua_Roma" title="Arquitectura de la Antigua Roma – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Arquitectura de la Antigua Roma" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romia_arkitekturo" title="Romia arkitekturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Romia arkitekturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erromatar_arkitektura" title="Erromatar arkitektura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erromatar arkitektura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاریخ معماری روم باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ معماری روم باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_romaine" title="Architecture romaine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Architecture romaine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ailtireacht_na_R%C3%B3imhe" title="Ailtireacht na Róimhe – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ailtireacht na Róimhe" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arquitectura_da_Roma_Antiga" title="Arquitectura da Roma Antiga – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Arquitectura da Roma Antiga" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88_%EA%B1%B4%EC%B6%95" title="로마 건축 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로마 건축" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B3%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հին հռոմեական ճարտարապետություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հին հռոմեական ճարտարապետություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsitektur_Romawi_Kuno" title="Arsitektur Romawi Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Arsitektur Romawi Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectura_del_Roma_antique" title="Architectura del Roma antique – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Architectura del Roma antique" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architettura_romana" title="Architettura romana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Architettura romana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אדריכלות רומית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אדריכלות רומית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectura_Romana_(antiquitas)" title="Architectura Romana (antiquitas) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Architectura Romana (antiquitas)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arciteta_de_Roma_antica" title="Arciteta de Roma antica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Arciteta de Roma antica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A8_%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF" title="പുരാതന റോമൻ വാസ്തുവിദ്യ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പുരാതന റോമൻ വാസ്തുവിദ്യ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="العماره الرومانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="العماره الرومانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80" title="Ромын архитектур – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ромын архитектур" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinse_architectuur" title="Romeinse architectuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Romeinse architectuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E5%BB%BA%E7%AF%89" title="ローマ建築 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ローマ建築" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_arkitektur" title="Romersk arkitektur – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Romersk arkitektur" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadimgi_Rim_me%CA%BCmorchilik_san%CA%BCati" title="Qadimgi Rim meʼmorchilik sanʼati – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qadimgi Rim meʼmorchilik sanʼati" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%81%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="رومی فن تعمیر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="رومی فن تعمیر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A_(%D9%85%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%D9%8A)" title="د لرغوني روم معماري (مهندسي) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د لرغوني روم معماري (مهندسي)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architektura_staro%C5%BCytnego_Rzymu" title="Architektura starożytnego Rzymu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Architektura starożytnego Rzymu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arquitetura_da_Roma_Antiga" title="Arquitetura da Roma Antiga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Arquitetura da Roma Antiga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arhitectur%C4%83_roman%C4%83" title="Arhitectură romană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Arhitectură romană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Архитектура Древнего Рима – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Архитектура Древнего Рима" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADmska_architekt%C3%BAra" title="Rímska architektúra – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rímska architektúra" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimska_arhitektura" title="Rimska arhitektura – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimska arhitektura" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Римска архитектура – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Римска архитектура" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimska_arhitektura" title="Rimska arhitektura – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rimska arhitektura" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiikin_Rooman_arkkitehtuuri" title="Antiikin Rooman arkkitehtuuri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Antiikin Rooman arkkitehtuuri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_arkitektur" title="Romersk arkitektur – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Romersk arkitektur" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinaunang_arkitekturang_Romano" title="Sinaunang arkitekturang Romano – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sinaunang arkitekturang Romano" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AE_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88" title="பண்டைய ரோம கட்டிடக்கலை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பண்டைய ரோம கட்டிடக்கலை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="สถาปัตยกรรมโรมัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สถาปัตยกรรมโรมัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antik_Roma_mimarisi" title="Antik Roma mimarisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antik Roma mimarisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Давньоримська 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Roman architecture" redirects here. For the architecture of the city, see <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Rome" title="Architecture of Rome">Architecture of Rome</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Ancient Roman architecture</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Colosseo_2020.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Colosseo_2020.jpg/220px-Colosseo_2020.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Colosseo_2020.jpg/330px-Colosseo_2020.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Colosseo_2020.jpg/440px-Colosseo_2020.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12051" data-file-height="8442" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a> in Rome (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 70-80)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Years active</th><td class="infobox-data">509 BC (establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>)–4th century AD</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Ancient Roman architecture</b> adopted the external language of classical <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">ancient Greek architecture</a> for the purposes of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Romans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Romans">ancient Romans</a>, but was different from Greek buildings, becoming a new <a href="/wiki/Architectural" class="mw-redirect" title="Architectural">architectural</a> style. The two styles are often considered one body of <a href="/wiki/Classical_architecture" title="Classical architecture">classical architecture</a>. Roman architecture flourished in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> and to an even greater extent under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a>, when the great majority of surviving buildings were constructed. It used new materials, particularly <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Roman concrete</a>, and newer technologies such as the <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arch</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a> to make buildings that were typically strong and well engineered. Large numbers remain in some form across the former empire, sometimes complete and still in use today. </p><p>Roman architecture covers the period from the establishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to about the 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassified as <a href="/wiki/Late_Antique" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antique">Late Antique</a> or <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine architecture</a>. Few substantial examples survive from before about 100 BC, and most of the major survivals are from the later empire, after about 100 AD. Roman architectural style continued to influence building in the former empire for many centuries, and the style used in Western Europe beginning about 1000 is called <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque architecture</a> to reflect this dependence on basic Roman forms. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:France-002364_-_Square_House_(15867600545).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/France-002364_-_Square_House_%2815867600545%29.jpg/220px-France-002364_-_Square_House_%2815867600545%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/France-002364_-_Square_House_%2815867600545%29.jpg/330px-France-002364_-_Square_House_%2815867600545%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/France-002364_-_Square_House_%2815867600545%29.jpg/440px-France-002364_-_Square_House_%2815867600545%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>The <i><a href="/wiki/Maison_carr%C3%A9e" title="Maison carrée">Maison carrée</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/N%C3%AEmes" title="Nîmes">Nîmes</a> (France), one of the best-preserved Roman temples, c. 2 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>The Romans only began to achieve significant originality in architecture around the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman empire">Imperial period</a>, after they had combined aspects of their originally <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_architecture" title="Etruscan architecture">Etruscan architecture</a> with others taken from Greece, including most elements of the style we now call classical architecture. They moved from <a href="/wiki/Trabeated" class="mw-redirect" title="Trabeated">trabeated</a> construction mostly based on <a href="/wiki/Column" title="Column">columns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lintel" title="Lintel">lintels</a> to one based on massive walls, punctuated by <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arches</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">domes</a>, both of which greatly developed under the Romans. The classical orders now became largely decorative rather than structural, except in <a href="/wiki/Colonnade" title="Colonnade">colonnades</a>. Stylistic developments included the <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_order" title="Tuscan order">Tuscan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Composite_order" title="Composite order">Composite</a> <a href="/wiki/Classical_orders" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical orders">orders</a>; the first being a shortened, simplified variant on the <a href="/wiki/Doric_order" title="Doric order">Doric order</a> and the Composite being a tall order with the floral decoration of the <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_order" title="Corinthian order">Corinthian</a> and the scrolls of the <a href="/wiki/Ionic_order" title="Ionic order">Ionic</a>. The period from roughly 40 BC to about 230 AD saw most of the greatest achievements, before the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a> and later troubles reduced the wealth and organizing power of the central governments. </p><p>The Romans produced massive public buildings and works of civil engineering, and were responsible for significant developments in housing and public hygiene, for example their public and private baths and latrines, under-floor heating in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Hypocaust" title="Hypocaust">hypocaust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">mica</a> glazing (examples in <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a>), and piped hot and cold water (examples in <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and Ostia). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pantheon_panorama,_Rome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Pantheon_panorama%2C_Rome.jpg/220px-Pantheon_panorama%2C_Rome.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Pantheon_panorama%2C_Rome.jpg/330px-Pantheon_panorama%2C_Rome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Pantheon_panorama%2C_Rome.jpg/440px-Pantheon_panorama%2C_Rome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12148" data-file-height="3472" /></a><figcaption>Interior of the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon, Rome</a>, c. 113–125 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite the technical developments of the Romans, which took their buildings far away from the basic Greek conception where columns were needed to support heavy beams and roofs, they were reluctant to abandon the <a href="/wiki/Classical_order" title="Classical order">classical orders</a> in formal public buildings, even though these had become essentially decorative.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, they did not feel entirely restricted by Greek <a href="/wiki/Aesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aesthetic">aesthetic</a> concerns and treated the orders with considerable freedom.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Innovation started in the 3rd or 2nd century BC with the development of <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Roman concrete</a> as a readily available adjunct to, or substitute for, stone and brick. More daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes. The freedom of concrete also inspired the <a href="/wiki/Colonnade" title="Colonnade">colonnade</a> screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed the <a href="/wiki/Floor_plan" title="Floor plan">floor plan</a> from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aqueduct_of_Segovia_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Aqueduct_of_Segovia_02.jpg/220px-Aqueduct_of_Segovia_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Aqueduct_of_Segovia_02.jpg/330px-Aqueduct_of_Segovia_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Aqueduct_of_Segovia_02.jpg/440px-Aqueduct_of_Segovia_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3446" data-file-height="2412" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_of_Segovia" title="Aqueduct of Segovia">Aqueduct of Segovia</a> (1st century AD), <a href="/wiki/Segovia" title="Segovia">Segovia</a>, Spain</figcaption></figure> <p>Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of <a href="/wiki/Vault_(architecture)" title="Vault (architecture)">vaults</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arches</a>, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing infrastructure for public use. Examples include the <a href="/wiki/Aqueducts_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueducts of Rome">aqueducts of Rome</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Diocletian" title="Baths of Diocletian">Baths of Diocletian</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Caracalla" title="Baths of Caracalla">Baths of Caracalla</a>, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_basilicas" title="List of Roman basilicas">basilicas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>. These were reproduced at a smaller scale in the most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the <a href="/wiki/Town_wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Town wall">town walls</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lugo" title="Lugo">Lugo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hispania_Tarraconensis" title="Hispania Tarraconensis">Hispania Tarraconensis</a>, now northern Spain. The administrative structure and wealth of the Empire made possible very large projects even in locations remote from the main centers,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as did the use of slave labor, both skilled and unskilled. </p><p>Especially under the empire, architecture often served a political function, demonstrating the power of the Roman state in general, and of specific individuals responsible for building. Roman architecture perhaps reached its peak in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>, whose many achievements include rebuilding the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a> in its current form and leaving his mark on the landscape of northern Britain with <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While borrowing much from the preceding <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan</a> architecture, such as the use of <a href="/wiki/Hydraulics" title="Hydraulics">hydraulics</a> and the construction of arches,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman prestige architecture remained firmly under the spell of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">ancient Greek architecture</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Classical_orders" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical orders">classical orders</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Henig,_27_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henig,_27-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This came initially from <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a>, the Greek colonies in southern Italy, and indirectly from Greek influence on the Etruscans, but after the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman conquest of Greece">Roman conquest of Greece</a> directly from the best classical and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> examples in the Greek world. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The influence is evident in many ways; for example, in the introduction and use of the <a href="/wiki/Triclinium" title="Triclinium">triclinium</a> in <a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">Roman villas</a> as a place and manner of dining. Roman builders employed Greeks in many capacities, especially in the great boom in construction in the early Empire.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_architectural_revolution">Roman architectural revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Roman architectural revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg/220px-Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg/330px-Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg/440px-Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4109" data-file-height="3034" /></a><figcaption>The Roman <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_architectural_revolution" title="Roman architectural revolution">Roman architectural revolution</a>, also known as the "concrete revolution",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeLaine1990407_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeLaine1990407-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERook199218f._5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERook199218f.-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGardner2005170_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardner2005170-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the widespread use in Roman architecture of the previously little-used architectural forms of the <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vault_(architecture)" title="Vault (architecture)">vault</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a>. For the first time in history, their potential was fully exploited in the construction of a wide range of civil engineering structures, public buildings, and military facilities. These included <a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">amphitheatres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueducts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">baths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">bridges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circus_(building)#List_of_Roman_circuses" class="mw-redirect" title="Circus (building)">circuses</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dams_and_reservoirs" title="List of Roman dams and reservoirs">dams</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_domes" title="List of Roman domes">domes</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_harbour&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roman harbour (page does not exist)">harbours</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">temples</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">theatres</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Semper" title="Gottfried Semper">Gottfried Semper</a>, Roman architecture was "the idea of world domination expressed in stone".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A crucial factor in this development, which saw <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_architectural_records" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ancient architectural records">a trend toward monumental architecture</a>, was the invention of <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Roman concrete</a> (<i>opus caementicium</i>), which led to the liberation of shapes from the dictates of the traditional materials of stone and brick.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard-Perkins1956_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard-Perkins1956-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These enabled the building of the many <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(bridge)" title="Aqueduct (bridge)">aqueducts</a> throughout the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_of_Segovia" title="Aqueduct of Segovia">Aqueduct of Segovia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a>, and the eleven <a href="/wiki/Aqueducts_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueducts of Rome">aqueducts of Rome</a>. The same concepts produced numerous bridges, some of which are still in daily use, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Puente_Romano" class="mw-redirect" title="Puente Romano">Puente Romano</a> at <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rida,_Spain" title="Mérida, Spain">Mérida</a> in Spain, and the <a href="/wiki/Pont_Julien" title="Pont Julien">Pont Julien</a> and the bridge at <a href="/wiki/Vaison-la-Romaine" title="Vaison-la-Romaine">Vaison-la-Romaine</a>, both in Provence, France. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a> permitted the construction of <a href="/wiki/Vaulted_ceiling" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaulted ceiling">vaulted ceilings</a> without crossbeams and made possible large covered public spaces such as <a href="/wiki/Public_baths" class="mw-redirect" title="Public baths">public baths</a> and <a href="/wiki/Basilicas" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilicas">basilicas</a>, such as Hadrian's <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Diocletian" title="Baths of Diocletian">Baths of Diocletian</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Caracalla" title="Baths of Caracalla">Baths of Caracalla</a>, all in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Romans first adopted the arch from the Etruscans and implemented it in their own building.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of arches that spring directly from the tops of columns was a Roman development, seen from the 1st century AD, that was very widely adopted in medieval Western, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domes">Domes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Domes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">History of Roman and Byzantine domes</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_domes" title="List of Roman domes">List of Roman domes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pantheon,_Rome_(15235769992).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Pantheon%2C_Rome_%2815235769992%29.jpg/220px-Pantheon%2C_Rome_%2815235769992%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Pantheon%2C_Rome_%2815235769992%29.jpg/330px-Pantheon%2C_Rome_%2815235769992%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Pantheon%2C_Rome_%2815235769992%29.jpg/440px-Pantheon%2C_Rome_%2815235769992%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="2491" /></a><figcaption>Dome of the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a>, inner view</figcaption></figure> <p>The Romans were the first builders in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">history of architecture</a> to realize the potential of <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">domes</a> for the creation of large and well-defined interior spaces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasch1985117_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasch1985117-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Domes were introduced in a number of Roman building types such as <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">temples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">thermae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palace" title="Palace">palaces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mausolea" class="mw-redirect" title="Mausolea">mausolea</a> and later also churches. Half-domes also became a favored architectural element and were adopted as <a href="/wiki/Apse" title="Apse">apses</a> in Christian <a href="/wiki/Sacred_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred architecture">sacred architecture</a>. </p><p>Monumental domes began to appear in the 1st century BC in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">provinces</a> around the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. Along with <a href="/wiki/Vault_(architecture)" title="Vault (architecture)">vaults</a>, they gradually replaced the traditional <a href="/wiki/Post_and_lintel" title="Post and lintel">post and lintel</a> construction which makes use of the <a href="/wiki/Column" title="Column">column</a> and <a href="/wiki/Architrave" title="Architrave">architrave</a>. The construction of domes was greatly facilitated by the invention of <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">concrete</a>, a process which has been termed the <a href="/wiki/Roman_architectural_revolution" title="Roman architectural revolution">Roman architectural revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELechtmanHobbs1986_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELechtmanHobbs1986-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their enormous dimensions remained unsurpassed until the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Structural_steel" title="Structural steel">structural steel</a> frames in the late 19th century (see <a href="/wiki/List_of_the_world%27s_largest_domes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of the world's largest domes">List of the world's largest domes</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasch1985117_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasch1985117-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkHutchinson198624_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkHutchinson198624-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeinleSchlaich199627_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeinleSchlaich199627-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_on_later_architecture">Influence on later architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Influence on later architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Roman architecture supplied the basic vocabulary of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Romanesque" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Romanesque">Pre-Romanesque</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque architecture</a>, and spread across Christian Europe well beyond the old frontiers of the empire, to Ireland and <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> for example. In the East, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine architecture</a> developed new styles of churches, but most other buildings remained very close to Late Roman forms. The same can be said in turn of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a>, where Roman forms long continued, especially in private buildings such as houses and the <a href="/wiki/Hammam" title="Hammam">bathhouse</a>, and civil engineering such as fortifications and bridges. </p><p>In Europe the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> saw a conscious revival of correct classical styles, initially purely based on Roman examples.