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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Family</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diplomacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diplomacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Diplomacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diplomacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Allegorical_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allegorical_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Allegorical interpretation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allegorical_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Numerology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Numerology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anthropomorphism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropomorphism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Anthropomorphism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropomorphism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Divine_attributes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Divine_attributes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Divine attributes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Divine_attributes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Logos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soul" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soul"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Soul</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soul-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics_and_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics_and_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Ethics and politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics_and_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Works</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Works-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Works subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commentaries_on_the_Pentateuch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commentaries_on_the_Pentateuch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Commentaries on the Pentateuch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commentaries_on_the_Pentateuch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Quaestiones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quaestiones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Quaestiones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quaestiones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allegorical_commentary_of_the_Torah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allegorical_commentary_of_the_Torah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Allegorical commentary of the Torah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allegorical_commentary_of_the_Torah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exposition_of_the_Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exposition_of_the_Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Exposition of the Law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exposition_of_the_Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independent_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independent_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Independent works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independent_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-That_all_good_men_are_free" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#That_all_good_men_are_free"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>That all good men are free</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-That_all_good_men_are_free-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Embassy_to_Gaius" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Embassy_to_Gaius"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span><i>Embassy to Gaius</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Embassy_to_Gaius-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Against_Flaccus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Against_Flaccus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span><i>Against Flaccus</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Against_Flaccus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_the_Contemplative_Life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_the_Contemplative_Life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span><i>On the Contemplative Life</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_the_Contemplative_Life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_works_ascribed_to_Philo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_works_ascribed_to_Philo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Other works ascribed to Philo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_works_ascribed_to_Philo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Judaism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_extant_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_extant_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>List of extant works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_extant_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Editions_and_translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Editions_and_translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Editions and translations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Editions_and_translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Explanatory notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Philo</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%83%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="فيلون السكندري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فيلون السكندري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon_%C4%B0sk%C9%99nd%C9%99riyy%C9%99li" title="Filon İskəndəriyyəli – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Filon İskəndəriyyəli" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Філон Александрыйскі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Філон Александрыйскі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Филон Александрийски – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Филон Александрийски" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B3_d%27Alexandria" title="Filó d'Alexandria – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filó d'Alexandria" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B3n_Alexandrijsk%C3%BD" title="Filón Alexandrijský – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Filón Alexandrijský" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon_af_Aleksandria" title="Filon af Aleksandria – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Filon af Aleksandria" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philon_von_Alexandria" title="Philon von Alexandria – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Philon von Alexandria" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philon_Aleksandriast" title="Philon Aleksandriast – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Philon Aleksandriast" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%AF%CE%BB%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%BF_%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%8D%CF%82" title="Φίλων ο Αλεξανδρεύς – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φίλων ο Αλεξανδρεύς" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B3n_de_Alejandr%C3%ADa" title="Filón de Alejandría – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filón de Alejandría" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filono_el_Aleksandrio" title="Filono el Aleksandrio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Filono el Aleksandrio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon_Alexandriakoa" title="Filon Alexandriakoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Filon Alexandriakoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87" title="فیلون اسکندریه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فیلون اسکندریه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philon_d%27Alexandrie" title="Philon d'Alexandrie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philon d'Alexandrie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%84%EB%A1%A0" title="필론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="필론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo" title="Philo – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Philo" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%B6_%D4%B1%D5%AC%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB" title="Փիլոն Ալեքսանդրացի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Փիլոն Ալեքսանդրացի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon_Aleksandrijski" title="Filon Aleksandrijski – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Filon Aleksandrijski" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filo" title="Filo – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filone_di_Alessandria" title="Filone di Alessandria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filone di Alessandria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99" title="פילון האלכסנדרוני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילון האלכסנדרוני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ფილონ ალექსანდრიელი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფილონ ალექსანდრიელი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Филон Александрийский – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Филон Александрийский" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_Alexandrinus" title="Philo Alexandrinus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philo Alexandrinus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandrijas_Filons" title="Aleksandrijas Filons – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aleksandrijas Filons" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filonas_Aleksandrietis" title="Filonas Aleksandrietis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Filonas Aleksandrietis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandriai_Phil%C3%B3n" title="Alexandriai Philón – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Alexandriai Philón" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B4na_avy_any_Aleksandria" title="Filôna avy any Aleksandria – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Filôna avy any Aleksandria" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8B" title="ഫിലോ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഫിലോ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%83%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%89" title="فيلون السكندرى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فيلون السكندرى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_van_Alexandri%C3%AB" title="Philo van Alexandrië – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Philo van Alexandrië" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AC%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B5%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E3%81%AE%E3%83%95%E3%82%A3%E3%83%AD%E3%83%B3" title="アレクサンドリアのフィロン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アレクサンドリアのフィロン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon" title="Filon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Filon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon_fr%C3%A5_Alexandria" title="Filon frå Alexandria – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Filon frå Alexandria" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon_d%27Alex%C3%A0ndria" title="Filon d'Alexàndria – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Filon d'Alexàndria" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon_Aleksandriyalik" title="Filon Aleksandriyalik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Filon Aleksandriyalik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="فيلون اسکندراني – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فيلون اسکندراني" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon_z_Aleksandrii" title="Filon z Aleksandrii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filon z Aleksandrii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADlon_de_Alexandria" title="Fílon de Alexandria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fílon de Alexandria" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philon_din_Alexandria" title="Philon din Alexandria – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Philon din Alexandria" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Филон Александрийский – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Филон Александрийский" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_of_Alexandria" title="Philo of Alexandria – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Philo of Alexandria" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B3n_Alexandrijsk%C3%BD" title="Filón Alexandrijský – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Filón Alexandrijský" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon_Aleksandrijski" title="Filon Aleksandrijski – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Filon Aleksandrijski" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Филон Александријски – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Филон Александријски" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon_Aleksandrijski" title="Filon Aleksandrijski – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Filon Aleksandrijski" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon_Aleksandrialainen" title="Filon Aleksandrialainen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Filon Aleksandrialainen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon" title="Filon – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Filon" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo" title="Philo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Philo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A5" title="ไฟโล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไฟโล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon" title="Filon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Filon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Філон Александрійський – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Філон Александрійський" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%88" title="فیلو – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فیلو" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filon" title="Filon – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Filon" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%90%E6%B4%9B" title="斐洛 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="斐洛" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q189597#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Philo_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Philo (disambiguation)">Philo (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Philo</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:PhiloThevet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/PhiloThevet.jpg/250px-PhiloThevet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/PhiloThevet.jpg/330px-PhiloThevet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/PhiloThevet.jpg/500px-PhiloThevet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1635" data-file-height="1983" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Imaginative illustration of Philo made in 1584 by the French portrait artist <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Thevet" title="André Thevet">André Thevet</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 20 BCE</span><br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Roman Egypt</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 50 CE</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretation" class="mw-redirect" title="Allegorical interpretation">Allegorical interpretation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Philo of Alexandria</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Φίλων</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Phílōn</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">יְדִידְיָה</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">Yəḏīḏyāh</i></span>; <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circa#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:circa">c.</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 20 BCE</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;">  50 CE</span>), also called <b><span title="Latin-language text"><span lang="la" style="font-style: normal;">Philō Judæus</span></span></b>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic Jewish">Hellenistic Jewish</a> philosopher who lived in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman province of Egypt">Roman province of Egypt</a>. </p><p>The only event in Philo's life that can be decisively dated is his representation of the <a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandrian Jews">Alexandrian Jews</a> in a delegation to the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a> in 40 CE following civil strife between the Jewish and Greek communities of Alexandria.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philo was a leading writer of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Alexandria" title="History of the Jews in Alexandria">Hellenistic Jewish community in Alexandria</a>, Egypt. He wrote expansively in <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> on <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> in his time; specifically, he explored the connections between Greek <a href="/wiki/Platonic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic philosophy">Platonic philosophy</a> and late <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a>. For example, he maintained that the Greek-language <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish law">Jewish law</a> still being developed by the rabbis of the period together serve as a blueprint for the pursuit of individual enlightenment. </p><p>Philo's deployment of <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegory</a> to harmonize Jewish scripture, mainly the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a> was the first documented of its kind, and thereby often misunderstood. Many critics of Philo assumed his allegorical perspective would lend credibility to the notion of legend over historicity.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philo often advocated a literal understanding of the Torah and the historicity of such described events, while at other times favoring allegorical readings.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philo's dates of birth and death are unknown but can be judged by Philo's description of himself as "old" when he was part of the delegation to <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Gaius Caligula</a> in 38 CE. Jewish history professor <a href="/wiki/Daniel_R._Schwartz" title="Daniel R. Schwartz">Daniel R. Schwartz</a> estimates his birth year as sometime between 15 and 10 BCE. Philo's reference to an event under the reign of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> indicates that he died sometime between 45 and 50 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philo also recounts that he visited the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a> in Jerusalem at least once in his lifetime.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family">Family</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the names of his parents are unknown, it is known that Philo came from a family which was noble, honourable and wealthy. It was either his father or paternal grandfather who was granted <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a> from Roman dictator Gaius <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> wrote that Philo came <i>de genere sacerdotum</i> (from a priestly family).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His ancestors and family had social ties and connections to the priesthood in <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Herodian_dynasty" title="Herodian dynasty">Herodian dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>. </p><p>Philo had one brother, Alexander Lysimachus, who was the general tax administrator of customs in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>. He accumulated an immense amount of wealth, becoming not only the richest man in that city but also in the entire Hellenistic world. Alexander was so rich that he gave a loan to the wife of <a href="/wiki/Herod_Agrippa" title="Herod Agrippa">king Herod Agrippa</a>, as well as gold and silver to overlay the nine gates of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple#Herod's_Temple" title="Second Temple">temple in Jerusalem</a>. Due to his extreme wealth, Alexander was also influential in imperial Roman circles as a friend of emperor Claudius.