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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_Cynicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_Cynicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History of Cynicism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_of_Cynicism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History of Cynicism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_of_Cynicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Influences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbolisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbolisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Symbolisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbolisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antisthenes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antisthenes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Antisthenes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antisthenes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diogenes_of_Sinope" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diogenes_of_Sinope"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Diogenes of Sinope</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diogenes_of_Sinope-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crates_of_Thebes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crates_of_Thebes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Crates of Thebes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crates_of_Thebes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Cynics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Cynics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Other Cynics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_Cynics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cynicism_in_the_Roman_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cynicism_in_the_Roman_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Cynicism in the Roman world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cynicism_in_the_Roman_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cynicism_and_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cynicism_and_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Cynicism and Christianity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cynicism_and_Christianity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cynicism and Christianity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cynicism_and_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jesus_as_a_Cynic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jesus_as_a_Cynic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Jesus as a Cynic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jesus_as_a_Cynic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cynic_influences_on_early_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cynic_influences_on_early_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Cynic influences on early Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cynic_influences_on_early_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cynicism (philosophy)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 61 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-61" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">61 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="كلبية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كلبية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinik_m%C9%99kt%C9%99bi" title="Kinik məktəbi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kinik məktəbi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Киници – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Киници" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%81%E0%BE%B2%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%9E%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%82" title="མགོ་མཁྲེགས་གཞུང་ལུག – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མགོ་མཁྲེགས་གཞུང་ལུག" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kini%C4%8Dka_%C5%A1kola" title="Kinička škola – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kinička škola" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinisme" title="Cinisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cinisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Киниксем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Киниксем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynismus" title="Kynismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kynismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynisme_(filosofi)" title="Kynisme (filosofi) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kynisme (filosofi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynismus" title="Kynismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kynismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BC%C3%BCnikud" title="Küünikud – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Küünikud" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Κυνισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κυνισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escuela_c%C3%ADnica" title="Escuela cínica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Escuela cínica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinikismo" title="Cinikismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Cinikismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinismo_(filosofia)" title="Zinismo (filosofia) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zinismo (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A8_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86" title="مکتب کلبیون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مکتب کلبیون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynisme" title="Cynisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cynisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinismo" title="Cinismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cinismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%82%A4%EB%8B%88%EC%BD%94%EC%8A%A4_%ED%95%99%ED%8C%8C" title="키니코스 학파 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="키니코스 학파" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Կինիկներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կինիկներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF" title="सिनिक सम्प्रदाय – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सिनिक सम्प्रदाय" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cini%C4%8Dka_%C5%A1kola" title="Cinička škola – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Cinička škola" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinisme" title="Sinisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sinisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundingjar" title="Hundingjar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hundingjar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinismo" title="Cinismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cinismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9D" title="ציניקנים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ציניקנים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinisisme" title="Sinisisme – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sinisisme" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%86" title="ಸಿನಿಕತೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಿನಿಕತೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90" title="კინიკური სკოლა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კინიკური სკოლა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Киниктер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Киниктер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Киниктер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Киниктер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynismus" title="Cynismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cynismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinikusok" title="Cinikusok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Cinikusok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Цинизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Цинизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="سینیکیزم – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="سینیکیزم" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynisme_(filosofie)" title="Cynisme (filosofie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Cynisme (filosofie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AD%E3%83%A5%E3%83%8B%E3%82%B3%E3%82%B9%E6%B4%BE" title="キュニコス派 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="キュニコス派" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynisme" title="Kynisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kynisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinisme" title="Cinisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cinisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiniklar" title="Kiniklar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Kiniklar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A4" title="ਸਿਨਿਕ ਮੱਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਿਨਿਕ ਮੱਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86" title="کلبيان – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کلبيان" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_cynicka" title="Filozofia cynicka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filozofia cynicka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinismo" title="Cinismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cinismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinism_(filozofie)" title="Cinism (filozofie) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cinism (filozofie)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Киники – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Киники" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzinismu" title="Tzinismu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Tzinismu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinizmi_(filozofi)" title="Cinizmi (filozofi) – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Cinizmi (filozofi)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynic" title="Cynic – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cynic" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynizmus" title="Kynizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kynizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Киници – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Киници" data-language-autonym="Српски / 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient school of philosophy</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For modern use of the word for distrust of others' motives, see <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(contemporary)" title="Cynicism (contemporary)">Cynicism (contemporary)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cinico_Capitolini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Cinico_Capitolini.jpg/250px-Cinico_Capitolini.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="357" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Cinico_Capitolini.jpg/500px-Cinico_Capitolini.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="870" /></a><figcaption>Statue of an unknown Cynic philosopher from the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Museums" title="Capitoline Museums">Capitoline Museums</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>. This statue is a Roman-era copy of an earlier Greek statue from the third century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scroll in his right hand is an 18th-century restoration.