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> was respectfully reinterpreted by a series of architectural writers, and the <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_order" title="Tuscan order">Tuscan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Composite_order" title="Composite order">Composite orders</a> formalized for the first time, to give <a href="/wiki/The_Five_Orders_of_Architecture" title="The Five Orders of Architecture">five rather than three</a> orders.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the flamboyance of <a href="/wiki/Baroque_architecture" title="Baroque architecture">Baroque architecture</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">Neoclassical architecture</a> of the 18th century revived purer versions of classical style, and for the first time added <a href="/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture" title="Greek Revival architecture">direct influence</a> from the Greek world. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VillaCornaro_2007_07_14_front_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/VillaCornaro_2007_07_14_front_1.jpg/220px-VillaCornaro_2007_07_14_front_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/VillaCornaro_2007_07_14_front_1.jpg/330px-VillaCornaro_2007_07_14_front_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/VillaCornaro_2007_07_14_front_1.jpg/440px-VillaCornaro_2007_07_14_front_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Villa_Cornaro" title="Villa Cornaro">Villa Cornaro</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Palladio" title="Andrea Palladio">Andrea Palladio</a> in 1552</figcaption></figure> <p>Numerous local classical styles developed, such as <a href="/wiki/Palladian_architecture" title="Palladian architecture">Palladian architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgian_architecture" title="Georgian architecture">Georgian architecture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regency_architecture" title="Regency architecture">Regency architecture</a> in the English-speaking world, <a href="/wiki/Federal_architecture" title="Federal architecture">Federal architecture</a> in the United States, and later <a href="/wiki/Stripped_Classicism" title="Stripped Classicism">Stripped Classicism</a> and <a href="/wiki/PWA_Moderne" class="mw-redirect" title="PWA Moderne">PWA Moderne</a>. </p><p>Roman influences may be found around us today, in banks, government buildings, great houses, and even small houses, perhaps in the form of a porch with Doric columns and a <a href="/wiki/Pediment" title="Pediment">pediment</a> or in a fireplace or a <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> shower floor derived from a Roman original, often from <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> or <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>. The mighty pillars, domes and arches of Rome echo in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> too, where in Washington, D.C. stand the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol" title="United States Capitol">Capitol building</a>, the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Memorial" title="Lincoln Memorial">Lincoln Memorial</a>, and other government buildings. All across the US the seats of regional government were normally built in the grand traditions of Rome, with vast flights of stone steps sweeping up to towering pillared porticoes, with huge domes gilded or decorated inside with the same or similar themes that were popular in Rome. </p><p>In Britain, a similar enthusiasm has seen the construction of thousands of neoclassical buildings over the last five centuries, both civic and domestic, and many of the grandest country houses and mansions are purely Classical in style, an obvious example being <a href="/wiki/Buckingham_Palace" title="Buckingham Palace">Buckingham Palace</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials">Materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stone">Stone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Stone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3223_-_Roma_-_Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli_-_Interno_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_17-June-2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/3223_-_Roma_-_Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli_-_Interno_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_17-June-2007.jpg/220px-3223_-_Roma_-_Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli_-_Interno_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_17-June-2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/3223_-_Roma_-_Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli_-_Interno_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_17-June-2007.jpg/330px-3223_-_Roma_-_Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli_-_Interno_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_17-June-2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/3223_-_Roma_-_Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli_-_Interno_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_17-June-2007.jpg/440px-3223_-_Roma_-_Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli_-_Interno_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_17-June-2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1360" /></a><figcaption>Frigidarium of <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Diocletian" title="Baths of Diocletian">Baths of Diocletian</a>, today <a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli_e_dei_Martiri" title="Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri">Santa Maria degli Angeli</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">Marble</a> is not found especially close to Rome, and was only rarely used there before <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, who famously boasted that he had found Rome made of brick and left it made of marble, though this was mainly as a facing for brick or concrete. The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hercules_Victor" title="Temple of Hercules Victor">Temple of Hercules Victor</a> of the late 2nd century BC is the earliest surviving exception in Rome. From Augustus' reign the quarries at <a href="/wiki/Carrara" title="Carrara">Carrara</a> were extensively developed for the capital, and other sources around the empire exploited,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> especially the prestigious Greek marbles like <a href="/wiki/Parian_marble" title="Parian marble">Parian</a>. <a href="/wiki/Travertine" title="Travertine">Travertine</a> <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> was found much closer, around <a href="/wiki/Tivoli,_Lazio" title="Tivoli, Lazio">Tivoli</a>, and was used from the end of the Republic; the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a> is mainly built of this stone, which has good load-bearing capacity, with a brick core.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other more or less local stones were used around the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Romans were fond of luxury imported coloured marbles with fancy veining, and the interiors of the most important buildings were often faced with slabs of these, which have usually now been removed even where the building survives. Imports from Greece for this purpose began in the 2nd century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_brick">Roman brick</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Roman brick"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_brick" title="Roman brick">Roman brick</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gariannonum_Burgh_Castle_south_wall_well_preserved_close_up.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Gariannonum_Burgh_Castle_south_wall_well_preserved_close_up.jpg/220px-Gariannonum_Burgh_Castle_south_wall_well_preserved_close_up.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Gariannonum_Burgh_Castle_south_wall_well_preserved_close_up.jpg/330px-Gariannonum_Burgh_Castle_south_wall_well_preserved_close_up.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Gariannonum_Burgh_Castle_south_wall_well_preserved_close_up.jpg/440px-Gariannonum_Burgh_Castle_south_wall_well_preserved_close_up.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Close-up view of the wall of the Roman <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Shore" title="Saxon Shore">shore fort</a> at <a href="/wiki/Burgh_Castle_(Roman_fortification)" title="Burgh Castle (Roman fortification)">Burgh Castle</a>, Norfolk, showing alternating courses of <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">flint</a> and brickwork</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8A%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%86.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8A%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%86.jpg/220px-%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8A%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%86.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8A%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%86.jpg/330px-%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8A%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%86.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8A%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%86.jpg/440px-%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8A%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%86.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7360" data-file-height="4912" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Church_of_St._George,_Sofia" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of St. George, Sofia">St. George Rotunda</a> (4th century) and remains of <a href="/wiki/Serdica" class="mw-redirect" title="Serdica">Serdica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sofia" title="Sofia">Sofia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Romans made <a href="/wiki/Roman_brick" title="Roman brick">fired clay bricks</a> from about the beginning of the Empire, replacing earlier sun-dried <a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">mudbrick</a>. Roman brick was almost invariably of a lesser height than modern brick, but was made in a variety of different shapes and sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJuracek1996310_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuracek1996310-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shapes included square, rectangular, triangular and round, and the largest bricks found have measured over three feet in length.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeet191135–36_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeet191135–36-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient Roman bricks had a general size of 1½ <a href="/wiki/Foot_(unit_of_length)#Historical_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="Foot (unit of length)">Roman feet</a> by 1 Roman foot, but common variations up to 15 inches existed. Other brick sizes in ancient Rome included 24" x 12" x 4", and 15" x 8" x 10". Ancient Roman bricks found in France measured 8" x 8" x 3". The <a href="/wiki/Aula_Palatina" title="Aula Palatina">Constantine Basilica</a> in <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a> is constructed from Roman bricks 15" square by 1½" thick.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaltersBirch1905330–40_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaltersBirch1905330–40-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is often little obvious difference (particularly when only fragments survive) between Roman bricks used for walls on the one hand, and <a href="/wiki/Imbrex_and_tegula" title="Imbrex and tegula">tiles</a> used for roofing or flooring on the other, so archaeologists sometimes prefer to employ the generic term <a href="/wiki/Ceramic_building_material" title="Ceramic building material">ceramic building material</a> (or CBM). </p><p>The Romans perfected brick-making during the first century of their empire and used it ubiquitously, in public and private construction alike. They took their brickmaking skills everywhere they went, introducing the craft to the local populations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaltersBirch1905330–40_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaltersBirch1905330–40-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legions</a>, which operated their own <a href="/wiki/Kiln" title="Kiln">kilns</a>, introduced bricks to many parts of the Empire; bricks are often stamped with the mark of the legion that supervised their production. The use of bricks in southern and western Germany, for example, can be traced to traditions already described by the Roman architect <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>, the introduction of Roman brick by the ancient Romans was followed by a 600–700 year gap in major brick production. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_concrete">Roman concrete</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Roman concrete"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Roman concrete</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OpusCaementiciumViaAppiaAntica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/OpusCaementiciumViaAppiaAntica.jpg/220px-OpusCaementiciumViaAppiaAntica.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/OpusCaementiciumViaAppiaAntica.jpg/330px-OpusCaementiciumViaAppiaAntica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/OpusCaementiciumViaAppiaAntica.jpg/440px-OpusCaementiciumViaAppiaAntica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1015" data-file-height="817" /></a><figcaption>Example of <i>opus caementicium</i> on a tomb on the ancient <a href="/wiki/Appian_Way" title="Appian Way">Appian Way</a> in Rome. The original covering has been removed.</figcaption></figure> <p>Concrete quickly supplanted brick as the primary building material,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and more daring buildings soon followed, with great <a href="/wiki/Pillar" class="mw-redirect" title="Pillar">pillars</a> supporting broad <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Domes" class="mw-redirect" title="Domes">domes</a> rather than dense lines of columns suspending flat <a href="/wiki/Architrave" title="Architrave">architraves</a>. The freedom of concrete also inspired the <a href="/wiki/Colonnade" title="Colonnade">colonnade</a> screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed the <a href="/wiki/Floor_plan" title="Floor plan">floor plan</a> from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Most of these developments are described by <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a>, writing in the first century BC in his work <i><a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a></i>. </p><p>Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in Mesopotamia, Roman architects perfected <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Roman concrete</a> and used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and support a great deal of weight. The first use of concrete by the Romans was in the town of <a href="/wiki/Cosa" title="Cosa">Cosa</a> sometime after 273 BC. Ancient Roman concrete was a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Lime_mortar" title="Lime mortar">lime mortar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_(composite)" title="Aggregate (composite)">aggregate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pozzolana" title="Pozzolana">pozzolana</a>, water, and <a href="/wiki/Stones" class="mw-redirect" title="Stones">stones</a>, and was stronger than previously used concretes. The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames where they hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or (more frequently) bricks. The aggregates used were often much larger than in modern concrete, amounting to rubble. </p><p>When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong, with a rough surface of bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive <a href="/wiki/Stucco" title="Stucco">stucco</a> or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones called a "revetment". Concrete construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than building solid stone buildings. The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport. The wooden frames could be used more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently. Concrete is arguably the Roman contribution most relevant to modern architecture. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Building_types">Building types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Building types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amphitheatre">Amphitheatre</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Amphitheatre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Roman amphitheatre</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_amphitheatres" title="List of Roman amphitheatres">List of Roman amphitheatres</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arenes_de_Nimes_(19).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Arenes_de_Nimes_%2819%29.jpg/220px-Arenes_de_Nimes_%2819%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Arenes_de_Nimes_%2819%29.jpg/330px-Arenes_de_Nimes_%2819%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Arenes_de_Nimes_%2819%29.jpg/440px-Arenes_de_Nimes_%2819%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7689" data-file-height="2556" /></a><figcaption>Arena of Nîmes (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 100 CE</span>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Amphitheatre" title="Amphitheatre">amphitheatre</a> was, with the <a href="/wiki/Triumphal_arch" title="Triumphal arch">triumphal arch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilica</a>, the only major new type of building developed by the Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the most impressive secular buildings are the amphitheatres, over 200 being known and many of which are well preserved, such as that at <a href="/wiki/Arles_Amphitheatre" title="Arles Amphitheatre">Arles</a>, as well as its progenitor, the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a> in Rome. They were used for <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiatorial</a> contests, public displays, public meetings and <a href="/wiki/Bullfight" class="mw-redirect" title="Bullfight">bullfights</a>, the tradition of which still survives in Spain and Portugal. Their typical shape, functions and name distinguish them from <a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Roman theatres</a>, which are more or less semicircular in shape; from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">circuses</a> (akin to <a href="/wiki/Hippodrome" title="Hippodrome">hippodromes</a>) whose much longer circuits were designed mainly for horse or chariot racing events; and from the smaller stadia, which were primarily designed for <a href="/wiki/Sport" title="Sport">athletics</a> and footraces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBomgardner200037_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomgardner200037-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anfiteatro,_El_Jem,_T%C3%BAnez,_2016-09-04,_DD_09.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Anfiteatro%2C_El_Jem%2C_T%C3%BAnez%2C_2016-09-04%2C_DD_09.jpg/220px-Anfiteatro%2C_El_Jem%2C_T%C3%BAnez%2C_2016-09-04%2C_DD_09.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Anfiteatro%2C_El_Jem%2C_T%C3%BAnez%2C_2016-09-04%2C_DD_09.jpg/330px-Anfiteatro%2C_El_Jem%2C_T%C3%BAnez%2C_2016-09-04%2C_DD_09.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Anfiteatro%2C_El_Jem%2C_T%C3%BAnez%2C_2016-09-04%2C_DD_09.jpg/440px-Anfiteatro%2C_El_Jem%2C_T%C3%BAnez%2C_2016-09-04%2C_DD_09.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6073" data-file-height="3337" /></a><figcaption>Amphitheatre of El Jem (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 238 CE</span>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest Roman amphitheatres date from the middle of the first century BC, but most were built under Imperial rule, from the <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustan</a> period (27 BC–14 AD) onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBomgardner200059_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomgardner200059-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Imperial amphitheatres were built throughout the Roman Empire; the largest could accommodate 40,000–60,000 spectators, and the most elaborate featured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were elaborately decorated with <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stucco" title="Stucco">stucco</a> and statuary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBomgardner200062_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomgardner200062-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the end of gladiatorial games in the 5th century and of <a href="/wiki/Venatio" title="Venatio">animal killings</a> in the 6th, most amphitheatres fell into disrepair, and their materials were mined or recycled. Some were razed, and others converted into fortifications. A few continued as convenient open meeting places; in some of these, churches were sited.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBomgardner2000201–223_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomgardner2000201–223-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Architecturally, they are typically an example of the Roman use of the classical orders to decorate large concrete walls pierced at intervals, where the columns have nothing to support. Aesthetically, however, the formula is successful. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trier_-_Aula_Palatina.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Trier_-_Aula_Palatina.JPG/220px-Trier_-_Aula_Palatina.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Trier_-_Aula_Palatina.JPG/330px-Trier_-_Aula_Palatina.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Trier_-_Aula_Palatina.JPG/440px-Trier_-_Aula_Palatina.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2721" data-file-height="1911" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Aula_Palatina" title="Aula Palatina">Aula Palatina</a> of <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a>, Germany (then part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a>), built during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> (r. 306–337 CE)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basilica">Basilica</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Basilica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Roman <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilica</a> was a large public building where business or legal matters could be transacted. They were normally where the magistrates held court, and used for other official ceremonies, having many of the functions of the modern <a href="/wiki/Town_hall" title="Town hall">town hall</a>. The first basilicas had no religious function. As early as the time of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, a public basilica for transacting business had been part of any settlement that considered itself a city, used in the same way as the late medieval covered market houses of northern Europe, where the meeting room, for lack of urban space, was set above the arcades. Although their form was variable, basilicas often contained interior <a href="/wiki/Colonnade" title="Colonnade">colonnades</a> that divided the space, giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides, with an <a href="/wiki/Apse" title="Apse">apse</a> at one end (or less often at each end), where the magistrates sat, often on a slightly raised dais. The central aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could penetrate through the <a href="/wiki/Clerestory" title="Clerestory">clerestory</a> windows. </p><p>The oldest known basilica, the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Porcia" title="Basilica Porcia">Basilica Porcia</a>, was built in Rome in 184 BC by <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Cato the Elder</a> during the time he was <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censor</a>. Other early examples include the basilica at Pompeii (late 2nd century BC). After Christianity became the official religion, the basilica shape was found appropriate for the first large public churches, with the attraction of avoiding reminiscences of the Greco-Roman temple form. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Circus">Circus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Circus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Roman circus</a> was a large open-air venue used for public events in the ancient <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. The circuses were similar to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Hippodrome" title="Hippodrome">hippodromes</a>, although circuses served varying purposes and differed in design and construction. Along with <a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">theatres</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amphitheatre" title="Amphitheatre">amphitheatres</a>, circuses were one of the main entertainment sites of the time. Circuses were venues for <a href="/wiki/Chariot_racing" title="Chariot racing">chariot racing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horse_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse race">horse races</a>, and performances that commemorated important events of the Empire were performed there. For events that involved re-enactments of <a href="/wiki/Naval_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval battle">naval battles</a>, the circus was flooded with water. </p><p>The performance space of the Roman circus was normally, despite its name, an oblong rectangle of two linear sections of <a href="/wiki/Race_track" title="Race track">race track</a>, separated by a median strip running along the length of about two thirds the track, joined at one end with a semicircular section and at the other end with an undivided section of track closed (in most cases) by a distinctive starting gate known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Carceres" class="mw-redirect" title="Carceres">carceres</a></i>, thereby creating a circuit for the races. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forum">Forum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Forum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum (Roman)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Forum" title="Roman Forum">Roman Forum</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_of_the_Roman_Forum" title="List of monuments of the Roman Forum">List of monuments of the Roman Forum</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg/220px-Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg/330px-Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg/440px-Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Forum" title="Roman Forum">Roman Forum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the years of the Republic, Augustus claimed he "found the city in brick and left it in marble".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While chances are high that this was an exaggeration, there is something to be said for the influx of marble use in Roman Forum from 63 BC onwards. During Augustus' reign, the Forum was described to have been "a larger, freer space than was the Forum of Imperial times."<sup id="cite_ref-Dennison_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dennison-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Forum began to take on even more changes upon the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, who drew out extensive plans for the market hub. While Caesar's death came prematurely, his ideas, as well as Augustus' in regards to the Forum proved to be the most influential for years to come. According to Walter Dennison's <i>The Roman Forum As Cicero Saw It</i>, the author writes that "the diverting of public business to the larger and splendid <a href="/wiki/Imperial_fora" title="Imperial fora">Imperial fora</a> erected in the vicinity resulted in leaving the general design of the Forum Romanum".