CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Roman aqueduct - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"f4da7e0c-edea-4f2a-bc6e-699e7a13c9c9","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Roman_aqueduct","wgTitle":"Roman aqueduct","wgCurRevisionId":1253622103,"wgRevisionId":1253622103,"wgArticleId":3745201,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia pending changes protected pages","Articles containing Latin-language text","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Roman aqueducts","Ancient Roman architecture","Water","History of construction"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Roman_aqueduct","wgRelevantArticleId":3745201, "wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgStableRevisionId":1253622103,"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q13218676","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model", "platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.flaggedRevs.basic":"ready","mediawiki.codex.messagebox.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.tmh.player","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc", "skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.flaggedRevs.advanced","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.flaggedRevs.basic%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.codex.messagebox.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv/854px--The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="854"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="480"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv/800px--The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="450"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv/640px--The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="360"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Roman aqueduct - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_aqueduct"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_aqueduct"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Roman_aqueduct rootpage-Roman_aqueduct skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Roman+aqueduct" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Roman+aqueduct" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Roman+aqueduct" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Roman+aqueduct" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Background-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Background subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rome's_aqueducts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rome's_aqueducts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Rome's aqueducts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rome's_aqueducts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aqueducts_in_the_Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aqueducts_in_the_Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Aqueducts in the Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aqueducts_in_the_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planning,_surveying_and_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planning,_surveying_and_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Planning, surveying and management</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Planning,_surveying_and_management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Planning, surveying and management subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Planning,_surveying_and_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Planning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Planning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_and_surveying" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_and_surveying"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Sources and surveying</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_and_surveying-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_and_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_and_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Water and health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_and_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conduits_and_gradients" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conduits_and_gradients"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Conduits and gradients</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conduits_and_gradients-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bridgework,_siphons_and_tunnels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bridgework,_siphons_and_tunnels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Bridgework, siphons and tunnels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bridgework,_siphons_and_tunnels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inspection_and_maintenance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inspection_and_maintenance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Inspection and maintenance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inspection_and_maintenance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Uses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Uses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civic_and_domestic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civic_and_domestic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Civic and domestic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civic_and_domestic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Farming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Farming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Farming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Farming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Industrial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_in_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_in_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Decline in use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_in_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman aqueduct</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="قناة رومانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قناة رومانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="रोमन एक्वाडक्ट – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="रोमन एक्वाडक्ट" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aq%C3%BCeducte_rom%C3%A0" title="Aqüeducte romà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Aqüeducte romà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%ADmsk%C3%A9_akvadukty" title="Římské akvadukty – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Římské akvadukty" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_akv%C3%A6dukt" title="Romersk akvædukt – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Romersk akvædukt" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasserversorgung_im_R%C3%B6mischen_Reich" title="Wasserversorgung im Römischen Reich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wasserversorgung im Römischen Reich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acueducto_romano" title="Acueducto romano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Acueducto romano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romia_akvedukto" title="Romia akvedukto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Romia akvedukto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="آباره رومی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آباره رومی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%98_%EC%88%98%EB%8F%84%EA%B5%90" title="로마의 수도교 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로마의 수도교" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_akvadukt" title="Rimski akvadukt – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rimski akvadukt" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akuaduk_Romawi" title="Akuaduk Romawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Akuaduk Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquedotto_romano" title="Acquedotto romano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Acquedotto romano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeins_aquaduct" title="Romeins aquaduct – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Romeins aquaduct" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E6%B0%B4%E9%81%93" title="ローマ水道 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ローマ水道" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_akvedukt" title="Romersk akvedukt – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Romersk akvedukt" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Акведуки Древнего Рима – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Акведуки Древнего Рима" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%9C" title="රෝමානු දිය මග – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="රෝමානු දිය මග" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_akvadukt" title="Rimski akvadukt – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimski akvadukt" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooman" title="Rooman – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Rooman" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_akvadukt" title="Rimski akvadukt – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rimski akvadukt" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanong_akwedukto" title="Romanong akwedukto – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Romanong akwedukto" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antik_Roma_su_kemeri" title="Antik Roma su kemeri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antik Roma su kemeri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E6%B0%B4%E9%81%93" title="羅馬水道 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="羅馬水道" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E6%B0%B4%E9%81%93" title="古羅馬水道 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古羅馬水道" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q13218676#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Roman_aqueduct" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Roman_aqueduct" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Roman_aqueduct" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&oldid=1253622103" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Roman_aqueduct&id=1253622103&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FRoman_aqueduct"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FRoman_aqueduct"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Roman_aqueduct&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_aqueducts" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q13218676" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-indicator-fr-review-status" class="mw-indicator"><indicator name="fr-review-status" class="mw-fr-review-status-indicator" id="mw-fr-revision-toggle"><span class="cdx-fr-css-icon-review--status--stable"></span><b>Checked</b></indicator></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-autoreview" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#pending" title="All edits by unregistered and new users are subject to review prior to becoming visible to unregistered users"><img alt="Page protected with pending changes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><div id="mw-fr-revision-messages"><div id="mw-fr-revision-details" class="mw-fr-revision-details-dialog" style="display:none;"><div tabindex="0"></div><div class="cdx-dialog cdx-dialog--horizontal-actions"><header class="cdx-dialog__header cdx-dialog__header--default"><div class="cdx-dialog__header__title-group"><h2 class="cdx-dialog__header__title">Page version status</h2><p class="cdx-dialog__header__subtitle">This is an accepted version of this page</p></div><button class="cdx-button cdx-button--action-default cdx-button--weight-quiet
							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"><span class="cdx-icon cdx-icon--medium
							cdx-fr-css-icon--close"></span></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Roman_aqueduct">reviewed</a> on <i>27 October 2024</i>.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of aqueduct built in ancient Rome</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueducts_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire">List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire</a></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/300px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/450px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/600px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12648" data-file-height="4882" /></a><figcaption>The multiple arches of the <a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a> in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a> (modern-day southern France). The upper tier encloses an aqueduct that carried water to <a href="/wiki/Nimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nimes">Nimes</a> in Roman times; its lower tier was expanded in the 1740s to carry a wide road across the river.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv/220px--The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="89" data-mwtitle="The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_Mória_(Lesvos).ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_(Lesvos).ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/76/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/76/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/76/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/76/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Aerial footage of a Roman provincial aqueduct at Mória (<a href="/wiki/Lesbos" title="Lesbos">Lesbos</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> constructed <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)" title="Aqueduct (water supply)">aqueducts</a> throughout their <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a>, to bring water from outside sources into cities and towns. Aqueduct water supplied <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">public baths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latrine" title="Latrine">latrines</a>, fountains, and private households; it also supported mining operations, milling, farms, and gardens. </p><p>Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, along a slight overall downward gradient within conduits of stone, <a href="/wiki/Roman_brick" title="Roman brick">brick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">concrete</a> or lead; the steeper the gradient, the faster the flow. Most conduits were buried beneath the ground and followed the contours of the terrain; obstructing peaks were circumvented or, less often, tunneled through. Where valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit was carried on <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(bridge)" title="Aqueduct (bridge)">bridgework</a>, or its contents fed into high-pressure lead, ceramic, or stone pipes and siphoned across. Most aqueduct systems included sedimentation tanks, which helped to reduce any water-borne debris. <a href="/wiki/Sluice" title="Sluice">Sluices</a>, <i>castella aquae</i> (distribution tanks) and <a href="/wiki/Stopcock" title="Stopcock">stopcocks</a> regulated the supply to individual destinations, and fresh overflow water could be temporarily stored in cisterns. </p><p>Aqueducts and their contents were protected by law and custom. The supply to public fountains took priority over the supply to public baths, and both took priority over supplies to wealthier, fee-paying private users. Some of the wealthiest citizens were given the right to a free supply, as a state honour. In cities and towns, clean run-off water from aqueducts supported high consumption industries such as <a href="/wiki/Fulling" title="Fulling">fulling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dyeing" title="Dyeing">dyeing</a>, and industries that employed water but consumed almost none, such as <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">milling</a>. Used water and water surpluses fed ornamental and market gardens, and scoured the drains and public sewers. Unlicensed rural diversion of aqueduct water for agriculture was common during the growing season, but was seldom prosecuted as it helped keep food prices low; agriculture was the core of Rome's economy and wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rome's first aqueduct was built in 312 BC, and supplied a water fountain at the city's cattle market. By the 3rd century AD, the city had <a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueducts_in_the_city_of_Rome" title="List of aqueducts in the city of Rome">eleven aqueducts</a>, sustaining a population of over a million in a water-extravagant economy; most of the water supplied the city's many public baths. Cities and towns throughout the Roman Empire emulated this model, and funded aqueducts as objects of public interest and civic pride, "an expensive yet necessary luxury to which all could, and did, aspire".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable and durable; some were maintained into the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern">early modern</a> era, and a few are still partly in use. Methods of aqueduct surveying and construction are noted by <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> in his work <i><a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a></i> (1st century BC). The general <a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a> gives more detail in his <a href="/wiki/De_aquaeductu" title="De aquaeductu">official report</a> on the problems, uses and abuses of Imperial Rome's public water supply. Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include the supporting piers of the <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_of_Segovia" title="Aqueduct of Segovia">Aqueduct of Segovia</a>, and the aqueduct-fed cisterns of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:260px; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"The extraordinary greatness of the Roman Empire manifests itself above all in three things: the aqueducts, the paved roads, and the construction of the drains." </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a>, <i>Roman Antiquities</i><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>Before the development of aqueduct technology, Romans, like most of their contemporaries in the ancient world, relied on local water sources such as springs and streams, supplemented by <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> from privately or publicly owned wells, and by seasonal rain-water drained from rooftops into storage jars and <a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">cisterns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such localised sources for fresh water – especially wells – were intensively exploited by the Romans throughout their history, but reliance on the water resources of a small catchment area restricted the city's potential for growth and security. The water of the <a href="/wiki/River_Tiber" class="mw-redirect" title="River Tiber">River Tiber</a> was close at hand, but would have been polluted by water-borne disease. Rome's aqueducts were not strictly Roman inventions – their engineers would have been familiar with the water-management technologies of Rome's <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> allies – but they proved conspicuously successful. By the early Imperial era, the city's aqueducts helped support a population of over a million, and an extravagant water supply for public amenities had become a fundamental part of Roman life.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aquae_planrome.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Aquae_planrome.PNG/300px-Aquae_planrome.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Aquae_planrome.PNG/450px-Aquae_planrome.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Aquae_planrome.PNG/600px-Aquae_planrome.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1128" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Map of Rome's aqueducts</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rome's_aqueducts"><span id="Rome.27s_aqueducts"></span>Rome's aqueducts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Rome's aqueducts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueducts_in_the_city_of_Rome" title="List of aqueducts in the city of Rome">List of aqueducts in the city of Rome</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_aqueducts_by_date" title="List of Roman aqueducts by date">List of Roman aqueducts by date</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aquae_planrome3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Aquae_planrome3.png/300px-Aquae_planrome3.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Aquae_planrome3.png/450px-Aquae_planrome3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Aquae_planrome3.png/600px-Aquae_planrome3.png 2x" data-file-width="1411" data-file-height="1072" /></a><figcaption>Detailed map</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aquae_planlatium_2a.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Aquae_planlatium_2a.png/300px-Aquae_planlatium_2a.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Aquae_planlatium_2a.png/450px-Aquae_planlatium_2a.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Aquae_planlatium_2a.png/600px-Aquae_planlatium_2a.png 2x" data-file-width="5896" data-file-height="4389" /></a><figcaption>Map showing aqueducts' sources</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parco_degli_Acquedotti_Roma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Parco_degli_Acquedotti_Roma.jpg/220px-Parco_degli_Acquedotti_Roma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Parco_degli_Acquedotti_Roma.jpg/330px-Parco_degli_Acquedotti_Roma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Parco_degli_Acquedotti_Roma.jpg/440px-Parco_degli_Acquedotti_Roma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6720" data-file-height="4122" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Parco_degli_Acquedotti" title="Parco degli Acquedotti">Parco degli Acquedotti</a>, a park in Rome named after the aqueducts that run through it</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aqua_Anio_Vetus,_Tivoli_-_51072576848.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Aqua_Anio_Vetus%2C_Tivoli_-_51072576848.jpg/220px-Aqua_Anio_Vetus%2C_Tivoli_-_51072576848.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Aqua_Anio_Vetus%2C_Tivoli_-_51072576848.jpg/330px-Aqua_Anio_Vetus%2C_Tivoli_-_51072576848.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Aqua_Anio_Vetus%2C_Tivoli_-_51072576848.jpg/440px-Aqua_Anio_Vetus%2C_Tivoli_-_51072576848.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Anio_Vetus" title="Aqua Anio Vetus">Aqua Anio Vetus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_aqueducts_by_date" title="List of Roman aqueducts by date">Roman aqueduct</a> built in 272 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>The city's aqueducts and their dates of completion were: </p> <ul><li>312 BC <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Appia" title="Aqua Appia">Aqua Appia</a></li> <li>272 BC <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Anio_Vetus" title="Aqua Anio Vetus">Aqua Anio Vetus</a></li> <li>144–140 BC <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Marcia" title="Aqua Marcia">Aqua Marcia</a></li> <li>127–126 BC <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Tepula" title="Aqua Tepula">Aqua Tepula</a></li> <li>33 BC <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Julia" title="Aqua Julia">Aqua Julia</a></li> <li>19 BC <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Virgo" title="Aqua Virgo">Aqua Virgo</a></li> <li>2 BC <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Alsietina" title="Aqua Alsietina">Aqua Alsietina</a></li> <li>38–52 AD <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Claudia" title="Aqua Claudia">Aqua Claudia</a></li> <li>38–52 AD <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Anio_Novus" title="Aqua Anio Novus">Aqua Anio Novus</a></li> <li>109 AD <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Traiana" title="Aqua Traiana">Aqua Traiana</a></li> <li>226 AD <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Alexandrina" title="Aqua Alexandrina">Aqua Alexandrina</a></li></ul> <p>The city's demand for water had probably long exceeded its local supplies by 312 BC, when the city's first aqueduct, the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Appia" title="Aqua Appia">Aqua Appia</a>, was commissioned by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censor</a> <a href="/wiki/Appius_Claudius_Caecus" title="Appius Claudius Caecus">Appius Claudius Caecus</a>. The Aqua Appia was one of two major public projects of the time; the other was a military road between Rome and <a href="/wiki/Capua" title="Capua">Capua</a>, the first leg of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Appian_Way" title="Appian Way">Appian Way</a>. Both projects had significant strategic value, as the <a href="/wiki/Third_Samnite_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Samnite War">Third Samnite War</a> had been under way for some thirty years by that point. The road allowed rapid troop movements; and by design or fortunate coincidence, most of the Aqua Appia ran within a buried conduit, relatively secure from attack. It was fed by a spring 16.4 km from Rome, and dropped 10 m over its length to discharge approximately 75,500 m<sup>3</sup> of water each day into a fountain at Rome's cattle market, the <a href="/wiki/Forum_Boarium" title="Forum Boarium">Forum Boarium</a>, one of the city's lowest-lying public spaces.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second aqueduct, the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Anio_Vetus" title="Aqua Anio Vetus">Aqua Anio Vetus</a>, was commissioned some forty years later, funded by treasures seized from <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus of Epirus</a>. Its flow was more than twice that of the Aqua Appia, and supplied water to higher elevations of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 145 BC, the city had again outgrown its combined supplies. An official commission found the aqueduct conduits decayed, their water depleted by leakage and illegal tapping. The praetor <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Marcius_Rex_(praetor_144_BC)" title="Quintus Marcius Rex (praetor 144 BC)">Quintus Marcius Rex</a> restored them, and introduced a third, "more wholesome" supply, the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Marcia" title="Aqua Marcia">Aqua Marcia</a>, Rome's longest aqueduct and high enough to supply the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">Capitoline Hill</a>. As demand grew still further, more aqueducts were built, including the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Tepula" title="Aqua Tepula">Aqua Tepula</a> in 127 BC and the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Julia" title="Aqua Julia">Aqua Julia</a> in 33 BC. </p><p>Aqueduct building programmes in the city reached a peak in the Imperial Era; political credit and responsibility for provision of public water supplies passed from mutually competitive Republican political magnates to the emperors. Augustus' reign saw the building of the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Virgo" title="Aqua Virgo">Aqua Virgo</a>, and the short <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Alsietina" title="Aqua Alsietina">Aqua Alsietina</a>. The latter supplied <a href="/wiki/Trastevere" title="Trastevere">Trastevere</a> with large quantities of non-potable water for its gardens and was used to create an artificial lake for staged <a href="/wiki/Naumachia" title="Naumachia">sea-fights</a> to entertain the populace. <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Augusta_(Rome)" title="Aqua Augusta (Rome)">Another short Augustan aqueduct</a> supplemented the Aqua Marcia with water of "excellent quality".<sup id="cite_ref-Frontinus_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frontinus-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emperor <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a> added or began two aqueducts completed by his successor <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a>; the 69 km (42.8 mile) <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Claudia" title="Aqua Claudia">Aqua Claudia</a>, which gave good quality water but failed on several occasions; and the <a href="/wiki/Anio_Novus" class="mw-redirect" title="Anio Novus">Anio Novus</a>, highest of all Rome's aqueducts and one of the most reliable but prone to muddy, discoloured waters, particularly after rain, despite its use of settling tanks.<sup id="cite_ref-penelope.uchicago.edu_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-penelope.uchicago.edu-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of Rome's aqueducts drew on various springs in the valley and highlands of the Anio, the modern river <a href="/wiki/Aniene" title="Aniene">Aniene</a>, east of the Tiber. A complex system of aqueduct junctions, tributary feeds and distribution tanks supplied every part of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trastevere, the city region west of the Tiber, was primarily served by extensions of several of the city's eastern aqueducts, carried across the river by lead pipes buried in the roadbed of the river bridges, thus forming an <a href="/wiki/Siphon#Inverted_Siphon" title="Siphon">inverted siphon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whenever this cross-river supply had to be shut down for routine repair and maintenance works, the "positively unwholesome" waters of the Aqua Alsietina were used to supply Trastevere's public fountains.