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Cynicism</b> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">κυνισμός</span>) is a school of thought in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek philosophy</a>, originating in the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Greek philosophy">Classical period</a> and extending into the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman Imperial periods</a>. According to Cynicism, people are reasoning animals, and the <a href="/wiki/Purpose_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Purpose of life">purpose of life</a> and the way to gain happiness is to achieve <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a>, in agreement with nature, following one's natural sense of reason by <a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">living simply</a> and shamelessly free from social constraints. The Cynics (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Κυνικοί</span>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Cynici</i>) rejected all conventional desires for wealth, power, <a href="/wiki/Glory_(honor)" title="Glory (honor)">glory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Recognition_(sociology)" title="Recognition (sociology)">social recognition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">conformity</a>, and worldly possessions and even flouted such conventions openly and derisively in public. </p><p>The first philosopher to outline these themes was <a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a>, who had been a pupil of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> in the late 400s BC. He was followed by <a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a>, who lived in a ceramic jar on the streets of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diogenes took Cynicism to its logical extremes with his famous public demonstrations of non-conformity, coming to be seen as the archetypal Cynic philosopher. He was followed by <a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes" title="Crates of Thebes">Crates of Thebes</a>, who gave away a large fortune so he could live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens. </p><p>Cynicism gradually declined in importance after the 3rd century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-dudley117_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dudley117-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it experienced a revival with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in the 1st century. Cynics could be found begging and preaching throughout the cities of the empire, and similar <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">ascetic</a> and rhetorical ideas appeared in <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">early Christianity</a>. By the 19th century, emphasis on the negative aspects of Cynic philosophy led to the <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(contemporary)" title="Cynicism (contemporary)">modern understanding of cynicism</a> to mean a disposition of disbelief in the sincerity or goodness of human motives and actions. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_of_the_Cynic_name">Origin of the Cynic name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin of the Cynic name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>cynic</i> derives from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i>κυνικός<i> (kynikos)</i> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">dog-like</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> and <i> </i>κύων<i> (kyôn)</i> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text"><a href="/wiki/Dog" title="Dog">dog</a></span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> (<a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a>: <i>kynos</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One explanation offered in ancient times for why the Cynics were called "dogs" was because the first Cynic, Antisthenes, taught in the <a href="/wiki/Cynosarges" title="Cynosarges">Cynosarges</a> gymnasium at Athens.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <i>cynosarges</i> means the "place of the white dog". It seems certain, however, that the word <i>dog</i> was also thrown at the first Cynics as an insult for their shameless rejection of conventional manners, and their decision to live on the streets. Diogenes, in particular, was referred to as the "Dog",<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a distinction he seems to have revelled in, stating that "other dogs bite their enemies, I bite my friends to save them."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later Cynics also sought to turn the word to their advantage, as a later commentator explained: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There are four reasons why the <i>Cynics</i> are so named. First because of the <i>indifference</i> of their way of life, for they make a cult of indifference and, like dogs, eat and make love in public, go barefoot, and sleep in tubs and at crossroads. The second reason is that the dog is a shameless animal, and they make a cult of shamelessness, not as being beneath modesty, but as superior to it. The third reason is that the dog is a good guard, and they guard the tenets of their philosophy. The fourth reason is that the dog is a discriminating animal which can distinguish between its friends and enemies. So do they recognize as friends those who are suited to philosophy, and receive them kindly, while those unfitted they drive away, like dogs, by barking at them.<sup id="cite_ref-dudley5_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dudley5-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cynicism is one of the most striking of all the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-long28_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-long28-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It claimed to offer people the possibility of happiness and freedom from suffering in an age of uncertainty. Although there was never an official Cynic doctrine, the fundamental principles of Cynicism can be summarized as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-kidd_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kidd-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-long29_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-long29-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Navia_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Navia-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The goal of life is <i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a></i> and mental clarity or lucidity (ἁτυφια, <i>atuphia</i>)—literally "freedom from smoke (τύφος, <i>tuphos</i>)" which signified false belief, mindlessness, folly, and conceit.</li> <li><i>Eudaimonia</i>, or human flourishing, depends on self-sufficiency (αὐτάρκεια, <i>autarkeia</i>), <a href="/wiki/Apatheia" title="Apatheia">equanimity</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Arete_(moral_virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arete (moral virtue)">arete</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy#History" title="Philanthropy">love of humanity</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Parrhesia" title="Parrhesia">parrhesia</a></i>, and indifference to the vicissitudes of life (<i><a href="/wiki/Adiaphora" title="Adiaphora">adiaphora</a></i> ἁδιαφορία).<sup id="cite_ref-Navia_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Navia-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Eudaimonia</i> is achieved by living in accord with <a href="/wiki/Physis" title="Physis">Nature</a> as understood by human <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">reason</a>.</li> <li>Arrogance (τύφος) is caused by false judgments of value, which cause negative <a href="/wiki/Emotions" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotions">emotions</a>, unnatural desires, and a vicious character.</li> <li>One progresses towards flourishing and clarity through <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">ascetic practices</a> (ἄσκησις, <i>áskēsis</i>) which help one become free from influences such as wealth, fame, and power which have no value in Nature. Instead they promoted living a life of <i><a href="/wiki/Ponos" title="Ponos">ponos</a>.</i> For the Cynics, this did not seem to mean actual physical work. <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Sinope" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes of Sinope">Diogenes of Sinope</a>, for example, lived by begging, not by doing manual labor. Rather, it means deliberately choosing a hard life—for instance, wearing only a thin cloak and going barefoot in winter.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A Cynic practices shamelessness or impudence (Αναιδεια, <i>Anaideia</i>) and defaces the <i><a href="/wiki/Nomos_(sociology)" title="Nomos (sociology)">nomos</a></i> of society: the laws, customs, and social conventions that people take for granted.</li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hercules_Musei_Capitolini_MC1265_n2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Hercules_Musei_Capitolini_MC1265_n2.jpg/225px-Hercules_Musei_Capitolini_MC1265_n2.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="395" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Hercules_Musei_Capitolini_MC1265_n2.jpg/338px-Hercules_Musei_Capitolini_MC1265_n2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Hercules_Musei_Capitolini_MC1265_n2.jpg/450px-Hercules_Musei_Capitolini_MC1265_n2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="564" data-file-height="990" /></a><figcaption>The Cynics adopted <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a>, shown here in this gilded bronze statue from the second century CE, as their patron hero.<sup id="cite_ref-LaerChrysPsL_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LaerChrysPsL-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Patterson_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patterson-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Thus a Cynic has no property and rejects all conventional values of money, fame, power and reputation.<sup id="cite_ref-kidd_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kidd-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A life lived according to nature requires only the bare necessities required for existence, and one can become free by unshackling oneself from any needs which are the result of convention.<sup id="cite_ref-long34_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-long34-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cynics adopted <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> as their hero, as epitomizing the ideal Cynic.<sup id="cite_ref-LaerChrysPsL_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LaerChrysPsL-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heracles "was he who brought <a href="/wiki/Cerberus" title="Cerberus">Cerberus</a>, the hound of Hades, from the underworld, a point of special appeal to the dog-man, Diogenes."<sup id="cite_ref-Patterson_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patterson-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a>, "Cerberus and Cynic are surely related through the dog."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Cynic way of life required continuous training, not just in exercising judgments and mental impressions, but a physical training as well: </p> <blockquote><p>[Diogenes] used to say, that there were two kinds of exercise: that, namely, of the mind and that of the body; and that the latter of these created in the mind such quick and agile impressions at the time of its performance, as very much facilitated the practice of virtue; but that one was imperfect without the other, since the health and vigour necessary for the practice of what is good, depend equally on both mind and body.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>None of this meant that a Cynic would retreat from society. Cynics were in fact to live in the full glare of the public's gaze and be quite indifferent in the face of any <a href="/wiki/Insults" class="mw-redirect" title="Insults">insults</a> which might result from their unconventional behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-kidd_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kidd-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cynics are said to have invented the idea of <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">cosmopolitanism</a>: when he was asked where he came from, Diogenes replied that he was "a citizen of the world, (<i>kosmopolitês</i>)."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ideal Cynic would evangelise; as the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/watchdog" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:watchdog">watchdog</a> of humanity, they thought it was their duty to hound people about the error of their ways.