<sup id="cite_ref-Dennison_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dennison-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Every city had at least one <a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">forum</a> of varying size. In addition to its standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gathering place of great social significance, and often the scene of diverse activities, including political discussions and debates, rendezvous, meetings, etc. The best known example is the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Forum" title="Roman Forum">Roman Forum</a>, the earliest of several in Rome. In new Roman towns the forum was usually located at, or just off, the intersection of the main north–south and east–west streets (the <a href="/wiki/Cardo" title="Cardo">cardo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decumanus" title="Decumanus">decumanus</a>). All forums would have a Temple of Jupiter at the north end, and would also contain other temples, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilica</a>; a public weights and measures table, so customers at the market could ensure they were not being sold short measures; and would often have the baths nearby. </p> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:718px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Foro_Traiano_panorama.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A panoramic view of the Forum Trajanum, with Trajan's Column on the far left."><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Foro_Traiano_panorama.jpg/710px-Foro_Traiano_panorama.jpg" decoding="async" width="710" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Foro_Traiano_panorama.jpg/1065px-Foro_Traiano_panorama.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Foro_Traiano_panorama.jpg/1420px-Foro_Traiano_panorama.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6853" data-file-height="1590" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Foro_Traiano_panorama.jpg" title="File:Foro Traiano panorama.jpg"> </a></div>A panoramic view of the <a href="/wiki/Forum_Trajanum" class="mw-redirect" title="Forum Trajanum">Forum Trajanum</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a> on the far left.</div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Horreum">Horreum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Horreum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ostia,_horrea_epagathiana_01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Ostia%2C_horrea_epagathiana_01.JPG/220px-Ostia%2C_horrea_epagathiana_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Ostia%2C_horrea_epagathiana_01.JPG/330px-Ostia%2C_horrea_epagathiana_01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Ostia%2C_horrea_epagathiana_01.JPG/440px-Ostia%2C_horrea_epagathiana_01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3530" /></a><figcaption>The Horrea Epagathiana et Epaphroditiana, a <i>horreum</i> in <a href="/wiki/Ostia_(Rome)" title="Ostia (Rome)">Ostia (Rome)</a>, Italy, built c. 145–150 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Horreum" title="Horreum">horreum</a> was a type of public warehouse used during the ancient Roman period. Although the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> term is often used to refer to <a href="/wiki/Granaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Granaries">granaries</a>, Roman horrea were used to store many other types of consumables; the giant <a href="/wiki/Horrea_Galbae" title="Horrea Galbae">Horrea Galbae</a> in Rome were used not only to store grain but also <a href="/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">olive oil</a>, wine, foodstuffs, clothing and even <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardson1992193_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson1992193-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the Imperial period, the city of Rome had nearly 300 horrea to supply its demands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELampe200661_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELampe200661-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The biggest were enormous, even by modern standards; the Horrea Galbae contained 140 rooms on the ground floor alone, covering an area of some 225,000 square feet (20,900 square metres).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotterMattingly1999180_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterMattingly1999180-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first horrea were built in Rome towards the end of the 2nd century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatrich1996149_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatrich1996149-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the first known public horreum being constructed by the ill-fated <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">tribune</a> <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus" title="Gaius Gracchus">Gaius Gracchus</a> in 123 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMétreaux199814–15_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMétreaux199814–15-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word came to be applied to any place designated for the preservation of goods; thus, it was often used to refer to cellars (<i>horrea subterranea</i>), but it could also be applied to a place where artworks were stored,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or even to a library.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some public horrea functioned somewhat like banks, where valuables could be stored, but the most important class of horrea were those where foodstuffs such as grain and olive oil were stored and distributed by the state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitz1875[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextssecondarySMIGRAHorreumhtml_618]_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitz1875[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextssecondarySMIGRAHorreumhtml_618]-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word itself is thought to have linguist roots tied to the word <i>hordeum</i>, which in Latin means barley.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Classical_Weekly&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Classical Weekly (page does not exist)">The Classical Weekly</a> states that "<a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> does indeed make a distinction between the two words. He describes the horreum as a structure made of brick, the walls of which were not less than three feet thick; it had no windows or openings for ventilation".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the storehouses would also host oil and wine and also use large jars that could serve as cache's for large amounts of products. These storehouses were also used to keep large sums of money and were used much like personal storage units today are. "These horrea were divided and subdivided, so that one could hire only so much space as one wanted, a whole room (cella), a closet (armarium), or only a chest or strong box (arca, arcula, locus, loculus)."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insula">Insula</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Insula"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Insula_(building)" title="Insula (building)">Insula (building)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OstianInsula.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/OstianInsula.JPG/220px-OstianInsula.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/OstianInsula.JPG/330px-OstianInsula.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/OstianInsula.JPG/440px-OstianInsula.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Insula in <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Multi-story apartment blocks called <i><a href="/wiki/Insula_(building)" title="Insula (building)">insulae</a></i> catered to a range of residential needs. The cheapest rooms were at the top owing to the inability to escape in the event of a fire and the lack of piped water. Windows were mostly small, facing the street, with iron security bars. <i>Insulae</i> were often dangerous, unhealthy, and prone to fires because of overcrowding and haphazard cooking arrangements.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There are examples in the Roman port town of <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia</a>, that date to the reign of <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>, but they seem to have been found mainly in Rome and a few other places. Elsewhere writers report them as something remarkable, but <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> refer to them in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> External walls were in <i><a href="/wiki/Opus_reticulatum" title="Opus reticulatum">opus reticulatum</a></i> and interiors in <i><a href="/wiki/Opus_incertum" title="Opus incertum">opus incertum</a></i>, which would then be plastered and sometimes painted. </p><p>To lighten up the small dark rooms, some tenants able to afford a degree of painted colourful murals on the walls. Examples have been found of jungle scenes with wild animals and exotic plants. Imitation windows (<i><a href="/wiki/Trompe-l%27%C5%93il" title="Trompe-l'œil">trompe-l'œil</a></i>) were sometimes painted to make the rooms seem less confined. </p><p>Ancient Rome had elaborate and luxurious houses owned by the elite. The average house, or in cities apartment, of a commoner or <a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">plebeius</a> did not contain many luxuries. The <i><a href="/wiki/Domus" title="Domus">domus</a></i>, or single-family residence, was only for the well-off in Rome, with most having a layout of the closed unit, consisting of one or two rooms. Between 312 and 315 AD Rome had 1781 <i>domus</i> and 44,850 of <i>insulae</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHermansen1970_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHermansen1970-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Insulae</i> have been the subject of debate for historians of Roman culture, defining the various meanings of the word.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStorey2002_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStorey2002-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Insula</i> was a word used to describe apartment buildings, or the apartments themselves,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStorey2004_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStorey2004-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning apartment, or inhabitable room, demonstrating just how small apartments for plebeians were. Urban divisions were originally street blocks, and later began to divide into smaller divisions, the word <i>insula</i> referring to both <a href="/wiki/Insula_(Roman_city)" title="Insula (Roman city)">blocks</a> and smaller divisions. The <i>insula</i> contained <i>cenacula</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tabernae" class="mw-redirect" title="Tabernae">tabernae</a></i>, storage rooms under the stairs, and lower floor shops. Another type of housing unit for plebs was a <i>cenaculum</i>, an apartment, divided into three individual rooms: <i>cubiculum</i>, <i>exedra</i>, and <i>medianum</i>. Common Roman apartments were mainly masses of smaller and larger structures, many with narrow balconies that present mysteries as to their use, having no doors to access them, and they lacked the excessive decoration and display of wealth that aristocrats' houses contained. Luxury in houses was not common, as the life of the average person did not consist of being in their houses, as they instead would go to public baths, and engage in other communal activities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Lighthouses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_lighthouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman lighthouse">Roman lighthouse</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torre_de_H%C3%A9rcules_-_DivesGallaecia2012-57.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Torre_de_H%C3%A9rcules_-_DivesGallaecia2012-57.jpg/220px-Torre_de_H%C3%A9rcules_-_DivesGallaecia2012-57.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Torre_de_H%C3%A9rcules_-_DivesGallaecia2012-57.jpg/330px-Torre_de_H%C3%A9rcules_-_DivesGallaecia2012-57.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Torre_de_H%C3%A9rcules_-_DivesGallaecia2012-57.jpg/440px-Torre_de_H%C3%A9rcules_-_DivesGallaecia2012-57.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5315" data-file-height="3543" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Hercules" title="Tower of Hercules">Tower of Hercules</a>, a Roman <a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">lighthouse</a> in Spain</figcaption></figure> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">lighthouses</a> were built around the Mediterranean and the coasts of the empire, including the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Hercules" title="Tower of Hercules">Tower of Hercules</a> at <a href="/wiki/A_Coru%C3%B1a" title="A Coruña">A Coruña</a> in northern Spain, a structure which survives to this day. A smaller lighthouse at <a href="/wiki/Dover" title="Dover">Dover</a>, England also exists as a ruin about half the height of the original. The light would have been provided by a fire at the top of the structure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermae">Thermae</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Thermae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_public_baths" title="List of Roman public baths">List of Roman public baths</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa,_England_-_July_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa%2C_England_-_July_2006.jpg/220px-Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa%2C_England_-_July_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa%2C_England_-_July_2006.jpg/330px-Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa%2C_England_-_July_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa%2C_England_-_July_2006.jpg/440px-Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa%2C_England_-_July_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2638" data-file-height="2296" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Baths_(Bath)" title="Roman Baths (Bath)">Roman Baths</a> that lend the city of <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>, England its name</figcaption></figure> <p>All Roman cities had at least one <i><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">thermae</a></i>, a popular facility for public bathing, exercising and socializing. Exercise might include wrestling and weightlifting, as well as swimming. Bathing was an important part of the Roman day, where some hours might be spent, at a very low cost subsidized by the government. Wealthier Romans were often accompanied by one or more slaves, who performed any required tasks such as fetching refreshment, guarding valuables, providing towels, and at the end of the session, applying olive oil to their masters' bodies, which was then scraped off with a <a href="/wiki/Strigil" title="Strigil">strigil</a>, a scraper made of wood or bone. </p><p>Roman bath-houses were also provided for private <a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">villas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domus" title="Domus">town houses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">forts</a>. They were normally supplied with water from an adjacent river or stream, or by <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueduct</a>. The design of <i>thermae</i> is discussed by <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temples">Temples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Temples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Roman temple</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Ancient_Roman_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ancient Roman temples">List of Ancient Roman temples</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baalbek,_Temple_of_Bacchus_(6842814197).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Baalbek%2C_Temple_of_Bacchus_%286842814197%29.jpg/220px-Baalbek%2C_Temple_of_Bacchus_%286842814197%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Baalbek%2C_Temple_of_Bacchus_%286842814197%29.jpg/330px-Baalbek%2C_Temple_of_Bacchus_%286842814197%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Baalbek%2C_Temple_of_Bacchus_%286842814197%29.jpg/440px-Baalbek%2C_Temple_of_Bacchus_%286842814197%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>"Roman Baroque" <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Bacchus" title="Temple of Bacchus">Temple of Bacchus</a> at <a href="/wiki/Baalbek" title="Baalbek">Baalbek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Roman temples were among the most important and richest buildings in Roman culture, though only a few survive in any sort of complete state. Their construction and maintenance was a major part of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Roman religion">ancient Roman religion</a>, and all towns of any importance had at least one main temple, as well as smaller shrines. The main room <i>(<a href="/wiki/Cella" title="Cella">cella</a>)</i> housed the <a href="/wiki/Cult_image" title="Cult image">cult image</a> of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">deity</a> to whom the temple was <a href="/wiki/Votum" title="Votum">dedicated</a>, and often a small altar for incense or <a href="/wiki/Libation" title="Libation">libations</a>. Behind the <i>cella</i> was a room or rooms used by temple attendants for storage of equipment and offerings. </p><p>Remains of many Roman temples survive, above all in Rome itself, but the relatively few near-complete examples were nearly all converted to Christian churches, usually a considerable time after the initial <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">triumph of Christianity under Constantine</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Greco-Roman_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism">decline of Roman religion</a> was relatively slow, and the temples themselves were not appropriated by the government until a decree of the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a> in 415. Some of the oldest surviving temples include the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hercules_Victor" title="Temple of Hercules Victor">Temple of Hercules Victor</a> (mid 2nd century BC) and <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Portunus" title="Temple of Portunus">Temple of Portunus</a> (120–80 BC), both standing within the <a href="/wiki/Forum_Boarium" title="Forum Boarium">Forum Boarium</a>. Original marble columns of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Janus_(Forum_Holitorium)" title="Temple of Janus (Forum Holitorium)">Temple of Janus</a> in Rome's <a href="/wiki/Forum_Holitorium" title="Forum Holitorium">Forum Holitorium</a>, dedicated by <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Duilius" title="Gaius Duilius">Gaius Duilius</a> after his naval victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Battle of Mylae</a> in 260 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> still stand as a component of the exterior wall of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance era</a> church of <a href="/wiki/San_Nicola_in_Carcere" title="San Nicola in Carcere">San Nicola in Carcere</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_of_Hercules_(Rome).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Temple_of_Hercules_%28Rome%29.jpg/220px-Temple_of_Hercules_%28Rome%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Temple_of_Hercules_%28Rome%29.jpg/330px-Temple_of_Hercules_%28Rome%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Temple_of_Hercules_%28Rome%29.jpg/440px-Temple_of_Hercules_%28Rome%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5098" data-file-height="3898" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hercules_Victor" title="Temple of Hercules Victor">Temple of Hercules Victor</a>, Rome, built in the mid-2nd century BC, most likely by <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Mummius_Achaicus" title="Lucius Mummius Achaicus">Lucius Mummius Achaicus</a>, who won the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_War" title="Achaean War">Achaean War</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The form of the Roman temple was mainly derived from the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_architecture" title="Etruscan architecture">Etruscan</a> model, but using Greek styles. Roman temples emphasised the front of the building, which followed <a href="/wiki/Greek_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek temple">Greek temple</a> models and typically consisted of wide steps leading to a <a href="/wiki/Portico" title="Portico">portico</a> with columns, a <a href="/wiki/Pronaos" class="mw-redirect" title="Pronaos">pronaos</a>, and usually a triangular <a href="/wiki/Pediment" title="Pediment">pediment</a> above,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was filled with statuary in the most grand examples; this was as often in <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> as stone, and no examples have survived except as fragments. However, unlike the Greek models, which generally gave equal treatment to all sides of the temple, which could be viewed and approached from all directions, the sides and rear of Roman temples might be largely undecorated (as in the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon, Rome</a> and temple of <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple_of_Vic" title="Roman temple of Vic">Vic</a>), inaccessible by steps (as in the <i><a href="/wiki/Maison_carr%C3%A9e" title="Maison carrée">Maison carrée</a></i> and Vic), and even back on to other buildings. As in the <i>Maison carrée</i>, columns at the side might be <a href="/wiki/Engaged_column" title="Engaged column">engaged columns</a>, emerging from ("engaged with" in architectural terminology) the wall.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The platform on which the temple sat was typically raised higher in Roman examples than Greek, with up ten or twelve or more steps rather than the three typical in Greek temples; the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Claudius" title="Temple of Claudius">Temple of Claudius</a> was raised twenty steps. These steps were normally only at the front, and typically not the whole width of that.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Greek <a href="/wiki/Classical_order" title="Classical order">classical orders</a> in all their details were closely followed in the façades of temples, as in other prestigious buildings. However, the idealized proportions between the different elements set out by the only significant Roman writer on architecture to survive, <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a>, and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> writers, do not reflect actual Roman practice, which could be very variable, though always aiming at balance and harmony. Following a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> trend, the <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_order" title="Corinthian order">Corinthian order</a> and its variant the <a href="/wiki/Composite_order" title="Composite order">Composite order</a> were most common in surviving Roman temples, but for small temples like <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple_of_Alc%C3%A1ntara" title="Roman temple of Alcántara">that at Alcántara</a>, a simple <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_order" title="Tuscan order">Tuscan order</a> could be used.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was considerable local variation in style, as Roman architects often tried to incorporate elements the population expected in its <a href="/wiki/Sacred_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred architecture">sacred architecture</a>. This was especially the case in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>, where different traditions of large stone temples were already millennia old. The <a href="/wiki/Romano-Celtic_temple" title="Romano-Celtic temple">Romano-Celtic temple</a> was a simple style for small temples found in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Empire">Western Empire</a>, and by far the most common type in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a>. It often lacked any of the distinctive classical features, and may have had considerable continuity with pre-Roman temples of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic religion</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theatres">Theatres</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Theatres"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Roman theatre (structure)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Roman_theatre_in_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ancient_Roman_theatre_in_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg/220px-Ancient_Roman_theatre_in_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ancient_Roman_theatre_in_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg/330px-Ancient_Roman_theatre_in_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ancient_Roman_theatre_in_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg/440px-Ancient_Roman_theatre_in_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6913" data-file-height="3889" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_Theatre_(M%C3%A9rida)" title="Roman Theatre (Mérida)">Roman Theatre of Mérida</a>, Spain</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Roman theatres</a> were built in all areas of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a>, from Spain to the Middle East. Because of the Romans' ability to influence local architecture, numerous theatres were built around the world with uniquely Roman attributes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson_Jones2000_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson_Jones2000-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These buildings were semi-circular and possessed certain inherent architectural structures, with minor differences depending on the region in which they were constructed. The <i><a href="/wiki/Scaenae_frons" title="Scaenae frons">scaenae frons</a></i> was a high back wall of the stage floor, supported by columns. The <i><a href="/wiki/Proscenium" title="Proscenium">proscaenium</a></i> was a wall that supported the front edge of the stage with ornately decorated niches to the sides. The Hellenistic influence is seen through the use of the <i>proscaenium</i>. The Roman theatre also had a <i><a href="/wiki/Podium" title="Podium">podium</a></i>, which sometimes supported the columns of the <i>scaenae frons</i>. The <i>scaenae</i> was originally not part of the building itself, constructed only to provide sufficient background for the actors. Eventually, it became a part of the edifice itself, made out of concrete. The theatre itself was divided into the stage (orchestra) and the seating section (<a href="/wiki/Auditorium" title="Auditorium">auditorium</a>). <i><a href="/wiki/Vomitorium" title="Vomitorium">Vomitoria</a></i> or entrances and exits were made available to the audience.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERos1996_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERos1996-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Villa">Villa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Villa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">Roman villa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Villa_rustica" title="Villa rustica">Villa rustica</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_villas_in_England" title="List of Roman villas in England">List of Roman villas in England</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_villas_in_Belgium" title="List of Roman villas in Belgium">List of Roman villas in Belgium</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Villa_of_the_Mysteries_in_Pompeii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Villa_of_the_Mysteries_in_Pompeii.jpg/260px-Villa_of_the_Mysteries_in_Pompeii.