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through Alexander, Philo had two nephews, <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Alexander" title="Tiberius Julius Alexander">Tiberius Julius Alexander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Julius_Alexander" title="Marcus Julius Alexander">Marcus Julius Alexander</a>. The latter was the first husband of the Herodian princess <a href="/wiki/Berenice_(daughter_of_Herod_Agrippa)" title="Berenice (daughter of Herod Agrippa)">Berenice</a>. Marcus died in 43 or 44. Some scholars identify Alexander Lysimachus as the Alexander referenced in the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Book of Acts</a>, who presided over the <a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a> trial of <a href="/wiki/John_the_Apostle" title="John the Apostle">John</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Diplomacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philo lived in an era of increasing ethnic tension in Alexandria, exacerbated by the new strictures of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">imperial rule</a>. Some expatriate Hellenes (Greeks) in Alexandria condemned the Jews for a supposed alliance with Rome, even as Rome was seeking to suppress Jewish national and cultural identity in the <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Roman province of Judaea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Antiquities_of_the_Jews" title="Antiquities of the Jews">Antiquities of the Jews</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> tells of Philo's selection by the Alexandrian Jewish community as their principal representative before the Roman emperor Gaius Caligula. He says that Philo agreed to represent the Alexandrian Jews about the civil disorder that had developed between the Jews and the Greeks. Josephus also tells us that Philo was skilled in philosophy and that he was brother to the <a href="/wiki/Alabarch" title="Alabarch">alabarch</a> Alexander.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Josephus, Philo and the larger Jewish community refused to treat the emperor as a god, to erect statues in honour of the emperor, and to build altars and temples to the emperor. Josephus says Philo believed that God actively supported this refusal. </p><p>Josephus' complete comments about Philo: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There was now a tumult arisen at Alexandria, between the Jewish inhabitants and the Greeks; and three ambassadors were chosen out of each party that were at variance, who came to Gaius. Now one of these ambassadors from the people of Alexandria was <a href="/wiki/Apion" title="Apion">Apion</a>, (29) who uttered many blasphemies against the Jews; and, among other things that he said, he charged them with neglecting the honors that belonged to Caesar; for that while all who were subject to the Roman empire built altars and temples to Gaius, and in other regards universally received him as they received the gods, these Jews alone thought it a dishonorable thing for them to erect statues in honor of him, as well as to swear by his name. Many of these severe things were said by Apion, by which he hoped to provoke Gaius to anger at the Jews, as he was likely to be. But Philo, the principal of the Jewish embassage, a man eminent on all accounts, brother to Alexander the Alabarch, (30) and one not unskillful in philosophy, was ready to betake himself to make his defense against those accusations; but Gaius prohibited him, and bid him begone; he was also in such a rage, that it openly appeared he was about to do them some very great mischief. So Philo being thus affronted, went out, and said to those Jews who were about him, that they should be of good courage, since Gaius's words indeed showed anger at them, but in reality had already set God against himself.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This event is also described in Book 2, Chapter 5 of <a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Church_History_(Eusebius)" class="mw-redirect" title="Church History (Eusebius)">Historia Ecclesiae</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philo along with his brothers received a thorough education. They were educated in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period#Culture" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic culture</a> of Alexandria and the <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">culture of ancient Rome</a>, to a degree in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Ancient Egyptian religion</a> and particularly in the traditions of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, in the study of Jewish traditional literature and in <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a>. </p><p>In his works, Philo shows extensive influence not only from philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a>, but also poets and orators, especially <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDillon1996140_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon1996140-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philo's largest philosophical influence was Plato, drawing heavily from the <i>Timaeus</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a></i>, and also from the <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedo" title="Phaedo">Phaedo</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)" title="Theaetetus (dialogue)">Theaetetus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Symposium_(Plato)" title="Symposium (Plato)">Symposium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Laws_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws (Plato)">Laws</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDillon1996140_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon1996140-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The extent of Philo's knowledge of Hebrew, however, is debated. Philo was more fluent in Greek than in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and read the <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Jewish Scriptures</a> chiefly from the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> translation of Hebraic texts later compiled as the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books" title="Deuterocanonical books">deuterocanonical books</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz18_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz18-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His numerous etymologies of Hebrew names, which are along the lines of the <a href="/wiki/Etymologic" class="mw-redirect" title="Etymologic">etymologic</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">midrash</a></i> to Genesis and of the earlier <a href="/wiki/Rabbinical_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbinical Judaism">rabbinism</a>, although not modern Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a>, suggest some familiarity.<sup id="cite_ref-JE_Knowledge_of_Hebrew_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JE_Knowledge_of_Hebrew-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philo offers for some names three or four etymologies, sometimes including the correct Hebrew root (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D7%99%D6%BE%D7%A8%D6%BE%D7%93" class="extiw" title="wikt:י־ר־ד">י־ר־ד</a></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">y-r-d</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'descend' as the origin of the name <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>). However, his works do not display much understanding of <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew grammar">Hebrew grammar</a>, and they tend to follow the translation of the Septuagint more closely than the Hebrew version.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz18_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz18-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philo identified the angel of the Lord (in the singular) with the <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the text attributed to Philo, he "consistently uses <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="/wiki/Kyrios" title="Kyrios">Κύριος</a></span></span> as a designation for God".<sup id="cite_ref-McDonough_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McDonough-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to David B. Capes, "the problem for this case, however, is that Christian scholars are responsible for copying and transmitting Philo's words to later generations", and adds, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><a href="/wiki/George_Howard_(Hebraist)" title="George Howard (Hebraist)">George Howard</a> surveys evidence and concludes: "Although it is improbable that Philo varied from the custom of writing the Tetragram when quoting from Scripture, it is likely that he used the word <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Κύριος</span></span> when making a secondary reference to the divine name in his exposition".<sup id="cite_ref-Stuckenbruck-North_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stuckenbruck-North-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> James Royse concludes:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>(1) the exegete [Philo] knows and reads biblical manuscripts in which the tetragram is written in <a href="/wiki/Palaeo-Hebrew_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeo-Hebrew alphabet">palaeo-Hebrew</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic script">Aramaic script</a> and not translated by <i>kyrios</i> and that (2) he quotes scriptures in the same way he would have pronounced it, that is, by translating it as <i>kurios</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-Stuckenbruck-North_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stuckenbruck-North-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Guide for the Perplexed"><img alt="Guide for the Perplexed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg/250px-Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg/330px-Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg/500px-Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic</a></span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Positions:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasmoneans" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmoneans">Hasmonean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisee</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Boethusians" title="Boethusians">Boethusian</a></li></ul></div></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>People:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_of_Alexandria" title="Aristobulus of Alexandria">Aristobulus of Alexandria</a></li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philo of Alexandria</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in the Middle Ages">Medieval</a></span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Influenced by:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Brethren of Purity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajjah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajjah">Ibn Bajjah (Avempace)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ismailism" title="Ismailism">Ismaili philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Kalam" title="Jewish Kalam">Jewish Kalam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Spanish and European:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasdai_ibn_Shaprut" title="Hasdai ibn Shaprut">Hasdai ibn Shaprut</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Ibn Gabirol</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_bar_Hiyya" title="Abraham bar Hiyya">Abraham bar Hiyya</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bahya_ibn_Paquda" title="Bahya ibn Paquda">Bahya ibn Paquda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud" title="Abraham ibn Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_ibn_Tzaddik" title="Joseph ibn Tzaddik">Joseph ibn Tzaddik</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra" title="Abraham ibn Ezra">Abraham ibn Ezra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nachmanides" title="Nachmanides">Nachmanides</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_ibn_Tibbon" title="Samuel ibn Tibbon">Samuel ibn Tibbon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_ben_Judah_of_Ceuta" title="Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta">Joseph ben Judah</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shem-Tov_ibn_Falaquera" title="Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera">Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Moses_ben_Joshua" title="Moses ben Joshua">Moses of Narbonne</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_ben_Sheshet" title="Isaac ben Sheshet">Isaac ben Sheshet</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Albo" title="Joseph Albo">Joseph Albo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Elia_del_Medigo" title="Elia del Medigo">Elia del Medigo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Minz" title="Judah Minz">Judah Minz</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Abarbanel" title="Isaac Abarbanel">Isaac Abarbanel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Leon_Abravanel" title="Judah Leon Abravanel">Judah Leon Abravanel</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Yemenite:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natan%27el_al-Fayyumi" title="Natan'el al-Fayyumi">Natan'el al-Fayyumi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hoter_ben_Shlomo" title="Hoter ben Shlomo">Mansur ibn Sulayman al-Ghamari</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Other:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/David_ibn_Merwan_al-Mukkamas" title="David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas">al-Mukkamas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hibat_Allah_Abu%27l-Barakat_al-Baghdaadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi">Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kammuna" title="Ibn Kammuna">Ibn Kammuna</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Positions:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides#Influence" title="Maimonides">Maimonidean / Anti-Maimonidean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabbalists">Kabbalist</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Karaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaism">Karaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Talmudists" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmudists">Talmudic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tosafists" class="mw-redirect" title="Tosafists">Tosafist</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish denominations">Modern</a></span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Positions:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_philosophy" title="Orthodox Jewish philosophy">Orthodox</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic Judaism">Sephardic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chabad_philosophy" title="Chabad philosophy">Chabad</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_philosophy" title="Hasidic philosophy">Chassidic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_existentialism" title="Jewish existentialism">Existentialist</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidism" title="Neo-Hasidism">Neo-Hasidic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mussar_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mussar movement">Mussar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Dor_Daim" title="Dor Daim">Rambamist</a></li></ul></div></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>People:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Sanches" title="Francisco Sanches">Francisco Sanches</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Uriel_da_Costa" title="Uriel da Costa">Uriel da Costa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Salomon_Maimon" title="Salomon Maimon">Salomon Maimon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Solomon_Delmedigo" title="Joseph Solomon Delmedigo">Joseph Solomon Delmedigo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Ba%27al_Shem_of_Chelm" class="mw-redirect" title="Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm">Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Elijah_Ashkenazi" title="Eliezer ben Elijah Ashkenazi">Eliezer ben Elijah Ashkenazi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tzvi_Ashkenazi" title="Tzvi Ashkenazi">Tzvi Ashkenazi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Emden" title="Jacob Emden">Jacob Emden</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hirsch" title="Samuel Hirsch">Samuel Hirsch</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shneur_Zalman_of_Liadi" title="Shneur Zalman of Liadi">Shneur Zalman of Liadi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Simcha_Bunim_of_Peshischa" title="Simcha Bunim of Peshischa">Simcha Bunim of Peshischa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Samson_Raphael_Hirsch" title="Samson Raphael Hirsch">Samson Raphael Hirsch</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Abendana" title="Jacob Abendana">Jacob Abendana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Cardoso" title="Isaac Cardoso">Isaac Cardoso</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/David_Nieto" title="David Nieto">David Nieto</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Orobio_de_Castro" title="Isaac Orobio de Castro">Isaac Orobio de Castro</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_David_Luzzatto" title="Samuel David Luzzatto">Samuel David Luzzatto</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Benamozegh" title="Elijah Benamozegh">Elijah Benamozegh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Hess" title="Moses Hess">Moses Hess</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Berkovits" title="Eliezer Berkovits">Eliezer Berkovits</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eliyahu_Eliezer_Dessler" title="Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler">Eliyahu Dessler</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Monsieur_Chouchani" title="Monsieur Chouchani">Monsieur Chouchani</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Emmanuel Levinas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gershom_Scholem" title="Gershom Scholem">Gershom Scholem</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Isaac_Kook" title="Abraham Isaac Kook">Abraham Isaac Kook</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Soloveitchik" title="Joseph B. Soloveitchik">Joseph Soloveitchik</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson" title="Menachem Mendel Schneerson">Menachem Mendel Schneerson</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><span style="font-size:120%">Topics</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anger_in_Judaism" title="Anger in Judaism">Anger</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosen people</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cosmology" title="Jewish cosmology">Cosmology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Eschatology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Faith</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_in_Judaism" title="Happiness in Judaism">Happiness</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_in_Judaism" title="Holiness in Judaism">Holiness</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Microcosm%E2%80%93macrocosm_analogy_in_Jewish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcosm–macrocosm analogy in Jewish philosophy">Microcosm–macrocosm</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tzadik" title="Tzadik">Righteousness</a></li></ul></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_philosophy" title="Template:Jewish philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_philosophy" title="Template talk:Jewish philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Philo represents the apex of Jewish-Hellenistic <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a>. His work attempts to combine Plato and Moses into one philosophical system.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allegorical_interpretation">Allegorical interpretation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Allegorical interpretation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretations_of_Plato" title="Allegorical interpretations of Plato">Allegorical interpretations of Plato</a></div> <p>Philo bases his doctrines on the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, which he considers the source and standard not only of religious truth but of all truth.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its pronouncements are the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἱερὸς λόγος</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">θεῖος λόγος</span></span>, and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὀρθὸς λόγος</span></span> (holy word, godly word, righteous word),<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> uttered sometimes directly and sometimes through the mouth of a prophet, and especially through <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>, whom Philo considers the true medium of <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a>. However, he distinguishes between the words uttered by God himself, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Moses" title="Law of Moses">edicts of Moses</a> (as the special laws).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philo regards the Bible as the source not only of religious revelation but also of philosophical truth. By applying the Stoic mode of allegorical interpretation to the Hebrew Bible, he interpreted the stories of <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">the first five books</a> as elaborate <a href="/wiki/Metaphors" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphors">metaphors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbols">symbols</a> to demonstrate that Greek philosophers' ideas had preceded them in the Bible: <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>'s concept of <a href="/wiki/Binary_opposition" title="Binary opposition">binary oppositions</a>, according to <i>Who is the Heir of Divine Things?