<sup id="cite_ref-kidd_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kidd-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The example of the Cynic's life (and the use of the Cynic's biting <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satire</a>) would dig up and expose the pretensions which lay at the root of everyday conventions.<sup id="cite_ref-kidd_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kidd-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Cynicism concentrated primarily on <a href="/wiki/Ethics_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (philosophy)">ethics</a>, some Cynics, such as <a href="/wiki/Monimus" title="Monimus">Monimus</a>, addressed <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> with regard to <i>tuphos</i> (τῦφος) expressing <a href="/wiki/Skeptical" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptical">skeptical</a> views. </p><p>Cynic philosophy had a major impact on the Hellenistic world, ultimately becoming an important influence for <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>. The Stoic <a href="/wiki/Apollodorus_of_Seleucia" title="Apollodorus of Seleucia">Apollodorus</a>, writing in the 2nd century BC, stated that "Cynicism is the short path to virtue."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_Cynicism">History of Cynicism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History of Cynicism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antisthenes_pushkin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Antisthenes_pushkin.jpg/220px-Antisthenes_pushkin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Antisthenes_pushkin.jpg/330px-Antisthenes_pushkin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Antisthenes_pushkin.jpg/440px-Antisthenes_pushkin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="811" data-file-height="1283" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Antisthenes</figcaption></figure> <p>The classical <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> Cynics regarded <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> as the only necessity for happiness, and saw virtue as entirely sufficient for attaining it. Classical Cynics followed this philosophy to the extent of neglecting everything not furthering their perfection of virtue and attainment of happiness, thus, the title of <i>Cynic</i>, derived from the Greek word <i>κύων</i> (meaning "dog") because they allegedly neglected society, hygiene, family, money, etc., in a manner reminiscent of dogs. They sought to free themselves from conventions; become self-sufficient; and live only in accordance with nature. They rejected any conventional notions of happiness involving money, <a href="/wiki/Power_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power (sociology)">power</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Celebrity" title="Celebrity">fame</a>, to lead entirely virtuous, and thus happy, <a href="/wiki/Personal_life" title="Personal life">lives</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cynic1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cynic1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ancient Cynics rejected conventional social values, and would criticise the types of behaviours, such as greed, which they viewed as causing suffering. Emphasis on this aspect of their teachings led, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the modern understanding of cynicism as "an attitude of scornful or jaded negativity, especially a general distrust of the integrity or professed motives of others."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This modern definition of cynicism is in marked contrast to the ancient philosophy, which emphasized "virtue and moral freedom in liberation from desire."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influences">Influences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Influences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various philosophers, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreans" class="mw-redirect" title="Pythagoreans">Pythagoreans</a>, had advocated <a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">simple living</a> in the centuries preceding the Cynics. In the early 6th century BC, <a href="/wiki/Anacharsis" title="Anacharsis">Anacharsis</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian</a> sage, had combined plain living together with criticisms of Greek customs in a manner which would become standard among the Cynics.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perhaps of importance were tales of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> philosophers, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Gymnosophists" title="Gymnosophists">gymnosophists</a></i>, who had adopted a strict <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a>. By the 5th century BC, the <a href="/wiki/Sophists" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophists">sophists</a> had begun a process of questioning many aspects of Greek society such as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">religion</a>, law and ethics. However, the most immediate influence for the Cynic school was <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>. Although he was not an ascetic, he did profess a love of virtue and an indifference to wealth,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> together with a disdain for general opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These aspects of Socrates' thought, which formed only a minor part of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s philosophy, became the central inspiration for another of Socrates' pupils, <a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbolisms">Symbolisms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Symbolisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cynics were often recognized in the ancient world by their apparel—an old cloak and a staff. The cloak was an allusion to Socrates and his manner of dress, the staff to the club of Heracles. These items became so symbolic of the Cynic vocation that ancient writers accosted those who thought that donning the Cynic garb would make them suited to the philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the social evolution from the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">archaic age</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">classical</a>, the public ceased carrying weapons into the <i><a href="/wiki/Poleis" class="mw-redirect" title="Poleis">poleis</a></i>. Originally it was expected that one carried a sword while in the city. However, a transition to spears and then to staffs occurred until wearing any weapon in the city became a foolish old custom.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the very act of carrying a staff was slightly taboo itself. According to modern theorists, the symbol of the staff was one which both functions as a tool to signal the user's dissociation from physical labour, that is, as a display of conspicuous leisure, and at the same time it also has an association with sport and typically plays a part in hunting and sports clothing. Thus, it displays active and warlike qualities, rather than being a symbol of a weak man's need to support himself.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The staff itself became a message of how the Cynic was free through its possible interpretation as an item of leisure, but, just as equivalent, was its message of strength—a virtue held in abundance by the Cynic philosopher.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Antisthenes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></div> <p>The story of Cynicism traditionally begins with Antisthenes (c. 445–365 BC),<sup id="cite_ref-dudley1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dudley1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bracht6_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bracht6-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who was an older contemporary of Plato and a pupil of Socrates. About 25 years his junior, Antisthenes was one of the most important of Socrates' disciples.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although later classical authors had little doubt about labelling him as the founder of Cynicism,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his philosophical views seem to be more complex than the later simplicities of pure Cynicism. In the list of works ascribed to Antisthenes by <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> writings on <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue">dialogue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a> far outnumber those on ethics or <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-prince79_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prince79-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although they may reflect how his philosophical interests changed with time.<sup id="cite_ref-navia40_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-navia40-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is certainly true that Antisthenes preached a life of <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>: </p> <blockquote><p>I have enough to eat till my hunger is stayed, to drink till my thirst is sated; to clothe myself as well; and out of doors not [even] <a href="/wiki/Callias_III" title="Callias III">Callias</a> there, with all his riches, is more safe than I from shivering; and when I find myself indoors, what warmer shirting do I need than my bare walls?<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diogenes_of_Sinope">Diogenes of Sinope</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Diogenes of Sinope"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg/290px-Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg/435px-Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg/580px-Diogenes_looking_for_a_man_-_attributed_to_JHW_Tischbein.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><i>Diogenes Searching for an Honest Man</i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1780) attributed to <a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Wilhelm_Tischbein" title="Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein">J. H. W. Tischbein</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></div> <p>Diogenes (c. 412–323 BC) dominates the story of Cynicism like no other figure. He originally went to Athens, fleeing his home city, after he and his father, who was in charge of the mint at <a href="/wiki/Sinop,_Turkey" title="Sinop, Turkey">Sinope</a>, got into trouble for falsifying the coinage.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (The phrase "defacing the currency" later became proverbial in describing Diogenes' rejection of conventional values.)<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later tradition claimed that Diogenes became the disciple of Antisthenes,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it is by no means certain that they ever met.<sup id="cite_ref-long45_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-long45-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dudley2_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dudley2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-prince77_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prince77-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diogenes did however adopt Antisthenes' teachings and the ascetic way of life, pursuing a life of self-sufficiency (<i>autarkeia</i>), austerity (<i>askēsis</i>), and shamelessness (<i>anaideia</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many anecdotes about his extreme asceticism (sleeping in a tub),<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his shameless behaviour (eating raw meat),<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his criticism of conventional society ("bad people obey their lusts as servants obey their masters"),<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and although it is impossible to tell which of these stories are true, they do illustrate the broad character of the man, including an ethical seriousness.<sup id="cite_ref-long33_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-long33-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crates_of_Thebes">Crates of Thebes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Crates of Thebes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crates_and_Hipparchia_Villa_Farnesina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Crates_and_Hipparchia_Villa_Farnesina.jpg/220px-Crates_and_Hipparchia_Villa_Farnesina.