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Villa_of_the_Mysteries_in_Pompeii.jpg/390px-Villa_of_the_Mysteries_in_Pompeii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Villa_of_the_Mysteries_in_Pompeii.jpg/520px-Villa_of_the_Mysteries_in_Pompeii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Mysteries" title="Villa of the Mysteries">Villa of the Mysteries</a> just outside <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, seen from above</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">Roman villa</a> was a country house built for the upper class, while a <i><a href="/wiki/Domus" title="Domus">domus</a></i> was a wealthy family's house in a town. The Empire contained many kinds of villas, not all of them lavishly appointed with <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> floors and <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">frescoes</a>. In the provinces, any country house with some decorative features in the Roman style may be called a "villa" by modern scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard-Perkins2000333_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard-Perkins2000333-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some, like <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Villa" title="Hadrian's Villa">Hadrian's Villa</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tivoli,_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tivoli, Italy">Tivoli</a>, were pleasure palaces such as those that were situated in the cool hills within easy reach of Rome or, like the <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Papyri" title="Villa of the Papyri">Villa of the Papyri</a> at <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>, on picturesque sites overlooking the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Naples" class="mw-redirect" title="Bay of Naples">Bay of Naples</a>. Some villas were more like the <a href="/wiki/Country_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Country house">country houses</a> of England, the visible seat of power of a local magnate, such as the famous palace rediscovered at <a href="/wiki/Fishbourne_Roman_Palace" title="Fishbourne Roman Palace">Fishbourne</a> in Sussex. </p><p>Suburban villas on the edge of cities were also known, such as the Middle and Late Republican villas that encroached on the <a href="/wiki/Campus_Martius" title="Campus Martius">Campus Martius</a>, at that time on the edge of Rome, and which can be also seen outside the city walls of <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Mysteries" title="Villa of the Mysteries">Villa of the Mysteries</a>, known for its frescos. These early suburban villas, such as the one at Rome's Auditorium site<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or at Grottarossa in Rome, demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of the <i>villa suburbana</i> in Central Italy. It is possible that these early, suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power (maybe even palaces) of regional strongmen or heads of important families (<i>gentes</i>). </p><p>A third type of villa provided the organizational center of the large farming estates called <i><a href="/wiki/Latifundia" class="mw-redirect" title="Latifundia">latifundia</a></i>; such villas might be lacking in luxuries. By the 4th century, <i>villa</i> could simply mean an agricultural estate or holding: <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> translated the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Mark" title="Gospel of Mark">Gospel of Mark</a> (xiv, 32) <i>chorion</i>, describing the olive grove of <a href="/wiki/Gethsemane" title="Gethsemane">Gethsemane</a>, with <i>villa</i>, without an inference that there were any dwellings there (<i>Catholic Encyclopedia</i> "Gethsemane"). </p><p>With the colossal <a href="/wiki/Diocletian%27s_Palace" title="Diocletian's Palace">Diocletian's Palace</a>, built in the countryside but later turned into a fortified city, a form of residential castle emerges, that anticipates the Middle Ages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Watermills">Watermills</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Watermills"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_watermills" title="List of ancient watermills">List of ancient watermills</a></div> <p>The initial invention of the <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">watermill</a> appears to have occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenized eastern Mediterranean</a> in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Conquests_of_Alexander_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquests of Alexander the Great">conquests of Alexander the Great</a> and the rise of <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_Classical_Antiquity#Hellenistic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in Classical Antiquity">Hellenistic science and technology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWikander2000a396f._55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWikander2000a396f.-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonnersWaelkensDeckers200211_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnersWaelkensDeckers200211-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson20027f._57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson20027f.-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the subsequent Roman era, the use of water-power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheel</a> as well as the horizontal water wheel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWikander2000a373–378_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWikander2000a373–378-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonnersWaelkensDeckers200212–15_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnersWaelkensDeckers200212–15-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also applied to pounding grain,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWikander1985158_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWikander1985158-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWikander2000b403_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWikander2000b403-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson200216_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson200216-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> crushing ore,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWikander2000b407_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWikander2000b407-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sawing stones<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERittiGreweKessener2007_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERittiGreweKessener2007-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWikander2000b406f._65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWikander2000b406f.-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decorative_structures">Decorative structures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Decorative structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monoliths">Monoliths</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Monoliths"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_and_Roman_monoliths" title="List of ancient Greek and Roman monoliths">List of ancient Greek and Roman monoliths</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RomaColonnaTraianaCima.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/RomaColonnaTraianaCima.jpg/170px-RomaColonnaTraianaCima.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/RomaColonnaTraianaCima.jpg/255px-RomaColonnaTraianaCima.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/RomaColonnaTraianaCima.jpg/340px-RomaColonnaTraianaCima.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The capital of <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a>, Rome</figcaption></figure> <p>In architecture, a <a href="/wiki/Monolithic_architecture" title="Monolithic architecture">monolith</a> is a structure which has been excavated as a unit from a surrounding matrix or outcropping of rock.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monoliths are found in all types of Roman buildings. They were either: quarried without being moved; or quarried and moved; or quarried, moved and lifted clear off the ground into their position (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Architrave" title="Architrave">architraves</a>); or quarried, moved and erected in an upright position (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Column" title="Column">columns</a>). </p><p>Transporting was done by land or water (or a combination of both), in the later case often by special-built ships such as <a href="/wiki/Obelisk_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Obelisk carrier">obelisk carriers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWirsching2000_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWirsching2000-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For lifting operations, <a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)#History" title="Crane (machine)">ancient cranes</a> were employed since c. 515 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulton19747,_16_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulton19747,_16-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as in the <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column#Construction" title="Trajan's Column">construction of Trajan's Column</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELancaster1999419–439_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELancaster1999419–439-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Obelisks">Obelisks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Obelisks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_obelisks_in_Rome" title="List of obelisks in Rome">List of obelisks in Rome</a></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Obelisk" title="Obelisk">obelisk</a> is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top. These were originally called "tekhenu" by the builders, the ancient Egyptians. The Greeks who saw them used the Greek 'obeliskos' to describe them, and this word passed into Latin and then English.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakerBaker200169_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakerBaker200169-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans commissioned obelisks in an ancient Egyptian style. Examples include: </p> <ul><li>Arles, France – the <a href="/wiki/Arles_Obelisk" class="mw-redirect" title="Arles Obelisk">Arles Obelisk</a>, in <i>Place de la République</i>, a 4th-century obelisk of Roman origin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benevento" title="Benevento">Benevento</a>, Italy – three Roman obelisks<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a> – obelisk of Titus Sextius Africanus, <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staatliches_Museum_%C3%84gyptischer_Kunst" class="extiw" title="de:Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst">Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kunstareal" title="Kunstareal">Kunstareal</a>, 1st century AD, 5.80 m</li> <li>Rome – there are five ancient Roman obelisks in Rome.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_gardens">Roman gardens</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Roman gardens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P1080474_Mosaico_Conimbriga_(Condeixa-a-Nova).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/P1080474_Mosaico_Conimbriga_%28Condeixa-a-Nova%29.jpg/220px-P1080474_Mosaico_Conimbriga_%28Condeixa-a-Nova%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/P1080474_Mosaico_Conimbriga_%28Condeixa-a-Nova%29.jpg/330px-P1080474_Mosaico_Conimbriga_%28Condeixa-a-Nova%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/P1080474_Mosaico_Conimbriga_%28Condeixa-a-Nova%29.jpg/440px-P1080474_Mosaico_Conimbriga_%28Condeixa-a-Nova%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Gardens in <a href="/wiki/Conimbriga" class="mw-redirect" title="Conimbriga">Conimbriga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Roman_gardens" title="Roman gardens">Roman gardens</a> were influenced by Egyptian, <a href="/wiki/Persian_gardens" title="Persian gardens">Persian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greek_gardens" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek gardens">Greek</a> gardening techniques.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In Ancient <a href="/wiki/Latium" title="Latium">Latium</a>, a garden was part of every farm. According to <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Cato the Elder</a>, every garden should be close to the house and should have flower beds and ornamental trees.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESemple1929435_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESemple1929435-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a> wrote that during his time <a href="/wiki/Flower_garden" title="Flower garden">flower gardens</a> became a national indulgence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESemple1929436_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESemple1929436-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gardens were not reserved for the extremely wealthy. Excavations in <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> show that gardens attaching to residences were scaled down to meet the space constraints of the home of the average Roman. Modified versions of Roman garden designs were adopted in Roman settlements in <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Gaul</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britannia</a>. As town houses were replaced by tall <i><a href="/wiki/Insula_(building)" title="Insula (building)">insulae</a></i> (apartment buildings), these urban gardens were replaced by <a href="/wiki/Flower_box" title="Flower box">window boxes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Roof_garden" title="Roof garden">roof gardens</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Triumphal_arches">Triumphal arches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Triumphal arches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_triumphal_arches" title="List of Roman triumphal arches">List of Roman triumphal arches</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Triumphal_arch" title="Triumphal arch">triumphal arch</a> is a monumental structure in the shape of an <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">archway</a> with one or more arched passageways, often designed to span a road. The origins of the Roman triumphal arch are unclear, other than in the temporary structures, whose appearance is unknown, erected for <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">Roman triumphs</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, and later. There were precursors to the permanent triumphal arch within the Roman world; in Italy, the <a href="/wiki/Etruscans" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscans">Etruscans</a> used elaborately decorated single bay arches as gates or portals to their cities. Surviving examples of Etruscan arches can still be seen at <a href="/wiki/Perugia" title="Perugia">Perugia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volterra" title="Volterra">Volterra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaho200418–25_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaho200418–25-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two key elements of the triumphal arch – a round-topped arch and a square entablature – had long been in use as separate architectural elements in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>. </p><p>The innovation of the Romans was to use these elements in a single free-standing structure. The columns became purely decorative elements on the outer face of the arch, while the <a href="/wiki/Entablature" title="Entablature">entablature</a>, liberated from its role as a building support, became the frame for the civic and religious messages that the arch builders wished to convey.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESullivan2006133–134_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESullivan2006133–134-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Little is known about how the Romans viewed triumphal arches. <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, writing in the first century AD, was the only ancient author to discuss them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFürstGrundmann199843_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFürstGrundmann199843-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote that they were intended to "elevate above the ordinary world" an image of an honoured person usually depicted in the form of a statue with a <a href="/wiki/Quadriga" title="Quadriga">quadriga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFürstGrundmann199843_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFürstGrundmann199843-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rimini_arco_di_Augusto_02.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Rimini_arco_di_Augusto_02.png/220px-Rimini_arco_di_Augusto_02.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Rimini_arco_di_Augusto_02.png/330px-Rimini_arco_di_Augusto_02.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Rimini_arco_di_Augusto_02.png/440px-Rimini_arco_di_Augusto_02.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Augustus_(Rimini)" title="Arch of Augustus (Rimini)">Arch of Augustus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rimini" title="Rimini">Rimini</a> (Ariminum), dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> in 27 BC, the oldest surviving <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_triumphal_arches" title="List of Roman triumphal arches">Roman triumphal arch</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The first recorded Roman triumphal arches were set up in the time of the Roman Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generals who were granted a triumph were termed <i>triumphators</i> and would erect <i>fornices</i> or honorific arches bearing statues to commemorate their victories.<sup id="cite_ref-Grove_Art_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grove_Art-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman triumphal practices changed significantly at the start of the Imperial period, when the first <a href="/wiki/Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor">Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> decreed that only emperors would be granted triumphs. The triumphal arch changed from being a personal monument to being an essentially propagandistic one, serving to announce and promote the presence of the ruler and the laws of the state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaho200418–25_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaho200418–25-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arches were not necessarily built as entrances, but – unlike many modern triumphal arches – they were often erected across roads and were intended to be passed through, not round.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonourFleming2005_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonourFleming2005-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arch_of_Titus_(Roma).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Arch_of_Titus_%28Roma%29.jpg/220px-Arch_of_Titus_%28Roma%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Arch_of_Titus_%28Roma%29.jpg/330px-Arch_of_Titus_%28Roma%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Arch_of_Titus_%28Roma%29.jpg/440px-Arch_of_Titus_%28Roma%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4959" data-file-height="5056" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Titus" title="Arch of Titus">Arch of Titus</a> in Rome, an early Roman imperial triumphal arch with a single archway</figcaption></figure> <p>Most Roman triumphal arches were built during the Imperial period. By the fourth century AD there were 36 such arches in Rome, of which three have survived – the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Titus" title="Arch of Titus">Arch of Titus</a> (AD 81), the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Arch of Septimius Severus">Arch of Septimius Severus</a> (203–205) and the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Constantine" title="Arch of Constantine">Arch of Constantine</a> (312). Numerous arches were built elsewhere in the Roman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The single arch was the most common, but many triple arches were also built, of which the <a href="/wiki/Triumphal_Arch_of_Orange" title="Triumphal Arch of Orange">Triumphal Arch of Orange</a> (c. AD 21) is the earliest surviving example. From the 2nd century AD, many examples of the <i>arcus quadrifrons</i> – a square triumphal arch erected over a crossroads, with arched openings on all four sides – were built, especially in North Africa. Arch-building in Rome and Italy diminished after the time of Trajan (AD 98–117) but remained widespread in the provinces during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD; they were often erected to commemorate imperial visits.<sup id="cite_ref-Grove_Art_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grove_Art-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ornamentation of an arch was intended to serve as a constant visual reminder of the triumph and <i>triumphator</i>. The façade was ornamented with marble columns, and the piers and attics with decorative <a href="/wiki/Cornice" title="Cornice">cornices</a>. Sculpted panels depicted victories and achievements, the deeds of the <i>triumphator</i>, the captured weapons of the enemy or the triumphal procession itself. The <a href="/wiki/Spandrel" title="Spandrel">spandrels</a> usually depicted flying <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(mythology)" title="Victoria (mythology)">Victories</a>, while the attic was often inscribed with a dedicatory inscription naming and praising the <i>triumphator</i>. The piers and internal passageways were also decorated with reliefs and free-standing sculptures. The vault was ornamented with <a href="/wiki/Coffer" title="Coffer">coffers</a>. Some triumphal arches were surmounted by a statue or a <i>currus triumphalis</i>, a group of statues depicting the emperor or general in a <a href="/wiki/Quadriga" title="Quadriga">quadriga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaho200418–25_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaho200418–25-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grove_Art_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grove_Art-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inscriptions on Roman triumphal arches were works of art in themselves, with very finely cut, sometimes gilded letters. The form of each letter and the spacing between them was carefully designed for maximum clarity and simplicity, without any decorative flourishes, emphasizing the Roman taste for restraint and order. This conception of what later became the art of <a href="/wiki/Typography" title="Typography">typography</a> remains of fundamental importance to the present day.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonourFleming2005_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonourFleming2005-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victory_columns">Victory columns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Victory columns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_victory_columns" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman victory columns">List of Roman victory columns</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Infrastructure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roads">Roads</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Roads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman road">Roman road</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg/220px-Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg/330px-Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg/440px-Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Appian_Way" title="Appian Way">Appian Way</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Roman_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman road">Roman roads</a> were vital to the maintenance and development of the Roman state, and were built from about 500 BC through the expansion and consolidation of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes1993146_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes1993146-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They provided efficient means for the overland movement of <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">armies</a>, officials and civilians, and the inland carriage of official communications and <a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">trade</a> goods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaszynski20009_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaszynski20009-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the peak of Rome's development, no fewer than 29 great military highways radiated from the capital, and the Late Empire's 113 provinces were interconnected by 372 great road links.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunson2009195_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunson2009195-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Flaherty20022_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Flaherty20022-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman road builders aimed at a regulation width (see <a href="#Laws_and_standards">Laws and standards</a> above), but actual widths have been measured at between 3.6 ft (1.1 m) and more than 23 ft (7.0 m). Today, the concrete has worn from the spaces around the stones, giving the impression of a very bumpy road, but the original practice was to produce a surface that was much closer to being flat. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aqueduct">Aqueduct</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Aqueduct"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Roman aqueduct</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueducts_in_the_city_of_Rome" title="List of aqueducts in the city of Rome">List of aqueducts in the city of Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueducts_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire">List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/220px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/330px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/440px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12648" data-file-height="4882" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Vers-Pont-du-Gard" title="Vers-Pont-du-Gard">Vers-Pont-du-Gard</a>, France</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> constructed numerous <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(bridge)" title="Aqueduct (bridge)">aqueducts</a> in order to bring water from distant sources into their cities and towns, supplying <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">public baths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latrine" title="Latrine">latrines</a>, fountains and private households. Waste water was removed by complex <a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">sewage systems</a> and released into nearby bodies of water, keeping the towns clean and free from effluent. Aqueducts also provided water for mining operations, milling, farms and gardens. </p><p>Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, being constructed along a slight downward gradient within conduits of stone, brick or concrete. Most were buried beneath the ground, and followed its contours; obstructing peaks were circumvented or, less often, tunnelled through. Where valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit was carried on bridgework, or its contents fed into high-pressure lead, ceramic or stone pipes and siphoned across. Most aqueduct systems included sedimentation tanks, <a href="/wiki/Sluice" title="Sluice">sluices</a> and distribution tanks to regulate the supply as needed. </p><p>Ancient Rome's first aqueduct – the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Appia" title="Aqua Appia">Aqua Appia</a> – supplied a water-fountain sited at the city's <a href="/wiki/Forum_Boarium" title="Forum Boarium">cattle market</a> in the fourth century BC. By the third century AD, the city had <a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueducts_in_the_city_of_Rome" title="List of aqueducts in the city of Rome">eleven aqueducts</a>, sustaining a population of over a million people in a water-extravagant economy; most of the water supplied the city's many public baths. Cities and municipalities throughout the Roman Empire emulated this model and funded aqueducts as objects of public interest and civic pride, "an expensive yet necessary luxury to which all could, and did, aspire."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGagarinFantham2010145_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGagarinFantham2010145-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable, and durable; some were maintained into the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern">early modern</a> era, and a few are still partly in use. Methods of aqueduct surveying and construction are noted by <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> in his work <i><a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a></i> (1st century BC). The general <a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a> gives more detail in his <a href="/wiki/De_aquaeductu" title="De aquaeductu">official report</a> on the problems, uses and abuses of Imperial Rome's public water supply. Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include the supporting piers of the <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_of_Segovia" title="Aqueduct of Segovia">Aqueduct of Segovia</a>, and the aqueduct-fed cisterns of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bridges">Bridges</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Bridges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Roman bridge</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_bridges" title="List of Roman bridges">List of Roman bridges</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Bridge_of_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Roman_Bridge_of_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg/220px-Roman_Bridge_of_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Roman_Bridge_of_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg/330px-Roman_Bridge_of_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Roman_Bridge_of_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg/440px-Roman_Bridge_of_M%C3%A9rida_2023.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5293" data-file-height="2977" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Puente_Romano,_M%C3%A9rida" title="Puente Romano, Mérida">Puente Romano</a> over the Guadiana River at <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rida,_Spain" title="Mérida, Spain">Mérida, Spain</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Roman bridges, built by <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Romans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Romans">ancient Romans</a>, were the first large and lasting bridges built.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor19931_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor19931-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman bridges were built with stone and had the <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arch</a> as the basic structure. Most used <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">concrete</a> as well, which the Romans were the first to use for bridges. </p><p>Roman arch bridges were usually <a href="/wiki/Semicircular" class="mw-redirect" title="Semicircular">semicircular</a>, although a few were <a href="/wiki/Circular_segment" title="Circular segment">segmental</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Alcon%C3%A9tar_Bridge" title="Alconétar Bridge">Alconétar Bridge</a>). A segmental arch is an arch that is less than a semicircle.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The advantages of the segmental arch bridge were that it allowed great amounts of flood water to pass under it, which would prevent the bridge from being swept away during floods and the bridge itself could be more lightweight. Generally, Roman bridges featured wedge-shaped primary arch stones (<a href="/wiki/Voussoir" title="Voussoir">voussoirs</a>) of the same in size and shape. The Romans built both single spans and lengthy multiple arch <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueducts" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman aqueducts">aqueducts</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Segovia_Aqueduct" class="mw-redirect" title="Segovia Aqueduct">Segovia Aqueduct</a>. Their bridges featured from an early time onwards flood openings in the piers, e.g. in the <a href="/wiki/Pons_Fabricius" title="Pons Fabricius">Pons Fabricius</a> in Rome (62 BC), one of the world's oldest major bridges still standing. Roman engineers were the first and until the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> the only ones to construct bridges with <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">concrete</a>, which they called <i>opus caementicium</i>. The outside was usually covered with brick or ashlar, as in the Alcántara bridge. </p><p>The Romans also introduced segmental arch bridges into bridge construction. The 330 m long <a href="/wiki/Limyra_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Limyra Bridge">Limyra Bridge</a> in southwestern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> features 26 segmental arches with an average span-to-rise ratio of 5.3:1,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1993126_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1993126-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> giving the bridge an unusually flat profile unsurpassed for more than a millennium. <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Trajan's bridge">Trajan's bridge</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> featured open-spandrel segmental arches made of wood (standing on 40 m high concrete piers). This was to be the longest arch bridge for a thousand years both in terms of overall and individual span length, while the longest extant Roman bridge is the 790 m long <a href="/wiki/Puente_Romano" class="mw-redirect" title="Puente Romano">Puente Romano</a> at <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rida,_Spain" title="Mérida, Spain">Mérida</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canals">Canals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Canals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_canals" title="List of Roman canals">List of Roman canals</a></div> <p>Roman canals were typically multi-purpose structures, intended for <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">land reclamation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">flood control</a> and <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a> where feasible. Some navigational canals were recorded by <a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">ancient geographers</a> and are still traceable by <a href="/wiki/Modern_archaeology" title="Modern archaeology">modern archaeology</a>. Channels which served the needs of urban <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a> are covered at the <a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueducts_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire">List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cisterns">Cisterns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Cisterns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_cisterns" title="List of Roman cisterns">List of Roman cisterns</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yerebatan2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Yerebatan2.JPG/220px-Yerebatan2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Yerebatan2.JPG/330px-Yerebatan2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Yerebatan2.JPG/440px-Yerebatan2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2541" data-file-height="1713" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Cistern" title="Basilica Cistern">Basilica Cistern</a> in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> provided water for the <a href="/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople" title="Great Palace of Constantinople">Imperial Palace</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Freshwater reservoirs were commonly set up at the termini of <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueducts</a> and their branch lines, supplying urban households, <a href="/wiki/Villa_rustica" title="Villa rustica">agricultural estates</a>, imperial palaces, <i><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">thermae</a></i> or naval bases of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman navy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDöring2002310–319_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDöring2002310–319-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dams">Dams</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Dams"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dams_and_reservoirs" title="List of Roman dams and reservoirs">List of Roman dams and reservoirs</a></div> <p>Roman dam construction began in earnest in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">early imperial period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge199287_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge199287-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the most part, it concentrated on the semi-arid fringe of the empire, namely the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Roman_North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman North Africa">North Africa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter197828,_fig._7_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter197828,_fig._7-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge199280_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge199280-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2000332_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2000332-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relative abundance of Spanish dams below is due partly to more intensive field work there; for <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italy</a> only the <a href="/wiki/Subiaco_Dams" title="Subiaco Dams">Subiaco Dams</a>, created by emperor <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> (54–68 AD) for recreational purposes, are attested.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith197060f._94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith197060f.-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge199287_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge199287-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These dams are noteworthy, though, for their extraordinary height, which remained unsurpassed anywhere in the world until the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge199287_90-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge199287-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most frequent dam types were earth- or rock-filled <a href="/wiki/Embankment_dam" title="Embankment dam">embankment dams</a> and masonry <a href="/wiki/Gravity_dam" title="Gravity dam">gravity dams</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2000331f._95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2000331f.-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These served a wide array of purposes, such as <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">flood control</a>, river diversion, soil-retention, or a combination of these functions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge199286f._96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge199286f.-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The impermeability of Roman dams was increased by the introduction of waterproof hydraulic <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a> and especially <i><a href="/wiki/Opus_caementicium" class="mw-redirect" title="Opus caementicium">opus caementicium</a></i> in the <a href="/wiki/Concrete_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Concrete Revolution">Concrete Revolution</a>. These materials also allowed for bigger structures to be built,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith197149_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith197149-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> like the <a href="/wiki/Lake_Homs_Dam" title="Lake Homs Dam">Lake Homs Dam</a>, possibly the largest water barrier today,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith197142_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith197142-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the sturdy <a href="/wiki/Harbaqa_Dam" title="Harbaqa Dam">Harbaqa Dam</a>, both of which consist of a concrete core. </p><p>Roman builders were the first to realize the stabilizing effect of <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buttress" title="Buttress">buttresses</a>, which they integrated into their dam designs. Previously unknown dam types introduced by the Romans include <a href="/wiki/Arch-gravity_dam" title="Arch-gravity dam">arch-gravity dams</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2000332_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2000332-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamesChanson2002_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamesChanson2002-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Arch_dam" title="Arch dam">arch dams</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith197133–35_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith197133–35-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter197831f._101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter197831f.-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987a12_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987a12-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987c80_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987c80-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2000332,_fn._2_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2000332,_fn._2-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Buttress_dam" title="Buttress dam">buttress dams</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987b59–62_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987b59–62-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Arch_dam#Variations" title="Arch dam">multiple-arch buttress dams</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter197829_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter197829-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987b60,_table_1,_62_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987b60,_table_1,_62-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamesChanson2002_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamesChanson2002-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArenillasCastillo2003_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArenillasCastillo2003-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defensive_walls">Defensive walls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Defensive walls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_defensive_walls" title="Ancient Roman defensive walls">Ancient Roman defensive walls</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lugo_2023_-_Roman_Walls.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Lugo_2023_-_Roman_Walls.jpg/220px-Lugo_2023_-_Roman_Walls.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Lugo_2023_-_Roman_Walls.jpg/330px-Lugo_2023_-_Roman_Walls.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Lugo_2023_-_Roman_Walls.jpg/440px-Lugo_2023_-_Roman_Walls.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5080" data-file-height="3387" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_walls_of_Lugo" title="Roman walls of Lugo">Roman walls of Lugo</a>, Spain</figcaption></figure> <p>The Romans generally fortified cities rather than fortresses, but there are some fortified camps such as the <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Shore_forts" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxon Shore forts">Saxon Shore forts</a> like <a href="/wiki/Portus_Adurni" title="Portus Adurni">Porchester Castle</a> in England. City walls were already significant in <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_architecture" title="Etruscan architecture">Etruscan architecture</a>, and in the struggle for control of Italy under the early Republic many more were built, using different techniques. These included tightly fitting massive irregular polygonal blocks, shaped to fit exactly in a way reminiscent of later <a href="/wiki/Inca" class="mw-redirect" title="Inca">Inca</a> work. The Romans called a simple rampart wall an <a href="/wiki/Agger_(ancient_Rome)" title="Agger (ancient Rome)">agger</a>; at this date great height was not necessary. The <a href="/wiki/Servian_Wall" title="Servian Wall">Servian Wall</a> around Rome was an ambitious project of the early 4th century BC. The wall was up to 10 metres (33 feet) in height in places, 3.6 metres (12 feet) wide at its base, 11 km (6.8 mi) long,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is believed to have had <a href="/wiki/Servian_Wall#Gates_along_the_Servian_Wall" title="Servian Wall">16 main gates</a>, though many of these are mentioned only from writings, with no other known remains. Some of it had a <i>fossa</i> or ditch in front, and an agger behind, and it was enough to deter <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>. Later the <a href="/wiki/Aurelian_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurelian Wall">Aurelian Wall</a> replaced it, enclosing an expanded city, and using more sophisticated designs, with small forts at intervals. </p><p>The Romans walled major cities and towns in areas they saw as vulnerable, and parts of many walls remain incorporated in later defensive fortifications, as at <a href="/wiki/Roman_walls_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Roman walls of Córdoba">Córdoba</a> (2nd century BC), <a href="/wiki/Chester_city_walls" title="Chester city walls">Chester</a> (earth and wood in the 70s AD, stone from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 100</span>), and <a href="/wiki/York_city_walls" title="York city walls">York</a> (from 70s AD). Strategic walls across open country were far rarer, and <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> (from 122) and the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a> (from 142, abandoned only 8 years after completion) are the most significant examples, both on the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Pictish</a> frontier of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architectural_features">Architectural features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Architectural features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mosaics">Mosaics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Mosaics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_mosaic" title="Roman mosaic">Roman mosaic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Centaur_mosaic_-_Google_Art_Project_retouched.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Centaur_mosaic_-_Google_Art_Project_retouched.jpeg/220px-Centaur_mosaic_-_Google_Art_Project_retouched.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Centaur_mosaic_-_Google_Art_Project_retouched.jpeg/330px-Centaur_mosaic_-_Google_Art_Project_retouched.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Centaur_mosaic_-_Google_Art_Project_retouched.jpeg/440px-Centaur_mosaic_-_Google_Art_Project_retouched.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="27974" data-file-height="18078" /></a><figcaption>The Centaur mosaic (2nd century), found at <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Villa" title="Hadrian's Villa">Hadrian's Villa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tivoli,_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tivoli, Italy">Tivoli</a>, Italy. <a href="/wiki/Altes_Museum" title="Altes Museum">Altes Museum</a>, Berlin</figcaption></figure> <p>On his return from campaigns in Greece, the general <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a> brought back what is probably the best-known element of the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">imperial period</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a>, a decoration made of colourful chips of stone inserted into cement. This tiling method took the empire by storm in the late first century and the second century and in the Roman home joined the well-known <a href="/wiki/Mural" title="Mural">mural</a> in decorating floors, walls, and <a href="/wiki/Grotto" title="Grotto">grottoes</a> with <a href="/wiki/Geometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Geometric">geometric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pictorial" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictorial">pictorial</a> designs. </p><p>There were two main techniques in Greco-Roman mosaic. <i><a href="/wiki/Opus_vermiculatum" title="Opus vermiculatum">Opus vermiculatum</a></i> used tiny <i><a href="/wiki/Tesserae" class="mw-redirect" title="Tesserae">tesserae</a></i>, typically cubes of 4 millimeters or less, and was produced in workshops in relatively small panels, which were transported to the site glued to some temporary support. The tiny <i>tesserae</i> allowed very fine detail and an approach to the illusionism of painting. Often small panels called <i>emblemata</i> were inserted into walls or as the highlights of larger floor-mosaics in coarser work. The normal technique, however, was <i><a href="/wiki/Opus_tessellatum" title="Opus tessellatum">opus tessellatum</a></i>, using larger tesserae, which were laid on site.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1983116–119_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1983116–119-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a distinct native Italian style using black on a white background, which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1983121–123_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1983121–123-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A specific genre of Roman mosaic obtained the name <i>asaroton</i> (Greek "unswept floor"). It represented an optical illusion of the leftovers from a feast on the floor of rich houses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1972_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1972-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypocaust">Hypocaust</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Hypocaust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2005-09-17_10-01_Provence_646_St_R%C3%A9my-de-Provence_-_Glanum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/2005-09-17_10-01_Provence_646_St_R%C3%A9my-de-Provence_-_Glanum.jpg/220px-2005-09-17_10-01_Provence_646_St_R%C3%A9my-de-Provence_-_Glanum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/2005-09-17_10-01_Provence_646_St_R%C3%A9my-de-Provence_-_Glanum.jpg/330px-2005-09-17_10-01_Provence_646_St_R%C3%A9my-de-Provence_-_Glanum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/2005-09-17_10-01_Provence_646_St_R%C3%A9my-de-Provence_-_Glanum.jpg/440px-2005-09-17_10-01_Provence_646_St_R%C3%A9my-de-Provence_-_Glanum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hypocaust" title="Hypocaust">Hypocaust</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saint-R%C3%A9my-de-Provence" title="Saint-Rémy-de-Provence">Saint-Rémy-de-Provence</a>, France</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Hypocaust" title="Hypocaust">hypocaust</a> was an ancient Roman system of <a href="/wiki/Underfloor_heating" title="Underfloor heating">underfloor heating</a>, used to heat buildings with hot air. The Roman architect Vitruvius, writing about the end of the 1st century BC, attributes their invention to <a href="/wiki/Sergius_Orata" title="Sergius Orata">Sergius Orata</a>. Many remains of Roman hypocausts have survived throughout Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. The hypocaust was an invention which improved the hygiene and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of modern <a href="/wiki/Central_heating" title="Central heating">central heating</a>. </p><p>Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths (<i><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">thermae</a></i>), houses and other buildings, whether public or private. The floor was raised above the ground by pillars, called <a href="/wiki/Pilae_stacks" title="Pilae stacks">pilae stacks</a>, with a layer of tiles, then a layer of concrete, then another of tiles on top; and spaces were left inside the walls so that hot air and smoke from the <a href="/wiki/Furnace_(house_heating)" class="mw-redirect" title="Furnace (house heating)">furnace</a> would pass through these enclosed areas and out of flues in the roof, thereby heating but not polluting the interior of the room. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_roofs">Roman roofs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Roman roofs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_and_Roman_roofs" title="List of ancient Greek and Roman roofs">List of ancient Greek and Roman roofs</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_of_echo_Baiae.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Temple_of_echo_Baiae.JPG/170px-Temple_of_echo_Baiae.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Temple_of_echo_Baiae.JPG/255px-Temple_of_echo_Baiae.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Temple_of_echo_Baiae.JPG/340px-Temple_of_echo_Baiae.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption>Inside the "Temple of Mercury" at <a href="/wiki/Baiae" title="Baiae">Baiae</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Frigidarium" title="Frigidarium">swimming pool</a> for a <a href="/wiki/Roman_bath" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman bath">Roman bath</a>, dating to the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and containing one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_domes" title="List of Roman domes">largest domes</a> in the world before the building of the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> truss roofs presumably appeared as early as 550 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge196038–44_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge196038–44-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their potential was fully realized in the Roman period, which saw trussed roofs over 30 meters wide spanning the rectangular spaces of monumental public buildings such as <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">temples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilicas</a>, and later churches. Such spans were three times as wide as the widest prop-and-lintel roofs and only surpassed by the largest <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_domes" title="List of Roman domes">Roman domes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUlrich2007148f._115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUlrich2007148f.-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The largest <a href="/wiki/Truss_roof" class="mw-redirect" title="Truss roof">truss roof</a> by span of ancient Rome covered the <a href="/wiki/Flavian_Palace" title="Flavian Palace">Aula Regia</a> (throne room) built for emperor <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a> (81–96 AD) on the <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine Hill</a>, Rome. The timber truss roof had a width of 31.67 m, slightly surpassing the postulated limit of 30 m for Roman roof constructions. Tie-beam trusses allowed for much larger spans than the older prop-and-lintel system and even concrete vaulting. Nine out of the ten largest rectangular spaces in Roman architecture were bridged this way, the only exception being the groin vaulted <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Maxentius" title="Basilica of Maxentius">Basilica of Maxentius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUlrich2007148f._115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUlrich2007148f.-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spiral_stairs">Spiral stairs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Spiral stairs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_spiral_stairs" title="List of ancient spiral stairs">List of ancient spiral stairs</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Stairway#Spiral_and_helical_stairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Stairway">spiral stair</a> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Stairway" class="mw-redirect" title="Stairway">stairway</a> which, due to its complex <a href="/wiki/Helix" title="Helix">helical</a> structure, was introduced relatively late into architecture. Although the oldest example dates to the 5th century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was only in the wake of the influential design of <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a> that this space-saving new type permanently caught hold in Roman architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002353–356_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002353–356-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apart from the <a href="/wiki/Triumphal_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Triumphal column">triumphal columns</a> in the imperial cities of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, other types of buildings such as <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">temples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">thermae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilicas</a> and tombs were also fitted with spiral stairways.