</i> § 43 [i. 503]; and the conception of the wise man expounded by <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>, in <i>Every Good Man is Free</i>, § 8 [ii. 454].<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philo did not reject the subjective experience of ancient Judaism; yet, he repeatedly explained that the Septuagint cannot be understood as a concrete, objective history. </p><p>Philo's allegorical interpretation of scripture allows him to grapple with morally disturbing events and impose a cohesive explanation of stories. Specifically, Philo interprets the characters of the Bible as aspects of the human being and the stories of the Bible as episodes from universal human experience. For example, <a href="/wiki/Adam" title="Adam">Adam</a> represents the mind and <a href="/wiki/Eve" title="Eve">Eve</a>, the senses. <a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a> represents tranquility, a stage of "relative"—incomplete but progressing—righteousness.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, Philo was inspired mainly in this by <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_of_Alexandria" title="Aristobulus of Alexandria">Aristobulus of Alexandria</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_school" title="Alexandrian school">Alexandrian school</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britannica.com_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Numerology">Numerology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Numerology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philo frequently engaged in <a href="/wiki/Numerology#Pythagorean_system" title="Numerology">Pythagorean-inspired numerology</a>, explaining at length the importance of the first 10 numerals:<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>One is <a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">God’s number</a> and the basis for all numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Two is the number of <a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">schism</a>, that which has been created, and death.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Three is the number of the body ("De Allegoriis Legum," i. 2 [i. 44]) or of the Divine Being in connection with its fundamental powers ("De Sacrificiis Abelis et Caini," § 15 [i. 173]).</li> <li>Four is potentially what ten is actually: the perfect number ("<a href="/wiki/De_Opificio_Mundi" class="mw-redirect" title="De Opificio Mundi">De Opificio Mundi</a>," §§ 15, 16 [i. 10, 11], etc.); but in an evil sense, four is the number of the passions, πάθη ("De Congressu Quærendæ Eruditionis Gratia." § 17 [i. 532]).</li> <li>Five is the number of the senses and of sensibility ("De Opificio Mundi," § 20 [i. 14], etc.).</li> <li>Six, the product of the masculine and feminine numbers 3×2 and in its parts equal to 3+3, is the symbol of the movement of organic beings ("De Allegoriis Legum," i. 2 [i. 44]).</li> <li>Seven has the most various attributes ("De Opiticio Mundi," §§ 30-43 [i. 21 et seq.]; comp. I. G. Müller, "Philo und die Weltschöpfung," 1841, p. 211).</li> <li>Eight, the number of the cube, has many of the attributes determined by the <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a> ("Quæstiones in Genesin," iii. 49 [i. 223, Aucher]).</li> <li>Nine is the number of strife, according to Gen. xiv. ("De Congressu Qu. Eruditionis Gratia," § 17 [i. 532]).</li> <li>Ten is the number of perfection ("De Plantatione Noë," § 29 [i. 347]).</li></ol> <p>Philo also determines the values of the numbers 50, 70, 100, 12, and 120. There is also extensive symbolism of objects. Philo elaborates on the extensive symbolism of proper names, following the example of the Bible and the <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a>, to which he adds many new interpretations.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theology">Theology<span class="anchor" id="View_of_God"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philo stated his <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> both through the <a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">negation of opposing ideas</a> and through detailed, positive explanations of the <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">nature of God</a>; he contrasted the nature of God with the nature of the physical world. Philo did not consider God similar to <a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">Heaven</a>, the <a href="/wiki/World_(theology)" class="mw-redirect" title="World (theology)">world</a>, or man; he affirmed a <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcendent God</a> without physical features or emotional qualities resembling those of human beings. Following Plato, Philo equates matter to nothingness and sees its effect in fallacy, discord, damage, and decay of things.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only God's existence is specific; no appropriate predicates can be conceived.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To Philo, God exists beyond time and space and does not make <a href="/wiki/Divine_intervention" title="Divine intervention">special interventions</a> into the world because God already encompasses the entire cosmos. </p><p>Philo also integrated select theology from the rabbinic tradition,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Statement needs to be more specific about the content to which it refers. (October 2024)">specify</span></a></i>]</sup> including God's <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcendence</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and humankind's inability to behold an <a href="/wiki/Ineffability" title="Ineffability">ineffable</a> God.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that God has no attributes (ἁπλοῡς)—in consequence, no name (ἅρρητος)—and, therefore, that God cannot be perceived by man (ἀκατάληπτος). Furthermore, he posited that <a href="/wiki/Immutability_(theology)" title="Immutability (theology)">God cannot change</a> (ἅτρεπτος): God is always the same (ἀΐδιος). God needs no other being (χρῄζει γὰρ οὐδενὸς τὸ παράπαν) for self-existence or the creation of material things,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and God is self-sufficient (ἑαυτῷ ἱκανός).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> God can never perish (ἅφθαρτος), is self-existent (ὁ ὤν, τὸ ὄν), and has no relations with any other being (τὸ γὰρ ὄν, ᾗ ὄν ἐστιν, οὐχὶ τῶν πρός τι).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anthropomorphism">Anthropomorphism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Anthropomorphism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philo considered the <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism#In_religion_and_mythology" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphism</a> of the Bible to be an impiety that was incompatible with the Platonic conception of "God in opposition to matter", instead interpreting the ascription to God of <a href="/wiki/Hand_of_God_(art)" title="Hand of God (art)">hands</a> and feet, eyes and ears, tongue and windpipe, as allegories.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Philo's interpretation, Hebrew scripture adapts itself to human conceptions, and so God is occasionally represented as a man for <a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">pedagogic</a> reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same holds true for God's <a href="/wiki/Anthropopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropopathy">anthropopathic</a> attributes. God, as such, is untouched by unreasonable emotions, as appears in <a href="/wiki/Ki_Tissa" title="Ki Tissa">Exodus 32</a>:12, wherein Moses, torn by his feelings, perceives God alone to be calm.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is free from sorrow, pain, and other affections. But God is frequently represented as endowed with human emotions, and this serves to explain expressions referring to human <a href="/wiki/Repentance_in_Judaism" title="Repentance in Judaism">repentance</a> in the ancient Jewish context. </p><p>Similarly, God cannot exist or change in space. He has no "where" (πού, obtained by changing the accent in Genesis 3:9: "Adam, where [ποῡ] art thou?"), is not in any place. He is Himself the place; the dwelling-place of God means the same as God Himself, as in the Mishnah = "God is" (comp. Freudenthal, "Hellenistische Studien," p. 73), corresponding to the tenet of Greek philosophy that the existence of all things is summed up in God.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> God as such is motionless, as the Bible indicates by the phrase "God stands".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Divine_attributes">Divine attributes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Divine attributes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philo endeavored to find the Divine Being active and acting in the world, in agreement with Stoicism, yet his Platonic conception of Matter as evil required that he place God outside of the world in order to prevent God from having any contact with evil. Hence, he was obliged to separate from the Divine Being the activity displayed in the world and to transfer it to the divine powers, which accordingly were sometimes inherent in God and at other times exterior to God. In order to balance these Platonic and Stoic conceptions, Philo conceived of these divine attributes as types or patterns of actual things ("archetypal ideas") in keeping with Plato, but also regarded them as the efficient causes that not only represent the types of things, but also produce and maintain them.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philo endeavored to harmonize this conception with the Bible by designating these powers as angels.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philo conceives the powers both as independent hypostases and as immanent attributes of a Divine Being. </p><p>In the same way, Philo contrasts the two divine attributes of goodness and power (ἄγαθότης and ἀρχή, δίναμις χαριστική and συγκολαστική) as expressed in the names of God; designating "Yhwh" as Goodness, Philo interpreted "Elohim" (LXX. Θεός) as designating the "cosmic power"; and as he considered the Creation the most important proof of divine goodness, he found the idea of goodness especially in Θεός.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Logos">Logos</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Logos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philo also treats the divine powers of God as a single independent being, or <a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">demiurge</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-cdpPhilo_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cdpPhilo-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which he designates "<a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a>". Philo's conception of the Logos is influenced by <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>' conception of the "dividing Logos" (λόγος τομεύς), which calls the various objects into existence by the combination of contrasts ("Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," § 43 [i. 503]), as well as the Stoic characterization of the Logos as the active and vivifying power. </p><p>But Philo followed the Platonic distinction between <a href="/wiki/Hyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyle">imperfect matter</a> and perfect Form, and Philo's conception of the Logos is directly related to the Middle Platonic view of God as unmoved and utterly transcendent; therefore, intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world.<sup id="cite_ref-hpPhilo_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hpPhilo-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Logos was the highest of these intermediary beings and was called by Philo "the first-born of God."<sup id="cite_ref-hpPhilo_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hpPhilo-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philo also adapted Platonic elements in designating the Logos as the "idea of ideas" and the "archetypal idea".<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philo identified Plato's <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Ideas</a> with the demiurge's thoughts. These thoughts make the contents of Logos; they were the seals for making sensual things during world creation.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Logos resembles a book with creature paradigms.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An Architect's design before the construction of a city serves to Philo as another simile of Logos.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since creation, Logos binds things together.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the receptacle and holder of ideas, Logos is distinct from the material world. At the same time, Logos pervades the world, supporting it.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This image of God is the type for all other things (the "Archetypal Idea" of Plato), a seal impressed upon things. The Logos is a kind of shadow cast by God, having the outlines but not the blinding light of the Divine Being.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He calls the Logos "second god [deuteros theos]"<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the "name of God," <sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are, in addition, Biblical elements: Philo connects his doctrine of the Logos with Scripture, first of all, based on Genesis 1:27, the relation of the Logos to God. He translates this passage as follows: "He made man after the image of God," concluding from that place that an image of God existed.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Logos is also designated as "<a href="/wiki/Kohen_Gadol" class="mw-redirect" title="Kohen Gadol">high priest</a>" in reference to the exalted position that the high priest occupied after the Exile as the physical center of the Jews' relationship with God. The Logos, like the high priest, is the expiator of the Jews' sins and the mediator and advocate for humankind before, and envoy to, God: ἱκέτης,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and παράκλητος.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He puts human minds in order.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The right reason is an infallible law, the source of any other laws. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag is a non sequitur, and needs to be integrated into the text in a way that is meaningful to the reader. (October 2024)"><i>non sequitur</i></span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The angel blocking <a href="/wiki/Balaam" title="Balaam">Balaam</a>'s way in <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Numbers" title="Book of Numbers">Numbers</a> 22:22–35 is interpreted by Philo as a manifestation of the Logos, which acts as Balaam's—or humankind's—conscience.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, the Logos becomes the aspect of the divine that operates in the world through whom the world is created and sustained.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sch%C3%A4fer" title="Peter Schäfer">Peter Schäfer</a> argues that Philo's Logos was derived from his understanding of the "postbiblical <a href="/wiki/Wisdom_literature" title="Wisdom literature">Wisdom literature</a>, in particular the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Wisdom" title="Book of Wisdom">Wisdom of Solomon</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Wisdom of Solomon is a Jewish work composed in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a>, around the 1st century BCE, to bolster the faith of the Jewish community in a hostile Greek world. It is one of the seven <a href="/wiki/Sapiential_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapiential Books">Sapiential</a> or Wisdom books included in the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soul">Soul</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Soul"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Logos has a special relation to humankind. Philo seems to look at humans as a <a href="/wiki/Trichotomy_(philosophy)" title="Trichotomy (philosophy)">trichotomy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">nous</a> (mind), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psyche" class="extiw" title="wikt:psyche">psyche</a> (soul), and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/soma" class="extiw" title="wikt:soma">soma</a> (body), which was common to the Hellenistic view of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">mind-body relationship</a>. In Philo's writings, however, mind and spirit are used interchangeably.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The soul is the type; man is the copy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Technical_language" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style"><span title="The material near this tag may be using jargon that limits the article's accessibility. (October 2024)">jargon</span></a></i>]</sup> The similarity is found in the mind (νοῦς) of humans. For the shaping of the nous, the individual has the Logos for a pattern to follow. The latter officiates here also as "the divider" (τομεύς), separating and uniting. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Technical_language" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style"><span title="The material near this tag may be using jargon that limits the article's accessibility. (October 2024)">jargon</span></a></i>]</sup> The Logos, as "interpreter," announces God's designs to humankind, acting in this respect as prophet and priest. As the latter, the Logos softens punishments by making God's merciful power stronger than the punitive. The Logos has a special mystic influence upon the human soul, illuminating it and nourishing it with higher spiritual food, like the manna, of which the most diminutive piece has the same vitality as the whole.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics_and_politics">Ethics and politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ethics and politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philo's ethics were strongly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>, preferring a morality of virtues without passions, such as lust/desire and anger, but with a "common human sympathy".<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commentators can also infer from his mission to <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a> that Philo was involved in politics. However, the nature of his political beliefs, especially his viewpoint on the Roman Empire, is a matter of debate.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philo did suggest in his writings that a prudent man should withhold his genuine opinion about tyrants: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>he will of necessity take up caution as a shield, as a protection to prevent his suffering any sudden and unexpected evil; for as I imagine what a wall is to a city, that caution is to an individual. Do not these men then talk foolishly, are they not mad, who desire to display their inexperience and freedom of speech to kings and tyrants, at times daring to speak and to do things in opposition to their will? Do they not perceive that they have not only put their necks under the yoke like brute beasts, but that they have also surrendered and betrayed their whole bodies and souls likewise, and their wives and their children, and their parents, and all the rest of the numerous kindred and community of their other relations? ... when an opportunity offers, it is a good thing to attack our enemies and put down their power; but when we have no such opportunity, it is better to be quiet<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The works of Philo are mostly allegorical interpretations of the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> (known in the Hellenic world as the <a href="/wiki/Pentateuch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentateuch">Pentateuch</a>) but also include histories and comments on philosophy. Most of these were preserved in Greek by the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>; some survive only through an Armenian translation, and a smaller number survive in a <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> translation. The exact dates of writing and original organization plans are unknown for many of the texts attributed to Philo.<sup id="cite_ref-Royse_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Royse-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commentaries_on_the_Pentateuch">Commentaries on the Pentateuch</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Commentaries on the Pentateuch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most of Philo's surviving work deals with the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> (the first five books of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>). Within this corpus are three categories:<sup id="cite_ref-Royse_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Royse-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>Quaestiones</i> ("<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quaestiones" class="extiw" title="wikt:quaestiones">Inquiries</a>") – short verse-by-verse exposition: four books on the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a> and two on the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a>. All six books are preserved through an Armenian translation published by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Baptiste_Aucher&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Baptiste Aucher (page does not exist)">Jean-Baptiste Aucher</a> in 1826. A comparison with surviving Greek and Latin fragments recommends the translation as literal and accurate as it goes, but it suggests that some original content is missing. There are thought to be twelve original books, six of which are about Genesis and six of which are about Exodus.