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Crates_and_Hipparchia_Villa_Farnesina.jpg/330px-Crates_and_Hipparchia_Villa_Farnesina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Crates_and_Hipparchia_Villa_Farnesina.jpg/440px-Crates_and_Hipparchia_Villa_Farnesina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="737" /></a><figcaption>Crates and Hipparchia, an antique fresco from <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes" title="Crates of Thebes">Crates of Thebes</a> (c. 365–c. 285 BC) is the third figure who dominates Cynic history. He is notable because he renounced a large fortune to live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is said to have been a pupil of Diogenes,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but again this is uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-long46_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-long46-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crates married <a href="/wiki/Hipparchia_of_Maroneia" title="Hipparchia of Maroneia">Hipparchia of Maroneia</a> after she had fallen in love with him and together they lived like beggars on the streets of Athens,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where Crates was treated with respect.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crates' later fame (apart from his unconventional lifestyle) lies in the fact that he became the teacher of <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cynic strain to be found in early Stoicism (such as Zeno's own radical views on sexual equality spelled out in his <i><a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Zeno)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Zeno)">Republic</a></i>) can be ascribed to Crates' influence.<sup id="cite_ref-schofield_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schofield-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_Cynics">Other Cynics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other Cynics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There were many other Cynics in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, including <a href="/wiki/Onesicritus" title="Onesicritus">Onesicritus</a> (who sailed with <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> to India), the skeptic <a href="/wiki/Monimus" title="Monimus">Monimus</a>, the moral satirist <a href="/wiki/Bion_of_Borysthenes" title="Bion of Borysthenes">Bion of Borysthenes</a>, the legislator <a href="/wiki/Cercidas" title="Cercidas">Cercidas</a> of <a href="/wiki/Megalopolis,_Greece" title="Megalopolis, Greece">Megalopolis</a>, the diatribist <a href="/wiki/Teles_of_Megara" title="Teles of Megara">Teles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Menippus" title="Menippus">Menippus of Gadara</a>. However, with the rise of Stoicism in the 3rd century BC, Cynicism as a serious philosophical activity underwent a decline,<sup id="cite_ref-dudley117_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dudley117-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bracht13_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bracht13-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it is not until the Roman era that Cynicism underwent a revival in the first century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cynicism_in_the_Roman_world">Cynicism in the Roman world</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cynicism in the Roman world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_Diogenes_-_Walters_37131.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_Diogenes_-_Walters_37131.jpg/290px-Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_Diogenes_-_Walters_37131.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_Diogenes_-_Walters_37131.jpg/435px-Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_Diogenes_-_Walters_37131.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_Diogenes_-_Walters_37131.jpg/580px-Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_Diogenes_-_Walters_37131.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1322" /></a><figcaption><i>Diogenes Sitting in His Tub</i> (1860) by <a href="/wiki/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me" title="Jean-Léon Gérôme">Jean-Léon Gérôme</a></figcaption></figure> <p>There is little record of Cynicism in the 2nd or 1st centuries BC; <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> (c. 50 BC), who was much interested in <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a>, had little to say about Cynicism, except that "it is to be shunned; for it is opposed to modesty, without which there can be neither right nor honor."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, by the 1st century CE, Cynicism reappeared with full force. The rise of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Rome">Imperial Rome</a>, like the Greek loss of independence under <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip</a> and Alexander three centuries earlier, may have led to a sense of powerlessness and frustration among many people, which allowed a philosophy which emphasized self-sufficiency and inner-happiness to flourish once again.<sup id="cite_ref-dudley124_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dudley124-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cynics could be found throughout the empire, standing on street corners, preaching about virtue.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a> complained that "every city is filled with such upstarts, particularly with those who enter the names of Diogenes, Antisthenes, and Crates as their patrons and enlist in the Army of the Dog,"<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Aelius_Aristides" title="Aelius Aristides">Aelius Aristides</a> observed that "they frequent the doorways, talking more to the doorkeepers than to the masters, making up for their lowly condition by using impudence."<sup id="cite_ref-aristides_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aristides-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most notable representative of Cynicism in the 1st century CE was <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_the_Cynic" title="Demetrius the Cynic">Demetrius</a>, whom <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a> praised as "a man of consummate wisdom, though he himself denied it, constant to the principles which he professed, of an eloquence worthy to deal with the mightiest subjects."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cynicism in Rome was both the butt of the satirist and the ideal of the thinker. In the 2nd century CE, Lucian, whilst pouring scorn on the Cynic philosopher <a href="/wiki/Peregrinus_Proteus" title="Peregrinus Proteus">Peregrinus Proteus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nevertheless praised his own Cynic teacher, <a href="/wiki/Demonax" title="Demonax">Demonax</a>, in a dialogue.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cynicism came to be seen as an idealised form of Stoicism, a view which led <a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a> to eulogise the ideal Cynic in a lengthy discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Epictetus, the ideal Cynic "must know that he is sent as a messenger from <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> to people concerning good and bad things, to show them that they have wandered."<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unfortunately for Epictetus, many Cynics of the era did not live up to the ideal: "consider the present Cynics who are dogs that wait at tables, and in no respect imitate the Cynics of old except perchance in <a href="/wiki/Flatulence" title="Flatulence">breaking wind</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike Stoicism, which declined as an independent philosophy after the 2nd century CE, Cynicism seems to have thrived into the 4th century.<sup id="cite_ref-dudley202_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dudley202-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emperor <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian</a> (ruled 361–363), like Epictetus, praised the ideal Cynic and complained about the actual practitioners of Cynicism.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final Cynic noted in classical history is <a href="/wiki/Sallustius_of_Emesa" title="Sallustius of Emesa">Sallustius of Emesa</a> in the late 5th century.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A student of the Neoplatonic philosopher <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Alexandria" title="Isidore of Alexandria">Isidore of Alexandria</a>, he devoted himself to living a life of Cynic asceticism.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cynicism_and_Christianity">Cynicism and Christianity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cynicism and Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:StAnthony.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/StAnthony.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="366" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="185" data-file-height="366" /></a><figcaption>Coptic icon of <a href="/wiki/Anthony_the_Great" title="Anthony the Great">Saint Anthony of the Desert</a>, an early Christian ascetic. Early Christian asceticism may have been influenced by Cynicism.<sup id="cite_ref-dudley209_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dudley209-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jesus_as_a_Cynic">Jesus as a Cynic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Jesus as a Cynic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some historians have noted the similarities between the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> and those of the Cynics. Some scholars have argued that the <a href="/wiki/Q_document" class="mw-redirect" title="Q document">Q document</a>, a hypothetical common source for the gospels of <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Matthew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke" title="Gospel of Luke">Luke</a>, has strong similarities to the teachings of the Cynics.<sup id="cite_ref-Leif_Vaage_1994_PI_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leif_Vaage_1994_PI-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars on the <a href="/wiki/Quest_for_the_historical_Jesus" title="Quest for the historical Jesus">quest for the historical Jesus</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Burton_L._Mack" title="Burton L. Mack">Burton L. Mack</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Dominic_Crossan" title="John Dominic Crossan">John Dominic Crossan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Seminar" title="Jesus Seminar">Jesus Seminar</a>, have argued that 1st-century AD <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> was a world in which <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenistic</a> ideas collided with Jewish thought and traditions. The city of <a href="/wiki/Gadara" title="Gadara">Gadara</a>, only a day's walk from <a href="/wiki/Nazareth" title="Nazareth">Nazareth</a>, was particularly notable as a centre of Cynic philosophy,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Mack has described Jesus as a "rather normal Cynic-type figure."<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Crossan, Jesus was more like a Cynic sage from a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic Jewish">Hellenistic Jewish</a> tradition than either a <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a> who would die as a <a href="/wiki/Substitutionary_atonement" title="Substitutionary atonement">substitute for sinners</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Jewish_messianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish messianism">messiah</a> who wanted to establish an independent Jewish state of Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other scholars doubt that Jesus was deeply influenced by the Cynics and see the Jewish prophetic tradition as of much greater importance.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cynic_influences_on_early_Christianity">Cynic influences on early Christianity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cynic influences on early Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many of the ascetic practices of Cynicism may have been adopted by <a href="/wiki/Early_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christians">early Christians</a>, and Christians often employed the same <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetorical</a> methods as the Cynics.