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<main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Linguistic description</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%88%D8%B5%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لسانيات وصفية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لسانيات وصفية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deskriptiv_linqvistika" title="Deskriptiv linqvistika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Deskriptiv linqvistika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="বর্ণনামূলক ভাষাবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বর্ণনামূলক ভাষাবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deskrivelezh_(yezhoniezh)" title="Deskrivelezh (yezhoniezh) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Deskrivelezh (yezhoniezh)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica_descriptiva" title="Lingüística descriptiva – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Lingüística descriptiva" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deskriptivn%C3%AD_lingvistika" title="Deskriptivní lingvistika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Deskriptivní lingvistika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieithyddiaeth_disgrifiadol" title="Ieithyddiaeth disgrifiadol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ieithyddiaeth disgrifiadol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deskriptive_Linguistik" title="Deskriptive Linguistik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Deskriptive Linguistik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%83%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Περιγραφική γλωσσολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Περιγραφική γλωσσολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priskriba_lingvistiko" title="Priskriba lingvistiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Priskriba lingvistiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B5%DB%8C%D9%81_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="توصیف زبانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="توصیف زبانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Description_linguistique" title="Description linguistique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Description linguistique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_descritiva" title="Gramática descritiva – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Gramática descritiva" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Նկարագրական լեզվաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նկարագրական լեզվաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deskriptivisme_(linguistik)" title="Deskriptivisme (linguistik) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Deskriptivisme (linguistik)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistica_descrittiva" title="Linguistica descrittiva – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Linguistica descrittiva" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Дескриптивдик тил илими – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Дескриптивдик тил илими" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistica_descriptiva" title="Linguistica descriptiva – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Linguistica descriptiva" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Описна лингвистика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Описна лингвистика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="वर्णनात्मक भाषाशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वर्णनात्मक भाषाशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8D%D0%BB_%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хэл шинжлэлийн тайлбар – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хэл шинжлэлийн тайлбар" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beschrijvende_taalkunde" title="Beschrijvende taalkunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Beschrijvende taalkunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deskryptywizm_(j%C4%99zykoznawstwo)" title="Deskryptywizm (językoznawstwo) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Deskryptywizm (językoznawstwo)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingu%C3%ADstica_descritiva" title="Linguística descritiva – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Linguística descritiva" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%ABrshkrimi_gjuh%C3%ABsor" title="Përshkrimi gjuhësor – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Përshkrimi gjuhësor" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="بياني لسانيات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="بياني لسانيات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deskriptiv_lingvistik" title="Deskriptiv lingvistik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Deskriptiv lingvistik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilbilimsel_betimleme" title="Dilbilimsel betimleme – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Dilbilimsel betimleme" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Дескриптивне мовознавство – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Дескриптивне мовознавство" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8F%8F%E8%BF%B0%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8" title="描述語言學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="描述語言學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8F%8F%E5%86%99%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="描写语言学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="描写语言学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Typology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applied linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography_of_communication" title="Ethnography of communication">Ethnography of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical frameworks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">Formalist</a> <ul><li><a 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height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/150px-Queue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/200px-Queue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:none;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology" title="Outline of anthropology">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">History</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_archaeology" title="Aviation archaeology">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anthropology" title="Molecular anthropology">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology"> Neurological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology"><span class="wrap">Political economy</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_food" title="Anthropology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_institutions" title="Anthropology of institutions">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_media" title="Anthropology of media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_anthropology" title="Public anthropology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Symbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Visual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_anthropology" title="Semiotic anthropology">Semiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology#Methods" title="Cultural anthropology">Research framework</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">Anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyber-ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber-ethnography">cyber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_cross-cultural_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard cross-cultural sample">Cross-cultural comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">Reflexivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick_description" title="Thick description">Thick description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_anthropology" title="Development anthropology">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">sociocultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship and descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">Cultural materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Diffusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">Historical particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boasian_anthropology" title="Boasian anthropology">Boasian anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Interpretive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_studies" title="Performance studies">Performance studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_theory" title="Practice theory">Practice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_anthropology" title="Structural anthropology">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropologists_by_nationality" title="Category:Anthropologists by nationality">Anthropologists by nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_anthropology" title="List of years in anthropology">Anthropology by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anthropology_journals" title="List of anthropology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">List of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology_organizations" title="Category:Anthropology organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology" title="Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology" title="Template talk:Anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">study of language</a>, <b>description</b> or <b>descriptive linguistics</b> is the work of <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objectively</a> analyzing and describing how <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> is actually used (or how it was used in the past) by a <a href="/wiki/Speech_community" title="Speech community">speech community</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FPencyclo_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FPencyclo-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All academic research in <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> is descriptive; like all other scientific disciplines, it seeks to describe reality, without the bias of preconceived ideas about how it ought to be.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern descriptive linguistics is based on a <a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">structural approach</a> to language, as exemplified in the work of <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Leonard Bloomfield</a> and others.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of linguistics utilizes different methods in order to describe a language such as basic data collection, and different types of elicitation methods.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Descriptive_versus_prescriptive_linguistics">Descriptive versus prescriptive linguistics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_description&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Descriptive versus prescriptive linguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Linguistic description is often contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">linguistic prescription</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-McArthur1992p286_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McArthur1992p286-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is found especially in <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">publishing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As English-linguist Larry Andrews describes it, descriptive grammar is the linguistic approach which studies what a language is like, as opposed to prescriptive, which declares what a language should be like.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 25">: 25 </span></sup> In other words, descriptive grammarians focus analysis on how all kinds of people in all sorts of environments, usually in more casual, everyday settings, communicate, whereas prescriptive grammarians focus on the grammatical rules and structures predetermined by linguistic registers and figures of power. An example that Andrews uses in his book is <i>fewer than</i> vs <i>less than</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 26">: 26 </span></sup> A descriptive grammarian would state that both statements are equally valid, as long as the meaning behind the statement can be understood. A prescriptive grammarian would analyze the rules and conventions behind both statements to determine which statement is correct or otherwise preferable. Andrews also believes that, although most linguists would be descriptive grammarians, most public school teachers tend to be prescriptive.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 26">: 26 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_discipline">History of the discipline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_description&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History of the discipline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="History of grammar">History of grammar</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></div> <p>The earliest known descriptive linguistic work took place in a <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> community in northern India; the most well-known scholar of that linguistic tradition was <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a>, whose works are commonly dated to around the 5th century <span title="Before Common Era">BCE</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FPencyclo_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FPencyclo-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philological traditions later arose around the description of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>. The description of modern European languages did not begin before the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> – e.g. <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> in <a href="/wiki/1492" title="1492">1492</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> in <a href="/wiki/1532" title="1532">1532</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> in <a href="/wiki/1586" title="1586">1586</a>; the same period saw the first grammatical descriptions of <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> (<a href="/wiki/1547" title="1547">1547</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechua</a> (<a href="/wiki/1560" title="1560">1560</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, followed by numerous others.<sup id="cite_ref-FPencyclo_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FPencyclo-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 185">: 185 </span></sup> </p><p>Even though more and more languages were discovered, the full diversity of language was not yet fully recognized. For centuries, language descriptions tended to use grammatical categories that existed for languages considered to be more prestigious, like <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>. </p><p>Linguistic description as a discipline really took off at the end of the 19th century, with the <a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics#History" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralist revolution</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a> to <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Leonard Bloomfield</a>), and the notion that every language forms a unique symbolic system, different from other languages, worthy of being described “in its own terms”.