</li> <li><i>Allegorical Commentary</i> – a longer exegesis explaining esoteric meanings; the surviving text deals only with the Book of Genesis, with the notable omission of <a href="/wiki/Genesis_creation_narrative" title="Genesis creation narrative">Genesis 1</a>.</li> <li>"Exposition of the Law" – a more straightforward synthesis of topics in the Pentateuch, probably written for Gentiles as well as Jews.</li></ul> <p>Philo's commentary on the Pentateuch is usually classified into three genres. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quaestiones">Quaestiones</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Quaestiones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Quaestiones</i> explain the Pentateuch catechetically, in the form of questions and answers ("Zητήματα καὶ Λύσεις, Quæstiones et Solutiones"). Only the following fragments have been preserved: abundant passages in Armenian – possibly the complete work – in explanation of Genesis and Exodus, an old Latin translation of a part of the "Genesis", and fragments from the Greek text in <a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a>, in the "Sacra Parallela", in the "Catena", and also in <a href="/wiki/Ambrosius" title="Ambrosius">Ambrosius</a>. The explanation is confined chiefly to determining the literal sense, although Philo frequently refers to the allegorical sense as the higher. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Allegorical_commentary_of_the_Torah">Allegorical commentary of the Torah</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Allegorical commentary of the Torah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Νόμων Ἱερῶν Ἀλληγορίαι, or "Legum Allegoriæ", deals, so far as it has been preserved, with selected passages from <a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Genesis" class="mw-redirect" title="The Book of Genesis">Genesis</a>. According to Philo's original idea, the history of primal humanity is here considered a symbol of the religious and moral development of the human soul. This commentary included the following treatises: </p> <ol><li>"Legum allegoriae", books i.–iii., on Gen. ii. 1–iii. 1a, 8b–19 (on the original extent and contents of these three books and the probably more correct combination of i. and ii.)<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"De <a href="/wiki/Cherubim" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherubim">cherubim</a>", on Gen. iii. 24, iv. 1;</li> <li>"De sacrificiis <a href="/wiki/Cain_and_Abel" title="Cain and Abel">Abelis et Caini</a>", on Gen. iv. 2–4;<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"De eo quod deterius potiori insidiatur";</li> <li>"De <a href="/wiki/Cainites" title="Cainites">posteritate Caini</a>", on Gen. iv. 16-25<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"De <a href="/wiki/Nephilim" title="Nephilim">gigantibus</a>", on Gen. vi. 1–4;</li> <li>"Quod Deus sit immutabilis", on Gen. vi. 4–12<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"De Agricultura <a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noë</a>", on Gen. ix. 20;<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"De Plantatione", on Gen. ix. 20b;<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"De <a href="/wiki/Drunkenness" class="mw-redirect" title="Drunkenness">Ebrietate</a>", on Gen. ix. 21<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Resipuit; Noë, seu De <a href="/wiki/Sobriety" title="Sobriety">Sobrietate</a>", on Gen. ix. 24–27;</li> <li>"De <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Babel" title="Tower of Babel">Confusione Linguarum</a>", on Gen. xi. 1–9;</li> <li>"De Migratione <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abrahami</a>", on Gen. xii. 1–6;</li> <li>"Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit", on Gen. xv. 2–18;<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"De Congressu Quærendæ Eruditionis Gratia", on Gen. xvi. 1–6;</li> <li>"De Profugis",<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on Gen. xvi. 6–14;</li> <li>"De Mutatione Nominum", on Gen. xvii, 1–22;<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"De Somniis", book i., on Gen. xxviii. 12 et seq., xxxi. 11 et seq. (<a href="/wiki/Jacob%27s_ladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacob's ladder">Jacob's dreams</a>); "De Somniis", book ii., on <a href="/wiki/Joseph_(Genesis)#Joseph_in_prison" title="Joseph (Genesis)">Gen. xxxvii. 40 et seq.</a> (the dreams of Joseph, of the cupbearer, the baker, and Pharaoh). Philo's three other books on dreams have been lost. The first of these (on the dreams of <a href="/wiki/Abimelech" title="Abimelech">Abimelech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laban_(Bible)" title="Laban (Bible)">Laban</a>) preceded the present book i., and discussed the dreams in which God Himself spoke with the dreamers, this fitting in very well with Gen. xx. 3.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Exposition_of_the_Law">Exposition of the Law</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Exposition of the Law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Moses_in_rabbinic_literature" title="Moses in rabbinic literature">Moses in rabbinic literature</a></div> <p>Philo wrote a systematic work on <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> and his laws, which is usually prefaced by the treatise "<a href="/wiki/De_Opificio_Mundi" class="mw-redirect" title="De Opificio Mundi">De Opificio Mundi</a>". The Creation is, according to Philo, the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Mosaic</a> legislation, which is in complete harmony with nature ("De Opificio Mundi", § 1 [i. 1]). The exposition of the Law then follows in two sections. First come the biographies of the men who antedated the several written laws of the Torah, as <a href="/wiki/Enos_(biblical_figure)" title="Enos (biblical figure)">Enos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enoch_(ancestor_of_Noah)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enoch (ancestor of Noah)">Enoch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a>. These were the Patriarchs, who were the living impersonations of the active law of virtue before there were any written laws. </p><p>Then, the laws are discussed in detail: first, the chief ten commandments (the Decalogue), and then the precepts in amplification of each law. The work is divided into the following treatises: </p> <ol><li>"De Opificio Mundi" (comp. Siegfried in "Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Theologie", 1874, pp. 562–565; L Cohn's important separate edition of this treatise, Breslau, 1889, preceded the edition of the same in "Philonis Alexandrini", etc., 1896, i.).</li> <li>"De Abrahamo", on Abraham, the representative of the virtue acquired by learning. The lives of Isaac and Jacob have been lost. The three patriarchs were intended as types of the ideal cosmopolitan condition of the world.</li> <li>"De Josepho", the life of Joseph, intended to show how the wise man must act in the actually existing state.</li> <li>"De Vita Mosis", books i.-iii.; Schürer, l.c. p. 523, combines the three books into two; but, as Massebieau shows (l.c. pp. 42 et seq.), a passage, though hardly an entire book, is missing at the end of the present second book (Wendland, in "Hermes", xxxi. 440). Schürer (l.c. pp. 515, 524) excludes this work here, although he admits that from a literary point of view, it fits into this group, but he considers it foreign to the work in general, since Moses, unlike the Patriarchs, can not be conceived as a universally valid type of moral action, and can not be described as such. The latter point may be admitted. However, the question remains whether it is necessary to consider the matter in this light. It seems most natural to preface the discussion of the law with the biography of the legislator. In contrast, the transition from Joseph to the legislation, from the statesman who has nothing to do with the divine laws to the discussion of these laws themselves, is forced and abrupt. As the perfect man, Moses unites in himself, in a way, all the faculties of the patriarchal types. His is the "most pure mind" ("De Mutatione Nominum", 37 [i. 610]), he is the "lover of virtue", who has been purified from all passions ("De Allegoriis Legum", iii. 45, 48 [i. 113, 115]). As the person awaiting the divine revelation, he is also specially fitted to announce it to others after receiving it in the form of the Commandments (ib. iii. 4 [i. 89 et seq.]).</li> <li>"De Decalogo", the introductory treatise to the chief ten commandments of the Law.</li> <li>"De Specialibus Legibus", in which treatise Philo attempts to systematize the several laws of the Torah and to arrange them in conformity with the Ten Commandments. To the first and second commandments he adds the laws relating to priests and sacrifices; to the third (misuse of the name of God), the laws on oaths, vows, etc.; to the fourth (on the Sabbath), the laws on festivals; to the fifth (to honor father and mother), the laws on respect for parents, old age, etc.; to the sixth, the marriage laws; to the seventh, the civil and criminal laws; to the eighth, the laws on theft; to the ninth, the laws on truthful testifying; and to the tenth, the laws on lust.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first book includes the following treatises of the current editions: "De Circumcisione"; "De Monarchia", books i. and ii.; "De Sacerdotum Honoribus"; "De Victimis". On the division of the book into these sections, the titles of the latter, and newly found sections of the text, see Schürer, l.c. p. 517; Wendland, l.c. pp. 136 et seq. The second book includes in the editions a section also entitled "De Specialibus Legibus" (ii. 270–277), to which is added the treatise "De Septenario", which is, however, incomplete in <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mangey" title="Thomas Mangey">Mangey</a>. The greater part of the missing portion was supplied under the title "De Cophini Festo et de Colendis Parentibus" by Mai (1818) and was printed in Richter's edition, v. 48–50, Leipsic, 1828. The complete text of the second book was published by <a href="/wiki/Lobegott_Friedrich_Konstantin_von_Tischendorf" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobegott Friedrich Konstantin von Tischendorf">Tischendorf</a> in his "Philonea" (pp. 1–83). The third book is included under the title "De Specialibus Legibus" in ed. Mangey, ii. 299–334. The fourth book also is entitled "De Specialibus Legibus"; to it, the last sections are added under the titles "De Judice" and "De Concupiscentia" in the usual editions, and they include, also, as an appendix, the sections "De Justitia" and "De Creatione Principum".</li> <li>The treatises "De Fortitudine", "De Caritate", and "De Pœnitentia" are a kind of appendix to "De Specialibus Legibus".<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> combines them into a special book, which, he thinks, was composed by Philo.</li> <li>"De Præmiis et Pœnis" and "De Execratione". On the connection of both <sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the conclusion of the exposition of the Mosaic law.</li></ol> <p>This exposition is more exoteric than allegorical and might have been intended for <a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">gentile</a> audiences.<sup id="cite_ref-Royse_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Royse-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independent_works">Independent works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Independent works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philo is also credited with writing:<sup id="cite_ref-Royse_83-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Royse-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apologetics" title="Apologetics">Apologies</a> for Judaism, including <i>On the Life of Moses</i>, <i>On the Jews</i>, and <i>On the Contemplative Life</i>.</li> <li>Historical works (describing current events in Alexandria and the Roman Empire), including <i>Ad Flaccum</i> and <i>De legatione ad Gaium</i></li> <li>Philosophical works including <i>Every Good Man Is Free</i>, <i>On the Eternity of the World</i>, <i>On Animals</i>, and <i>On Providence</i>, the latter two surviving only through Armenian translation.</li> <li>Works now lost, but mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusebius of Caesarea">Eusebius of Caesarea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ol><li>"On Providence", preserved only in Armenian, and printed from Aucher's Latin translation in the editions of Richter and others (on Greek fragments of the work see Schürer, l.c. pp. 531 et seq.).</li> <li>"De Animalibus" (on the title, see Schürer, l.c. p. 532; in Richter's ed. viii. 101–144).</li> <li>ϓποθετικά ("Counsels"), a work known only through fragments in Eusebius, <i><a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%A6paratio_Evangelica" class="mw-redirect" title="Præparatio Evangelica">Præparatio Evangelica</a></i>, viii. 6, 7. The meaning of the title is open to discussion; it may be identical with the following</li> <li>Περὶ Ἰουδαίων an apology for the Jews (Schürer, l.c. pp. 532 et seq.).</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="That_all_good_men_are_free">That all good men are free</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: That all good men are free"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is the second half of a work on the freedom of the just according to <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> principles. The genuineness of this work has been disputed by <a href="/wiki/Zecharias_Frankel" title="Zecharias Frankel">Frankel</a> (in "Monatsschrift", ii. 30 et seq., 61 et seq.), by <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Gr%C3%A4tz" class="mw-redirect" title="Heinrich Grätz">Grätz</a> ("Gesch." iii. 464 et seq.), and more recently by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ansfeld&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ansfeld (page does not exist)">Ansfeld</a> (1887), <a href="/wiki/Hilgenfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Hilgenfeld">Hilgenfeld</a> (in "Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Theologie", 1888, pp. 49–71), and others. Now <a href="/wiki/Paul_Wendland" title="Paul Wendland">Wendland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ohle" class="mw-redirect" title="Ohle">Ohle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emil_Sch%C3%BCrer" title="Emil Schürer">Schürer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massebieau" class="mw-redirect" title="Massebieau">Massebieau</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Emil_Krell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Emil Krell (page does not exist)">Krell</a> consider it genuine, except the partly interpolated passages on the Essenes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Embassy_to_Gaius"><i>Embassy to Gaius</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Embassy to Gaius"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_riots_(38)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandrian riots (38)">Alexandrian riots (38)</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuremberg_chronicles_f_097r_3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Nuremberg_chronicles_f_097r_3.png/220px-Nuremberg_chronicles_f_097r_3.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Nuremberg_chronicles_f_097r_3.png 1.5x" data-file-width="229" data-file-height="224" /></a><figcaption>Woodcut from <i>Die <a href="/wiki/Hartmann_Schedel" title="Hartmann Schedel">Schedelsche</a> Weltchronik</i> (<a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Chronicle" title="Nuremberg Chronicle">Nuremberg Chronicle</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>In <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Legatio ad Gaium</i></span> (<i>Embassy to Gaius</i>), Philo describes his diplomatic mission to <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Gaius Caligula</a>, one of the few events in his life which is explicitly known. He relates that he was carrying a petition describing the sufferings of the Alexandrian Jews and asking the emperor to secure their rights. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Against_Flaccus"><i>Against Flaccus</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Against Flaccus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>Against Flaccus</i>, Philo describes the situation of the Jews in Egypt, writing that they numbered not less than a million and inhabited two of the five districts in Alexandria. He recounts the abuses of the prefect <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Avilius_Flaccus" title="Aulus Avilius Flaccus">Aulus Avilius Flaccus</a>, who he says retaliated against the Jews when they refused to worship Caligula as a god.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Daniel Schwartz surmises that given this tense background, it may have been politically convenient for Philo to favor abstract monotheism instead of overt pro-Judeanism.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philo considers Caligula's plan to erect a statue of himself in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a> to be a provocation, asking, "Are you making war upon us, because you anticipate that we will not endure such indignity, but that we will fight on behalf of our laws, and die in defence of our national customs? For you cannot possibly have been ignorant of what was likely to result from your attempt to introduce these innovations respecting our temple." In his entire presentation, he implicitly supports the Jewish commitment to rebel against the emperor rather than allow such sacrilege to take place.<sup id="cite_ref-EtG_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EtG-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This account, consisting initially of five books, has been preserved in fragments only (see Schürer, l.c. pp. 525 et seq.).<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philo intended to show the fearful punishment meted out by God to the persecutors of the Jews (on Philo's predilection for similar discussions see Siegfried, "Philo von Alexandria", p. 157). Philo says he was regarded by his people as having unusual prudence due to his age, education, and knowledge. This indicates that he was already an older man at this time (40 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-EtG_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EtG-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="On_the_Contemplative_Life"><i>On the Contemplative Life</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: On the Contemplative Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This work<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> describes the mode of life and the religious festivals of a society of Jewish ascetics, who, according to the author, are widely scattered over the earth and are found predominantly in every <a href="/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)" title="Nome (Egypt)">nome</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. The writer, however, confines himself to describing the <a href="/wiki/Therapeutae" title="Therapeutae">Therapeutae</a>, a colony of hermits settled on <a href="/wiki/Lake_Mareotis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Mareotis">Lake Mareotis</a> in Egypt, where each lives separately in his own dwelling. Six days of the week they spend in pious contemplation, chiefly in connection with Scripture. On the seventh day, both men and women assemble together in a hall, and the leader delivers a discourse consisting of an allegorical interpretation of a scriptural passage. The feast of the fiftieth day is the most celebrated. The ceremony begins with a frugal meal consisting of bread, salted vegetables, and water, during which a passage of Scripture is interpreted. After the meal, the members of the society, in turn, sing religious songs of various kinds, to which the assembly answers with a refrain. The ceremony ends with a choral representation of the triumphal festival Moses and Miriam arranged after the passage through the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, the voices of the men and the women uniting in a choral symphony until the sun rises. After a common morning prayer, each goes home to resume contemplation. Such is the contemplative life (βίος θεωρητικός) led by these Θεραπευταί ("servants of Yhwh"). </p><p>The ancient Christian Church regarded these <i><a href="/wiki/Therapeut%C3%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutæ">Therapeutæ</a></i> as disguised Christian monks. This view has found advocates even recently <a href="/w/index.php?title=P._E._Lucius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="P. E. Lucius (page does not exist)">P. E. Lucius</a>'s opinion, particularly that the Christian monastery of the third century was here glorified in a Jewish disguise, was widely accepted ("Die Therapeuten", 1879). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Massebieau" class="mw-redirect" title="Massebieau">Massebieau</a> ("Revue de l'Histoire des Religions", 1887, xvi. 170 et seq., 284 et seq.), <a href="/wiki/F._C._Conybeare" class="mw-redirect" title="F. C. Conybeare">Conybeare</a> ("Philo About the Contemplative Life", Oxford, 1895), and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Wendland" title="Paul Wendland">Wendland</a> ("Die Therapeuten", etc., Leipsig, 1896) ascribe the entire work to Philo, basing their argument wholly on linguistic reasons, which seem sufficiently conclusive. However, there are significant dissimilarities between the fundamental conceptions of the author of the "De Vita Contemplativa" and those of Philo. The latter looks upon Greek culture and philosophy as allies, and the former is hostile to Greek philosophy (see Siegfried in "Protestantische Kirchenzeitung", 1896, No.42). He repudiates a science that numbered among Its followers the sacred band of the <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreans" class="mw-redirect" title="Pythagoreans">Pythagoreans</a>, inspired men like <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, whom Philo prized ("Quod Omnis Probus", i., ii.; "Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit", 43; "De Providentia", ii. 42, 48, etc.). He considers the <a href="/wiki/Symposium" title="Symposium">symposium</a> a detestable, common drinking bout. This can not be explained as a Stoic diatribe, for Philo would not have repeated it in this case. And Philo would have been the last to interpret the Platonic <a href="/wiki/Eros" title="Eros">Eros</a> in the vulgar way in which it is explained in the "De Vita Contemplativa", 7 (ii. 480), as he repeatedly uses the myth of double man allegorically in his interpretation of Scripture ("<a href="/wiki/De_Opificio_Mundi" class="mw-redirect" title="De Opificio Mundi">De Opificio Mundi</a>", 24; "De Allegoriis Legum", ii. 24). It must furthermore be remembered that Philo in none of his other works mentions these colonies of allegorizing ascetics, in which he would have been highly interested had he known of them. However, pupils of Philo may subsequently have founded similar colonies near Alexandria that endeavored to realize his ideal of a pure life triumphing over the senses and passions, and they might also have been responsible for the one-sided development of certain of the master's principles. While Philo desired to renounce the lusts of this world, he held fast to the scientific culture of Hellenism, which the author of this book denounces. Although Philo liked to withdraw from the world to give himself up entirely to contemplation and bitterly regretted the lack of such repose ("De Specialibus Legibus", 1 [ii. 299]), he did not abandon the work that was required of him by the welfare of his people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_works_ascribed_to_Philo">Other works ascribed to Philo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Other works ascribed to Philo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Philo" title="Pseudo-Philo">Pseudo-Philo</a></div> <ul><li>"De Mundo", a collection of extracts from Philo, especially from the preceding work<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"De Sampsone" and "De Jona", in Armenian, published with Latin translation by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Baptiste_Aucher&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Baptiste Aucher (page does not exist)">Jean-Baptiste Aucher</a>.</li> <li>"Interpretatio Hebraicorum Nominum", a collection, by an anonymous Jew, of the Hebrew names occurring in Philo. <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a> enlarged it by adding New Testament names, and <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> revised it. See below for the etymology of names occurring in Philo's exegetical works.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A "Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum", which was printed in the sixteenth century and then disappeared, has been discussed by Cohn in "J. Q. R." 1898, x. 277–332. It narrates Biblical history from Adam to Saul<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The pseudo-Philonic "Breviarium Temporum", published by <a href="/wiki/Annius_of_Viterbo" title="Annius of Viterbo">Annius of Viterbo</a><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>For a list of Philo's lost works, see Schürer, l.c. p. 534. </p> <ul><li>"De Incorruptibilitate Mundi". <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Bernays" title="Jakob Bernays">Jakob Bernays</a> has argued convincingly that this work is spurious. Its <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/peripatetic" class="extiw" title="wikt:peripatetic">peripatetic</a> basic idea that the world is eternal and indestructible contradicts all those Jewish teachings that were, for Philo, an indisputable presupposition. Bernays has proved simultaneously that the text has been confused through wrong pagination, and he has cleverly restored it.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although Philo was a Jewish Middle Platonist, his influence on both Platonism and Judaism was limited compared to his adaptation by the early Christian Church fathers. His impact on Platonism was mainly restricted to Christian Middle Platonists such as <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a>, and even potential connections to <a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a>, a 2nd-century CE Middle Platonist who also wrote on Judaism and was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a>, cannot be definitively proven.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDillon1996144_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon1996144-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judaism">Judaism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Judaism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Though never properly attributed, Philo's marriage of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exegesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish exegesis">Jewish exegesis</a> with <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a> provided a formula later picked up by other <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a> content from the 3rd and 4th centuries. Philo's ideas were further developed by later Judaism in the doctrines of the <a href="/wiki/Voice_of_God" title="Voice of God">Divine Word</a> creating the world, the divine throne-chariot and its cherub, the divine splendor and its <a href="/wiki/Shekhinah" title="Shekhinah">Shekhinah</a>, the name of God, as well as the names of the angels.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some claimed this lack of credit or affinity for Philo by the Rabbinic leadership at the time was due to his adoption of <a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretation_of_the_Bible" title="Allegorical interpretation of the Bible">allegorical</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Biblical_literalism" title="Biblical literalism">literal interpretations</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>. However, this was more likely due to his criticism of Rabbinic scholars,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as Philo argued their works and ideas were "full of Sybaritic profligacy and licentiousness to their everlasting shame",<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "eager to give a specious appearance to infamous actions, so as to secure notoriety for disgraceful deeds",<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ultimately, that he "disregards the envious disposition of such men, and shall proceed to narrate the true events of Moses' life," of which he felt were unjustly hidden.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For a long time, Philo was read and analyzed chiefly by Christian authors. <a href="/wiki/Azariah_dei_Rossi" title="Azariah dei Rossi">Azariah dei Rossi</a>'s <i>Me'or Enayim: Imre Binah</i> (1575), one of the first Jewish commentaries on Philo, describes four "serious defects" of Philo: reading the Torah in Greek, not Hebrew; belief in primordial matter rather than <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Creatio_ex_nihilo" title="Creatio ex nihilo">creatio ex nihilo</a></i></span>; unbelief in the Lord as evidenced by excessively allegorical interpretation of scripture; and neglect of the <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">Jewish oral tradition</a>. Dei Rossi later gives a possible defense of Philo and writes that he can neither absolve nor convict him.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_extant_works">List of extant works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: List of extant works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some 50 works by Philo have survived, and he is known to have written some 20 to 25 further works which have been lost. The following list gives conventional Latin and English titles and abbreviations commonly used in reference works. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <tbody><tr> <th>Latin title</th> <th>English title</th> <th>RGG<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Kittel<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Stud. Philonica<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Apologia pro Judaeis</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book37.html">Hypothetica: Apology for the Jews</a></td> <td>apol.</td> <td>?</td> <td>Hypoth. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De Abrahamo</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book22.html">On Abraham</a></td> <td>Abr.</td> <td>Abr</td> <td>Abr. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De aeternitate mundi</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book35.html">On the Eternity of the World</a></td> <td>aet.</td> <td>Aet Mund</td> <td>Aet. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De agricultura</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book11.html">On Husbandry</a></td> <td>agr.</td> <td>Agric</td> <td>Agr. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De animalibus</td> <td>On Animals</td> <td>anim.</td> <td>?</td> <td>Anim. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De Cherubim</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book5.html">On the Cherubim</a></td> <td>Cher.</td> <td>Cher</td> <td>Cher. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De confusione linguarum</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book15.html">On the Confusion of Tongues</a></td> <td>conf.</td> <td>Conf Ling</td> <td>Conf. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De congressu eruditionis gratia</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book18.html">On Mating with the Preliminary Studies</a></td> <td>congr.</td> <td>Congr</td> <td>Congr. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De decalogo</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book26.html">The Decalogue</a></td> <td>decal.</td> <td>Decal</td> <td>Decal. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De ebrietate</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book13.html">On Drunkenness</a></td> <td>ebr.</td> <td>Ebr</td> <td>Ebr. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De fuga et inventione</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book19.html">On Flight and Finding</a></td> <td>?</td> <td>Fug</td> <td>Fug. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De gigantibus</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book9.html">On the Giants</a></td> <td>gig.</td> <td>Gig</td> <td>Gig. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De Josepho</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book23.html">On Joseph</a></td> <td>Jos.</td> <td>Jos</td> <td>Ios. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De migratione Abrahami</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book16.html">On the Migration of Abraham</a></td> <td>migr.</td> <td>Migr Abr</td> <td>Migr. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De mutatione nominum</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book20.html">On the Change of Names</a></td> <td>mut.</td> <td>Mut Nom</td> <td>Mut. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De opificio mundi</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book1.html">On the creation</a></td> <td>opif.</td> <td>Op Mund</td> <td>Opif. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De plantatione</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book12.html">Concerning Noah's Work as a Planter</a></td> <td>plant.</td> <td>Plant</td> <td>Plant. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De posteritate Caini</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book8.html">On the Posterity of Cain and His Exile</a></td> <td>post.</td> <td>Poster C</td> <td>Post. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De praemiis et poenis</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book32.html">On Rewards and Punishments</a></td> <td>praem.</td> <td>Praem Poen</td> <td>Praem. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De providentia</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book38.html">On Providence I</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book39.html">II</a></td> <td>prov.</td> <td>?</td> <td>Prov. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De sacrificiis Abelis et Caini</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book6.html">On the Birth of Abel</a></td> <td>sacr.</td> <td>Sacr AC</td> <td>Sacr. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De sobrietate</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book14.html">On Sobriety</a></td> <td>sobr.</td> <td>Sobr</td> <td>Sobr. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De somniis</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book21.html">On Dreams I-II</a></td> <td>somn.</td> <td>Som</td> <td>Somn. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De specialibus legibus</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book27.html">The Special Laws I</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book28.html">II</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book29.html">III</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book30.html">IV</a></td> <td>spec.</td> <td>Spec Leg</td> <td>Spec. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De virtutibus</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book31.html">On the Virtues</a></td> <td>virt.</td> <td>Virt</td> <td>Virt. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De vita contemplativa</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book34.html">On the Contemplative Life</a></td> <td>cont.</td> <td>Vit Cont</td> <td>Contempl. </td></tr> <tr> <td>De vita Mosis</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book24.html">On the Life of Moses I</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book25.html">II</a></td> <td>Mos.</td> <td>Vit Mos</td> <td>Mos. </td></tr> <tr> <td>In Flaccum</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book36.html">Flaccus</a></td> <td>Flacc.</td> <td>Flacc</td> <td>Flacc. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Legatio ad Gajum</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book40.html">On the Embassy to Gaius</a></td> <td>legat.</td> <td>Leg Gaj</td> <td>Legat. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Legum allegoriae</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book2.html">Allegorical Interpretation I</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book3.html">II</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book4.html">III</a></td> <td>LA</td> <td>Leg All</td> <td>Leg. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Quaestiones in Exodum</td> <td>Questions and Answers on Exodus</td> <td>QE</td> <td>Quaest in Ex</td> <td>QE </td></tr> <tr> <td>Quaestiones in Genesim</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book41.html">Questions and Answers on Genesis I</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book42.html">II</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book43.html">III</a></td> <td>QG</td> <td>Quaest in Gn</td> <td>QG </td></tr> <tr> <td>Quis rerum divinarum heres sit</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book17.html">Who is the Heir of Divine Things</a></td> <td>her.</td> <td>Rer Div Her</td> <td>Her. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Quod deterius potiori insidiari soleat</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book7.html">Worse is Wont to Attack Better</a></td> <td>det.</td> <td>Det Pot Ins</td> <td>Det. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Quod Deus sit immutabilis</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book10.html">On the Unchangeableness of God</a></td> <td>Deus</td> <td>Deus Imm</td> <td>Deus </td></tr> <tr> <td>Quod omnis probus liber sit</td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book33.html">Every Good Man is Free</a></td> <td>prob.</td> <td>Omn Prob Lib</td> <td>Prob. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Editions_and_translations">Editions and translations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Editions and translations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/philo.html"><i>The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Duke_Yonge" title="Charles Duke Yonge">Charles Duke Yonge</a>. 1854–1855.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Philo%3A+Complete+and+Unabridged&rft.date=1854%2F1855&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlyjewishwritings.com%2Fphilo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_Cohn_(author)" title="Leopold Cohn (author)">Cohn, Leopold</a> & <a href="/wiki/Paul_Wendland" title="Paul Wendland">Paul Wendland</a>, <i>Philonis Alexandrini Opera quæ supersunt</i> (The Surviving Works of Philo of Alexandria) [Greek and Latin]. Berlin: George Reimer. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philonisalexandr0103philuoft">Volumes 1–3</a> (1896, 1897, 1898)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philonisalexandr0406philuoft">Volumes 4–6</a> (1902, 1906, 1915)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/p1philonisalexan07philuoft">Volume 7</a> (1926; indexed by Hans Leisegang)</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/50_10_10-_De_Philosophia.html">"Index of Philosophical Writings"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Documenta Catholica Omnia</i> (in Greek).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Documenta+Catholica+Omnia&rft.atitle=Index+of+Philosophical+Writings&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.documentacatholicaomnia.eu%2F50_10_10-_De_Philosophia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span> [Online Greek text of Volumes 1-7 above. Under "Graecum - Greco - Greek" section]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_AGsQqjlJgQC"><i>Philo of Alexandria: An Exegete for His Time</i></a>. by Peder Borgen. Leiden: Brill. 1997. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004103880" title="Special:BookSources/9004103880"><bdi>9004103880</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philo+of+Alexandria%3A+An+Exegete+for+His+Time&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9004103880&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_AGsQqjlJgQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-year-range-abbreviated"><i>Philo with an English Translation</i>. Vol. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>10. Translated by F.H. Colson & G.H. Whitaker. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 1929–62.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philo+with+an+English+Translation&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1929%2F1962&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTerian,_Abraham1981" class="citation book cs1">Terian, Abraham, ed. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1EG4AAAAIAAJ"><i>Philonis Alexandrini de animalibus: The Armenian Text with an Introduction, Translation, and Commentary</i></a>. Chico, CA: Scholars Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780891304722" title="Special:BookSources/9780891304722"><bdi>9780891304722</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philonis+Alexandrini+de+animalibus%3A+The+Armenian+Text+with+an+Introduction%2C+Translation%2C+and+Commentary&rft.place=Chico%2C+CA&rft.pub=Scholars+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780891304722&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1EG4AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Onias" title="Land of Onias">Land of Onias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Cairo Geniza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephantine_papyri_and_ostraca" title="Elephantine papyri and ostraca">Elephantine papyri and ostraca</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Philo" is the literal Greek translation of the Hebrew name <span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">Yəḏīḏyāh</i></span> 'beloved of God', 'God loves me'; see <a href="/wiki/Jedediah" title="Jedediah">Jedediah</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Septuagint translates <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">מַלְאַךְ יְהוָה</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Malakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Malakh">Malakh</a> <a href="/wiki/YHWH" class="mw-redirect" title="YHWH">YHWH</a></i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'Messenger of <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a>' as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">ἄγγελος Κυρίου</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'<a href="/wiki/Angel_of_the_Lord" title="Angel of the Lord">angel of the Lord</a>')</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The extent of his <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">canon</a> cannot be exactly determined. He does not quote the Books of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezekiel" title="Book of Ezekiel">Ezekiel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Song_of_Songs" title="Song of Songs">Canticles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ruth" title="Book of Ruth">Ruth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lamentations" title="Book of Lamentations">Lamentations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastes" title="Ecclesiastes">Ecclesiastes</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Esther" title="Book of Esther">Esther</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the parallel activity of the two powers and the symbols used therefor in Scripture, as well as on their emanation from God and their further development into new powers, their relation to God and the world, their part in the Creation, their tasks toward man, etc., see Siegfried, "Philo," pp. 214–218.