<sup id="cite_ref-Frontinus_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frontinus-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The situation was finally ameliorated when the emperor <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> built the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Traiana" title="Aqua Traiana">Aqua Traiana</a> in 109 AD, bringing clean water directly to Trastavere from aquifers around <a href="/wiki/Lake_Bracciano" title="Lake Bracciano">Lake Bracciano</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the late 3rd century AD, the city was supplied with water by eleven state-funded aqueducts. Their combined conduit length is estimated between 780 and a little over 800 km, of which approximately 47 km (29 mi) were carried above ground level, on masonry supports. Most of Rome's water was carried by four of these: the Aqua Anio Vetus, the Aqua Marcia, the Aqua Claudia and the Aqua Anio Novus. Modern estimates of the city's supply, based on Frontinus' own calculations in the late 1st century, range from a high of 1,000,000 m<sup>3</sup> per day to a more conservative 520,000–635,000 m<sup>3</sup> per day, supplying an estimated population of 1,000,000.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aqueducts_in_the_Roman_Empire">Aqueducts in the Roman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Aqueducts in the Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueducts_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire">List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albarrac%C3%ADn,_Teruel,_Espa%C3%B1a,_2014-01-10,_DD_002.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Albarrac%C3%ADn%2C_Teruel%2C_Espa%C3%B1a%2C_2014-01-10%2C_DD_002.JPG/170px-Albarrac%C3%ADn%2C_Teruel%2C_Espa%C3%B1a%2C_2014-01-10%2C_DD_002.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Albarrac%C3%ADn%2C_Teruel%2C_Espa%C3%B1a%2C_2014-01-10%2C_DD_002.JPG/255px-Albarrac%C3%ADn%2C_Teruel%2C_Espa%C3%B1a%2C_2014-01-10%2C_DD_002.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Albarrac%C3%ADn%2C_Teruel%2C_Espa%C3%B1a%2C_2014-01-10%2C_DD_002.JPG/340px-Albarrac%C3%ADn%2C_Teruel%2C_Espa%C3%B1a%2C_2014-01-10%2C_DD_002.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2941" data-file-height="4920" /></a><figcaption>Galería de los Espejos (Gallery of Mirrors), a tunnelled part of a 25 km Roman aqueduct built during the 1st century AD near <a href="/wiki/Albarrac%C3%ADn" title="Albarracín">Albarracín</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Hundreds of aqueducts were built throughout the Roman Empire. Many of them have since collapsed or been destroyed, but a number of intact portions remain. The <a href="/wiki/Zaghouan_Aqueduct" title="Zaghouan Aqueduct">Zaghouan Aqueduct</a>, 92.5 km (57.5 mi) in length, was built in the 2nd century AD to supply <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>). Surviving provincial aqueduct bridges include the <a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a> in France and the <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_of_Segovia" title="Aqueduct of Segovia">Aqueduct of Segovia</a> in Spain. The longest single conduit, at over 240 km, is associated with the <a href="/wiki/Valens_Aqueduct" class="mw-redirect" title="Valens Aqueduct">Valens Aqueduct</a> of Constantinople.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The known system is at least two and half times the length of the longest recorded Roman aqueducts at Carthage and Cologne, but perhaps more significantly it represents one of the most outstanding surveying achievements of any pre-industrial society".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rivalling this in terms of length and possibly equaling or exceeding it in cost and complexity, is provincial Italy's <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Augusta_(Naples)" title="Aqua Augusta (Naples)">Aqua Augusta</a>. It supplied a great number of luxury coastal holiday-villas belonging to Rome's rich and powerful, several commercial fresh-water fisheries, market-gardens, vineyards and at least eight cities, including the major ports at <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Misenum" class="mw-redirect" title="Misenum">Misenum</a>; sea voyages by traders and Rome's Republican and Imperial navies required copious on-board supplies of fresh water.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aqueducts were built to supply Roman military bases in Britain. The sites of permanent fortresses show traces of fountains and piped water, which were probably supplied by aqueducts from the Claudian period on. Permanent auxiliary forts were supplied by aqueducts from the Flavian period, possibly co-incident with the regular demand for dependable water supplies by provincial military settlements equipped with bathhouses, once these were introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Planning,_surveying_and_management"><span id="Planning.2C_surveying_and_management"></span>Planning, surveying and management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Planning, surveying and management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planning">Planning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Planning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The plans for any public or private aqueduct had to be submitted to scrutiny by civil authorities. Permission was granted only if the proposal respected the water rights of other citizens. Inevitably, there would have been rancorous and interminable court cases between neighbours or local governments over competing claims to limited water supplies but on the whole, Roman communities took care to allocate shared water resources according to need. Planners preferred to build public aqueducts on public land <i>(<a href="/wiki/Ager_publicus" title="Ager publicus">ager publicus</a>)</i>, and to follow the shortest, unopposed, most economical route from source to destination. State purchase of privately owned land, or re-routing of planned courses to circumvent resistant or tenanted occupation, could significantly add to the aqueduct's eventual length, and thus to its cost.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor,_Rabun_2000,_pp._54-60_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor,_Rabun_2000,_pp._54-60-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On rural land, a protective "clear corridor" was marked out with boundary slabs (<i><a href="/wiki/Cippi" class="mw-redirect" title="Cippi">cippi</a></i>) usually 15 feet each side of the channel, reducing to 5 feet each side for lead pipes and in built-up areas. The conduits, their foundations and superstructures, were property of the State or emperor. The corridors were public land, with public rights of way and clear access to the conduits for maintenance. Within the corridors, potential sources of damage to the conduits were forbidden, including new roadways that crossed over the conduit, new buildings, ploughing or planting, and living trees, unless entirely contained by a building. The harvesting of hay and grass for fodder was permitted.<sup id="cite_ref-Frontinus,_Book_2,_128_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frontinus,_Book_2,_128-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regulations and restrictions necessary to the aqueduct's long-term integrity and maintenance were not always readily accepted or easily enforced at a local level, particularly when <i>ager publicus</i> was understood to be common property, to be used for whatever purpose seemed fit to its user.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor,_Rabun_2000,_pp._54-60_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor,_Rabun_2000,_pp._54-60-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <i>ager publicus</i>, minor, local roads and boundaries between adjacent private properties offered the least costly routes, though not always the most straightforward. Sometimes the State would purchase the whole of a property, mark out the intended course of the aqueduct, and resell the unused land to help mitigate the cost.<sup id="cite_ref-Frontinus,_Book_2,_128_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frontinus,_Book_2,_128-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Roman_funerary_practices#Graves,_tombs,_and_cemeteries" title="Roman funerary practices">Graves and cemeteries, temples, shrines</a> and other sacred places had to be respected; they were protected by law, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_funerary_practices#Rural_villas_and_estates" title="Roman funerary practices">villa and farm cemeteries</a> were often deliberately sited very close to public roadways and boundaries. Despite careful enquiries by planners, problems regarding shared ownership or uncertain legal status might emerge only during the physical construction. While surveyors could claim ancient right to use land once public, now private, for the good of the State, the land's current possessors could take out a legal counterclaim for compensation based on their long usage, productivity and improvements. They could also join forces with their neighbours to present a united legal front in seeking higher rates of compensation. Aqueduct planning "traversed a legal landscape at least as daunting as the physical one".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a>, the censors exploited a legal process known as <i><a href="/wiki/Rei_vindicatio" title="Rei vindicatio">vindicatio</a></i>, a repossession of private or tenanted land by the state, "restoring" it to a presumed ancient status as "public and sacred, and open to the people". Livy describes this as a public-spirited act of piety, and makes no reference to the likely legal conflicts arising. In 179 BC the censors used the same legal device to help justify public contracts for several important building projects, including Rome's first stone-built bridge over the Tiber and a new aqueduct to supplement the city's existing – but, by now, inadequate – supply. A wealthy landowner along the aqueduct's planned route, M. Licinius Crassus, refused it passage across his fields, and seems to have forced its abandonment.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The construction of Rome's third aqueduct, the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Marcia" title="Aqua Marcia">Aqua Marcia</a>, was at first legally blocked on religious grounds, under advice from the <i><a href="/wiki/Decemvir" class="mw-redirect" title="Decemvir">decemviri</a></i> (an advisory "board of ten"). The new aqueduct was meant to supply water to the highest elevations of the city, including the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">Capitoline Hill</a>, but the <i>decemviri</i> had consulted Rome's main written oracle, the <i><a href="/wiki/Sibylline_Books" title="Sibylline Books">Sibylline Books</a></i>, and found there a warning against supplying water to the Capitoline. This brought the project to a standstill. Eventually, having raised the same objections in 143 and in 140, the <i>decemviri</i> and Senate consented, and 180,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Sesterce" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesterce">sesterces</a> were allocated for restoration of the two existing aqueducts and completion of the third, in 144–140. The Marcia was named for the <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetor</a> <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Marcius_Rex_(praetor_144_BC)" title="Quintus Marcius Rex (praetor 144 BC)">Quintus Marcius Rex</a>, who had championed its construction.<sup id="cite_ref-penelope.uchicago.edu_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-penelope.uchicago.edu-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources_and_surveying">Sources and surveying</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sources and surveying"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Springs were by far the most common sources for aqueduct water; most of Rome's supply came from various springs in the Anio valley and its uplands. Spring water was fed into a stone or concrete springhouse, then entered the aqueduct conduit. Scattered springs would require several branch conduits feeding into a main channel. Some systems drew water from open, purpose-built, <a href="/wiki/Roman_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman dam">dammed</a> reservoirs, such as the two (still in use) that supplied the aqueduct at the provincial city of <a href="/wiki/Emerita_Augusta" class="mw-redirect" title="Emerita Augusta">Emerita Augusta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The territory over which the aqueduct ran had to be carefully surveyed to ensure the water would flow at a consistent and acceptable rate for the entire distance.<sup id="cite_ref-,_R._2012_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-,_R._2012-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman engineers used various surveying tools to plot the course of aqueducts across the landscape. They checked horizontal levels with a <i><a href="/wiki/Chorobates" title="Chorobates">chorobates</a></i>, a flatbedded wooden frame some 20 feet long, fitted with both a water level and plumblines. Horizontal courses and angles could be plotted using a <i><a href="/wiki/Groma_surveying" class="mw-redirect" title="Groma surveying">groma</a></i>, a relatively simple apparatus that was eventually displaced by the more sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Dioptra" title="Dioptra">dioptra</a>, a precursor of the modern <a href="/wiki/Theodolite" title="Theodolite">theodolite</a>. In Book 8 of his <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a></i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> describes the need to ensure a constant supply, methods of prospecting, and tests for potable water. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_and_health">Water and health</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Water and health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation in ancient Rome</a></div> <p>Greek and Roman physicians were well aware of the association between stagnant or tainted waters and water-borne diseases, and held rainwater to be water's purest and healthiest form, followed by springs. Rome's public baths, ostensibly one of Rome's greatest contributions to the health of its inhabitants, were also instrumental in the spread of waterborne diseases. In his <i><a href="/wiki/De_Medicina" title="De Medicina">De Medicina</a></i>, the encyclopaedist <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Cornelius_Celsus" title="Aulus Cornelius Celsus">Celsus</a> warned that public bathing could induce <a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">gangrene</a> in unhealed wounds.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frontinus preferred a high rate of overflow in the aqueduct system because it led to greater cleanliness in the water supply, the sewers, and those who used them. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">adverse health effects of lead</a> on those who mined and processed it were also well known. Ceramic pipes, unlike lead, left no taint in the water they carried, and were therefore preferred over lead for drinking water. In some parts of the Roman world, particularly in relatively isolated communities with localised water systems and limited availability of other, more costly materials, wooden pipes were commonly used; <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Pliny the elder">Pliny</a> recommends water-pipes of <a href="/wiki/Pine" title="Pine">pine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alder" title="Alder">alder</a> as particularly durable, when kept wet and buried. Examples revealed through archaeology include pipes of alder, clamped at their joints with oak, at <a href="/wiki/Vindolanda" title="Vindolanda">Vindolanda</a> fort<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and pipes of alder in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where lead pipes were used, a continuous water-flow and the inevitable deposition of water-borne minerals within the pipes somewhat reduced the water's contamination by soluble lead.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lead content in Rome's aqueduct water was "clearly measurable, but unlikely to have been truly harmful". Nevertheless, the level of lead was 100 times higher than in local spring waters.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conduits_and_gradients">Conduits and gradients</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Conduits and gradients"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aq%C3%BCeducte_de_les_Ferreres_Tarragona_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Aq%C3%BCeducte_de_les_Ferreres_Tarragona_3.jpg/220px-Aq%C3%BCeducte_de_les_Ferreres_Tarragona_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Aq%C3%BCeducte_de_les_Ferreres_Tarragona_3.jpg/330px-Aq%C3%BCeducte_de_les_Ferreres_Tarragona_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Aq%C3%BCeducte_de_les_Ferreres_Tarragona_3.jpg/440px-Aq%C3%BCeducte_de_les_Ferreres_Tarragona_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1713" data-file-height="1284" /></a><figcaption>The water conduit of the <a href="/wiki/Aq%C3%BCeducte_de_les_Ferreres" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqüeducte de les Ferreres">Tarragona Aqueduct</a>, Spain. It would formerly have been slab-topped, not open.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most Roman aqueducts were flat-bottomed, arch-section conduits, approximately 0.7 m (2.3 ft) wide and 1.5 m (5 ft) high internally, running 0.5 to 1 m beneath the ground surface, with inspection-and-access covers at regular intervals.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conduits above ground level were usually slab-topped. Early conduits were <a href="/wiki/Ashlar" title="Ashlar">ashlar</a>-built but from around the late Republican era, brick-faced concrete was often used instead. The concrete used for conduit linings was usually <a href="/wiki/Types_of_concrete#Old_concrete_recipes" title="Types of concrete">waterproof</a>, with a very smooth finish. The flow of water depended on gravity alone. The volume of water transported within the conduit depended on the catchment hydrology – rainfall, absorption, and runoff – the cross section of the conduit, and its gradient; most conduits ran about two-thirds full. The conduit's cross section was also determined by maintenance requirements; workmen must be able to enter and access the whole, with minimal disruption to its fabric.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> recommends a low gradient of not less than 1 in 4800 for the channel, presumably to prevent damage to the structure through erosion and water pressure. This value agrees well with the measured gradients of surviving masonry aqueducts. The <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gradient" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:gradient">gradient</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a> is only 34 cm per km, descending only 17 m vertically in its entire length of 50 km (31 mi): it could transport up to 20,000 cubic metres a day. The gradients of temporary aqueducts used for <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_mining" title="Hydraulic mining">hydraulic mining</a> could be considerably greater, as at <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolaucothi">Dolaucothi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> (with a maximum gradient of about 1:700) and <a href="/wiki/Las_Medulas" class="mw-redirect" title="Las Medulas">Las Medulas</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>. Where sharp gradients were unavoidable in permanent conduits, the channel could be stepped downwards, widened or discharged into a receiving tank to disperse the flow of water and reduce its abrasive force.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of stepped cascades and drops also helped re-oxygenate and thus "freshen" the water.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bridgework,_siphons_and_tunnels"><span id="Bridgework.2C_siphons_and_tunnels"></span>Bridgework, siphons and tunnels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bridgework, siphons and tunnels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aqueduct_of_Segovia_08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Aqueduct_of_Segovia_08.jpg/220px-Aqueduct_of_Segovia_08.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Aqueduct_of_Segovia_08.jpg/330px-Aqueduct_of_Segovia_08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Aqueduct_of_Segovia_08.jpg/440px-Aqueduct_of_Segovia_08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The arches of an elevated section of the Roman provincial <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_of_Segovia" title="Aqueduct of Segovia">Aqueduct of Segovia</a>, in modern <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Some aqueduct conduits were supported across valleys or hollows on multiple piered arches of masonry, brick or concrete, also known as <a href="/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)" title="Arcade (architecture)">arcades</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a>, one of the most impressive surviving examples of a massive masonry multiple-piered conduit, spanned the <a href="/wiki/Gardon" title="Gardon">Gardon</a> river-valley some 48.8 m (160 ft) above the Gardon itself. Where particularly deep or lengthy depressions had to be crossed, inverted siphons could be used, instead of arcades; the conduit fed water into a header tank, which fed it into pipes. The pipes crossed the valley at lower level, supported by a low "venter" bridge, then rose to a receiving tank at a slightly lower elevation. This discharged into another conduit; the overall gradient was maintained. Siphon pipes were usually made of soldered lead, sometimes reinforced by concrete encasements or stone sleeves. Less often, the pipes were stone or ceramic, jointed as male-female and sealed with lead.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vitruvius describes the construction of siphons and the problems of blockage, blow-outs and venting at their lowest levels, where the pressures were greatest. Nonetheless, siphons were versatile and effective if well-built and well-maintained. A horizontal section of high-pressure siphon tubing in the <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_of_the_Gier" title="Aqueduct of the Gier">Aqueduct of the Gier</a> was ramped up on bridgework to clear a navigable river, using nine lead pipes in parallel, cased in concrete.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern <a href="/wiki/Hydraulics" title="Hydraulics">hydraulic engineers</a> use similar techniques to enable <a href="/wiki/Sewerage" title="Sewerage">sewers</a> and water pipes to cross depressions. At Romano-Gallic Arles, a minor branch of the main aqueduct supplied a local suburb via a lead siphon whose "belly" was laid across a riverbed, eliminating any need for supporting bridgework.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some aqueducts running through hilly regions employed a combination of arcades, plain conduits buried at ground level, and tunnels large enough to contain the conduit, its builders and maintenance workers. The builders of Campana's <i>Aqua Augusta</i> changed the water's orientation from an existing northerly watershed to a southerly watershed, establishing the new gradient using a 6 km tunnel, several shorter tunnels, and arcades, one of which was supported more or less at sea level by foundations on the sea bed at Misenum. <i>En route</i>, it supplied several cities and many villas, using branch lines.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inspection_and_maintenance">Inspection and maintenance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Inspection and maintenance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:F_57_Aqueduc_Jouy_aux_Arches_Bassin_collecteur.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/F_57_Aqueduc_Jouy_aux_Arches_Bassin_collecteur.JPG/220px-F_57_Aqueduc_Jouy_aux_Arches_Bassin_collecteur.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/F_57_Aqueduc_Jouy_aux_Arches_Bassin_collecteur.JPG/330px-F_57_Aqueduc_Jouy_aux_Arches_Bassin_collecteur.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/F_57_Aqueduc_Jouy_aux_Arches_Bassin_collecteur.JPG/440px-F_57_Aqueduc_Jouy_aux_Arches_Bassin_collecteur.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1224" /></a><figcaption>Catchment basin of the aqueduct of <a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a> in France. The single arched cover protects two channels; either one could be closed off, allowing repair while the other continued to provide at least partial supply.</figcaption></figure> <p>Roman aqueducts required a comprehensive system of regular maintenance. On the standard, buried conduits, inspection and access points were provided at regular intervals, so that suspected blockages or leaks could be investigated with minimal disruption of the supply. Water lost through multiple, slight leaks in buried conduit walls could be hard to detect except by its fresh taste, unlike that of the natural groundwater.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The clear corridors created to protect the fabric of underground and overground conduits were regularly patrolled for unlawful ploughing, planting, roadways and buildings. In <i><a href="/wiki/De_aquaeductu" title="De aquaeductu">De aquaeductu</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a> describes the penetration of conduits by tree-roots as particularly damaging.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Working patrols would have cleared algal fouling, repaired accidental breaches or accessible shoddy workmanship, cleared the conduits of gravel and other loose debris, and removed accretions of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> (also known as <a href="/wiki/Travertine" title="Travertine">travertine</a>) in systems fed by <a href="/wiki/Hard_water" title="Hard water">hard water</a> sources; modern research has found that quite apart from the narrowing of apertures, even slight roughening of the aqueduct's ideally smooth-mortared interior surface by travertine deposits could significantly reduce the water's velocity, and thus its rate of flow, by up to 1/4.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accretions within siphons could drastically reduce flow rates through their already narrow diameters, though some had sealed openings that might have been used as <a href="/wiki/Drain_rods" class="mw-redirect" title="Drain rods">rodding eyes</a>, possibly using a pull-through device. In Rome, where a hard-water supply was the norm, mains pipework was shallowly buried beneath road kerbs, for ease of access; the accumulation of calcium carbonate in these pipes would have necessitated their frequent replacement.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Full closure of any aqueduct for servicing would have been a rare event, kept as brief as possible, with repair shut-downs preferably made when water demand was lowest, during the winter months.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The piped water supply could be selectively reduced or shut off at the <i>castella</i> when small or local repairs were needed, but substantial maintenance and repairs to the aqueduct conduit itself required the complete diversion of water at any point upstream, including the spring-head itself. Frontinus describes the use of temporary leaden conduits to carry the water past damaged stretches while repairs were made, with minimal loss of supply.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Claudia" title="Aqua Claudia">Aqua Claudia</a>, most ambitious of the City of Rome's aqueducts, suffered at least two serious partial collapses over two centuries, one of them very soon after construction, and both probably due to a combination of shoddy workmanship, underinvestment, Imperial negligence, collateral damage through illicit outlets, natural ground tremors and damage by overwhelming seasonal floods originating upstream. Inscriptions claim that it was largely out of commission, and awaiting repair, for nine years prior to a restoration by <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a> and another, later, by his son <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a>. To many modern scholars, the delay seems implausibly long. It might well have been thought politic to stress the personal generosity of the new <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavian dynasty</a>, father and son, and exaggerate the negligence of their disgraced imperial predecessor, <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>, whose rebuilding priorities after Rome's Great Fire were thought models of self-indulgent ambition.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Castellum_PS01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Castellum_PS01.JPG/220px-Castellum_PS01.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Castellum_PS01.JPG/330px-Castellum_PS01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Castellum_PS01.JPG/440px-Castellum_PS01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Urban distribution tank at Nîmes, France. Circular section pipes radiate from a central reservoir, fed by a square-sectioned aqueduct.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distribution">Distribution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aqueduct mains could be directly tapped, but they more usually fed into public distribution terminals, known as <i>castellum aquae</i> ("water castles"), which acted as settling tanks and cisterns and supplied various branches and spurs, via lead or ceramic pipes. These pipes were made in 25 different standardised diameters and were fitted with bronze stopcocks. The flow from each pipe (<i>calix</i>) could be fully or partly opened, or shut down, and its supply diverted if necessary to any other part of the system in which water-demand was, for the time being, outstripping supply. The free supply of water to public basins and drinking fountains was officially prioritised over the supply to the public baths, where a very small fee was charged to every bather, on behalf of the Roman people. The supply to basins and baths was in turn prioritised over the requirements of fee-paying private users.