<sup id="cite_ref-FPencyclo_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FPencyclo-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 185">: 185 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_description&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first critical step of language description is to collect data. To do this, a researcher does fieldwork in a <a href="/wiki/Speech_community" title="Speech community">speech community</a> of their choice, and they record samples from different speakers. The data they collect often comes from different kind of speech genres that include <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">narratives</a>, daily conversations, <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Song" title="Song">songs</a> and many others.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While speech that comes naturally is preferred, researchers use <a href="/wiki/Elicitation_technique" title="Elicitation technique">elicitation</a>, by asking speakers for translations, grammar rules, pronunciation, or by testing sentences using substitution frames. Substitution frames are pre-made sentences put together by the researcher that are like fill in the blanks. They do this with <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">nouns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a> to see how the structure of the sentence might change or how the noun and verb might change in structure.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are different types of elicitation used in the fieldwork for linguistic description. These include schedule controlled elicitation, and analysis controlled elicitation, each with their own sub branches. Schedule controlled elicitation is when the researcher has a questionnaire of material to elicit to individuals and asks the questions in a certain order according to a schedule.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These types of schedules and questionnaires usually focus on <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language families</a>, and are typically flexible and are able to be changed if need be. The other type of elicitation is analysis controlled elicitation which is elicitation that is not under a schedule.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The analysis of the language here in fact controls the elicitation. There are many sub types of analysis controlled elicitation, such as target language interrogation elicitation, stimulus driven elicitation, and many other types of elicitation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Target language interrogation elicitation is when the researcher asks individuals questions in the target language, and the researcher records all the different answers from all the individuals and compares them. Stimulus driven elicitation is when a researcher provides pictures, objects or video clips to the language speakers and asks them to describe the items presented to them.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These types of elicitation help the researcher build a <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>, and basic <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammatical structures</a>. </p><p>This process is long and tedious and spans over several years. This long process ends with a corpus, which is a body of reference materials, that can be used to test <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> regarding the language in question.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenges">Challenges</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_description&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Challenges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Almost all <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic theory">linguistic theory</a> has its origin in practical problems of descriptive linguistics. <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a> (and its theoretical developments, such as the <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a>) deals with the function and interpretation of sound in language.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a> has developed to describe how words relate to each other in order to form sentences.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lexicology" title="Lexicology">Lexicology</a> collects words as well as their derivations and transformations: it has not given rise to much generalized theory. </p><p>Linguistics description might aim to achieve one or more of the following goals:<sup id="cite_ref-FPencyclo_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FPencyclo-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>A description of the <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> of the language in question.</li> <li>A description of the <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> of words belonging to that language.</li> <li>A description of the <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> of well-formed sentences of that language.</li> <li>A description of <a href="/wiki/Derivation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivation (linguistics)">lexical derivation</a>.</li> <li>A documentation of the <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>, including at least one thousand entries.</li> <li>A reproduction of a few genuine texts.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_description&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mondegreen" title="Mondegreen">Mondegreen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GOLD_(ontology)" class="mw-redirect" title="GOLD (ontology)">GOLD (ontology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">Grammatical gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Language documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Linguistic typology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_description&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FPencyclo-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FPencyclo_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FPencyclo_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FPencyclo_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FPencyclo_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FPencyclo_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#FPencyclo">François & Ponsonnet (2013)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKordić2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Snje%C5%BEana_Kordi%C4%87" title="Snježana Kordić">Kordić, Snježana</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/475567.Jezik_i_nacionalizam.pdf"><i>Jezik i nacionalizam</i></a> [<i>Language and Nationalism</i>] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Rotulus Universitas (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Durieux. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.3467646">10.2139/ssrn.3467646</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-953-188-311-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-953-188-311-5"><bdi>978-953-188-311-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2011520778">2011520778</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/729837512">729837512</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL15270636W">15270636W</a>. <span class="plainlinks-print"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bib.irb.hr/prikazi-rad?&lang=EN&rad=475567">CROSBI 475567</a></span>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/COBISS_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="COBISS (identifier)">COBISS</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plus.cobiss.net/cobiss/si/en/bib/13436977">13436977</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120601175359/http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/475567.Jezik_i_nacionalizam.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 1 June 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jezik+i+nacionalizam&rft.place=Zagreb&rft.series=Rotulus+Universitas&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Durieux&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.3467646&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fworks%2FOL15270636W%23id-name%3DOL&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2011520778&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F729837512&rft.isbn=978-953-188-311-5&rft.aulast=Kordi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Snje%C5%BEana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbib.irb.hr%2Fdatoteka%2F475567.Jezik_i_nacionalizam.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarimurti_Kridalaksana2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Harimurti_Kridalaksana" title="Harimurti Kridalaksana">Harimurti Kridalaksana</a> (2007). "Bahasa dan Linguistik". In Kushartanti; Untung Yuwono; Multamia Lauder (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8rt2JikaPCoC"><i>Pesona bahasa: langkah awal memahami linguistik</i></a> (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama. pp. 11–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789792216813" title="Special:BookSources/9789792216813"><bdi>9789792216813</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bahasa+dan+Linguistik&rft.btitle=Pesona+bahasa%3A+langkah+awal+memahami+linguistik&rft.place=Jakarta&rft.pages=11-12&rft.pub=Gramedia+Pustaka+Utama&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9789792216813&rft.au=Harimurti+Kridalaksana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8rt2JikaPCoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndré_Martinet1980" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">André Martinet (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ElmentsDeLinguistiqueGGnraleAndrnMartinet"><i>Eléments de linguistique générale</i></a> (in French). Paris: Armand Colin. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ElmentsDeLinguistiqueGGnraleAndrnMartinet/page/n172">6</a>–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9786024523695" title="Special:BookSources/9786024523695"><bdi>9786024523695</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El%C3%A9ments+de+linguistique+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=6-7&rft.pub=Armand+Colin&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=9786024523695&rft.au=Andr%C3%A9+Martinet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FElmentsDeLinguistiqueGGnraleAndrnMartinet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoch._Syarif_Hidayatullah2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Moch. Syarif Hidayatullah (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dLs8DwAAQBAJ"><i>Cakrawala Linguistik Arab (Edisi Revisi)</i></a> (in Indonesian). Gramedia Widiasarana Indonesia. pp. 5–6, 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9786024523695" title="Special:BookSources/9786024523695"><bdi>9786024523695</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cakrawala+Linguistik+Arab+%28Edisi+Revisi%29&rft.pages=5-6%2C+18&rft.pub=Gramedia+Widiasarana+Indonesia&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9786024523695&rft.au=Moch.+Syarif+Hidayatullah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdLs8DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHans_Heinrich_Stern1983" class="citation book cs1">Hans Heinrich Stern (1983). "Concepts of language". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p6T3eo5ltFAC"><i>Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching: Historical and Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Applied Linguistic Research</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780194370653" title="Special:BookSources/9780194370653"><bdi>9780194370653</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Concepts+of+language&rft.btitle=Fundamental+Concepts+of+Language+Teaching%3A+Historical+and+Interdisciplinary+Perspectives+on+Applied+Linguistic+Research&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780194370653&rft.au=Hans+Heinrich+Stern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp6T3eo5ltFAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChelliah2011" class="citation book cs1">Chelliah, Shobhana (2011). <i>Handbook of Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork</i>. Springer Netherlands.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Descriptive+Linguistic+Fieldwork&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Chelliah&rft.aufirst=Shobhana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McArthur1992p286-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McArthur1992p286_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcArthur1992" class="citation book cs1">McArthur, Tom, ed. (1992). <i>The Oxford Companion to the English Language</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+English+Language&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span> — entry for "Descriptivism and prescriptivism" quotation: "Contrasting terms in linguistics." (p.286)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Lawrence_Trask1999" class="citation book cs1">Robert Lawrence Trask (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/keyconceptsinlan0000tras"><i>Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics</i></a></span>. Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/keyconceptsinlan0000tras/page/47">47</a>–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415157414" title="Special:BookSources/9780415157414"><bdi>9780415157414</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+Concepts+in+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.pages=47-48&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780415157414&rft.au=Robert+Lawrence+Trask&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkeyconceptsinlan0000tras&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNils_Langer2013" class="citation book cs1">Nils Langer (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IZUiAAAAQBAJ"><i>Linguistic Purism in Action: How auxiliary tun was stigmatized in Early New High German</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. p. 223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110881103" title="Special:BookSources/9783110881103"><bdi>9783110881103</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Purism+in+Action%3A+How+auxiliary+tun+was+stigmatized+in+Early+New+High+German&rft.pages=223&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9783110881103&rft.au=Nils+Langer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIZUiAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andrews-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Andrews_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrews_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrews_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews2006" class="citation book cs1">Andrews, Larry (2006). <i>Language Exploration and Awareness: A Resource Book for Teachers</i>. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8058-4308-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8058-4308-6"><bdi>0-8058-4308-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Exploration+and+Awareness%3A+A+Resource+Book+for+Teachers&rft.place=Mahwah%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Lawrence+Earlbaum+Associates%2C+Inc.%2C+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-8058-4308-6&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Larry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGeeWarms2013" class="citation book cs1">McGee, R. Jon; Warms, Richard L., eds. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/855731853"><i>Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia</i></a>. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE. pp. 184–187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4522-7631-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4522-7631-1"><bdi>978-1-4522-7631-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/855731853">855731853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+in+Social+and+Cultural+Anthropology%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+California&rft.pages=184-187&rft.pub=SAGE&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F855731853&rft.isbn=978-1-4522-7631-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F855731853&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChelliah2011" class="citation book cs1">Chelliah, Shobhana (2011). <i>Handbook of Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork</i>. Springer Netherlands.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Descriptive+Linguistic+Fieldwork&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Chelliah&rft.aufirst=Shobhana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobrovolsky" class="citation web cs1">Dobrovolsky, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://s18798.pcdn.co/neurolinglab/wp-content/uploads/sites/12757/2019/08/phonology.pdf">"Phonology: the function and patterning of sounds"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Phonology%3A+the+function+and+patterning+of+sounds&rft.aulast=Dobrovolsky&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fs18798.pcdn.co%2Fneurolinglab%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F12757%2F2019%2F08%2Fphonology.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiese2006" class="citation web cs1">Wiese, R. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B0080448542000353">"Phonology: Overview"</a>. <i>ScienceDirect</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ScienceDirect&rft.atitle=Phonology%3A+Overview&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Wiese&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FB0080448542000353&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeldon2011" class="citation web cs1">Wheeldon, Linda R. (June 1, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-818X.2011.00281.x">"Generating Spoken Sentences: The Relationship Between Words and Syntax"</a>. <i>Wiley Online Library</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wiley+Online+Library&rft.atitle=Generating+Spoken+Sentences%3A+The+Relationship+Between+Words+and+Syntax&rft.date=2011-06-01&rft.aulast=Wheeldon&rft.aufirst=Linda+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcompass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-818X.2011.00281.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_description&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmekaAlan_Charles_DenchNicholas_Evans2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Felix_Ameka" title="Felix Ameka">Ameka, Felix K.</a>; Alan Charles Dench; <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Evans_(linguist)" title="Nicholas Evans (linguist)">Nicholas Evans</a> (2006). <i>Catching language: the standing challenge of grammar writing</i>. Walter de Gruyter. p. 662. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-018603-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-018603-9"><bdi>3-11-018603-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catching+language%3A+the+standing+challenge+of+grammar+writing&rft.pages=662&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=3-11-018603-9&rft.aulast=Ameka&rft.aufirst=Felix+K.&rft.au=Alan+Charles+Dench&rft.au=Nicholas+Evans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="FPencyclo" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Fran%C3%A7ois_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre François (linguist)">François, Alexandre</a>; Ponsonnet, Maïa (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/Francois-Ponsonnet_Descriptive-Linguistics_Theory-Social-Cultural-Anthropology_184-187.pdf">"Descriptive linguistics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Jon R. McGee; Richard L. Warms (eds.). <i>Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. 1. SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 184–187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412999632" title="Special:BookSources/9781412999632"><bdi>9781412999632</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Descriptive+linguistics&rft.btitle=Theory+in+Social+and+Cultural+Anthropology%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=184-187&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781412999632&rft.aulast=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.aufirst=Alexandre&rft.au=Ponsonnet%2C+Ma%C3%AFa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falex.francois.online.fr%2Fdata%2FFrancois-Ponsonnet_Descriptive-Linguistics_Theory-Social-Cultural-Anthropology_184-187.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+description" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Haviland, William A. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vaj33IYnl0YC&pg=PA93"><i>Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge</i></a>. Thomson Wadsworth. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0534624873" title="Special:BookSources/978-0534624873">978-0534624873</a></li> <li>Renouf, Antoinette & Andrew Kehoe (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UBk7B4PWFmkC&pg=PA377"><i>The Changing Face of Corpus Linguistics</i></a> 408 pp. p. 377.</li> <li>Rossiter, Andrew (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linguapress.com/grammar/descriptive-grammar-english.htm"><i>A Descriptive Grammar of English</i></a>. 207 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-8645611750" title="Special:BookSources/979-8645611750">979-8645611750</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_description&oldid=1237593925">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_description&oldid=1237593925</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics" title="Category:Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Analysis" title="Category:Analysis">Analysis</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Serbo-Croatian-language_sources_(sh)" title="Category:CS1 Serbo-Croatian-language sources (sh)">CS1 Serbo-Croatian-language sources (sh)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Indonesian-language_sources_(id)" title="Category:CS1 Indonesian-language sources (id)">CS1 Indonesian-language sources (id)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 30 July 2024, at 15:11<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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