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<i>Embassy to Gaius</i>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Antiquities</i> xviii.8, § 1; comp. ib. xix.5, § 1; xx.5, § 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Carrier" title="Richard Carrier">Richard Carrier</a> (2014). <i>On the Historicity of Jesus</i>. <a href="/wiki/Sheffield_Phoenix_Press" title="Sheffield Phoenix Press">Sheffield Phoenix Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-909697-49-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-909697-49-2">978-1-909697-49-2</a>. p. 304.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Philo and the Names of God</i>, JQR 22 (1931) pp. 295-306</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>De Opificio Mundi</i>, III.13, section regarding the necessity of the literal six days of creation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schwartz-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel R. Schwartz, "Philo, His Family, and His Times", in Kamesar (2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>On Providence</i> 2.64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/De_Viris_Illustribus_(Jerome)" title="De Viris Illustribus (Jerome)">De Viris Illustribus</a></i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/books/hieronym/viris_l.htm#Caput%20XI">e-text</a>), Caput XI (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers:_Series_II/Volume_III/Lives_of_Illustrious_Men/Jerome/Philo_Judaeus" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume III/Lives of Illustrious Men/Jerome/Philo Judaeus">English translation</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Philo-Judaeus">"Philo Judaeus"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i>. Encyclopedia Britannica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Philo+Judaeus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FPhilo-Judaeus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEllicott1897" class="citation book cs1">Ellicott, Charles John (1897). <i>A New Testament Commentary for English Readers, vol. 2</i>. London: Cassell and Co. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781360285283" title="Special:BookSources/9781360285283"><bdi>9781360285283</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Testament+Commentary+for+English+Readers%2C+vol.+2&rft.place=London&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Cassell+and+Co.&rft.date=1897&rft.isbn=9781360285283&rft.aulast=Ellicott&rft.aufirst=Charles+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAberbach2003" class="citation cs2">Aberbach, David (2003), Aberbach, David (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403937339_3">"The Roman-Jewish Wars and Hebrew Cultural Nationalism"</a>, <i>Major Turning Points in Jewish Intellectual History</i>, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. <span class="nowrap">31–</span>44, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781403937339_3">10.1057/9781403937339_3</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-3733-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-3733-9"><bdi>978-1-4039-3733-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-20</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Major+Turning+Points+in+Jewish+Intellectual+History&rft.atitle=The+Roman-Jewish+Wars+and+Hebrew+Cultural+Nationalism&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E31-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9781403937339_3&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-3733-9&rft.aulast=Aberbach&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1057%2F9781403937339_3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josephus, <i>Antiquities</i> xviii. 8. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Antiquities of the Jews</i>, xviii.8, § 1, Whiston's translation (online)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eusebius, <i>Church History,</i><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm">http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"On Consorting with the Preliminary Studies" 6 [i. 550]; "De Specialibus Legibus," ii. 229;</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon1996140-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDillon1996140_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDillon1996140_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDillon1996">Dillon 1996</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schwartz18-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz18_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz18_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2009" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, Daniel R. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P9nGKf_or4cC&pg=PA18">"1.1: Philo, His Family, and His Times"</a>. In Kamesar, Adam (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Philo</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86090-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86090-1"><bdi>978-0-521-86090-1</bdi></a>. <q>At a very early stage, the use of Hebrew seems to have declined and the language of the Jews of Alexandria came to be Greek exclusively. The translation of the Torah (and in time the other books) allowed Greek to be a vehicle for Jewish culture. Indeed, there developed a very rich Jewish literature in Greek already in the second century BCE. By the time of the era of Philo, it is hardly surprising that he was a highly accomplished Greek stylist, and probably knew little to no Hebrew.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.1%3A+Philo%2C+His+Family%2C+and+His+Times&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Philo&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86090-1&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Daniel+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP9nGKf_or4cC%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JE_Knowledge_of_Hebrew-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JE_Knowledge_of_Hebrew_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12116-philo-judaeus#anchor8">"Philo Judaeus: His Knowledge of Hebrew"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1901–1906.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philo+Judaeus%3A+His+Knowledge+of+Hebrew&rft.btitle=Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F12116-philo-judaeus%23anchor8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony Hanson, "Philo's Etymologies"; <i>Journal of Theological Studies</i> 18, 1967; pp. 128–139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPope1907" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Pope" title="Hugh Pope">Pope, Hugh</a> (1907). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Angel"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Angel">"Angel" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Angel&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Pope&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Frederick Copleston</a>, <i>A History of Philosophy</i>, Volume 1, Continuum, 2003, p. 460.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.N.D. Kelly, <i>Early Christian Doctrines</i>, 5th ed., HarperOne, 1978, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McDonough-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McDonough_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSean_M._McDonough1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sean_M._McDonough" title="Sean M. McDonough">Sean M. McDonough</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c0ZG4P8J1roC&pg=PA60">"2: The Use of the Name YHWH"</a>. <i>YHWH at Patmos: Rev. 1:4 in Its Hellenistic and Early Jewish Setting, Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament</i>. Mohr Siebeck. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-31-6147055-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-31-6147055-4"><bdi>978-31-6147055-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+The+Use+of+the+Name+YHWH&rft.btitle=YHWH+at+Patmos%3A+Rev.+1%3A4+in+Its+Hellenistic+and+Early+Jewish+Setting%2C+Wissenschaftliche+Untersuchungen+zum+Neuen+Testament&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-31-6147055-4&rft.au=Sean+M.+McDonough&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc0ZG4P8J1roC%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stuckenbruck-North-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stuckenbruck-North_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stuckenbruck-North_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStuckenbruckNorth2004" class="citation book cs1">Stuckenbruck, Loren T.; North, Wendy (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_5hPDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122"><i>Early Jewish and Christian Monotheism</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-42917-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-42917-9"><bdi>978-0-567-42917-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Jewish+and+Christian+Monotheism&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-567-42917-9&rft.aulast=Stuckenbruck&rft.aufirst=Loren+T.&rft.au=North%2C+Wendy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_5hPDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMoore2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Moore, Edward (June 28, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/midplato/#SH6a">"Middle Platonism – Philo of Alexandria"</a>. <i>The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2161-0002">2161-0002</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 20,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Middle+Platonism+%E2%80%93+Philo+of+Alexandria&rft.btitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2005-06-28&rft.issn=2161-0002&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fmidplato%2F%23SH6a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"De Agricultura Noë," § 12 [i. 308]; "De Somniis," i. 681, ii. 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"De Specialibus Legibus", §§ 2 <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Et_seq." class="mw-redirect" title="Et seq.">et seq.</a></i></span> [ii. 300 <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">et seq.</i></span>]; "De Præmiis et Pœnis", § 1 [ii. 408]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCrawford_Howell_ToyCarl_SiegfriedJacob_Zallel_Lauterbach1901–1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Crawford_Howell_Toy" title="Crawford Howell Toy">Crawford Howell Toy</a>; <a href="/wiki/Carl_Siegfried" title="Carl Siegfried">Carl Siegfried</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Zallel_Lauterbach" title="Jacob Zallel Lauterbach">Jacob Zallel Lauterbach</a> (1901–1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12116-philo-judaeus#anchor8">"Philo Judaeus: His Methods of Exegesis"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al. (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philo+Judaeus%3A+His+Methods+of+Exegesis&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Funk+%26+Wagnalls&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rft.au=Crawford+Howell+Toy&rft.au=Carl+Siegfried&rft.au=Jacob+Zallel+Lauterbach&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F12116-philo-judaeus%23anchor8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEngberg-Pedersen2004" class="citation book cs1">Engberg-Pedersen, Troels (2004). "Stoicism in the Apostle Paul". In Zupko, J.; Strange, S. K. (eds.). <i>Traditions and Transformations</i>. p. 58.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stoicism+in+the+Apostle+Paul&rft.btitle=Traditions+and+Transformations&rft.pages=58&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Engberg-Pedersen&rft.aufirst=Troels&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sandmel (1979), p. 24–25; 84–85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/aristobulus.html">"Jewish Hellenistic Philosopher Aristobolus of Alexandria"</a>. earlyjewishwritings.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170621140849/http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/aristobulus.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-06-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Hellenistic+Philosopher+Aristobolus+of+Alexandria&rft.pub=earlyjewishwritings.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlyjewishwritings.com%2Faristobulus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica.com-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-britannica.com_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristobulus-of-Paneas">"Aristobulus of Paneas"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171030141240/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristobulus-of-Paneas">Archived</a> from the original on October 30, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">Aug 19,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Aristobulus+of+Paneas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FAristobulus-of-Paneas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sandmel (1979), p. 22–23. [Sandmel notes that Philo's use of numbers differs entirely from <a href="/wiki/Gematria" title="Gematria">gematria</a> using Hebrew letters.]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">("De Allegoriis Legum," ii. 12 [i. 66])</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">("De Opificio Mundi, § 9 [i. 7]; "De Allegoriis Legum," i. 2 [i. 44]; "De Somaniis," ii. 10 [i. 688])</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the difference between the physical and ethical allegory, the first of which refers to natural processes and the second to the psychic life of man, see Siegfried, l.c. p. 197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Who is the Heir of Divine Things, XXXII, 160</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>On the Unchangeableness of God</i>, XIII, 62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isaiah 4:9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Exodus xxxii. 20 et seq.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Legum Allegoriae</i> II, §2; <i>The Works of Philo: Greek Text with Morphology</i>, ed. P. Borgen et al. (Bellingham, WA: 2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Legum Allegoriae</i> I, §44: "...ἱκανὸς αὐτὸς ἑαυτῷ ὁ θεός..." (<i>The Works of Philo: Greek Text with Morphology</i>, ed. P. Borgen et al. (Bellingham, WA: 2005)).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>De mutatione nominum</i>, §27; <i>The Works of Philo: Greek Text with Morphology</i>, ed. P. Borgen, et al. (Bellingham, WA: 2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"De Confusione Linguarum," § 27 [i. 425].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis," § 11 [i. 281].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"De Allegoriis Legum," iii. 12 [i. 943].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare <a href="/wiki/Emil_Sch%C3%BCrer" title="Emil Schürer">Emil Schürer</a>, "Der Begriff des Himmelreichs," in <i>Jahrbuch für Protestantische Theologie,</i> 1876, i. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deut. v. 31; Ex. xvii. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">("De Confusione Linguarum," § 34 [i. 431])</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">("De Gigantibus," § 2 [i. 263]; "De Somniis," i. 22 [i. 641 et seq.])</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"De Migratione Abrahami," § 32 [i. 464].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cdpPhilo-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cdpPhilo_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i> (2nd ed): Philo Judaeus, 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hpPhilo-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hpPhilo_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hpPhilo_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Frederick Copleston</a>, <i>A History of Philosophy</i>, Volume 1, Continuum, 2003, pp. 458–462.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the Confusion of Tongues</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"De Migratione Abrahami," § 18 [i. 452]; "De Specialibus Legibus," § 36 [ii. 333].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the Creation, XLIV, 129</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allegorical Interpretation, I, VIII, 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the Creation, VI, 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On Flight and Finding, XX, 112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the Posterity of Cain and His Exile, V, 14; On Dreams, XXXVII, 2.245</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the Confusion of Tongues, XI, 41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On Flight and Finding, XX, 111</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philo, <i>De Profugis</i>, cited in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hellenismchristi00frieiala">Gerald Friedlander, <i>Hellenism and Christianity</i>, P. Vallentine, 1912, pp. 114–115.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Questions and Answers on Genesis 2:62)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare "The Confusion of Tongues," § 11 [i. 411].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Questions and Answers on Genesis 2.62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," § 42 [i. 501].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"De Vita Mosis," iii. 14 [ii. 155].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Who is the Heir of Divine Things? XLII, 205-206</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the Creation, LI, 145-146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Every Good Man is Free, VII, 46-47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the Unchageableness of God, XXXVII, 181-182</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Early Christian Doctrines</i>, J.N.D. Kelly, Prince Press, 2004, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchäfer2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sch%C3%A4fer" title="Peter Schäfer">Schäfer, Peter</a> (24 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eI-NbejlhlUC&pg=PA159"><i>The Origins of Jewish Mysticism</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14215-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14215-9"><bdi>978-0-691-14215-9</bdi></a>. <q>It is more than likely that Philo knew the postbiblical Wisdom literature, in particular the <a href="/wiki/Wisdom_of_Solomon" class="mw-redirect" title="Wisdom of Solomon">Wisdom of Solomon</a>. and was influenced by it. The obvious identification of Logos and Wisdom in the Wisdom of Solomon is a case in point. Wisdom (Greek <i>sophia</i>) plays a prominent role in Philo as well and is yet another power among the divine powers that acts as an agent of creation. Whereas the Logos, as we have seen, is responsible for the intelligible world, Wisdom would seem to be responsible for the world perceived by the senses.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Jewish+Mysticism&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2011-01-24&rft.isbn=978-0-691-14215-9&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%A4fer&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeI-NbejlhlUC%26pg%3DPA159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederick S. Tappenden, <i>Resurrection in Paul: Cognition, Metaphor, and Transformation</i> (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2016). p.100</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Works of Philo</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Duke_Yonge" title="Charles Duke Yonge">C.D. Yonke</a>. Foreword by David M. Scholer Yonge. Hendrickson Pub. 1993. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780943575933" title="Special:BookSources/9780943575933"><bdi>9780943575933</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Philo&rft.pub=Hendrickson+Pub.