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002353–356_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002353–356-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their notable absence in the towers of the <a href="/wiki/Aurelian_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurelian Wall">Aurelian Wall</a> indicates that although used in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_castle" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval castle">medieval castles</a>, they did not yet figure prominently in <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Roman military engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002353–356_117-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002353–356-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>, separate stair towers were constructed adjacent to the main buildings, as in the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">Basilica of San Vitale</a>. </p><p>The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to <a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Christian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="City_design">City design</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: City design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Centuriation" title="Centuriation">Centuriation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decumanus_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Decumanus Maximus">Decumanus Maximus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cardo" title="Cardo">Cardo</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D%C3%A9tail_de_la_maquette_de_Rome_%C3%A0_l%C3%A9poque_de_Constantin_(5840455090).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/D%C3%A9tail_de_la_maquette_de_Rome_%C3%A0_l%C3%A9poque_de_Constantin_%285840455090%29.jpg/220px-D%C3%A9tail_de_la_maquette_de_Rome_%C3%A0_l%C3%A9poque_de_Constantin_%285840455090%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/D%C3%A9tail_de_la_maquette_de_Rome_%C3%A0_l%C3%A9poque_de_Constantin_%285840455090%29.jpg/330px-D%C3%A9tail_de_la_maquette_de_Rome_%C3%A0_l%C3%A9poque_de_Constantin_%285840455090%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/D%C3%A9tail_de_la_maquette_de_Rome_%C3%A0_l%C3%A9poque_de_Constantin_%285840455090%29.jpg/440px-D%C3%A9tail_de_la_maquette_de_Rome_%C3%A0_l%C3%A9poque_de_Constantin_%285840455090%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Claudius" title="Temple of Claudius">Temple of Claudius</a> to the south (left) of the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a> (model of Imperial Rome at the <a href="/wiki/Museo_della_civilt%C3%A0_romana" class="mw-redirect" title="Museo della civiltà romana">Museo della civiltà romana</a> in Rome)</figcaption></figure> <p>The ancient Romans employed regular orthogonal structures on which they molded their colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris197239–41,_51–60_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris197239–41,_51–60-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolb1984169–238_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolb1984169–238-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenevolo1993256–267_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenevolo1993256–267-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples, as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by the <a href="/wiki/Etruscans" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscans">Etruscans</a> in Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see <a href="/wiki/Marzabotto" title="Marzabotto">Marzabotto</a>) </p><p>The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defense and civil convenience. The basic plan consisted of a central <a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">forum</a> with city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear <a href="/wiki/Grid_plan" title="Grid plan">grid of streets</a>, and wrapped in a wall for defense. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets crossed the square grid, passing through the central square. A river usually flowed through the city, providing water, transport, and sewage disposal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVitrivius1914_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVitrivius1914-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hundreds of towns and cities were built by the Romans throughout their Empire. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philippopolis_urban_plan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Philippopolis_urban_plan.jpg/170px-Philippopolis_urban_plan.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Philippopolis_urban_plan.jpg/255px-Philippopolis_urban_plan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Philippopolis_urban_plan.jpg/340px-Philippopolis_urban_plan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1205" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Model of the 1st century <a href="/wiki/Philippopolis_(Thrace)" title="Philippopolis (Thrace)">Philippopolis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Plovdiv" title="Plovdiv">Plovdiv</a>, Bulgaria) in the Roman period created by architect Matey Mateev</figcaption></figure> <p>Many European towns, such as <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>, preserve the remains of these schemes, which show the very logical way the Romans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads were equal in width and length, except for two, which were slightly wider than the others. One of these ran east–west, the other, north–south, and they intersected in the middle to form the center of the grid. All roads were made of carefully fitted <a href="/wiki/Flagstone" title="Flagstone">flagstones</a> and filled in with smaller, hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were constructed where needed. Each square marked off by four roads was called an <i><a href="/wiki/Insula_(Roman_city)" title="Insula (Roman city)">insula</a>,</i> the Roman equivalent of a modern <a href="/wiki/City_block" title="City block">city block</a>. Each <i>insula</i> was 80 yards (73 m) square, with the land within it divided. As the city developed, each <i>insula</i> would eventually be filled with buildings of various shapes and sizes and crisscrossed with back roads and alleys. Most <i>insulae</i> were given to the first settlers of a Roman city, but each person had to pay to construct his own house. </p><p>The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from invaders and to mark the city limits. Areas outside city limits were left open as farmland. At the end of each main road was a large gateway with watchtowers. A <a href="/wiki/Portcullis" title="Portcullis">portcullis</a> covered the opening when the city was under siege, and additional watchtowers were constructed along the city walls. An aqueduct was built outside the city walls. </p><p>The development of Greek and Roman urbanization is well-known, as there are relatively many written sources, and there has been much attention to the subject, since the Romans and Greeks are generally regarded as the main ancestors of modern Western culture. It should not be forgotten, though, that the Etruscans had many considerable towns and there were also other cultures with more or less urban settlements in Europe, primarily of <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> origin.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significant_buildings_and_areas">Significant buildings and areas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Significant buildings and areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG/220px-Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG/330px-Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG/440px-Baths_of_Caracalla.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Caracalla" title="Baths of Caracalla">Baths of Caracalla</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_-_Verona_-_Arena.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Italy_-_Verona_-_Arena.jpg/220px-Italy_-_Verona_-_Arena.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Italy_-_Verona_-_Arena.jpg/330px-Italy_-_Verona_-_Arena.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Italy_-_Verona_-_Arena.jpg/440px-Italy_-_Verona_-_Arena.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4954" data-file-height="3835" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Verona_Arena" title="Verona Arena">Verona Arena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Verona" title="Verona">Verona</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Villa_Hadriana_(Villa_Adriana_Tivoli)_1000_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Villa_Hadriana_%28Villa_Adriana_Tivoli%29_1000_03.jpg/220px-Villa_Hadriana_%28Villa_Adriana_Tivoli%29_1000_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Villa_Hadriana_%28Villa_Adriana_Tivoli%29_1000_03.jpg/330px-Villa_Hadriana_%28Villa_Adriana_Tivoli%29_1000_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Villa_Hadriana_%28Villa_Adriana_Tivoli%29_1000_03.jpg/440px-Villa_Hadriana_%28Villa_Adriana_Tivoli%29_1000_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Villa" title="Hadrian's Villa">Hadrian's Villa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tivoli,_Lazio" title="Tivoli, Lazio">Tivoli, Lazio</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_buildings">Public buildings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Public buildings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Trajan" title="Baths of Trajan">Baths of Trajan</a> – these were a massive <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae"><i>thermae</i>, a bathing and leisure complex</a>, built in ancient Rome starting from 104 AD and dedicated during the <i><a href="/wiki/Kalends" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalends">Kalends</a></i> of July in 109.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Diocletian" title="Baths of Diocletian">Baths of Diocletian</a> – in ancient Rome, these were the grandest of the public baths (thermae), built by successive emperors</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Caracalla" title="Baths of Caracalla">Baths of Caracalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a>, in Rome</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circus_Maximus" title="Circus Maximus">Circus Maximus</a>, in Rome</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_Hostilia" title="Curia Hostilia">Curia Hostilia</a> (Senate House), in Rome</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domus_Aurea" title="Domus Aurea">Domus Aurea</a> (former building)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Augustus" title="Forum of Augustus">Forum of Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Villa" title="Hadrian's Villa">Hadrian's Villa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Hercules" title="Tower of Hercules">Tower of Hercules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropaeum_Traiani" title="Tropaeum Traiani">Tropaeum Traiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verona_Arena" title="Verona Arena">Verona Arena</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Verona" title="Verona">Verona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_St._George,_Sofia" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of St. George, Sofia">Rotunda Church of St. George</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serdika" title="Serdika">Serdika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sofia" title="Sofia">Sofia</a>, Bulgaria</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_of_Philippopolis" title="Roman theatre of Philippopolis">Roman theatre of Philippopolis</a>, Plovdiv, Bulgaria</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plovdiv_Roman_Stadium" class="mw-redirect" title="Plovdiv Roman Stadium">Roman Stadium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippopolis_(Thrace)" title="Philippopolis (Thrace)">Philippopolis</a>, Plovdiv, Bulgaria</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Thermae_(Varna)" title="Roman Thermae (Varna)">Roman baths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Varna" title="Timeline of Varna">Odessos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Varna</a>, Bulgaria</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocletianopolis_(Thrace)" title="Diocletianopolis (Thrace)">Roman city walls of Diocletianopolis (Thrace)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hisarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hisarya">Hisarya</a>, Bulgaria</li> <li>Roman tomb, <a href="/wiki/Primorsko" title="Primorsko">Primorsko</a>, Bulgaria<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tholos_(Ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tholos (Ancient Rome)">Tholos</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Private_architecture">Private architecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Private architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alyscamps" title="Alyscamps">Alyscamps</a> – a <a href="/wiki/Necropolis" title="Necropolis">necropolis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Arles" title="Arles">Arles</a>, France, one of the most famous necropolises of the ancient world</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domus" title="Domus">Domus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Rome" title="Catacombs of Rome">Catacombs of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">Roman villa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Villa_rustica" title="Villa rustica">Villa rustica</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stabiae" title="Stabiae">Stabiae</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hadrian%27s_Wall_and_path,_section_near_Crag_Lough.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Hadrian%27s_Wall_and_path%2C_section_near_Crag_Lough.jpg/220px-Hadrian%27s_Wall_and_path%2C_section_near_Crag_Lough.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Hadrian%27s_Wall_and_path%2C_section_near_Crag_Lough.jpg/330px-Hadrian%27s_Wall_and_path%2C_section_near_Crag_Lough.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Hadrian%27s_Wall_and_path%2C_section_near_Crag_Lough.jpg/440px-Hadrian%27s_Wall_and_path%2C_section_near_Crag_Lough.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>, built in 122 AD in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a>, in what is now <a href="/wiki/Northern_England" title="Northern England">Northern England</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_engineering">Civil engineering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Civil engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman engineering">Roman engineering</a> – Romans are famous for their advanced engineering accomplishments, although some of their own inventions were improvements on older ideas, concepts and inventions.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_watermill" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman watermill">Roman watermill</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_engineering">Military engineering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Military engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Castrum">Castrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limes_Germanicus" title="Limes Germanicus">Limes Germanicus</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output 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portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline of ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_architecture" title="Outline of architecture">Outline of architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Ancient Greek architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Achaemenid architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture in ancient Rome</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henig, p. 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yarwood, 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Henig,_27-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Henig,_27_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henig, p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeLaine1990407-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeLaine1990407_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeLaine1990">DeLaine 1990</a>, p. 407.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERook199218f.-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERook199218f._5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRook1992">Rook 1992</a>, pp. 18f..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardner2005170-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGardner2005170_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGardner2005">Gardner 2005</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Semper, 756</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard-Perkins1956-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard-Perkins1956_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWard-Perkins1956">Ward-Perkins 1956</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yarwood, 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFrothingham1915" class="citation journal cs1">Frothingham, A. L. (1915). "The Roman Territorial Arch". <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i>. <b>19</b> (2): 155–174. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F497176">10.2307/497176</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9114">0002-9114</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/497176">497176</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191392502">191392502</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Roman+Territorial+Arch&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=155-174&rft.date=1915&rft.issn=0002-9114&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A191392502%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F497176%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F497176&rft.aulast=Frothingham&rft.aufirst=A.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasch1985117-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasch1985117_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasch1985117_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasch1985">Rasch 1985</a>, p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELechtmanHobbs1986-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELechtmanHobbs1986_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLechtmanHobbs1986">Lechtman & Hobbs 1986</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkHutchinson198624-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkHutchinson198624_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarkHutchinson1986">Mark & Hutchinson 1986</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeinleSchlaich199627-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeinleSchlaich199627_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeinleSchlaich1996">Heinle & Schlaich 1996</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Summerson, 13, 22–23, 40–44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Summerson, 10–13,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Summerson, 13,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henig, p. 28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henig, p. 32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Favro, (ii) Materials and construction techniques</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henig, p. 22; Favro, (ii) Materials and construction techniques, which lists major quarries</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuracek1996310-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJuracek1996310_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJuracek1996">Juracek 1996</a>, p. 310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeet191135–36-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeet191135–36_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeet1911">Peet 1911</a>, pp. 35–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaltersBirch1905330–40-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaltersBirch1905330–40_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaltersBirch1905330–40_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaltersBirch1905">Walters & Birch 1905</a>, p. 330–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henig, p. 26. Blagg also mentions baths, granaries, insulae and large villas.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomgardner200037-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBomgardner200037_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomgardner2000">Bomgardner 2000</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomgardner200059-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBomgardner200059_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomgardner2000">Bomgardner 2000</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomgardner200062-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBomgardner200062_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomgardner2000">Bomgardner 2000</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBomgardner2000201–223-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBomgardner2000201–223_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomgardner2000">Bomgardner 2000</a>, pp. 201–223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"A Page from Latin Notes Supplement XV, Entitled SOME STORIES ABOUT THE ROMAN FORUM". <i>Latin Notes</i>. <b>3</b> (6). 1926. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43943460">43943460</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Latin+Notes&rft.atitle=A+Page+from+Latin+Notes+Supplement+XV%2C+Entitled+SOME+STORIES+ABOUT+THE+ROMAN+FORUM&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=6&rft.date=1926&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43943460%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dennison-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dennison_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dennison_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennison1908" class="citation journal cs1">Dennison, Walter (June 1908). "The Roman Forum as Cicero Saw It". <i>The Classical Journal</i>. <b>3</b> (8): 318–326. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3287491">3287491</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Roman+Forum+as+Cicero+Saw+It&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=318-326&rft.date=1908-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3287491%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dennison&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson1992193-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardson1992193_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardson1992">Richardson 1992</a>, p. 193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELampe200661-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELampe200661_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLampe2006">Lampe 2006</a>, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotterMattingly1999180-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotterMattingly1999180_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPotterMattingly1999">Potter & Mattingly 1999</a>, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatrich1996149-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatrich1996149_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatrich1996">Patrich 1996</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMétreaux199814–15-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMétreaux199814–15_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMétreaux1998">Métreaux 1998</a>, pp. 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny</a>, Epist. VIII.18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>, Epist. 45</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmitz1875[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextssecondarySMIGRAHorreumhtml_618]-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmitz1875[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextssecondarySMIGRAHorreumhtml_618]_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmitz1875">Schmitz 1875</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Horreum.html">618</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufman1929" class="citation journal cs1">Kaufman, David (2 December 1929). 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class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge199287_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge199287_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge199287_90-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge1992">Hodge 1992</a>, p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter197828,_fig._7-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter197828,_fig._7_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchnitter1978">Schnitter 1978</a>, p. 28, fig. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge199280-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge199280_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge1992">Hodge 1992</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2000332-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2000332_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2000332_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2000">Hodge 2000</a>, p. 332.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith197060f.-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith197060f._94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1970">Smith 1970</a>, pp. 60f..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2000331f.-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2000331f._95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2000">Hodge 2000</a>, pp. 331f..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge199286f.-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge199286f._96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge1992">Hodge 1992</a>, pp. 86f..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith197149-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith197149_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1971">Smith 1971</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith197142-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith197142_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1971">Smith 1971</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamesChanson2002-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamesChanson2002_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamesChanson2002_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJamesChanson2002">James & Chanson 2002</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith197133–35-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith197133–35_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1971">Smith 1971</a>, pp. 33–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter197831f.-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter197831f._101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchnitter1978">Schnitter 1978</a>, pp. 31f..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987a12-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987a12_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchnitter1987a">Schnitter 1987a</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987c80-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987c80_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchnitter1987c">Schnitter 1987c</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2000332,_fn._2-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2000332,_fn._2_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2000">Hodge 2000</a>, p. 332, fn. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987b59–62-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987b59–62_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchnitter1987b">Schnitter 1987b</a>, pp. 59–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter197829-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter197829_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchnitter1978">Schnitter 1978</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987b60,_table_1,_62-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchnitter1987b60,_table_1,_62_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchnitter1987b">Schnitter 1987b</a>, pp. 60, table 1, 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArenillasCastillo2003-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArenillasCastillo2003_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArenillasCastillo2003">Arenillas & Castillo 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fields, Nic; Peter Dennis <i>The Walls of Rome</i> Osprey Publishing; 2008 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-198-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-198-4">978-1-84603-198-4</a> p.10 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SDxrLQymWWwC&dq=height+servian+wall&pg=PA10">[1]</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1983116–119-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1983116–119_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1983">Smith 1983</a>, pp. 116–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1983121–123-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1983121–123_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1983">Smith 1983</a>, pp. 121–123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1972-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1972_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller1972">Miller 1972</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Temple-of-Mercury">Baiae, historic site, Italy</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a></i>. Accessed 6 June 2021.