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last were registered, along with the bore of pipe that led from the public water supply to their property – the wider the pipe, the greater the flow and the higher the fee. Some properties could be bought and sold with a legal right to draw water attached. Aqueduct officials could assign the right to draw overflow water (<i>aqua caduca</i>, literally "fallen water") to certain persons and groups; <a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome#Laundering_and_fulling" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">fullers</a>, for example, used a great deal of fresh water in their trade, in return for a commensurate water-fee. Some individuals were gifted a right to draw overflow water <i>gratis</i>, as a State honour or grant; pipe stamps show that around half Rome's water grants were given to elite, extremely wealthy citizens of the senatorial class.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water grants were issued by the emperor or State to named individuals, and could not be lawfully sold along with a property, or inherited: new owners and heirs must therefore negotiate a new grant, in their own name. In the event, these untransferable, personal water grants were more often transferred than not.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robinet_d%27arr%C3%AAt_%C3%A0_boisseau_romain_en_bronze.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Robinet_d%27arr%C3%AAt_%C3%A0_boisseau_romain_en_bronze.jpg/220px-Robinet_d%27arr%C3%AAt_%C3%A0_boisseau_romain_en_bronze.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Robinet_d%27arr%C3%AAt_%C3%A0_boisseau_romain_en_bronze.jpg/330px-Robinet_d%27arr%C3%AAt_%C3%A0_boisseau_romain_en_bronze.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Robinet_d%27arr%C3%AAt_%C3%A0_boisseau_romain_en_bronze.jpg/440px-Robinet_d%27arr%C3%AAt_%C3%A0_boisseau_romain_en_bronze.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2604" data-file-height="2760" /></a><figcaption>Roman stopcock, bronze. Uncertain date</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a> thought dishonest private users and corrupt state employees were responsible for most of the losses and outright thefts of water in Rome, and the worst damage to the aqueducts. His <i><a href="/wiki/De_aquaeductu" title="De aquaeductu">De aquaeductu</a></i> can be read as a useful technical manual, a display of persuasive literary skills, and a warning to users and his own staff that if they stole water, they would be found out, because he had all the relevant, expert calculations to hand. He claimed to know not only how much was stolen, but how it was done.<sup id="cite_ref-Keenan-Jones,_2015_pp._1-4_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keenan-Jones,_2015_pp._1-4-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tampering and fraud were indeed commonplace; methods included the fitting of unlicensed or additional outlets, some of them many miles outside the city, and the illegal widening of lead pipes. Any of this might involve the bribery or connivance of unscrupulous aqueduct officials or workers. Archaeological evidence confirms that some users drew an illegal supply but not the likely quantity involved, nor the likely combined effect on supply to the city as a whole. The measurement of allowances was basically flawed; officially approved lead pipes carried <a href="/wiki/Lead_pipe_inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead pipe inscription">inscriptions</a> with information on the pipe's manufacturer, its fitter, and probably on its subscriber and their entitlement; but water allowance was measured in <a href="/wiki/Quinaria" title="Quinaria">quinaria</a> (cross-sectional area of the pipe) at the point of supply and no formula or physical device was employed to account for variations in velocity, rate of flow or actual usage.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brun, 1991, used lead pipe stamps to calculate a plausible water distribution as a percentage of the whole; 17% went to the emperor (including his gifts, grants and awards); 38% went to private individuals; and 45% went to the public at large, including public baths and fountains.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Management">Management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Republican era, aqueducts were planned, built and managed under authority of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censors</a>, or if no censor was in office, the <a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">aediles</a>. In the Imperial era, lifetime responsibility for water supplies passed to the emperors. Rome had no permanent central body to manage the aqueducts until Augustus created the office of water commissioner (<i><a href="/wiki/Curator_Aquarum" title="Curator Aquarum">curator aquarum</a></i>); this was a high status, high-profile Imperial appointment. In 97 AD, Frontinus, who had already had a distinguished career as consul, general and provincial governor, served both as consul and as <i>curator aquarum</i>, under the emperor <a href="/wiki/Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Particular sections of Campania's very long, complex, costly and politically sensitive <i>Aqua Augusta</i>, constructed in the early days of the Augustan <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">principate</a> were supervised by wealthy, influential, local <i>curatores</i>. They were drawn from local elites by the local electorate, or by Augustus himself. The entire network relied on just two mountain springs, shared with a river that supported freshwater fish, providing a free food source for all classes. The <i>Augusta</i> supplied eight or nine municipalities or cities and an unknown number of farms and villas, including bathhouses, via branch lines and sub-branch lines; its extremities were the naval port of <a href="/wiki/Misenum" class="mw-redirect" title="Misenum">Misenum</a> and the merchant port of <a href="/wiki/Puteoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Puteoli">Puteoli</a>. Its delivery is unlikely to have been wholly reliable, adequate or free from dispute. Competition would have been inevitable.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the emperor <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a>, the City of Rome's contingent of imperial <i>aquarii</i> (aqueduct workers) comprised a <i>familia aquarum</i> of 460, both slave and free, funded through a combination of Imperial largesse and the water fees paid by private subscribers. The <i>familia aquarum</i> comprised "overseers, reservoir‐keepers, line‐walkers, pavers, plasterers, and other workmen"<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> supervised by an Imperial freedman, who held office as <i><a href="/wiki/Procurator_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Procurator (Roman)">procurator</a> aquarium</i>. The <i>curator aquarum</i> had magisterial powers in relation to the water supply, assisted by a team of architects, public servants, notaries and scribes, and heralds; when working outside the city, he was further entitled to two <i><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">lictors</a></i> to enforce his authority.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Substantial fines could be imposed for even single offences against the laws relating to aqueducts: for example, 10,000 sesterces for allowing a tree to damage the conduit, and 100,000 sesterces for polluting the water within the conduit, or allowing one's slave to do the same.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civic_and_domestic">Civic and domestic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Civic and domestic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tivoli_Acquedotto_Arci_0511-03.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Tivoli_Acquedotto_Arci_0511-03.JPG/220px-Tivoli_Acquedotto_Arci_0511-03.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Tivoli_Acquedotto_Arci_0511-03.JPG/330px-Tivoli_Acquedotto_Arci_0511-03.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Tivoli_Acquedotto_Arci_0511-03.JPG/440px-Tivoli_Acquedotto_Arci_0511-03.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2127" data-file-height="1359" /></a><figcaption>Standing section of the ruined <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Anio_Novus" title="Aqua Anio Novus">Aqua Anio Novus</a> near <a href="/wiki/Tivoli,_Lazio" title="Tivoli, Lazio">Tivoli</a>, built in 52 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>Rome's first aqueduct (312 BC) discharged at very low pressure and at a more-or-less constant rate in the city's main <a href="/wiki/Forum_Boarium" title="Forum Boarium">trading centre and cattle-market</a>, probably into a low-level, cascaded series of troughs or basins; the upper for household use, the lower for watering the livestock traded there. Most Romans would have filled buckets and storage jars at the basins and carried the water to their apartments; the better-off would have sent slaves to perform the same task. The outlet's elevation was too low to offer any city household or building a direct supply; the overflow drained into Rome's main sewer, and from there into the Tiber. Most inhabitants still relied on well water and rainwater. At this time, Rome had no <a href="/wiki/Roman_bath" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman bath">public baths</a>. The first was probably built in the next century, based on precursors in neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Campania" title="Campania">Campania</a>; a limited number of private baths and small, street-corner public baths would have had a private water supply, but once aqueduct water was brought to the city's higher elevations, large and well-appointed public baths and fountains were built throughout the city. Public baths and fountains became distinctive features of Roman civilization, and the baths, in particular, became important social centres.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The majority of urban Romans lived in multi-storeyed blocks of flats (<i><a href="/wiki/Insula_(building)" title="Insula (building)">insulae</a></i>). Some blocks offered water services, but only to tenants on the more expensive, lower floors; the other tenants would have drawn their water <i>gratis</i> from public fountains. During the Imperial era, lead production (mostly for pipes) became an Imperial monopoly, and the granting of rights to draw water for private use from state-funded aqueducts was made an imperial privilege.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The provision of free, potable water to the general public became one among many gifts to the people of Rome from their emperor, paid for by him or by the state. In 33 BC, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Agrippa" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Agrippa">Marcus Agrippa</a> built or subsidised 170 public bath-houses during his <a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">aedileship</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Frontinus's time (c. 40–103 AD), around 10% of Rome's aqueduct water was used to supply 591 public fountains,<sup id="cite_ref-Keenan-Jones,_2015_pp._1-4_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keenan-Jones,_2015_pp._1-4-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> among which were 39 lavishly decorative fountains that Frontinus calls <i><a href="/wiki/Munera_(ancient_Rome)" title="Munera (ancient Rome)">munera</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one of several much later regionaries, by the end of the 4th century AD, Rome's aqueducts within the City – 19 of them, according to the regionary – fed 11 large public baths, 965 smaller public bathhouses and 1,352 public fountains.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Farming">Farming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Farming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Between 65 and 90% of the Roman Empire's population was involved in some form of agricultural work. Water was possibly the most important variable in the agricultural economy of the Mediterranean world. Roman Italy's natural fresh-water sources – springs, streams, rivers and lakes – were abundant in some places, entirely absent in others. Rainfall was unpredictable. Water tended to be scarce when most needed during the warm, dry summer growing season. Farmers whose villas or estates were near a public aqueduct could draw, under license, a specified quantity of aqueduct water for irrigation at a predetermined time, using a bucket let into the conduit via the inspection hatches; this was intended to limit the depletion of water supply to users further down the gradient, and help ensure a fair distribution among competitors at the time when water was most needed and scarce.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a> recommends that any farm should contain a "never failing" spring, stream or river;<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but acknowledges that not every farm did. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer,_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_6.jpg/220px-Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_6.jpg/330px-Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_6.jpg/440px-Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1812" /></a><figcaption>Aqueduct arcade near Belgrade in <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Serbia" title="Ottoman Serbia">Ottoman Serbia</a>, painted by <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Mayer" title="Luigi Mayer">Luigi Mayer</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Farmland without a reliable summer water-source was virtually worthless. During the growing season, a "modest local" irrigation system might consume as much water as the city of Rome; and the livestock whose manure fertilised the fields must be fed and watered all year round. At least some Roman landowners and farmers relied in part or whole on aqueduct water to raise crops as their primary or sole source of income but the fraction of aqueduct water involved can only be guessed at. More certainly, the creation of municipal and city aqueducts brought a growth in the intensive and efficient suburban market-farming of fragile, perishable commodities such as flowers (for perfumes, and for festival garlands), grapes, vegetables and orchard fruits; and of small livestock such as pigs and chickens, close to the municipal and urban markets.