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Cynics were martyred for speaking out against the authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One Cynic, <a href="/wiki/Peregrinus_Proteus" title="Peregrinus Proteus">Peregrinus Proteus</a>, lived for a time as a Christian before converting to Cynicism,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas in the 4th century, <a href="/wiki/Maximus_the_Cynic" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximus the Cynic">Maximus of Alexandria</a>, although a Christian, was also called a Cynic because of his ascetic lifestyle. Christian writers would often praise Cynic poverty,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although they scorned Cynic shamelessness, <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a> stating that they had, "in violation of the modest instincts of men, boastfully proclaimed their unclean and shameless opinion, worthy indeed of dogs."<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ascetic orders of Christianity (such as the <a href="/wiki/Desert_Fathers" title="Desert Fathers">Desert Fathers</a>) also had direct connection with the Cynics, as can be seen in the wandering <a href="/wiki/Mendicant" title="Mendicant">mendicant</a> monks of the early church, who in outward appearance and in many of their practices differed little from the Cynics of an earlier age.<sup id="cite_ref-dudley209_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dudley209-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_College,_Toronto" title="Emmanuel College, Toronto">Emmanuel College</a> scholar Leif E. Vaage compared the commonalities between the <a href="/wiki/Q_document" class="mw-redirect" title="Q document">Q document</a> and Cynic texts, such as the <a href="/wiki/Cynic_epistles" title="Cynic epistles">Cynic epistles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Leif_Vaage_1994_PI_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leif_Vaage_1994_PI-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The epistles contain the wisdom and (often polemical) <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> preached by Cynics along with their sense of purity and ascetic practices.<sup id="cite_ref-vaage_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vaage-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 2nd century, <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a> clashed with <a href="/wiki/Crescens_the_Cynic" title="Crescens the Cynic">Crescens the Cynic</a>, who is recorded as claiming the Christians were <i>atheotatous</i> (“the most without a god”), in reference to their rejection of the <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a> gods and their absence of temples, statues, or sacrifices. This was a popular criticism of the Christians and it continued on into the 4th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin2007_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin2007-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anticonformism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticonformism">Anticonformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">Asceticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynic_epistles" title="Cynic epistles">Cynic epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encratites" title="Encratites">Encratites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foolishness_for_Christ" title="Foolishness for Christ">Foolishness for Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_philosophers" title="List of ancient Greek philosophers">List of ancient Greek philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Cynic_philosophers" title="List of Cynic philosophers">List of Cynic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotzker_Rebbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Kotzker Rebbe">Kotzker Rebbe</a> (a chasidic "Cynic" in the ancient sense of the word)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher H. Hallett, (2005), <i>The Roman Nude: Heroic Portrait Statuary 200 BC–AD 300</i>, p. 294. Oxford University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laërtius & Hicks 1925, VI:23; Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, 2.14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dudley117-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dudley117_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dudley117_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDudley1937">Dudley 1937</a>, p. 117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2360864"><b>Kynikos</b>, "A Greek-English Lexicon", Liddell and Scott, at Perseus</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 13. Cf. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Companion_to_Classical_Literature" title="The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature">The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature</a></i>, 2nd edition, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An obscure reference to "the Dog" in Aristotle's <i>Rhetoric</i> (3.10.1411a25) is generally agreed to be the first reference to Diogenes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes of Sinope, quoted by <a href="/wiki/Stobaeus" title="Stobaeus">Stobaeus</a> in <a href="//archive.org/details/ioannisstobaeia00hensgoog/page/462/mode/1up" class="extiw" title="iarchive:ioannisstobaeia00hensgoog/page/462/mode/1up"><i>Anthology</i></a>, Book 3, Chapter 13, Paragraph 44. "Ὁ Διογένες ἔλεγεν, ὅτι οἱ μὲν ἄλλοι κύνες τοὺς ἐχθροὺς δάκνουσιν, ἐγὼ δὲ τοὺς φίλους, ἵνα σώσω."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dudley5-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dudley5_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christian August Brandis, Scholium on Aristotle's <i>Rhetoric</i>, quoted in <a href="#CITEREFDudley1937">Dudley 1937</a>, p. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-long28-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-long28_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong1996">Long 1996</a>, p. 28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kidd-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kidd_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kidd_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kidd_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kidd_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kidd_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKidd2005">Kidd 2005</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-long29-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-long29_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong1996">Long 1996</a>, p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Navia-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Navia_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Navia_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Navia, Luis E. Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAdamson2015" class="citation book cs1">Adamson, Peter (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J5_oCQAAQBAJ"><i>Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872802-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872802-3"><bdi>978-0-19-872802-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+in+the+Hellenistic+and+Roman+Worlds&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-872802-3&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ5_oCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACynicism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LaerChrysPsL-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LaerChrysPsL_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LaerChrysPsL_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 2, 71; Dio Chrysostom, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/8*.html#26"><i>Orations</i>, viii. 26–32</a>; Pseudo-Lucian, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl431.htm"><i>Cynicus</i></a>, 13; Lucian, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl420.htm"><i>De Morte Peregrini</i></a>, 4, 33, 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Patterson-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Patterson_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patterson_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Orlando Patterson: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E0w9bA4PeOQC&dq=Cerberus+Cynics+Heracles&pg=RA1-PA186"><i>Freedom</i>. p. 186</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-long34-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-long34_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong1996">Long 1996</a>, p. 34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucian, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theoi.com/Text/LucianDialoguesDead1.html#4"><i>Dialogues of the Dead</i>, 21</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 70</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cynic1-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cynic1_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/cynics.htm"><i>Cynics</i></a> – <i>The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Mazella, (2007), <i>The Making of Modern Cynicism</i>, University of Virginia Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8139-2615-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8139-2615-7">0-8139-2615-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Cynicism"><i>Cynicism</i></a>, <i>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</i>. Fourth Edition. 2006. Houghton Mifflin Company.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bertrand Russell, <i>A History of Western Philosophy</i>, p. 231. Simon and Schuster.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Martin, <i>The Scythian Accent: Anacharsis and the Cynics</i>, <a href="#CITEREFBranhamGoulet-Cazé2000">Branham & Goulet-Cazé 2000</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plato, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1656"><i>Apology</i></a>, 41e.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Xenophon, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1171"><i>Apology</i></a>, 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a>, 3.22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Politics (Aristotle)</a>: bk 2, 1268b</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Veblen, 1994 [1899]: 162</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jon Ploug Jørgensen, <i>The taming of the aristoi – an ancient Greek civilizing process?</i> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Human_Sciences" title="History of the Human Sciences">History of the Human Sciences</a>: July 2014 vol. 27 no. 3, pp. 42–43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dudley1-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dudley1_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDudley1937">Dudley 1937</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bracht6-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bracht6_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBranhamGoulet-Cazé2000">Branham & Goulet-Cazé 2000</a>, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Xenophon, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1181"><i>Symposium</i></a>, 4.57–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 15–18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-prince79-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-prince79_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrince2005">Prince 2005</a>, p. 79</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-navia40-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-navia40_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNavia1996">Navia 1996</a>, p. 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Xenophon, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1181"><i>Symposium</i></a>, 4.34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 20–21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 20, 71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 6, 18, 21; Aelian, x. 16; Epictetus, <i>Discourses</i>, iii. 22. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-long45-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-long45_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong1996">Long 1996</a>, p. 45</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dudley2-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dudley2_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDudley1937">Dudley 1937</a>, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-prince77-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-prince77_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrince2005">Prince 2005</a>, p. 77</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarton, G., <i>Ancient Science Through the Golden Age of Greece,</i> Dover Publications. (1980).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 23; Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, 2.14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-long33-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-long33_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong1996">Long 1996</a>, p. 33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 87–88</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 85, 87; Epictetus, <i>Discourses</i>, iii. 22. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-long46-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-long46_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong1996">Long 1996</a>, p. 46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Although there is no mention in ancient sources of them actually begging. Cf. Doyne Dawson, (1992), <i>Cities of the gods: communist utopias in Greek thought</i>, p. 135. Oxford University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, <i>Symposiacs</i>, 2.1; Apuleius, <i>Florida</i>, 22; Julian, <i>Orations</i>, 6.201b</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, i. 15, vi. 105, vii. 2, etc</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-schofield-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-schofield_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchofield1991">Schofield 1991</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bracht13-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bracht13_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBranhamGoulet-Cazé2000">Branham & Goulet-Cazé 2000</a>, p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong1986">Long 1986</a>, p. 234</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, <i>De Officiis</i>, i. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dudley124-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dudley124_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDudley1937">Dudley 1937</a>, p. 124</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucian, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl420.htm"><i>De Morte Peregrini</i></a>, 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucian, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl421.htm"><i>Fugitivi</i></a>, 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aristides-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aristides_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aelius Aristides, iii. 654–694</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seneca, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3794"><i>De Beneficiis</i></a>, vii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucian, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl420.htm"><i>De Morte Peregrini</i></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucian, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6829"><i>Demonax</i></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Epictetus, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html"><i>Discourses</i></a>, 3. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Epictetus, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html"><i>Discourses</i></a>, 3. 22. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Epictetus, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html"><i>Discourses</i></a>, 3. 22. 80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dudley202-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dudley202_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDudley1937">Dudley 1937</a>, p. 202</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Julian, <i>Oration 6: To the Uneducated Cynics</i>; <i>Oration 7: To the Cynic Heracleios</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Damascius, <i>Life of Isidorus</i>: fragments preserved in the <i>Commentary on Plato's Parmenides</i> by <a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a>, in the <i>Bibliotheca</i> of <a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a>, and in the <i><a href="/wiki/Suda" title="Suda">Suda</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dudley209-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dudley209_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dudley209_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDudley1937">Dudley 1937</a>, pp. 209–211</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leif_Vaage_1994_PI-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leif_Vaage_1994_PI_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leif_Vaage_1994_PI_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Leif Vaage, (1994), <i>Galilean Upstarts: Jesus' First Followers According to Q</i>. TPI</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F. Gerald Downing, (1992), <i>Cynics and Christian Origins</i>. T. & T. Clark.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In particular, <a href="/wiki/Menippus" title="Menippus">Menippus</a> (3rd century BC), <a href="/wiki/Meleager_of_Gadara" title="Meleager of Gadara">Meleager</a> (1st century BC), and <a href="/wiki/Oenomaus_of_Gadara" title="Oenomaus of Gadara">Oenomaus</a> (2nd century CE), all came from Gadara.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in R. Ostling, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080401050600/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,968139,00.html">"Who was Jesus?", <i>Time</i>, August 15, 1988, pp. 37–42</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Dominic Crossan, (1991), <i>The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-061629-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-061629-6">0-06-061629-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Craig A. Evans, <i>Life of Jesus Research: An Annotated Bibliography</i>, p. 151. Brill</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F. Gasco Lacalle, (1986) <i>Cristianos y cinicos. Una tificacion del fenomeno cristiano durante el siglo II,</i> pp. 111–119. Memorias de Historia Antigua 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dio Cassius, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#p291"><i>Epitome of book 65</i>, 15.5</a>; Herodian, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070820005728/http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodian/hre109.html"><i>Roman History</i>, 1.9.2–5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucian, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl420.htm"><i>De Morte Peregrini</i></a>, 10–15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Origen, <i>adv. Cels.</i> 2.41, 6.28, 7.7; Basil of Caesarea, <i>Leg. Lib. Gent.</i> 9.3, 4, 20; Theodoret, <i>Provid.</i> 6; John Chrysostom, <i>Ad. Op. Vit. Monast.</i> 2.4, 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Augustine, <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/20px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_City_of_God/Book_XIV/Chapter_20" class="extiw" title="s:The City of God/Book XIV/Chapter 20"><i>De Civitate Dei</i> 14.20</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vaage-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vaage_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leif E. Vaage, (1990), <i>Cynic Epistles (Selections)</i>, in Vincent L. Wimbush, <i>Ascetic Behavior in Greco-Roman Antiquity: A Sourcebook</i>, pp. 117–118. Continuum International</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Martin2007-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Martin2007_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZuckerman2007" class="citation book cs1">Zuckerman, Phil (2007). Martin, Michael T (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tAeFipOVx4MC&pg=PA56"><i>The Cambridge companion to atheism</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84270-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84270-9"><bdi>978-0-521-84270-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-04-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+companion+to+atheism&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84270-9&rft.aulast=Zuckerman&rft.aufirst=Phil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtAeFipOVx4MC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACynicism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBranhamGoulet-Cazé2000" class="citation cs2">Branham, R. Bracht; Goulet-Cazé, Marie-Odile, eds. (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FH7FWVzFy-cC"><i>The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy</i></a>, University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21645-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21645-7"><bdi>978-0-520-21645-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cynics%3A+The+Cynic+Movement+in+Antiquity+and+Its+Legacy&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21645-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFH7FWVzFy-cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACynicism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDudley1937" class="citation cs2">Dudley, R. (1937), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofcynicis032872mbp"><i>A History of Cynicism from Diogenes to the 6th Century A.D.</i></a>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Cynicism+from+Diogenes+to+the+6th+Century+A.D.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Dudley&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofcynicis032872mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACynicism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKidd2005" class="citation cs2">Kidd, I. (2005), "Cynicism", in Rée, Jonathan; Urmson, J. O. (eds.), <i>The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy</i>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32924-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32924-8"><bdi>978-0-415-32924-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cynicism&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Western+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-32924-8&rft.aulast=Kidd&rft.aufirst=I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACynicism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLong1986" class="citation book cs1">Long, A. A. (20 August 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UaIwDwAAQBAJ"><i>Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05808-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05808-8"><bdi>978-0-520-05808-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hellenistic+Philosophy%3A+Stoics%2C+Epicureans%2C+Sceptics&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986-08-20&rft.isbn=978-0-520-05808-8&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=A.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUaIwDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACynicism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLong1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._A._Long" title="A. A. Long">Long, A.A.</a> (1996). "The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics". In Branham, R. Bracht; Goulet-Cazé, Marie-Odile (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520921986/html"><i>The Cynics</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">28–</span>46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2F9780520921986-003">10.1525/9780520921986-003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92198-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92198-6"><bdi>978-0-520-92198-6</bdi></a> – via De Gruyter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Socratic+Tradition%3A+Diogenes%2C+Crates%2C+and+Hellenistic+Ethics&rft.btitle=The+Cynics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E28-%3C%2Fspan%3E46&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2F9780520921986-003&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92198-6&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=A.