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge196038–44-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge196038–44_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge1960">Hodge 1960</a>, pp. 38–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUlrich2007148f.-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUlrich2007148f._115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUlrich2007148f._115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUlrich2007">Ulrich 2007</a>, pp. 148f..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeckmann2002">Beckmann 2002</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002353–356-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002353–356_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002353–356_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckmann2002353–356_117-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeckmann2002">Beckmann 2002</a>, pp. 353–356.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris197239–41,_51–60-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris197239–41,_51–60_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorris1972">Morris 1972</a>, pp. 39–41, 51–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolb1984169–238-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolb1984169–238_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKolb1984">Kolb 1984</a>, pp. 169–238.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenevolo1993256–267-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenevolo1993256–267_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBenevolo1993">Benevolo 1993</a>, pp. 256–267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1989">Harris 1989</a>, pp. 375–392: "The Etruscans were, in their turn, probably also influenced in this respect by Greek and Hellenic culture."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVitrivius1914-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVitrivius1914_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVitrivius1914">Vitrivius 1914</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDemandt1998">Demandt 1998</a>: "In fact, many sites where the Romans created towns, such as Paris, Vienna and Bratislava, had previously been Celtic settlements of more or less urban character."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bnr.bg/en/post/100878507/pomorie-tomb-remains-an-unsolved-mystery-for-100-years">"Pomorie tomb remains an unsolved mystery for 100 years"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pomorie+tomb+remains+an+unsolved+mystery+for+100+years&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbnr.bg%2Fen%2Fpost%2F100878507%2Fpomorie-tomb-remains-an-unsolved-mystery-for-100-years&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbbottJohnson1926" class="citation book cs1">Abbott, Frank Frost; Johnson, Allan Chester (1926). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/municipaladminis032553mbp#page/n27/mode/2up"><i>Municipal Administration in the Roman Empire</i></a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Municipal+Administration+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1926&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.aufirst=Frank+Frost&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Allan+Chester&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fmunicipaladminis032553mbp%23page%2Fn27%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArenillasCastillo2003" class="citation cs2">Arenillas, Miguel; Castillo, Juan C. (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.traianvs.net/textos/presas_in.htm#_ednref4">"Dams from the Roman Era in Spain. Analysis of Design Forms (with Appendix)"</a>, <i>1st International Congress on Construction History [20th–24th January]</i>, Madrid</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=1st+International+Congress+on+Construction+History+%5B20th%E2%80%9324th+January%5D&rft.atitle=Dams+from+the+Roman+Era+in+Spain.+Analysis+of+Design+Forms+%28with+Appendix%29&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Arenillas&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rft.au=Castillo%2C+Juan+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.traianvs.net%2Ftextos%2Fpresas_in.htm%23_ednref4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakerBaker2001" class="citation book cs1">Baker, Rosalie F.; Baker, Charles F. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gw5prEJQq10C&q=%22Tekhenu+%22+egyptian&pg=PA69"><i>Ancient Egyptians: People of the Pyramids</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512221-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512221-3"><bdi>978-0-19-512221-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptians%3A+People+of+the+Pyramids&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512221-3&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Rosalie+F.&rft.au=Baker%2C+Charles+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dgw5prEJQq10C%26q%3D%2522Tekhenu%2B%2522%2Begyptian%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckmann2002" class="citation cs2">Beckmann, Martin (2002), "The 'Columnae Coc(h)lides' of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius", <i>Phoenix</i>, <b>56</b> (3/4): 348–357, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1192605">10.2307/1192605</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1192605">1192605</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phoenix&rft.atitle=The+%27Columnae+Coc%28h%29lides%27+of+Trajan+and+Marcus+Aurelius&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=348-357&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1192605&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1192605%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Beckmann&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenevolo1993" class="citation book cs1">Benevolo, Leonardo (1993). <i>Die Geschichte der Stadt</i>. Frankfurt/Main New York: Campus-Verl. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-593-34906-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-593-34906-0"><bdi>978-3-593-34906-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Geschichte+der+Stadt&rft.place=Frankfurt%2FMain+New+York&rft.pub=Campus-Verl&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-3-593-34906-0&rft.aulast=Benevolo&rft.aufirst=Leonardo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunson2009" class="citation book cs1">Bunson, Matthew (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T5tic2VunRoC&pg=PA195">"Engineering"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire</i>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1027-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1027-1"><bdi>978-1-4381-1027-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Engineering&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1027-1&rft.aulast=Bunson&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT5tic2VunRoC%26pg%3DPA195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBomgardner2000" class="citation book cs1">Bomgardner, David Lee (October 2000). <i>The Story of the Roman Amphitheatre</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16593-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16593-8"><bdi>978-0-415-16593-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+the+Roman+Amphitheatre&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000-10&rft.isbn=978-0-415-16593-8&rft.aulast=Bomgardner&rft.aufirst=David+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulton1974" class="citation cs2">Coulton, J. J. 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Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-73007-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-73007-4"><bdi>978-0-393-73007-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surfaces%3A+Visual+Research+for+Artists%2C+Architects%2C+and+Designers&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-393-73007-4&rft.aulast=Juracek&rft.aufirst=Judy+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ1ZWyWDcq1YC%26pg%3DPA310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaszynski2000" class="citation book cs1">Kaszynski, William (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dzv2oZM5_38C&pg=PA9+PAGE+9"><i>The American Highway: The History and Culture of Roads in the United States</i></a>. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-0822-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-0822-1"><bdi>978-0-7864-0822-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Highway%3A+The+History+and+Culture+of+Roads+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+N.C.&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-0822-1&rft.aulast=Kaszynski&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDzv2oZM5_38C%26pg%3DPA9%2BPAGE%2B9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolb1984" class="citation book cs1">Kolb, Frank (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diestadtimaltert0000kolb"><i>Die Stadt im Altertum</i></a></span>. München: C.H. Beck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-03172-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-03172-4"><bdi>978-3-406-03172-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Stadt+im+Altertum&rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&rft.pub=C.H.+Beck&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-3-406-03172-4&rft.aulast=Kolb&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdiestadtimaltert0000kolb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLampe2006" class="citation book cs1">Lampe, Peter (2006). <i>Christians at Rome in the first two centuries : from Paul to Valentinus</i>. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8102-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8102-3"><bdi>978-0-8264-8102-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christians+at+Rome+in+the+first+two+centuries+%3A+from+Paul+to+Valentinus&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-8102-3&rft.aulast=Lampe&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLancaster1999" class="citation cs2">Lancaster, Lynne (1999), "Building Trajan's Column", <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Archaeology" title="American Journal of Archaeology">American Journal of Archaeology</a></i>, <b>103</b> (3): 419–439, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F506969">10.2307/506969</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/506969">506969</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:192986322">192986322</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Building+Trajan%27s+Column&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=419-439&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A192986322%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F506969%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F506969&rft.aulast=Lancaster&rft.aufirst=Lynne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._W._Lawrence" title="A. W. Lawrence">Lawrence, A. W.</a>, <i>Greek Architecture</i>, 1957, Penguin, Pelican history of art</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLechtmanHobbs1986" class="citation cs2">Lechtman, Heather; Hobbs, Linn (1986), "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution. Ceramics and Civilization", in Kingery, W. D. 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Trevor (1960), <i>The Woodwork of Greek Roofs</i>, Cambridge University Press, pp. 38–44</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Woodwork+of+Greek+Roofs&rft.pages=38-44&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Hodge&rft.aufirst=A.+Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkHutchinson1986" class="citation cs2">Mark, Robert; Hutchinson, Paul (1986), "On the Structure of the Roman Pantheon", <i>Art Bulletin</i>, vol. 68, no. 1, pp. 24–34, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3050861">10.2307/3050861</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3050861">3050861</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Art+Bulletin&rft.atitle=On+the+Structure+of+the+Roman+Pantheon&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24-34&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3050861&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3050861%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mark&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Hutchinson%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMétreaux1998" class="citation book cs1">Métreaux, Guy P.R. 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Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-924171-59-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-924171-59-8"><bdi>978-0-924171-59-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Villa+rustica+alimentaria+et+annonaria&rft.btitle=The+Roman+villa+%3A+villa+urbana&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+Museum%2C+University+of+Pennsylvania&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-924171-59-8&rft.aulast=M%C3%A9treaux&rft.aufirst=Guy+P.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1972" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Stella Grobel (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ascsa.edu.gr/pdf/uploads/hesperia/147437.pdf">"A Mosaic Floor from a Roman Villa at Anaploga"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Hesperia</i>. <b>41</b> (3): 332–354. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-098X">0018-098X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/147437">147437</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hesperia&rft.atitle=A+Mosaic+Floor+from+a+Roman+Villa+at+Anaploga&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=332-354&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F147437%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0018-098X&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Stella+Grobel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ascsa.edu.gr%2Fpdf%2Fuploads%2Fhesperia%2F147437.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1972" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Anthony E. (1972). <i>History of Urban Form: Prehistory to the Renaissance</i>. London: George Godwin Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0711438019" title="Special:BookSources/978-0711438019"><bdi>978-0711438019</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Urban+Form%3A+Prehistory+to+the+Renaissance&rft.place=London&rft.pub=George+Godwin+Limited&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0711438019&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Anthony+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connor1993" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, Colin (1993), <i>Roman Bridges</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-39326-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-39326-3"><bdi>978-0-521-39326-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Bridges&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-39326-3&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Flaherty2002" class="citation book cs1">O'Flaherty, C.A. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weblibrary.apeiron-uni.eu:8080/WebDokumenti/11630-uvod.pdf">"Introduction: A historical overview of the development of the road"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Highways</i>. pp. 1–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-075065090-8%2F50002-8">10.1016/B978-075065090-8/50002-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-5090-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-5090-8"><bdi>978-0-7506-5090-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+A+historical+overview+of+the+development+of+the+road&rft.btitle=Highways&rft.pages=1-5&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-075065090-8%2F50002-8&rft.isbn=978-0-7506-5090-8&rft.aulast=O%27Flaherty&rft.aufirst=C.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweblibrary.apeiron-uni.eu%3A8080%2FWebDokumenti%2F11630-uvod.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrich1996" class="citation book cs1">Patrich, Joseph (1996). 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Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-1749-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-1749-1"><bdi>978-0-7867-1749-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Not+built+in+a+day%3A+exploring+the+architecture+of+Rome&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7867-1749-1&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=George+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnotbuiltindayexp00sull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summerson,_John" class="mw-redirect" title="Summerson, John">Summerson, John</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Classical_Language_of_Architecture" title="The Classical Language of Architecture">The Classical Language of Architecture</a></i>, 1980 edition, <a href="/wiki/Thames_and_Hudson" class="mw-redirect" title="Thames and Hudson">Thames and Hudson</a> <i>World of Art</i> series, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0500201773" title="Special:BookSources/0500201773">0500201773</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlrich2007" class="citation book cs1">Ulrich, Roger B. (2007). <i>Roman Woodworking</i>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10341-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10341-0"><bdi>978-0-300-10341-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Woodworking&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10341-0&rft.aulast=Ulrich&rft.aufirst=Roger+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVitrivius1914" class="citation book cs1">Vitrivius (1914). <i>The Ten Books on Architecture, Bk I</i>. Morris H. Morgan (translator). 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John Murray.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Ancient+Pottery%3A+Greek%2C+Etruscan%2C+and+Roman&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Walters&rft.aufirst=Henry+Beauchamp&rft.au=Birch%2C+Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZX0FAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard-Perkins2000" class="citation book cs1">Ward-Perkins, Bryan (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam031/75085719.pdf">"Chapter 12. Land, labour, and settlement"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Cameron, Averil; Ward-Perkins, Bryan; Whitby, Michael (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/cambridgeanc2plates00buryuoft"><i>Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors A.D. 425–600</i></a>. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. XIV. Cambridge University Press. Part III: East and West: Economy and Society. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521325912">10.1017/CHOL9780521325912</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015030095528">2027/mdp.39015030095528</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32591-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32591-2"><bdi>978-0-521-32591-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+12.+Land%2C+labour%2C+and+settlement&rft.btitle=Late+Antiquity%3A+Empire+and+Successors+A.D.+425%E2%80%93600&rft.series=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.pages=Part+III%3A+East+and+West%3A+Economy+and+Society&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fmdp.39015030095528&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521325912&rft.isbn=978-0-521-32591-2&rft.aulast=Ward-Perkins&rft.aufirst=Bryan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcatdir.loc.gov%2Fcatdir%2Fsamples%2Fcam031%2F75085719.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard-Perkins1956" class="citation journal cs1">Ward-Perkins, J. B. (1956). "Nero's Golden House". <i>Antiquity</i>. <b>30</b>: 217–19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=Nero%27s+Golden+House&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=217-19&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Ward-Perkins&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWikander1985" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/%C3%96rjan_Wikander" title="Örjan Wikander">Wikander, Örjan</a> (1985), "Archaeological Evidence for Early Water-Mills. An Interim Report", <i>History of Technology</i>, vol. 10, pp. 151–179</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Technology&rft.atitle=Archaeological+Evidence+for+Early+Water-Mills.+An+Interim+Report&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=151-179&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Wikander&rft.aufirst=%C3%96rjan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWikander2000a" class="citation cs2">Wikander, Örjan (2000a), "The Water-Mill", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.), <i>Handbook of Ancient Water Technology</i>, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 371–400, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11123-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11123-3"><bdi>978-90-04-11123-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Water-Mill&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Ancient+Water+Technology&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Technology+and+Change+in+History&rft.pages=371-400&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11123-3&rft.aulast=Wikander&rft.aufirst=%C3%96rjan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWikander2000b" class="citation cs2">Wikander, Örjan (2000b), "Industrial Applications of Water-Power", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.), <i>Handbook of Ancient Water Technology</i>, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 401–410, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11123-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11123-3"><bdi>978-90-04-11123-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Industrial+Applications+of+Water-Power&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Ancient+Water+Technology&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Technology+and+Change+in+History&rft.pages=401-410&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11123-3&rft.aulast=Wikander&rft.aufirst=%C3%96rjan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2002" class="citation cs2">Wilson, Andrew (2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Roman_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="The Journal of Roman Studies">The Journal of Roman Studies</a></i>, vol. 92, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–32, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3184857">10.2307/3184857</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3184857">3184857</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154629776">154629776</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Machines%2C+Power+and+the+Ancient+Economy&rft.volume=92&rft.pages=1-32&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154629776%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3184857%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3184857&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson_Jones2000" class="citation book cs1">Wilson Jones, Mark (2000). <i>Principles of Roman architecture</i>. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08138-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08138-1"><bdi>978-0-300-08138-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Roman+architecture&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Conn&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-300-08138-1&rft.aulast=Wilson+Jones&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWirsching2000" class="citation cs2">Wirsching, Armin (2000), "How the Obelisks Reached Rome: Evidence of Roman Double-Ships", <i><a href="/wiki/The_International_Journal_of_Nautical_Archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology">The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology</a></i>, <b>29</b> (2): 273–283, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-9270.2000.tb01456.x">10.1111/j.1095-9270.2000.tb01456.x</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162710923">162710923</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Nautical+Archaeology&rft.atitle=How+the+Obelisks+Reached+Rome%3A+Evidence+of+Roman+Double-Ships&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=273-283&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-9270.2000.tb01456.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162710923%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wirsching&rft.aufirst=Armin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doreen_Yarwood" title="Doreen Yarwood">Yarwood, Doreen</a>, <i>The Architecture of Europe</i>, 1987 (first edn. 1974), Spring Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0600554309" title="Special:BookSources/0600554309">0600554309</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaho2004" class="citation book cs1">Zaho, Margaret Ann (2004). <i>Imago triumphalis: the function and significance of triumphal imagery for Italian Renaissance rulers</i>. Peter Lang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-6235-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-6235-6"><bdi>978-0-8204-6235-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imago+triumphalis%3A+the+function+and+significance+of+triumphal+imagery+for+Italian+Renaissance+rulers&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8204-6235-6&rft.aulast=Zaho&rft.aufirst=Margaret+Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Adam, Jean Pierre. <i>Roman Building: Materials and Techniques</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994.</li> <li>Anderson, James C. <i>Roman Architecture and Society</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.</li> <li>Boëthius, Axel. <i>Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994.</li> <li>Fant, J. Clayton. "Quarrying and Stoneworking." In <i>The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World</i>, edited by John P. Oleson, 121–135. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.</li> <li>Hopkins, John North. <i>The Genesis of Roman Architecture</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016.</li> <li>Lancaster, Lynne C. <i>Concrete Vaulted Construction In Imperial Rome: Innovations In Context</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.</li> <li>--. "Roman Engineering and Construction." In <i>The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World</i>, edited by John P. Oleson, 256–284. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008.</li> <li>MacDonald, William Lloyd. <i>The Architecture of the Roman Empire</i>. Rev. ed. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1982.</li> <li>Macready, Sarah, and F. H. Thompson. <i>Roman architecture in the Greek world</i>. London: Society of Antiquaries, 1987.</li> <li>Sear, Frank. <i>Roman Architecture</i>. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1983.</li> <li>Thomas, Edmund V. <i>Monumentality and the Roman Empire: Architecture in the Antonine age</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.</li> <li>Ulrich, Roger B. <i>Roman Woodworking</i>. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2007.</li> <li>Ulrich, Roger B., and Caroline K Quenemoen. <i>A Companion to Roman Architecture</i>. Somerset: Wiley, 2013.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_architecture&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+Roman+architecture&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080528061612/http://traianus.rediris.es/">Traianus</a> – Technical investigation of Roman public works</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071010211527/http://www.mariamilani.com/ancient_rome/ancient_roman_homes.htm">Housing and apartments in Rome</a> – A look at various aspects of housing in ancient Rome, apartments and villas.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.romereborn.virginia.edu/gallery-current.php#videos_2_1">Rome Reborn</a> − A Video Tour through Ancient Rome based on a digital model. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110810002951/http://www.romereborn.virginia.edu/gallery-current.php#videos_2_1">Archived</a> 10 August 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NZ2NWXp-1Y4"><span class="plainlinks">Virtual Rome: What Did Ancient Rome Look Like?