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A licensed right to use aqueduct water on farmland could lead to increased productivity, a cash income through the sale of surplus foodstuffs, and an increase in the value of the land itself. In the countryside, permissions to draw aqueduct water for irrigation were particularly hard to get; the exercise and abuse of such rights were subject to various known legal disputes and judgements, and at least one political campaign; in 184 BC <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Cato</a> tried to block all unlawful rural outlets, especially those owned by the landed elite. This may be connected to Cato's diatribe as <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censor</a> against the ex-consul <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Furius_Purpureo" title="Lucius Furius Purpureo">Lucius Furius Purpureo</a>: "Look how much he bought the land for, where he is channeling the water!"<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cato's attempted reform proved impermanent at best. Though illegal tapping could be punished by seizure of assets, including the illegally watered land and its produce, this law seems never to have been used, and was probably impracticable; while water thefts profited farmers, they could also create food surpluses and keep food prices low. Grain shortages in particular could lead to famine and social unrest. Any practical solution must strike a balance between the water-needs of urban populations and grain producers, tax the latter's profits, and secure sufficient grain at reasonable cost for the Roman poor (<a href="/wiki/Grain_supply_to_the_city_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Grain supply to the city of Rome">the so-called "corn dole"</a>) and the army. Rather than seek to impose unproductive and probably unenforcable bans, the authorities issued individual water grants and licenses, and regulated water outlets though with variable success. In the 1st century AD, <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, like Cato, could fulminate against grain producers who continued to wax fat on profits from public water and public land.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some landholders avoided such restrictions and entanglements by buying water access rights to distant springs, not necessarily on their own land. A few, of high wealth and status, built their own aqueducts to transport such water from source to field or villa; Mumius Niger Valerius Vegetus bought the rights to a spring and its water from his neighbour, and access rights to a corridor of intervening land, then built an aqueduct of just under 10 kilometres, connecting the springhead to his own villa.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial">Industrial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Industrial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dolaucothimap2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Dolaucothimap2.jpg/300px-Dolaucothimap2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Dolaucothimap2.jpg/450px-Dolaucothimap2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Dolaucothimap2.jpg/600px-Dolaucothimap2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="910" data-file-height="630" /></a><figcaption>Map of the gold mine at <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolaucothi">Dolaucothi</a>, showing its aqueducts</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canal_romano_de_Llamas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Canal_romano_de_Llamas.jpg/220px-Canal_romano_de_Llamas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Canal_romano_de_Llamas.jpg/330px-Canal_romano_de_Llamas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Canal_romano_de_Llamas.jpg/440px-Canal_romano_de_Llamas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Rock-cut aqueduct feeding water to the mining site at <a href="/wiki/Las_M%C3%A9dulas" title="Las Médulas">Las Médulas</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Some aqueducts supplied water to industrial sites, usually via an open channel cut into the ground, clay-lined or wood-shuttered to reduce water loss. Most such <a href="/wiki/Leat" title="Leat">leats</a> were designed to operate at the steep gradients that could deliver the high water volumes needed in mining operations. Water was used in <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_mining" title="Hydraulic mining">hydraulic mining</a> to strip the overburden and expose the ore by <a href="/wiki/Hushing" title="Hushing">hushing</a>, to fracture and wash away metal-bearing rock already heated and weakened by <a href="/wiki/Fire-setting" title="Fire-setting">fire-setting</a>, and to power water-wheel driven <a href="/wiki/Trip_hammer#Greco-Roman_world" title="Trip hammer">stamps and trip-hammers</a> that crushed ore for processing. Evidence of such leats and machines has been found at <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolaucothi">Dolaucothi</a> in south-west <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mining sites, such as Dolaucothi and <a href="/wiki/Las_Medulas" class="mw-redirect" title="Las Medulas">Las Medulas</a> in north-west <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, show multiple aqueducts that fed water from local rivers to the mine head. The channels may have deteriorated rapidly, or become redundant as the nearby ore was exhausted. Las Medulas shows at least seven such leats, and Dolaucothi at least five. At Dolaucothi, the miners used holding reservoirs, as well as hushing tanks and sluice gates to control flow, and drop chutes were used for the diversion of water supplies. The remaining traces (see <a href="/wiki/Palimpsest" title="Palimpsest">palimpsest</a>) of such channels allows the mining sequence to be inferred. </p><p>A number of other sites fed by several aqueducts have not yet been thoroughly explored or excavated, such as those at <a href="/wiki/Longovicium" title="Longovicium">Longovicium</a> near <a href="/wiki/Lanchester,_County_Durham" title="Lanchester, County Durham">Lanchester</a>, south of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadrian's wall">Hadrian's wall</a>, in which the water supplies may have been used to power trip-hammers for forging iron. </p><p>At <a href="/wiki/Barbegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbegal">Barbegal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a>, a reservoir fed an aqueduct that drove a cascaded series of 15 or 16 overshot water mills, grinding flour for the Arles region. Similar arrangements, though on a lesser scale, have been found in <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venafrum" title="Venafrum">Venafrum</a> and Roman-era <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>. Rome's <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Traiana" title="Aqua Traiana">Aqua Traiana</a> drove a flour-mill at the <a href="/wiki/Janiculum" title="Janiculum">Janiculum</a>, west of the Tiber. A mill in the basement of the <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Caracalla" title="Baths of Caracalla">Baths of Caracalla</a> was driven by aqueduct overspill; this was one of many city mills driven by aqueduct water, with or without official permission. A law of the 5th century forbade the illicit use of aqueduct water for milling.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decline_in_use">Decline in use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Decline in use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eifelwasserleitung05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Eifelwasserleitung05.jpg/210px-Eifelwasserleitung05.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Eifelwasserleitung05.jpg/315px-Eifelwasserleitung05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Eifelwasserleitung05.jpg/420px-Eifelwasserleitung05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1227" data-file-height="1194" /></a><figcaption>A portion of the <a href="/wiki/Eifel_Aqueduct" title="Eifel Aqueduct">Eifel Aqueduct</a>, Germany, built in 80 AD. Its channel is narrowed by an accretion of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>, accumulated through lack of maintenance.</figcaption></figure><p> During the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>, some aqueducts were deliberately cut by enemies. In 537, during the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93554)" title="Gothic War (535–554)">Gothic War</a> the Ostrogoths <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rome_(537%E2%80%93538)" title="Siege of Rome (537–538)">laid siege to Rome</a>, and cut the aqueduct supply to the city, including the aqueduct-driven <a href="/wiki/Grist-mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Grist-mill">grist-mills</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Janiculum" title="Janiculum">Janiculum</a>. <a href="/wiki/Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a>, defender of the city, had mills stationed on the Tiber instead, and blocked the conduits to prevent their use by the Ostrogoths as ways through the city defences. In time, some of the city's damaged aqueducts were partly restored, but the city's population was much reduced and impoverished. In the late 5th-early 6th century <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric's</a> <a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic Kingdom</a> prioritized the maintenance of aqueducts, the repair and partial expansion of the aqueduct system, and the preservation of traditional Roman public bathing culture.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the longer term, most aqueducts gradually decayed for want of maintenance, creating swamps and marshes at their broken junctions. By the late medieval period, only the Aqua Virgo still gave a reliable supply to supplement Rome's general dependence on wells and rainwater cisterns.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the provinces, most aqueducts fell into disuse because of deteriorating Roman infrastructure and lack of maintenance, such as the Eifel aqueduct (<i>pictured right</i>). Observations made by the Spaniard <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Tafur" title="Pedro Tafur">Pedro Tafur</a>, who visited Rome in 1436, reveal misunderstandings of the very nature of the Roman aqueducts: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Through the middle of the city runs a river, which the Romans brought there with great labour and set in their midst, and this is the Tiber. They made a new bed for the river, so it is said, of lead, and channels at one and the other end of the city for its entrances and exits, both for watering horses and for other services convenient to the people, and anyone entering it at any other spot would be drowned.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, the standing remains of the city's massive masonry aqueducts inspired architects, engineers and their patrons; <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V" title="Pope Nicholas V">Pope Nicholas V</a> renovated the main channels of the Roman <i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Virgo" title="Aqua Virgo">Aqua Virgo</a></i> in 1453.<sup id="cite_ref-gross_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gross-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many aqueducts in Rome's former empire were kept in good repair. The 15th-century rebuilding of an <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_of_Segovia" title="Aqueduct of Segovia">aqueduct</a> at <a href="/wiki/Segovia" title="Segovia">Segovia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> shows advances on the <a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a> by using fewer arches of greater height, and so greater economy in its use of the raw materials. The skill in building aqueducts was not lost, especially of the smaller, more modest channels used to supply <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheels</a>. Most such mills in Britain were developed in the medieval period for bread production, and used similar methods as that developed by the Romans with <a href="/wiki/Leat" title="Leat">leats</a> tapping local rivers and streams. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_bridges#Aqueduct_bridges" title="List of Roman bridges">List of Roman aqueduct bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_architectural_revolution" title="Roman architectural revolution">Roman architectural revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Ancient Roman architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Ancient Roman engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Ancient Roman technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Roman concrete</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bannon, Cynthia. <i>Gardens and Neighbors: Private Water Rights in Roman Italy</i>. University of Michigan Press, 2009, pp. 65–73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gargarin, M. and <a href="/wiki/Elaine_Fantham" title="Elaine Fantham">Fantham, E.</a> (editors). <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1</i>. p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cited by Quilici, Lorenzo (2008). "Land Transport, Part 1: Roads and Bridges" in <a href="/wiki/John_Peter_Oleson" title="John Peter Oleson">Oleson, John Peter</a> (ed.): <i>The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World</i>. Oxford University Press. New York. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518731-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518731-1">978-0-19-518731-1</a>. pp. 551–579 (552).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mays, L. (editor). <i>Ancient Water Technologies</i>. Springer. 2010. pp. 115–116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gargarin, M. and Fantham, E. (editors). <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1</i>. Oxford University Press. 2010. pp. 144–145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Roman general and hydraulic engineer <a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a> later calculated its delivery at 1825 <a href="/wiki/Quinaria" title="Quinaria">quinariae</a> (75,537 cubic meters) in 24 hours; see Samuel Ball Platner (1929, as completed and revised by Thomas Ashby): <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Aqua_Appia.html">A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome</a></i>. London: Oxford University. p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sextus Julius <a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a>. <i>The Aqueducts of Rome</i>. pp. 1, 6–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frontinus-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frontinus_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frontinus_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The Aqua Alsietina was also known as "Aqua Augusta"; Frontinus distinguishes its "unwholesome" supply from the "sweet waters" of the Aqua Augusta that fed into the Aqua Marcia. On the one hand, he says the Naumachia's supply is "nowhere delivered for consumption by the people... [but the surplus is allowed] to the adjacent gardens and to private users for irrigation". On the other hand, "It is customary, however, in the district across the Tiber, in an emergency, whenever the bridges are undergoing repairs and the water supply is cut off from this side of the river, to draw from Alsietina to maintain the flow of the public fountains." Frontinus, <i>The Aqueducts of Rome</i> 1, 6–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-penelope.uchicago.edu-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-penelope.uchicago.edu_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-penelope.uchicago.edu_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Frontinus/De_Aquis/Rodgers/1**.html#1.6">Sextus Julius Frontinus, <i>The Aqueducts of Rome</i>, 1.6–20</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaron" class="citation web cs1">Caron, André. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.maquettes-historiques.net/P9.html">"The Aqueducts"</a>. <i>www.maquettes-historiques.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.maquettes-historiques.net&rft.atitle=The+Aqueducts&rft.aulast=Caron&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.maquettes-historiques.net%2FP9.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+aqueduct" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, Rabun, M., (2002), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.iath.virginia.edu/waters/Journal2TaylorNew.pdf#page=16">Tiber River bridges and the development of the ancient city of Rome</a></i>, pp. 16–17, accessed 22 June 2013</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hodge, A. Trevor, <i>Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply</i>, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002, pp. 255–256, and note 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brun, (1991) p. 99; Brun, (2013), pp. 306–307; population estimate, Carcopino, (1940), p. 18, cited in Brun, (1991).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mango (1995) p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shca.ed.ac.uk/projects/longwalls/Water/context.htm">Jelena Bogdanovic, Crow, J., (team leader), <i>Historical and Archaeological Context Constantinople and the longest Roman aqueduct</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929143631/http://www.shca.ed.ac.uk/projects/longwalls/Water/context.htm">Archived</a> 2018-09-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Accessed August 28, 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Da Feo, G., and Napoli, R. M. A., "Historical development of the Augustan Aqueduct in Southern Italy: twenty centuries of works from Serino to Naples", in: <i>Water Science & Technology Water Supply</i>, March 2007, pp. 131–133</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG._R._Stephens1985" class="citation journal cs1">G. R. Stephens (1985). "Military Aqueducts in Roman Britain". <i>Archaeological Journal</i>. <b>142</b> (1): 216–236. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00665983.1985.11021062">10.1080/00665983.1985.11021062</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeological+Journal&rft.atitle=Military+Aqueducts+in+Roman+Britain&rft.volume=142&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=216-236&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00665983.1985.11021062&rft.au=G.+R.+Stephens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+aqueduct" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bannon, Cynthia, <i>Gardens and Neighbors: Private Water Rights in Roman Italy</i>. University of Michigan Press, 2009, pp. 5–10, 73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor,_Rabun_2000,_pp._54-60-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor,_Rabun_2000,_pp._54-60_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor,_Rabun_2000,_pp._54-60_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, Rabun, M., "Public Needs and Private Pleasures" in: <i>Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome</i>, (Studia Archaeologica), L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2000, pp. 54–60</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frontinus,_Book_2,_128-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frontinus,_Book_2,_128_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frontinus,_Book_2,_128_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Frontinus/De_Aquis/Rodgers/2**.html#2.129.9">https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Frontinus/De_Aquis/Rodgers/2**.html#2.129.9</a> Frontinus, 2:129.9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, Rabun, M., "Public Needs and Private Pleasures" in: <i>Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome</i>, (Studia Archaeologica), L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2000, pp. 53–60</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, Rabun, M., "Public Needs and Private Pleasures" in: <i>Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome</i>, (Studia Archaeologica), L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2000, pp. 53–54, 56–60. See also <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, 40.51. & 30.6.19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A coin issue of 56 BC supposedly celebrates the event, showing an equestrian statue atop an aqueduct arcade. The moneyer is from the same family as Marcius. See <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquamint/romancoins.html">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mays, L., (Editor), <i>Ancient Water Technologies</i>, Springer, 2010. p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-,_R._2012-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-,_R._2012_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, R. M., (2012). Rome's Lost Aqueduct. (Cover story). Archaeology, 65(2), 34–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Celsus/2*.html">Celsus <i>De Medicina</i>, 2, 28.(Loeb)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vindolanda.com/waterpipes">Vindolanda Trust website</a> (accessed September 10, 2022)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deming, David, "The Aqueducts and Water Supply of Ancient Rome", <i>The Groundwater Association</i>, Online version, Volume 58, issue 1, January/February 2020, 30 October 2019 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fgwat.12958">10.1111/gwat.12958</a> (accessed April 26, 2021)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Grout, <i>Encyclopedia Romana,</i> Lead Poisoning and Rome <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html">[2]</a> (accessed 21 May 2013)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelileBlichert-ToftGoiranKeay2014" class="citation journal cs1">Delile, Hugo; Blichert-Toft, Janne; Goiran, Jean-Philippe; Keay, Simon; Albarède, Francis (6 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4020092">"Lead in ancient Rome's city waters"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>111</b> (18): 6594–6599. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PNAS..111.6594D">2014PNAS..111.6594D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1400097111">10.1073/pnas.1400097111</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4020092">4020092</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24753588">24753588</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Lead+in+ancient+Rome%27s+city+waters&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=6594-6599&rft.date=2014-05-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4020092%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24753588&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1400097111&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PNAS..111.6594D&rft.aulast=Delile&rft.aufirst=Hugo&rft.au=Blichert-Toft%2C+Janne&rft.au=Goiran%2C+Jean-Philippe&rft.au=Keay%2C+Simon&rft.au=Albar%C3%A8de%2C+Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4020092&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+aqueduct" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hodge, A. Trevor, <i>Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply,</i> Duckworth Archaeology, 2002. pp. 93–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hodge, <i>Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply,</i> 2002. p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mays, L., (Editor), <i>Ancient Water Technologies</i>, Springer, 2010. p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Chanson, "Hydraulics of Roman Aqueducts: Steep Chutes, Cascades, and Drop Shafts," <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i>, Vol. 104 No. 1 (2000). 47–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hodge, A. Trevor, <i>Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply,</i> Duckworth Archaeology, 2002. pp. 110–111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The sense of <i>venter</i> as "belly" is apparent in Vitruvius 8.6: "if there be long valleys, and when it [the water] arrives at the bottom, let it be carried level by means of a low substruction as great a distance as possible; this is the part called the <i>venter</i>, by the Greeks <i>koilia</i>; when it arrives at the opposite acclivity, the water therein being but slightly swelled on account of the length of the venter, it may be directed upwards... Over the venter long stand pipes should be placed, by means of which, the violence of the air may escape. Thus, those who have to conduct water through leaden pipes, may by these rules, excellently regulate its descent, its circuit, the venter, and the compression of the air."<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html">Vitruvius, 8.6.5-6, trans Gwilt</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mays, L., (Editor), <i>Ancient Water Technologies</i>, Springer, 2010. p. 120.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AEzOzSZEAToC&dq=%22venter+bridge%22+Roman&pg=PA120">[3]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, R. M., <i>Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome</i>, (Studia Archaeologica), L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2000, p. 31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keenan-Jones, "The Aqua Augusta", 2010, pp. 3–4, 6–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Frontinus/De_Aquis/Rodgers/2**.html#2.65">Frontinus, Book 2:65</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, <i>Public Needs and Private Pleasures</i> pp. 56–60</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keenan-Jones, (2015) pp. 1–8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, R., M., <i>Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome</i> (Studia Archaeologica), L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2000, pp. 30–33, for calcined accretions and replacement of pipework.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hodge, A. Trevor, <i>Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply</i>, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002; debris and gravel, pp. 24−30, 275: calcium carbonate, pp. 2, 17, 98: apertures in pipes as possible rodding eyes, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Frontinus/De_Aquis/Rodgers/2**.html#2.124">Frontinus, 2:124</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coarelli, <i>Rome and its environs</i>, 2007, p. 448</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dembskey, E. J., "The Aqua Claudia Interruption", <i>Acta Classica</i>, 52 (2009), pp. 73–82, Published By: Classical Association of South Africa, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24592485">Jstor, accessed 20 March 2021, subscription required</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, Rabun, M., "From Nero to Trajan" [chapter 6 in: <i>Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River, and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome</i>], (Studia Archaeologica), L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2000, pp. 202–204</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prioritised public supply and private fees in <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> <i>de Architectura</i>, VIII, 6, 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aicher, Peter J., Guide to the Aqueducts of ancient Rome, Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bannon, Cynthia, "Fresh Water in Roman Law: Rights and Policy", <i>The Journal of Roman Studies</i>, 107. Published online by Cambridge University Press: 18 August 2017 (accessed 22 April 2021)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keenan-Jones,_2015_pp._1-4-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Keenan-Jones,_2015_pp._1-4_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Keenan-Jones,_2015_pp._1-4_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Keenan-Jones, (2015) pp. 1–4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hodge, A. Trevor, <i>Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply</i>, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002, pp. 291−298, 305−311, and footnotes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Only a single, damaged and probably corrupted MS copy of Frontinus' work has survived. Frontinus may have overemphasised the likely role of theft to shift attention from his own poor grasp of the problems involved in estimations of flow measurement and water loss. See Keenan-Jones, (2015), pp. 2–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H B Evans, <i>Water Distribution in Ancient Rome: The Evidence of Frontinus</i>, University of Michigan Press, 1997, pp. 41–43, 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruun, 1991, p. 63, pp. 100–103. Assuming a likely population of 600,000, Brunn also calculated that the system could provide ordinary Romans (those having no piped domestic supply) 67 litres of water daily <i>per capita</i>, via drinking-water spouts.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hodge, A. Trevor, <i>Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply</i>, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002, pp. 16–17: Frontinus served again as consul in 100</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keenan-Jones, "The Aqua Augusta", 2010, pp. 3, 6–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frontinus, 83, quoted in Denning, David, "The Aqueducts and Water Supply of Ancient Rome", Ground Water, Wiley-Blackwell online open, 2020 Jan–Feb; 58(1): 152–161. Published online 2019 Nov 22. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fgwat.12958">10.1111/gwat.12958</a>. (Accessed 14 April 2021)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, R. M., <i>Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome</i>, (Studia Archaeologica), L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2000, pp. 30–33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Frontinus/De_Aquis/Rodgers/2**.html#2.129">Frontinus, 2:129</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For the earliest likely development of Roman public bathing, see Fagan, Garrett T., <i>Bathing in Public in the Roman World</i>, University of Michigan Press, 1999, pp. 42−44. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R6tz_TzSVkAC&q=Campania&pg=PA44">google books preview</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hodge, A. Trevor, <i>Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply</i>, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002, pp. 3, 5, 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, R., M., <i>Public Needs and Private Pleasures: Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome</i>, (Studia Archaeologica), L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2000, pp. 85–86</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fagan, <i>Bathing in Public</i>, 1999, pp. 42−44. The number given by Pliny might not have referred to individual bath-houses, but to a donation of 170 baths to commoners, involving any number of bath-houses.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The relevant MS and print versions of Frontinus (1.3 and 1.78) are uncertain in meaning. See Aicher, Peter J., "Terminal Display Fountains ("Mostre") and the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome", <i>Phoenix</i>, 47 (Winter, 1993), pp. 339–352, Classical Association of Canada, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1088729">https://doi.org/10.2307/1088729</a> Stable URL <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.jstor.https://doi.org/10.2307/1088729">https://www.jstor.https://doi.org/10.2307/1088729</a> (registration required – accessed April 29, 2021)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heiken, G., Funiciello, R., De Rita, D., <i>The seven hills of Rome</i>, Princeton University Press, 2005, p. 129</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bannon, <i>Gardens and Neighbors</i>, 2009, pp. 5−10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Columella, De Re Rustica, Book 1, English translation at Loeb Classical Library, 1941 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Columella/de_Re_Rustica/1*.html">[4]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bannon, <i>Gardens and Neighbors</i>, 2009, pp. 5−10; citing Hodge, <i>Roman Aqueducts</i>, pp. 246–247 for estimate on water consumption by irrigation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bannon, Cynthia, <i>Fresh Water in Roman Law: Rights and Policy</i>, Cambridge University Press, p. 219: 18 August 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bannon, <i>Gardens and Neighbors</i>, 2009, pp. 5−10; citing Hodge, <i>Roman Aqueducts</i>, pp. 246−247 for estimate on water consumption by irrigation; p. 219 for Cato's legislation on misuse of water: the quotation is a fragment from Cato's speech against <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Furius_Purpureo" title="Lucius Furius Purpureo">Lucius Furius Purpureo</a>, who was consul in 196 BC.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bannon, <i>Gardens and Neighbors</i>, 2009, p. 73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wilson_(classical_archaeologist)" title="Andrew Wilson (classical archaeologist)">Wilson, Andrew</a> (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Roman_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="The Journal of Roman Studies">The Journal of Roman Studies</a></i>, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (21f.), pp. 21f.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, M.J.T., "Millstone and Hammer: the Origins of Water Power", Hull Academic Press, 1998, Section 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hodge, A. Trevor, <i>Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply</i>, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002. pp. 255−258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnoldBjornlieSessa2016" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Jonathan; Bjornlie, Shane; Sessa, Kristina (2016). <i>A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy</i>. Brill. p. 243-244. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004315938" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004315938"><bdi>978-9004315938</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ostrogothic+Italy&rft.pages=243-244&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-9004315938&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft.au=Bjornlie%2C+Shane&rft.au=Sessa%2C+Kristina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+aqueduct" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deming, David, "Decay and Renaissance Revival": in <i>The Aqueducts and Water Supply of Ancient Rome,</i> The Groundwater Association, Online version, Volume 58, issue 1, January/February 2020, 30 October 2019 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fgwat.12958">10.1111/gwat.12958</a> (accessed April 26, 2021)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pedro Tafur, <i>Travels and Adventures (1435–1439)</i>, trans. Malcolm Letts, Harper & brothers, 1926. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/tafur.html#ch3">link to washington.edu</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gross-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gross_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGross1990" class="citation book cs1">Gross, Hanns (1990). <i>Rome in the Age of Enlightenment: the Post-Tridentine syndrome and the ancien regime</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-37211-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-37211-9"><bdi>0-521-37211-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+in+the+Age+of+Enlightenment%3A+the+Post-Tridentine+syndrome+and+the+ancien+regime&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-521-37211-9&rft.aulast=Gross&rft.aufirst=Hanns&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+aqueduct" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bannon, Cynthia, <i>Fresh Water in Roman Law: Rights and Policy</i>, Cambridge University Press, p. 219: 18 August 2017, [available online, accessed 14 April 2021]</li> <li>Bannon, Cynthia, <i>Gardens and Neighbors: Private Water Rights in Roman Italy</i>. University of Michigan Press, 2009.</li> <li>Blackman, Deane R., Hodge, A. Trevor (2001). "Frontinus' Legacy". University of Michigan Press.</li> <li>Bossy, G.; G. Fabre, Y. Glard, C. Joseph (2000). "Sur le Fonctionnement d'un Ouvrage de Grande Hydraulique Antique, l'Aqueduc de Nîmes et le Pont du Gard (Languedoc, France)" in <i>Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris</i>. Sciences de la Terre et des Planètes. Vol. 330, pp. 769–775.</li> <li>Bruun, C., (1991). "The Water Supply of Ancient Rome, a Study of Roman Imperial Administration". Helsinki, Finland: Societas Scientiarum Fennica. [Google Scholar]</li> <li>Bruun, C., (2013). "Water supply, drainage and watermills", In: <i>The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome</i>, editor, Erdkamp, Paul, pp. 297–313. New York: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Carcopino, J. (1940). Daily Life in Ancient Rome, translated by E. O. Lorimer. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.</li> <li>Chanson, H. (2002). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/eserv.php?pid=UQ:11123&dsID=hb2002.pdf">Certains Aspects de la Conception hydraulique des Aqueducs Romains</a>". <i>Journal La Houille Blanche</i>. No. 6/7, pp. 43–57.</li> <li>Chanson, H. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:138266">"The Hydraulics of Roman Aqueducts: What do we know? Why should we learn ?"</a> in <i>Proceedings of World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008 Ahupua'a</i>. ASCE-EWRI Education, Research and History Symposium, Hawaii, USA. Invited Keynote lecture, 13–16 May, R.W. Badcock Jr and R. Walton Eds., 16 pages (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7844-0976-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7844-0976-3">978-0-7844-0976-3</a>)</li> <li>Coarelli, Filippo (1989). <i>Guida Archeologica di Roma</i>. Milano: Arnoldo Mondadori Editore.</li> <li>Claridge, Amanda (1998). <i>Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</li> <li>Fabre, G.; J. L. Fiches, J. L. Paillet (2000). <i>L'Aqueduc de Nîmes et le Pont du Gard. Archéologie, Géosystème, Histoire</i>. CRA Monographies Hors Série. Paris: CNRS Editions.</li> <li>Gebara, C.; J. M. Michel, J. L. Guendon (2002). "L'Aqueduc Romain de Fréjus. Sa Description, son Histoire et son Environnement", <i>Revue Achéologique de Narbonnaise</i>, Supplément 33. Montpellier, France.</li> <li>Hodge, A.T. (2001). <i>Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply</i>, 2nd ed. London: Duckworth.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zena_Kamash" title="Zena Kamash">Kamash, Zena</a> (2010). <i>Archaeologies of Water in the Roman Near East</i>. Gorgias Press.</li> <li>Keenan-Jones, Duncan, "The Aqua Augusta and control of water resources in the Bay of Naples", <i>Australasian Society for Classical Studies Conference 31,</i> Perth, Australia 2010, Macquarie University.</li> <li>Keenan-Jones, Duncan; Motta, Davide; Garcia, Marcelo H; Fouke, Bruce, W. "Travertine-based estimates of the amount of water supplied by ancient Rome's Anio Novus aqueduct", <i>Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports</i>, Science Direct, Volume 3, September 2015, pp. 1–10 (accessed online January 30, 2021)</li> <li>Leveau, P. (1991). "Research on Roman Aqueducts in the Past Ten Years" in T. Hodge (ed.): <i>Future Currents in Aqueduct Studies</i>. Leeds, UK, pp. 149–162.</li> <li>Lewis, P. R.; G. D. B. Jones (1970). "Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain". <i>Journal of Roman Studies</i> 60 : 169–185.</li> <li>Lewis, P. R.; G. D. B. Jones (1969). "The Dolaucothi gold mines, I: the surface evidence". <i>The Antiquaries Journal</i>, <b>49</b>, no. 2: 244–272.</li> <li>Mango, C. (1995). "The Water Supply of Constantinople". In C. Mango, G. Dagron, et al. (eds) <i>Constantinople and its Hinterland.</i> pp. 9–18. Aldershot.</li> <li>Martínez Jiménez, J. (2019). <i>Aqueducts and Urbanism in post-Roman Hispania</i>. Gorgias Press.</li> <li>Matthews, Kenneth D. (1970). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/13-1/Matthews.pdf">Roman Aqueducts, Technical Aspects of their Construction</a>", in: <i>Expedition</i>, Fall 1970 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.penn.museum/">www.penn.museum</a>), pp. 2–16</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Parker_(writer)" title="John Henry Parker (writer)">Parker, J. H.</a> (1876), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73752">The archæology of Rome, Part 8: The aqueducts</a></i> (1876). Oxford: James Parker and Co.</li> <li>Taylor, Rabun, M., "Public Needs and Private Pleasures", in: <i>Water Distribution, the Tiber River and the Urban Development of Ancient Rome</i>, (Studia Archaeologica), L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2000.</li> <li>Taylor, Rabun, M., (2002), "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.iath.virginia.edu/waters/Journal2TaylorNew.pdf#page=16">Tiber River bridges and the development of the ancient city of Rome</a>", in <i>The Waters of Rome</i>, 2, published online by virginia edu2,</li> <li>Tucci, Pier Luigi (2006). "Ideology and technology in Rome’s water supply: castella, the toponym AQVEDVCTIVM, and supply to the Palatine and Caelian hill". <i>Journal of Roman Archaeology</i> 19 : 94–120.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_aqueducts" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ancient Roman aqueducts">Ancient Roman aqueducts</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Roman_aqueduct" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Roman aqueduct">Roman aqueduct</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Frontinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sextus Julius Frontinus">Sextus Julius Frontinus</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uvm.edu/~rrodgers/Frontinus.html">De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae</a></i> (<i>On the water management of the city of Rome</i>). Translated by R. H. Rodgers. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Vermont" title="University of Vermont">University of Vermont</a>. 2003.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/Topics/Engineering/waterworks/home.html">Lacus Curtius</a> – entry on Roman waterworks, uchicago.edu</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.romanaqueducts.info/">Roman aqueducts</a> by Wilke D. Schram (Univ. of Utrecht, NL), Cees Passchier (Univ. of Mainz, DEU), Driek van Opstal (ret.)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.romaq.org/">The Atlas Project of Roman Aqueducts</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&oldid=1253622103">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&oldid=1253622103</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Roman_aqueducts" title="Category:Roman aqueducts">Roman aqueducts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Category:Ancient Roman architecture">Ancient Roman architecture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Water" title="Category:Water">Water</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_construction" title="Category:History of construction">History of construction</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_pending_changes_protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia pending changes protected pages">Wikipedia pending changes protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 27 October 2024, at 00:12<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_aqueduct&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6d67bf974d-hbfbd","wgBackendResponseTime":163,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.740","walltime":"0.997","ppvisitednodes":{"value":2990,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":81823,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2447,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":8,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":85407,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 730.737 1 -total"," 26.77% 195.634 1 Template:Reflist"," 15.00% 109.634 1 Template:Lang"," 12.92% 94.404 4 Template:Navbox"," 12.86% 93.977 1 Template:Ancient_Rome_topics"," 10.02% 73.223 1 Template:Short_description"," 8.96% 65.507 1 Template:Cite_web"," 7.76% 56.692 1 Template:Commons_category"," 7.65% 55.888 2 Template:Sister_project"," 7.36% 53.765 2 Template:Side_box"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.390","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":24230787,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6df7948d6c-zwxqz","timestamp":"20241127203329","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Roman aqueduct","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roman_aqueduct","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q13218676","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q13218676","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2006-01-17T01:07:29Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/7\/76\/The_Roman_Aquaduct_at_M%C3%B3ria_%28Lesvos%29.ogv","headline":"type of aqueduct built by the Romans"}</script> </body> </html>