&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780943575933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/David_T._Runia" title="David T. Runia">David T. Runia</a>, "The Idea and the Reality of the City in the Thought of Philo of Alexandria"; <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i> 61(3), July 2000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goodenough (1983), pp. 1–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book21.html">De somniis</a></i> ii, 82–92</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Royse-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Royse_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Royse_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Royse_83-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Royse_83-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">James R. Royse, with Adam Kamesar, "The Works of Philo", in Kamesar, ed. (2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schürer, <i>Geschichte</i> iii. 503</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">comp. Schürer, <i>Geschichte</i> iii. p. 504</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Cohn_(Author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Leopold Cohn (Author)">Cohn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Wendland" title="Paul Wendland">Wendland</a>, "Philonis Alexandrini", etc., ii., pp. xviii. et seq., 1-41; "Philologus", lvii. 248-288);</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schürer, <i>Geschichte</i> iii. p. 506] correctly combines Nos. 6 and 7 into one book; Massebieau, <i>Classement</i>, adds after No. 7 the lost books Περὶ Διαθηκῶν); ("Bibliothèque de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes", p. 23, note 2, Paris, 1889)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Von Arnim, "Quellenstudien zu Philo von Alexandria", 1899, pp. 101–140)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albert Geljon and David Runia, "Philo of Alexandria On Planting: Introduction, Translation, and Commentary", 2019, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">on the lost second book see Schürer, l.c. p. 507, and Von Arnim, l.c. pp. 53–100)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(on the work Περὶ Μισθῶν cited in this treatise see Massebieau, l.c. pp. 27 et seq., note 3)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is often referred to nowadays as "De Fuga et Inventione".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">on the fragment "De Deo", which contains a commentary on Gen. xviii. 2, see Massebieau, l.c. p. 29;</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On a doxographic source used by Philo in book i., § 4 [i. 623], see Wendland in "Sitzungsbericht der Berliner Akademie". 1897. No. xlix. 1–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Stade" title="Bernhard Stade">Bernhard Stade</a>-<a href="/wiki/Oskar_Holtzmann" title="Oskar Holtzmann">Oskar Holtzmann</a>, <i>Geschichte des Volkes Israel</i>, 1888, ii. 535-545; on Philo as influenced by the Halakah, see B Ritter, "Philo und die Halacha", Leipsic, 1879, and Siegfried's review of the same in the "Jenaer Literaturzeitung", 1879, No. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schürer, <i>Geschichte</i> pp. 519 [note 82], 520-522</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schürer, <i>Geschichte</i>pp. 522 et seq.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm">"CHURCH FATHERS: Church History, Book II (Eusebius)"</a>. <i>www.newadvent.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.newadvent.org&rft.atitle=CHURCH+FATHERS%3A+Church+History%2C+Book+II+%28Eusebius%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Ffathers%2F250102.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Flaccus</i>, Chapters 6–9 (43, 53–56, 62, 66, 68, 71–72), Yonge's translation (online)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EtG-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EtG_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EtG_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Embassy to Gaius</i>, Chapter 28-31, Yonge's translation (online)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also commentary by Pieter W. van der Horst, 'Philo's Flaccus: The First Pogrom. Introduction, Translation, and Commentary' 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">regarding other titles see Schürer, <i>Geschichte</i>, p. 535.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">comp. Wendland, "Philo", ii., pp. vi.-x.).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Further down in the <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i> article.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see Schürer, <i>Geschichte</i> iii., p. 542.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schürer, <i>Geschichte</i> iii. note 168).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Gesammelte Abhandlungen", 1885, i. 283-290; "Abhandlung der Berliner Akademie", 1876, Philosophical-Historical Division, pp. 209–278; ib. 1882, sect. iii. 82; Von Arnim, l.c. pp. 1–52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon1996144-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDillon1996144_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDillon1996">Dillon 1996</a>, p. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarmorstein1920" class="citation book cs1">Marmorstein, A. (1920). <i>The Old Rabbinic Doctrine of God, Two Volumes: I. The Names and Attributes of God and II, Essays in Anthropomorphism</i>. New York: JQR. pp. 41–45 and 295–306.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Old+Rabbinic+Doctrine+of+God%2C+Two+Volumes%3A+I.+The+Names+and+Attributes+of+God+and+II%2C+Essays+in+Anthropomorphism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=41-45+and+295-306&rft.pub=JQR&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Marmorstein&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFN._A._Dahl_and_Alan_F._Segal1978" class="citation journal cs1">N. A. Dahl and Alan F. Segal (1978). "Philo and the Rabbis on the Names of God". <i>Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period</i>. <b>9</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157006378X00012">10.1163/157006378X00012</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24656850">24656850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+Study+of+Judaism+in+the+Persian%2C+Hellenistic%2C+and+Roman+Period&rft.atitle=Philo+and+the+Rabbis+on+the+Names+of+God&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F157006378X00012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24656850%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=N.+A.+Dahl+and+Alan+F.+Segal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>De Vita Mosis, I</i>, I.1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>De Vita Mosis, I</i>, I.3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>De Vita Mosis, I</i>, I.4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Naomi G. Cohen, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23263764">Philo Judaeus and the True Torah Library</a>"; <i>Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought</i> 41(3), Fall 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart </i> (1909ff., 4th ed. 1998 ff.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kittel, <i>Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Studia Philonica Annual, ISSN: 1052-4533 (1989 ff.)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDillon1996" class="citation book cs1">Dillon, John M. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aJQ9dvgh6BwC"><i>The Middle Platonists, 80 B.C. to A.D. 220</i></a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8316-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8316-5"><bdi>978-0-8014-8316-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Middle+Platonists%2C+80+B.C.+to+A.D.+220&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8316-5&rft.aulast=Dillon&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaJQ9dvgh6BwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kamesar, Adam, ed. (2009). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Philo</i>. Cambridge University Press, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86090-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86090-1">978-0-521-86090-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchürerBigg1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schürer, Emil; Bigg, Charles (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philo (philosopher)"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Philo_(philosopher)">"Philo" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philo&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%BCrer&rft.aufirst=Emil&rft.au=Bigg%2C+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCrawford_Howell_ToyCarl_SiegfriedJacob_Zallel_Lauterbach1905" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Crawford_Howell_Toy" title="Crawford Howell Toy">Crawford Howell Toy</a>; <a href="/wiki/Carl_Siegfried" title="Carl Siegfried">Carl Siegfried</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Zallel_Lauterbach" title="Jacob Zallel Lauterbach">Jacob Zallel Lauterbach</a> (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12116-philo-judaeus">"Philo Judæus"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al. (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 10. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. p. 11–13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philo+Jud%C3%A6us&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=11-13&rft.pub=Funk+%26+Wagnalls&rft.date=1905&rft.au=Crawford+Howell+Toy&rft.au=Carl+Siegfried&rft.au=Jacob+Zallel+Lauterbach&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F12116-philo-judaeus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBorgen1997" class="citation book cs1">Borgen, Peder (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_AGsQqjlJgQC"><i>Philo of Alexandria: An Exegete for His Time</i></a>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004103887" title="Special:BookSources/9789004103887"><bdi>9789004103887</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philo+of+Alexandria%3A+An+Exegete+for+His+Time&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9789004103887&rft.aulast=Borgen&rft.aufirst=Peder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_AGsQqjlJgQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBréhier1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Br%C3%A9hier" title="Émile Bréhier">Bréhier, Émile</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Philo Judæus"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Philo_Jud%C3%A6us">"Philo Judæus" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philo+Jud%C3%A6us&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Br%C3%A9hier&rft.aufirst=%C3%89mile&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_R._Goodenough" class="mw-redirect" title="Erwin R. Goodenough">Goodenough, Erwin R.</a> (1938). <i>The Politics of Philo Judaeus: Practice and Theory</i>. With a "General Bibliography of Philo" by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_L._Goodhart&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Howard L. Goodhart (page does not exist)">Howard L. Goodhart</a> and Erwin R. Goodenough. Yale University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHillar2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hillar, Marian (April 21, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/philo">"Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 B.C.E.—40 C.E.)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philo+of+Alexandria+%28c.+20+B.C.E.%E2%80%9440+C.E.%29&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2005-04-21&rft.aulast=Hillar&rft.aufirst=Marian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fphilo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHillar,_Marian2012" class="citation book cs1">Hillar, Marian (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sq0BLd1HbUwC"><i>From Logos to Trinity: The Evolution of Religious Beliefs from Pythagoras to Tertullian</i></a>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107013308" title="Special:BookSources/9781107013308"><bdi>9781107013308</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Logos+to+Trinity%3A+The+Evolution+of+Religious+Beliefs+from+Pythagoras+to+Tertullian&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781107013308&rft.au=Hillar%2C+Marian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSq0BLd1HbUwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLévy2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lévy, Carlos (February 6, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philo/">"Philo of Alexandria"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philo+of+Alexandria&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2018-02-06&rft.aulast=L%C3%A9vy&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fphilo%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Massebieau" title="Louis Massebieau">Massebieau, Louis</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015026455751">Le classement des oeuvres de Philon</a></i>. Extrait du tome I de la Bibliothèque de l'École des Hautes Études, Section des Sceicne religieuses. Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1889.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLouis_MassebieauÉmile_Bréhier1906" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Massebieau" title="Louis Massebieau">Louis Massebieau</a>; <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Br%C3%A9hier" title="Émile Bréhier">Émile Bréhier</a> (1906). Jean Réville (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.530617/2015.530617.revue-de#page/n31/mode/2up">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Essai sur la Chronologie de la Vie et des Œuvres de Philon"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Revue de l'Histoire des Religions</i>. <b>53</b>: <span class="nowrap">25–</span>64.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+de+l%27Histoire+des+Religions&rft.atitle=%22Essai+sur+la+Chronologie+de+la+Vie+et+des+%C5%92uvres+de+Philon%22&rft.volume=53&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E64&rft.date=1906&rft.au=Louis+Massebieau&rft.au=%C3%89mile+Br%C3%A9hier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.530617%2F2015.530617.revue-de%23page%2Fn31%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Pearce" title="Sarah Pearce">Pearce, Sarah</a> (2007) <i>The Land of the Body: Studies in Philo's Representation of Egypt</i> Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-149250-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-149250-1">978-3-16-149250-1</a></li> <li>Runia, David T. (1986). <i>Philo of Alexandria and the Timaeus of Plato</i>. Philosophia antiqua, 44. Brill, Leiden.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRunia,_D._T.1990" class="citation book cs1">Runia, D. T. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nsjWAAAAMAAJ"><i>Exegesis and Philosophy: Studies on Philo of Alexandria</i></a>. Variorum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780860782872" title="Special:BookSources/9780860782872"><bdi>9780860782872</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exegesis+and+Philosophy%3A+Studies+on+Philo+of+Alexandria&rft.pub=Variorum&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780860782872&rft.au=Runia%2C+D.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnsjWAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRunia,_D._T.1993" class="citation book cs1">Runia, D. T. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SPvsph6TNYAC&q=editions%3AISBN9023227131"><i>Philo in Early Christian Literature: A Survey</i></a>. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789023227137" title="Special:BookSources/9789023227137"><bdi>9789023227137</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philo+in+Early+Christian+Literature%3A+A+Survey&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9789023227137&rft.au=Runia%2C+D.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSPvsph6TNYAC%26q%3Deditions%253AISBN9023227131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Runia, D. T. (2001). <i>On the Creation of the Cosmos according to Moses</i>. Number 1 in Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series. Brill, Leiden.</li> <li>Sandmel, Samuel. (1979). <i>Philo of Alexandria: An Introduction</i>. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-502514-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-502514-8">0-19-502514-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Sch%C3%BCrer" title="Emil Schürer">Schürer, Emil</a>. <i>Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi</i> (1886–1890)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSly,_Dorothy_I.1996" class="citation book cs1">Sly, Dorothy I. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E0DhKd-9GEUC"><i>Philo's Alexandria</i></a>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415096799" title="Special:BookSources/9780415096799"><bdi>9780415096799</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philo%27s+Alexandria&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780415096799&rft.au=Sly%2C+Dorothy+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE0DhKd-9GEUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456612/Philo-Judaeus">"Philo Judaeus (Jewish philosopher)"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philo+Judaeus+%28Jewish+philosopher%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F456612%2FPhilo-Judaeus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philo&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Philo</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Philo%2C+of+Alexandria&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Philo%2C+of+Alexandria">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Philo%2C+of+Alexandria&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><b>By Philo</b> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=&au=Philo%2C+of+Alexandria&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=&au=Philo%2C+of+Alexandria">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=&au=Philo%2C+of+Alexandria&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Philo</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Philo_of_Alexandria" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Philo of Alexandria">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Philo" class="extiw" title="q:Philo">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/60px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Philo" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Philo">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%22Philo+of+Alexandria%22+OR+%22Philo+Judaeus%22%29">Works by or about Philo</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li>Lecture on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2013/10/10/philo-judaeus-of-alexandria-jews-in-the-greek-world/">Philo Judaeus of Alexandria: Jews in the Greek World</a> by <a href="/wiki/Henry_abramson" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry abramson">Dr. Henry Abramson</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://divinity.yale.edu/philo-alexandria">"Studia Philonica Annual"</a>. <i>Society of Biblical Literature</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Society+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.atitle=Studia+Philonica+Annual&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdivinity.yale.edu%2Fphilo-alexandria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBradshaw" class="citation web cs1">Bradshaw, Rob. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earlychurch.org.uk/philo.php">"Philo of Alexandria"</a>. <i>EarlyChurch.org.uk</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EarlyChurch.org.uk&rft.atitle=Philo+of+Alexandria&rft.aulast=Bradshaw&rft.aufirst=Rob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearlychurch.org.uk%2Fphilo.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSeland" class="citation web cs1">Seland, Torrey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://torreys.org/bible/resource_page_3-1/">"Philo Resource Page 3.1"</a>. <i>torreys.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=torreys.org&rft.atitle=Philo+Resource+Page+3.1&rft.aulast=Seland&rft.aufirst=Torrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftorreys.org%2Fbible%2Fresource_page_3-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Open source XML versions of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opengreekandlatin.github.io/philo-dev/">Philo's works</a> have been made available by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dh.uni-leipzig.de/wo/projects/open-greek-and-latin-project/">Open Greek and Latin Project</a> at the University of Leipzig. English translations of Philo's writings are also available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opengreekandlatin.github.io/english_trans-dev/">here</a>.