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1525%2F9780520921986%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACynicism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNavia1996" class="citation cs2">Navia, Luis (1996), <i>Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study</i>, Greenwood Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30015-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30015-8"><bdi>978-0-313-30015-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Cynicism%3A+A+Critical+Study&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-313-30015-8&rft.aulast=Navia&rft.aufirst=Luis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACynicism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPrince2005" class="citation cs2">Prince, Susan (2005), "Socrates, Antisthenes, and the Cynics", in Ahbel-Rappe, Sara; Kamtekar, Rachana (eds.), <i>A Companion to Socrates</i>, Blackwell Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0863-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0863-8"><bdi>978-1-4051-0863-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Socrates%2C+Antisthenes%2C+and+the+Cynics&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Socrates&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-0863-8&rft.aulast=Prince&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACynicism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchofield1991" class="citation cs2">Schofield, Malcolm (1991), <i>The Stoic Idea of the City</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-74006-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-74006-5"><bdi>978-0-226-74006-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stoic+Idea+of+the+City&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-226-74006-5&rft.aulast=Schofield&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACynicism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Socratis-Socraticorum-reliquiae-Elenchos-Greek/dp/8870882152"><i>Socratis et Socraticorum Reliquiae</i>, ed. G. Giannantoni, 4 volumes (Naples, 1990).</a> Volume 2 collects fragments of the early Cynics from Antisthenes to Crates.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/The-Cynic-Philosophers-Diogenes-Classics/dp/0141192224"><i>The Cynic Philosophers</i>, ed. R. Dobbin (Penguin, 2012)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Sayings-Anecdotes-Popular-Moralists-Classics/dp/0199589240/"><i>Diogenes the Cynic: Sayings and Anecdotes: With Other Popular Moralists</i>, ed. R. Hard (Oxford, 2012)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/diogeneslaertius-book6-cynics.html"><i>Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, Book VI: The Cynics</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dio_Chrysostom" title="Dio Chrysostom">Dio Chrysostom</a>, Cynic Discourses: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/6*.html"><i>Oration 6</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/8*.html"><i>Oration 8</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/9*.html"><i>Oration 9</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/10*.html"><i>Oration 10</i></a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0236%3Atext%3Ddisc%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D22"><i>Discourse 3.22, On Cynicism</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Lucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-Lucian">Pseudo-Lucian</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Attributed to Lucian in the link as well as the Wikipedia pages 'Lucian' and 'List of works by Lucian'; whence the pseudo? (May 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl431.htm"><i>The Cynic</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian the Apostate</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lucianofsamosata.info/wiki/doku.php?id=2012:6th-_vi_-oration-of-julian_to-the-uneducated-cynics"><i>6th Oration – To the Uneducated Cynics</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian the Apostate</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lucianofsamosata.info/wiki/doku.php?id=2012:7th-_vii_-oration-of-julian_to-the-cynic-heracleios"><i>7th Oration – To the Cynic Heracleios</i></a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Secondary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ian Cutler, (2005), <i>Cynicism from Diogenes to Dilbert</i>. McFarland & Co. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7864-2093-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7864-2093-6">0-7864-2093-6</a></li> <li>William D. Desmond, (2006), <i>The Greek Praise of Poverty: Origins of Ancient Cynicism</i>. University of Notre Dame Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-268-02582-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-268-02582-7">0-268-02582-7</a></li> <li>————, (2008), <i>Cynics</i>. Ancient Philosophies Series. Acumen Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84465-129-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-84465-129-0">1-84465-129-0</a></li> <li>F. Gerald Downing, (1992), <i>Cynics and Christian Origins</i>. T. & T. Clark. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-567-09613-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-567-09613-0">0-567-09613-0</a></li> <li>Luis E. Navia, (1996), <i>Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study</i>. Greenwood Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-30015-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-30015-1">0-313-30015-1</a></li> <li>Lousa Shea (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Cynic-Enlightenment-Diogenes-Parallax-Re-visions/dp/0801893852"><i>The Cynic Enlightenment: Diogenes in the Salon</i></a> Johns Hopkins University Press.</li> <li>H. C. Baldry, "Zeno's Ideal State". Published in <i>The Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, Vol. 79 (1959), pp. 3–15. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F627917">10.2307/627917</a></li> <li>Kathy L. Gaca, "Early Stoic Eros: The Sexual Ethics of Zeno and Chrysippus and their Evaluation of the Greek Erotic Tradition". Published in <i>Apeiron: A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science</i>, Vol. 33, No. 3 (September 2000), pp. 207–238.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cynicism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/120px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cynicism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:cynicism">cynicism</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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(1913). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Cynic School of Philosophy"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Cynic_School_of_Philosophy">"Cynic School of Philosophy" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cynic+School+of+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACynicism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lucianofsamosata.info/wiki/doku.php?id=cynics:cynic_lives"><i>Lives & Writings on the Cynics</i></a>, directory of literary references to Ancient Cynics</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epimenides_of_Knossos" class="mw-redirect" title="Epimenides of Knossos">Epimenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pherecydes_of_Syros" title="Pherecydes of Syros">Pherecydes</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Seven_Sages37" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_Greece" title="Seven Sages of Greece">Seven Sages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solon_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Solon of Athens">Solon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pittacus_of_Mytilene" title="Pittacus of Mytilene">Pittacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_Priene" title="Bias of Priene">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periander_of_Corinth" class="mw-redirect" title="Periander of Corinth">Periander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleobulus_of_Lindos" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleobulus of Lindos">Cleobulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilon_of_Sparta" title="Chilon of Sparta">Chilon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Pre-Socratic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ionian37" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Milesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Apollonia" title="Diogenes of Apollonia">Diogenes</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Italian105" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagorean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippasus" title="Hippasus">Hippasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archytas" title="Archytas">Archytas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamiskos" title="Lamiskos">Lamiskos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton" title="Alcmaeon of Croton">Alcmaeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brontinus" title="Brontinus">Brontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theano_(philosopher)" title="Theano (philosopher)">Theano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damo_(philosopher)" title="Damo (philosopher)">Damo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliphon_of_Croton" title="Calliphon of Croton">Calliphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermotimus_of_Clazomenae" title="Hermotimus of Clazomenae">Hermotimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Cos" title="Metrodorus of Cos">Metrodorus of Cos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arignote" title="Arignote">Arignote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myia" title="Myia">Myia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurytus_(Pythagorean)" title="Eurytus (Pythagorean)">Eurytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pythagoreans" title="Category:Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeniades" title="Xeniades">Xeniades</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melissus_of_Samos" title="Melissus of Samos">Melissus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippo_(philosopher)" title="Hippo (philosopher)">Hippo</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">Pluralist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archelaus_(philosopher)" title="Archelaus (philosopher)">Archelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_elder)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the elder)">Metrodorus of Lampsacus</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acron" title="Acron">Acron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Sicily" title="Pausanias of Sicily">Pausanias</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prodicus" title="Prodicus">Prodicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippias" title="Hippias">Hippias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus" title="Thrasymachus">Thrasymachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damon_of_Athens" title="Damon of Athens">Damon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callicles" title="Callicles">Callicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophron_(sophist)" title="Lycophron (sophist)">Lycophron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysodorus_(sophist)" title="Dionysodorus (sophist)">Dionysodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_of_Chios" title="Euthydemus of Chios">Euthydemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Greek philosophy">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Category:Pupils_of_Socrates" title="Category:Pupils of Socrates">students</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cynic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes" title="Crates of Thebes">Crates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menippus" title="Menippus">Menippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Cynic_philosophers" title="List of Cynic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus_the_Younger" title="Aristippus the Younger">Aristippus the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_the_Atheist" title="Theodorus the Atheist">Theodorus the Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegesias_of_Cyrene" title="Hegesias of Cyrene">Hegesias of Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anniceris" title="Anniceris">Anniceris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cyrenaic_philosophers" title="Category:Cyrenaic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phaedo_of_Elis" title="Phaedo of Elis">Phaedo of Elis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menedemus" title="Menedemus">Menedemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepiades_of_Phlius" title="Asclepiades of Phlius">Asclepiades of Phlius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euclid_of_Megara" title="Euclid of Megara">Euclid of Megara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyas" title="Ichthyas">Ichthyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus_of_Corinth" title="Thrasymachus of Corinth">Thrasymachus of Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilpo" title="Stilpo">Stilpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicarete_of_Megara" title="Nicarete of Megara">Nicarete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasicles_of_Thebes" title="Pasicles of Thebes">Pasicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryson_of_Achaea" title="Bryson of Achaea">Bryson</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dialecticians33" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Dialecticians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinomachus" title="Clinomachus">Clinomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_Cronus" title="Apollonius Cronus">Apollonius Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphantus" title="Euphantus">Euphantus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Chalcedon" title="Dionysius of Chalcedon">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_the_Dialectician" title="Philo the Dialectician">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexinus" title="Alexinus">Alexinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthoides" title="Panthoides">Panthoides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peripatetic_philosophers" title="Category:Peripatetic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Phlius" title="Timon of Phlius">Timon of Phlius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aenesidemus" title="Aenesidemus">Aenesidemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrippa_the_Skeptic" title="Agrippa the Skeptic">Agrippa the Skeptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Skeptic_philosophers" title="Category:Ancient Skeptic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Annaeus_Cornutus" title="Lucius Annaeus Cornutus">Lucius Annaeus Cornutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musonius_Rufus" class="mw-redirect" title="Musonius Rufus">Musonius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_younger)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)">Metrodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philodemus" title="Philodemus">Philodemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Oenoanda" title="Diogenes of Oenoanda">Diogenes of Oenoanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Epicurean_philosophers" title="List of Epicurean philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudorus_of_Alexandria" title="Eudorus of Alexandria">Eudorus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_the_Platonist" title="Gaius the Platonist">Gaius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcinous_(philosopher)" title="Alcinous (philosopher)">Alcinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagorean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigidius_Figulus" title="Nigidius Figulus">Nigidius Figulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana" title="Apollonius of Tyana">Apollonius of Tyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderatus_of_Gades" title="Moderatus of Gades">Moderatus of Gades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachus" title="Nicomachus">Nicomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Neo-Pythagoreans" title="Category:Neo-Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Saccas" title="Ammonius Saccas">Ammonius Saccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_students_of_Plotinus" title="List of students of Plotinus">students</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch_of_Athens" title="Plutarch of Athens">Plutarch of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrianus" title="Syrianus">Syrianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Hermiae" title="Ammonius Hermiae">Ammonius Hermiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicetes_of_Smyrna" title="Nicetes of Smyrna">Nicetes of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dio_Chrysostom" title="Dio Chrysostom">Dio Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favorinus" title="Favorinus">Favorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Roman-era_Sophists" title="Category:Roman-era Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> 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class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">Pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_sanitation" title="Sustainable sanitation">Sustainable sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">Veganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">War tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WWOOF" title="WWOOF">WWOOF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Religious and spiritual</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aparigraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Aparigraha">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">Asceticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detachment_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Detachment (philosophy)">Detachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendicant" title="Mendicant">Mendicant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Mindfulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Monasticism" title="New Monasticism">New Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_dress" title="Plain dress">Plain dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_people" title="Plain people">Plain people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testimony_of_Simplicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Testimony of Simplicity">Testimony of simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_communities" title="Twelve Tribes communities">Twelve Tribes communities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Secular movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-the-land_movement" title="Back-to-the-land movement">Back-to-the-land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car-free_movement" title="Car-free movement">Car-free</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippie" title="Hippie">Hippie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Source_Ecology" title="Open Source Ecology">Open Source Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_movement_(culture)" title="Slow movement (culture)">Slow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_house_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Small house movement">Small house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiny_house_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiny house movement">Tiny house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_town" title="Transition town">Transition town</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Notable writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Berry" title="Wendell Berry">Wendell Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Callenbach" title="Ernest Callenbach">Ernest Callenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">G. K. Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duane_Elgin" title="Duane Elgin">Duane Elgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Gregg_(social_philosopher)" title="Richard Gregg (social philosopher)">Richard Gregg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Hodgkinson" title="Tom Hodgkinson">Tom Hodgkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_Hubbard" title="Harlan Hubbard">Harlan Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satish_Kumar" title="Satish Kumar">Satish Kumar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Nearing" title="Helen Nearing">Helen Nearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Nearing" title="Scott Nearing">Scott Nearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Pilgrim" title="Peace Pilgrim">Peace Pilgrim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Rosen_(British_filmmaker)" title="Nick Rosen (British filmmaker)">Nick Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Semple" title="Dugald Semple">Dugald Semple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">E. F. Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Skene_Keith_(physician)" title="George Skene Keith (physician)">George Skene Keith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Modern-day adherents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Boyle_(Moneyless_Man)" title="Mark Boyle (Moneyless Man)">Mark Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Greenfield" title="Robin Greenfield">Robin Greenfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Kaczynski" title="Ted Kaczynski">Ted Kaczynski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentti_Linkola" title="Pentti Linkola">Pentti Linkola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Merkel" title="Jim Merkel">Jim Merkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Pilgrim" title="Peace Pilgrim">Peace Pilgrim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suelo" title="Suelo">Suelo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_(activist)" title="Thomas (activist)">Thomas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Anekdote_zur_Senkung_der_Arbeitsmoral" title="Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral">Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Escape_from_Affluenza" title="Escape from Affluenza">Escape from Affluenza</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Good_Life_(1975_TV_series)" title="The Good Life (1975 TV series)">The Good Life</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Moon_and_the_Sledgehammer" title="The Moon and the Sledgehammer">The Moon and the Sledgehammer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mother_Earth_News" title="Mother Earth News">Mother Earth News</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Power_of_Half" title="The Power of Half">The Power of Half</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Small_Is_Beautiful" title="Small Is Beautiful">Small Is Beautiful</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Walden" title="Walden">Walden</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluenza" title="Affluenza">Affluenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amateurism" class="mw-redirect" title="Amateurism">Amateurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Anarcho-primitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-consumerism" title="Anti-consumerism">Anti-consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">Appropriate technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degrowth" title="Degrowth">Degrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_miles" title="Food miles">Food miles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_Porch_Republic" title="Front Porch Republic">Front Porch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">The good life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedonophobia" title="Hedonophobia">Hedonophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_living" title="Intentional living">Intentional living</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_community" title="Intentional community">commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Gathering" title="Rainbow Gathering">Rainbow Gathering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_groups_in_Europe" title="Itinerant groups in Europe">Itinerant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-technology">Low-technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">Peak oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work%E2%80%93life_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Work–life interface">Work–life interface</a></li></ul> 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