</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a>—A virtual tour through Ancient Rome based on a digital model</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Roman_architecture_lists" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Roman_architecture_lists" title="Template:Ancient Roman architecture lists"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Roman_architecture_lists" title="Template talk:Ancient Roman architecture lists"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Roman_architecture_lists" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Roman architecture lists"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Roman_architecture_lists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of ancient Rome">Roman architecture lists</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roman Empire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_amphitheatres" title="List of Roman amphitheatres">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueducts_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_basilicas" title="List of Roman basilicas">Basilicas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_bridges" title="List of Roman bridges">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_canals" title="List of Roman canals">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circus_(building)#List_of_Roman_circuses" class="mw-redirect" title="Circus (building)">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_cisterns" title="List of Roman cisterns">Cisterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dams_and_reservoirs" title="List of Roman dams and reservoirs">Dams and reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_domes" title="List of Roman domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_monoliths" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ancient monoliths">Monoliths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_public_baths" title="List of Roman public baths">Public baths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_and_Roman_roofs#Roman_roofing" title="List of ancient Greek and Roman roofs">Roofs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_spiral_stairs" title="List of ancient spiral stairs">Spiral stairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_theatres" title="List of Roman theatres">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_triumphal_arches" title="List of Roman triumphal arches">Triumphal arches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_column" title="Victory column">Victory columns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_watermills" title="List of ancient watermills">Watermills</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">City of Rome</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueducts_in_the_city_of_Rome" title="List of aqueducts in the city of Rome">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_monuments_in_Rome" title="List of ancient monuments in Rome">Ancient monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bridges_in_Rome" title="List of bridges in Rome">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fountains_in_Rome" title="List of fountains in Rome">Fountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_of_the_Roman_Forum" title="List of monuments of the Roman Forum">Roman Forum monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_obelisks_in_Rome" title="List of obelisks in Rome">Obelisks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Roman_sites" title="Lists of Roman sites">Lists of Roman sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_sites_in_Spain" title="List of Roman sites in Spain">Sites in Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_villas_in_Belgium" title="List of Roman villas in Belgium">Villas in Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_villas_in_England" title="List of Roman villas in England">Villas in England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_villas_in_Wales" title="List of Roman villas in Wales">Villas in Wales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_architectural_records" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ancient architectural records">Architectural records of the Greco-Roman World</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_architecture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_architecture" title="Template:History of architecture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_architecture" title="Template talk:History of architecture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_architecture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of architecture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_architecture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">History of architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_architectural_styles" title="Timeline of architectural styles">Architectural timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_construction" title="History of construction">History of construction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="BCE">BCE</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_architecture" title="Neolithic architecture">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li>Aegean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization#Architecture" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece#Architecture" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_architecture" title="Etruscan architecture">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_architecture" title="Classical architecture">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_architecture" title="Herodian architecture">Herodian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture#Pre-Islamic_architecture_of_Persia" title="Iranian architecture">Pre-Islamic Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Achaemenid</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/1st_millennium" title="1st millennium">1st millennium</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_architecture" title="Sasanian architecture">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine</a></li> <li>East Slavic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Architecture of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_church_architecture" title="Russian church architecture">Muscovite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_architecture" title="Umayyad architecture">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_architecture" title="Moorish architecture">Moorish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_architecture" title="Abbasid architecture">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_architecture" title="Fatimid architecture">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture#Islamic_architecture_of_Persia" title="Iranian architecture">Islamic Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Scandinavian_architecture" title="Medieval Scandinavian architecture">Medieval Scandinavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Romanesque_art_and_architecture" title="Pre-Romanesque art and architecture">Pre-Romanesque</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_architecture" title="Carolingian architecture">Carolingian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1000–1500</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_school_(architecture)" title="Galician school (architecture)">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottonian_architecture" title="Ottonian architecture">Ottonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_architecture" title="Norman architecture">Norman</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoysala_architecture" title="Hoysala architecture">Hoysala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_architecture" title="Vijayanagara architecture">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_architecture" title="Western Chalukya architecture">Western Chalukya</a></li></ul></li> <li>Islamic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuk_architecture" title="Great Seljuk architecture">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Seljuk_architecture" title="Anatolian Seljuk architecture">Anatolian Seljuk architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_architecture" title="Mamluk architecture">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_architecture" title="Timurid architecture">Timurid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture" title="Indo-Islamic architecture">Indo-Islamic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Gothic" title="Romano-Gothic">Romano-Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sondergotik" title="Sondergotik">Sondergotik</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_architecture" title="Inca architecture">Incan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_architecture" title="Aztec architecture">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateresque" title="Plateresque">Plateresque</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1500–1750</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manueline" title="Manueline">Manueline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladian_architecture" title="Palladian architecture">Palladian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial architecture">Spanish Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonial_architecture" title="Portuguese colonial architecture">Portuguese Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_architecture" title="Sikh architecture">Sikh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1750–1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroque_architecture" title="Baroque architecture">Baroque</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Baroque" title="Andean Baroque">Andean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Baroque_architecture" title="Czech Baroque architecture">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Baroque_architecture" title="Dutch Baroque architecture">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Baroque" class="mw-redirect" title="English Baroque">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Baroque_architecture" title="French Baroque architecture">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Baroque_architecture" title="Italian Baroque architecture">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Baroque_architecture" title="Maltese Baroque architecture">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrine_Baroque" title="Petrine Baroque">Petrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Baroque" title="Elizabethan Baroque">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naryshkin_Baroque" title="Naryshkin Baroque">Naryshkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque_architecture_in_Portugal" title="Baroque architecture in Portugal">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Baroque" title="Siberian Baroque">Siberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Baroque" title="Ukrainian Baroque">Ukrainian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_architecture" title="Industrial architecture">Industrial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_industrial_architecture" title="British industrial architecture">British</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revivalism_(architecture)" title="Revivalism (architecture)">Revivalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Revival_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Revival architecture">Byzantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Byzantine_architecture_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Neo-Byzantine architecture in the Russian Empire">Russo-Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Byzantine_Revival_architecture" title="Serbo-Byzantine Revival architecture">Serbo-Byzantine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Revival_architecture" title="Colonial Revival architecture">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_Revival_architecture" title="Mayan Revival architecture">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Revival_architecture" title="Mediterranean Revival architecture">Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_Revival_architecture" title="Mission Revival architecture">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monumentalism" title="Monumentalism">Monumentalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroque_Revival_architecture" title="Baroque Revival architecture">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rococo_architecture" title="Rococo architecture">Rococo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">Neoclassical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_Revival_architecture" title="Moorish Revival architecture">Moorish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Manueline" title="Neo-Manueline">Neo-Manueline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_Revival_architecture" title="Pueblo Revival architecture">Pueblo</a></li> <li>Queen Anne <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Queen_Anne_Revival" class="mw-redirect" title="British Queen Anne Revival">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Queen_Anne_Revival_architecture" title="New World Queen Anne Revival architecture">America and Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Revival_architecture" title="Renaissance Revival architecture">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revival_architecture" title="Romanian Revival architecture">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revival_architecture" title="Russian Revival architecture">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_Revival_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial Revival architecture">Spanish Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_Revival_architecture" title="Territorial Revival architecture">Territorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_Revival_architecture" title="Tudor Revival architecture">Tudor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jugendstil" title="Jugendstil">Jugendstil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_style" title="Liberty style">Liberty style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Style_(British_Art_Nouveau_style)" title="Modern Style (British Art Nouveau style)">Modern Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme">Modernisme</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1900–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism_(architecture)" title="Rationalism (architecture)">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Revival_architecture" title="Mycenaean Revival architecture">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_architecture" title="Modern architecture">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prairie_School" title="Prairie School">Prairie School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressionist_architecture" title="Expressionist architecture">Expressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Cubism" title="Czech Cubism">Cubism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Stijl" title="De Stijl">De Stijl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_architecture" title="Constructivist architecture">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Objectivity_(architecture)" title="New Objectivity (architecture)">New Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">Streamline Moderne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarian_architecture" title="Totalitarian architecture">Totalitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_architecture" title="Fascist architecture">Rationalist-Fascist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_architecture" title="Nazi architecture">Nazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Style_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Style (architecture)">International style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)" title="Functionalism (architecture)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futurist_architecture" title="Futurist architecture">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_architecture" title="Organic architecture">Organicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stripped_Classicism" title="Stripped Classicism">Stripped Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postconstructivism" title="Postconstructivism">Postconstructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PWA_Moderne" class="mw-redirect" title="PWA Moderne">PWA Moderne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Googie_architecture" title="Googie architecture">Googie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1950–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brutalist_architecture" title="Brutalist architecture">Brutalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(architecture)" title="Structuralism (architecture)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_architecture" title="Postmodern architecture">Postmodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blobitecture" title="Blobitecture">Blobitecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-tech_architecture" title="High-tech architecture">High-tech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcology" title="Arcology">Arcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_regionalism" title="Critical regionalism">Critical regionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-futurism" title="Neo-futurism">Neo-futurism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deconstructivism" title="Deconstructivism">Deconstructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neomodern" title="Neomodern">Neomodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Classical_architecture" title="New Classical architecture">New Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_architecture" title="Contemporary architecture">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_architecture" title="Chinese architecture">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_architecture" title="Colonial architecture">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Indian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_architecture" title="Dravidian architecture">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Hindu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_architecture" title="Japanese architecture">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_architecture" title="Korean architecture">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_architecture" title="Mesoamerican architecture">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_architecture" title="Maya architecture">Maya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newa_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Newa architecture">Newari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese Architecture">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian architecture">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_architecture" title="Spanish architecture">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_architecture" title="Somali architecture">Somali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Concrete" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Concrete_navbox" title="Template:Concrete navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Concrete_navbox" title="Template talk:Concrete navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Concrete_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Concrete navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Concrete" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">Concrete</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Concrete#History" title="Concrete">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Roman architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_architectural_revolution" title="Roman architectural revolution">Roman architectural revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Roman concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman engineering">Roman engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_concrete#Mix_design" title="Types of concrete">Composition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">Cement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_aluminate_cements" title="Calcium aluminate cements">Calcium aluminate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energetically_modified_cement" title="Energetically modified cement">Energetically modified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosendale_cement" title="Rosendale cement">Rosendale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water%E2%80%93cement_ratio" title="Water–cement ratio">Water–cement ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">Aggregate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">Fly ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_granulated_blast-furnace_slag" title="Ground granulated blast-furnace slag">Ground granulated blast-furnace slag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silica_fume" title="Silica fume">Silica fume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metakaolin" title="Metakaolin">Metakaolin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Concrete#Production" title="Concrete">Production</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_plant" title="Concrete plant">Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_mixer" title="Concrete mixer">Concrete mixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volumetric_concrete_mixer" title="Volumetric concrete mixer">Volumetric mixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversing_drum_mixer" title="Reversing drum mixer">Reversing drum mixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_slump_test" title="Concrete slump test">Slump test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_table_test" title="Flow table test">Flow table test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete#Curing" title="Concrete">Curing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_cover" title="Concrete cover">Concrete cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cover_meter" title="Cover meter">Cover meter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebar" title="Rebar">Rebar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Construction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precast_concrete" title="Precast concrete">Precast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast-in-place_concrete" title="Cast-in-place concrete">Cast-in-place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formwork" title="Formwork">Formwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climbing_formwork" title="Climbing formwork">Climbing formwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slip_forming" title="Slip forming">Slip forming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screed" title="Screed">Screed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_concrete_screed" class="mw-redirect" title="Power concrete screed">Power screed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_finisher" title="Concrete finisher">Finisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_grinder" title="Concrete grinder">Grinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_trowel" title="Power trowel">Power trowel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_pump" title="Concrete pump">Pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_float" title="Concrete float">Float</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_sealer" title="Concrete sealer">Sealer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tremie" title="Tremie">Tremie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Properties_of_concrete" title="Properties of concrete">Properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete_structures_durability" title="Reinforced concrete structures durability">Durability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_degradation" title="Concrete degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">Environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_recycling" title="Concrete recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_concrete" title="Segregation in concrete">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkali%E2%80%93silica_reaction" title="Alkali–silica reaction">Alkali–silica reaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_concrete" title="Types of concrete">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AstroCrete" class="mw-redirect" title="AstroCrete">AstroCrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-reinforced_concrete" title="Fiber-reinforced concrete">Fiber-reinforced</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filigree_concrete" title="Filigree concrete">Filigree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_concrete" title="Foam concrete">Foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunarcrete" title="Lunarcrete">Lunarcrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_concrete" title="Mass concrete">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoconcrete" title="Nanoconcrete">Nanoconcrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pervious_concrete" title="Pervious concrete">Pervious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polished_concrete" title="Polished concrete">Polished</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_concrete" title="Polymer concrete">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">Prestressed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ready-mix_concrete" title="Ready-mix concrete">Ready-mix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">Reinforced</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roller-compacted_concrete" title="Roller-compacted concrete">Roller-compacting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-consolidating_concrete" title="Self-consolidating concrete">Self-consolidating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-leveling_concrete" title="Self-leveling concrete">Self-leveling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_concrete" title="Sulfur concrete">Sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabby_concrete" title="Tabby concrete">Tabby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translucent_concrete" title="Translucent concrete">Translucent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_light_concrete" title="Waste light concrete">Waste light</a></li> <li>Aerated <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoclaved_aerated_concrete" title="Autoclaved aerated concrete">AAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_autoclaved_aerated_concrete" class="mw-redirect" title="Reinforced autoclaved aerated concrete">RAAC</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_slab" title="Concrete slab">Slab</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waffle_slab" title="Waffle slab">waffle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow-core_slab" title="Hollow-core slab">hollow-core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voided_biaxial_slab" title="Voided biaxial slab">voided biaxial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_foundation#Slab_on_grade" title="Shallow foundation">slab on grade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_block" title="Concrete block">Concrete block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_step_barrier" title="Concrete step barrier">Step barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_surface#Concrete" title="Road surface">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete_column" title="Reinforced concrete column">Columns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete#Use_in_construction" title="Reinforced concrete">Structures</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Concrete_Institute" title="American Concrete Institute">American Concrete Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Concrete_Society" title="The Concrete Society">Concrete Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Structural_Engineers" title="Institution of Structural Engineers">Institution of Structural Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Concrete_Institute" title="Indian Concrete Institute">Indian Concrete Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanocem" title="Nanocem">Nanocem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portland_Cement_Association" title="Portland Cement Association">Portland Cement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_for_Structural_Concrete" title="International Federation for Structural Concrete">International Federation for Structural Concrete</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurocode_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurocode 2">Eurocode 2</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=EN_197-1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="EN 197-1 (page does not exist)">EN 197-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EN_206-1" class="mw-redirect" title="EN 206-1">EN 206-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EN_10080" title="EN 10080">EN 10080</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hempcrete" title="Hempcrete">Hempcrete</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td 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