</li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation gutenberg"> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/14657">Philo-Judaeus of Alexandria</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://patrologia.ct.aegean.gr/downloads/vivlia/Philo%20Judaeus/">The Works of Philo - searchable text from University of the Aegean</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2020">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> <span class="languageicon">(in Greek)</span> (site currently offline)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/books/philo/">Works of Philo - searchable text</a> (in Russian)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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title="Coriscus of Scepsis">Coriscus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erastus_of_Scepsis" title="Erastus of Scepsis">Erastus of Scepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Amphipolis" title="Demetrius of Amphipolis">Demetrius of Amphipolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euaeon_of_Lampsacus" title="Euaeon of Lampsacus">Euaeon of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclides_of_Aenus" title="Heraclides of Aenus">Heraclides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Python_of_Aenus" title="Python of Aenus">Python of Aenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hestiaeus_of_Perinthus" title="Hestiaeus of Perinthus">Hestiaeus of Perinthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lastheneia_of_Mantinea" title="Lastheneia of Mantinea">Lastheneia of Mantinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timolaus_of_Cyzicus" title="Timolaus of Cyzicus">Timolaus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiothea_of_Phlius" title="Axiothea of Phlius">Axiothea of Phlius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides Ponticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menedemus_of_Pyrrha" title="Menedemus of Pyrrha">Menedemus of Pyrrha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crantor" title="Crantor">Crantor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemon_(scholarch)" title="Polemon (scholarch)">Polemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Athens" title="Crates of Athens">Crates of Athens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Skeptics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocles_of_Cnidus" title="Diocles of Cnidus">Diocles of Cnidus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacydes_of_Cyrene" title="Lacydes of Cyrene">Lacydes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecles" title="Telecles">Telecles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evander_(philosopher)" title="Evander (philosopher)">Evander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegesinus_of_Pergamon" title="Hegesinus of Pergamon">Hegesinus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagnon_of_Tarsus" title="Hagnon of Tarsus">Hagnon of Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Stratonicea" title="Metrodorus of Stratonicea">Metrodorus of Stratonicea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitomachus_(philosopher)" title="Clitomachus (philosopher)">Clitomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charmadas" title="Charmadas">Charmadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeschines_of_Neapolis" title="Aeschines of Neapolis">Aeschines of Neapolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dio_of_Alexandria" title="Dio of Alexandria">Dio of Alexandria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudorus_of_Alexandria" title="Eudorus of Alexandria">Eudorus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philo of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_the_Platonist" title="Gaius the Platonist">Gaius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albinus_(philosopher)" title="Albinus (philosopher)">Albinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcinous_(philosopher)" title="Alcinous (philosopher)">Alcinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Peloplaton" title="Alexander Peloplaton">Alexander Peloplaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atticus_(philosopher)" title="Atticus (philosopher)">Atticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_of_Tyre" title="Maximus of Tyre">Maximus of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Saccas" title="Ammonius Saccas">Ammonius Saccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Longinus_(philosopher)" title="Cassius Longinus (philosopher)">Longinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen_the_Pagan" title="Origen the Pagan">Origen the Pagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcidius" title="Calcidius">Calcidius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_students_of_Plotinus" title="List of students of Plotinus">Students</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelius" title="Amelius">Amelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_of_Tyre" title="Porphyry of Tyre">Porphyry of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sopater_of_Apamea" title="Sopater of Apamea">Sopater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eustathius_of_Cappadocia" title="Eustathius of Cappadocia">Eustathius of Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosipatra" title="Sosipatra">Sosipatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedesius" title="Aedesius">Aedesius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexippus_(philosopher)" title="Dexippus (philosopher)">Dexippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysanthius" title="Chrysanthius">Chrysanthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_of_Asine" title="Theodorus of Asine">Theodorus of Asine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salutius" title="Salutius">Salutius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_of_Ephesus" title="Maximus of Ephesus">Maximus of Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Myndus" title="Eusebius of Myndus">Eusebius of Myndus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus_of_Epirus" title="Priscus of Epirus">Priscus of Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoninus_(philosopher)" title="Antoninus (philosopher)">Antoninus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius_Victorinus" title="Gaius Marius Victorinus">Gaius Marius Victorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Academy7" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch_of_Athens" title="Plutarch of Athens">Plutarch of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepigenia" title="Asclepigenia">Asclepigenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierocles_of_Alexandria" title="Hierocles of Alexandria">Hierocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrianus" title="Syrianus">Syrianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermias_(philosopher)" title="Hermias (philosopher)">Hermias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedesia" title="Aedesia">Aedesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinus_of_Neapolis" title="Marinus of Neapolis">Marinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Alexandria" title="Isidore of Alexandria">Isidore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Hermiae" title="Ammonius Hermiae">Ammonius Hermiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepiodotus_of_Alexandria" title="Asclepiodotus of Alexandria">Asclepiodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegias" title="Hegias">Hegias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenodotus_(philosopher)" title="Zenodotus (philosopher)">Zenodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agapius_of_Athens" title="Agapius of Athens">Agapius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian_of_Lydia" title="Priscian of Lydia">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympiodorus_the_Younger" title="Olympiodorus the Younger">Olympiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_the_Invincible" title="David the Invincible">David the Invincible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">John Scotus Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Chartres" title="Bernard of Chartres">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_la_Porr%C3%A9e" title="Gilbert de la Porrée">Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thierry_of_Chartres" title="Thierry of Chartres">Thierry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Ghent" title="Henry of Ghent">Henry of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoric_of_Freiberg" title="Theodoric of Freiberg">Theodoric of Freiberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Meister Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berthold_of_Moosburg" title="Berthold of Moosburg">Berthold of Moosburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Venice" title="Paul of Venice">Paul of Venice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_the_Renaissance" title="Platonism in the Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Florentine_Academy50" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy_(Florence)" title="Platonic Academy (Florence)">Florentine Academy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristoforo_Landino" title="Cristoforo Landino">Cristoforo Landino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Platonists" title="Cambridge Platonists">Cambridge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Cudworth" title="Ralph Cudworth">Ralph Cudworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_More" title="Henry More">Henry More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Conway_(philosopher)" title="Anne Conway (philosopher)">Anne Conway</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Taylor_(neoplatonist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Taylor (neoplatonist)">Thomas Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Josiah Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bernard Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Losev" title="Aleksei Losev">Aleksei Losev</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Kaplan_(philosopher)" title="David Kaplan (philosopher)">David Kaplan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispin_Wright" title="Crispin Wright">Crispin Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Edward N. Zalta</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Ingarden" title="Roman Ingarden">Roman Ingarden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Leo Strauss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Theology115" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Theology" title="Template:Theology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Theology" title="Template talk:Theology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Theology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Theology115" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Conceptions_of_God115" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dystheism" title="Dystheism">Dystheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathenotheism" title="Kathenotheism">Kathenotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolatry" title="Monolatry">Monolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urmonotheismus" title="Urmonotheismus">Urmonotheismus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polydeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_finitism" title="Theistic finitism">Theistic finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theopanism" title="Theopanism">Theopanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">Divinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_of_God" title="Gender of God">Gender of God</a> <i>and gods</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numen" title="Numen">Numen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Singular god</a><br />theologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By faith</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Tenrikyo" title="God in Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanationism" title="Emanationism">Emanationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">God as</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Father_of_Greatness" title="Father of Greatness">Father of Greatness</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinitarianism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athanasian_Creed" title="Athanasian Creed">Athanasian Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannine_Comma" title="Johannine Comma">Comma Johanneum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consubstantiality" title="Consubstantiality">Consubstantiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homoousion" title="Homoousion">Homoousian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homoiousian" title="Homoiousian">Homoiousian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostasis_(philosophy_and_religion)" title="Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)">Hypostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perichoresis" title="Perichoresis">Perichoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_of_the_Trinity" title="Shield of the Trinity">Shield of the Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarian_formula" title="Trinitarian formula">Trinitarian formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarianism_in_the_Church_Fathers" title="Trinitarianism in the Church Fathers">Trinity of the Church Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarian_universalism" title="Trinitarian universalism">Trinitarian universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fate_of_the_unlearned" title="Fate of the unlearned">Fate of the unlearned</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fitra" title="Fitra">Fitra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">Heaven</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">Hell</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_religion11" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_eschatology" title="Hindu eschatology">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_Incantations_Scripture" title="Divine Incantations Scripture">Taoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frashokereti" title="Frashokereti">Zoroastrian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_feminism" title="Christian feminism">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Hinduism" title="Women in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_women" title="Mormonism and women">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddesses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attributes_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Attributes of God in Christianity">Attributes of God in Christianity</a> / <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">in Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binitarianism" title="Binitarianism">Binitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_presence" title="Divine presence">Divine presence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egotheism" title="Egotheism">Egotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotheology" title="Exotheology">Exotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_hermeneutics" title="Theological hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godhead_in_Christianity" title="Godhead in Christianity">Godhead in Christianity</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Latter Day Saints</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Architect_of_the_Universe" title="Great Architect of the Universe">Great Architect of the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Spirit" title="Great Spirit">Great Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olelbis" title="Olelbis">Olelbis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_theism" title="Open theism">Open theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenological_definition_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenological definition of God">Phenomenological definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo%27s_view_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Philo's view of God">Philo's view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a> in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Names of God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_titles_and_names_of_Krishna" title="List of titles and names of Krishna">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Islam" title="Names of God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_faith115" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By faith</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Christian188" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christian_theology" title="Outline of Christian theology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paterology" title="Paterology">Paterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatology" title="Pneumatology">Pneumatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_cosmology" title="Biblical cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">Hamartiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messianism" title="Messianism">Messianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_theology" title="Practical theology">Practical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_theology" title="Public theology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophiology" title="Sophiology">Sophiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Soteriology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Hindu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi_theology" title="Ayyavazhi theology">Ayyavazhi theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Krishnology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Oneness</a> of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Holy Scriptures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Predestination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Last Judgment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_theology" title="Category:Jewish theology">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Abrahamic prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aggadah" title="Aggadah">Aggadah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Denominations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Modern_pagan_theology" title="Category:Modern pagan theology">Pagan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith%27s_theology_and_cosmology" title="Slavic Native Faith's theology and cosmology">Slavic Native Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wiccan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo_theology" title="Tenrikyo theology">Tenrikyo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy103" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy103" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personhood" title="Personhood">Personhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189597#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3833" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189597#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3833" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189597#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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href="https://viaf.org/viaf/310526579">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/307158263">2</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/463158790628438851625">3</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/30151776786218011787">4</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/54226/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118594001">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80051891">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11919600w">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11919600w">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Philo : Alexandrinus"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV035159">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35421783">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000720071&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX1722431">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/60460">Portugal</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/827977">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068937644">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90065126">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000085850&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=31472">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogo.bn.gov.ar/F/?func=direct&local_base=BNA10&doc_number=000046848">Argentina</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC200602530">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/31fhjwcm1xjzwgg">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810537787005606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/57566">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007266688305171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:au:finaf:000156654">Finland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058521799306706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA01116022?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.performing-arts.eu/discovery/agent/gnd_118594001">FID</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/946904">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118594001.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118594001">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027070980">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6bz71fg">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philo&oldid=1279552971">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philo&oldid=1279552971</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philo" title="Category:Philo">Philo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20s_BC_births" title="Category:20s BC births">20s BC births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:50s_deaths" title="Category:50s deaths">50s 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Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-04-14T02:18:23Z","dateModified":"2025-03-09T06:06:24Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/6c\/PhiloThevet.jpg","headline":"Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria (c. 20 BCE-c. 50 CE)"}</script> </body> </html>