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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Experimental evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experimental_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_motivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_motivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theoretical motivation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_motivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Projected_proton_lifetimes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Projected_proton_lifetimes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Projected proton lifetimes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Projected_proton_lifetimes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decay_operators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decay_operators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Decay operators</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Decay_operators-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Decay operators subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Decay_operators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dimension-6_proton_decay_operators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dimension-6_proton_decay_operators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Dimension-6 proton decay operators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dimension-6_proton_decay_operators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dimension-5_proton_decay_operators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dimension-5_proton_decay_operators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Dimension-5 proton decay operators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dimension-5_proton_decay_operators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dimension-4_proton_decay_operators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dimension-4_proton_decay_operators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Dimension-4 proton decay operators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dimension-4_proton_decay_operators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B6%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="اضمحلال البروتون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اضمحلال البروتون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_par%C3%A7alanmas%C4%B1" title="Proton parçalanması – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Proton parçalanması" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC" title="প্রোটন ক্ষয় – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রোটন ক্ষয়" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Распад пратона – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Распад пратона" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desintegraci%C3%B3_del_prot%C3%B3" title="Desintegració del protó – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Desintegració del protó" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozpad_protonu" title="Rozpad protonu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rozpad protonu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonenzerfall" title="Protonenzerfall – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Protonenzerfall" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CF%80%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Διάσπαση του πρωτονίου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διάσπαση του πρωτονίου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desintegraci%C3%B3n_del_prot%C3%B3n" title="Desintegración del protón – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Desintegración del protón" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoi_lurrunketa" title="Protoi lurrunketa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Protoi lurrunketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="واپاشی پروتون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="واپاشی پروتون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9sint%C3%A9gration_du_proton" title="Désintégration du proton – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Désintégration du proton" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%91%EC%84%B1%EC%9E%90_%EB%B6%95%EA%B4%B4" title="양성자 붕괴 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="양성자 붕괴" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peluruhan_proton" title="Peluruhan proton – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peluruhan proton" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decadimento_del_protone" title="Decadimento del protone – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Decadimento del protone" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F" title="דעיכת פרוטון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דעיכת פרוטון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protono_skilimas" title="Protono skilimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Protono skilimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonboml%C3%A1s" title="Protonbomlás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Protonbomlás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonverval" title="Protonverval – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Protonverval" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%BD%E5%AD%90#陽子の崩壊" title="陽子 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="陽子" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Proton decay" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozpad_protonu" title="Rozpad protonu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rozpad protonu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decaimento_de_pr%C3%B3ton" title="Decaimento de próton – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Decaimento de próton" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Распад протона – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Распад протона" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Proton decay" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonin_hajoaminen" title="Protonin hajoaminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Protonin hajoaminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protons%C3%B6nderfall" title="Protonsönderfall – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Protonsönderfall" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_bozunmas%C4%B1" title="Proton bozunması – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Proton bozunması" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Розпад протона – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Розпад протона" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A2n_r%C3%A3_proton" title="Phân rã proton – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phân rã proton" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90%E8%A1%B0%E8%AE%8A" title="質子衰變 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="質子衰變" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Hypothetical particle decay process of a proton</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the hypothetical decay of nucleons (protons or neutrons) into other subatomic particles. For the type of radioactive decay in which a nucleus ejects a proton, see <a href="/wiki/Proton_emission" title="Proton emission">Proton emission</a>. For the radioactive decay where a proton within a nucleus converts to a neutron, see <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">positron emission</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Nucleon decay" redirects here. For decay of neutrons, see <a href="/wiki/Neutron_decay_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Neutron decay (disambiguation)">neutron decay</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proton_decay.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Proton_decay.svg/350px-Proton_decay.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Proton_decay.svg/525px-Proton_decay.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Proton_decay.svg/700px-Proton_decay.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>The pattern of <a href="/wiki/Weak_isospin" title="Weak isospin">weak isospins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weak_hypercharge" title="Weak hypercharge">weak hypercharges</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Color_charge" title="Color charge">color charges</a> for particles in the <a href="/wiki/Georgi%E2%80%93Glashow_model" title="Georgi–Glashow model">Georgi–Glashow model</a>. Here, a proton, consisting of two up quarks and a down, decays into a pion, consisting of an up and anti-up, and a positron, via an X boson with electric charge −<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">4</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">3</span></span>⁠</span><i>e</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, <b>proton decay</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothetical</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Particle_decay" title="Particle decay">particle decay</a> in which the <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> decays into lighter <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a>, such as a neutral <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pion</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proton decay hypothesis was first formulated by <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a> in 1967. Despite significant experimental effort, proton decay has never been observed. If it does decay via a positron, the proton's half-life is constrained to be at least <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7041527011920000000♠"></span>1.67<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>34</sup> years</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bajc_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bajc-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a>, the proton, a type of <a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">baryon</a>, is stable because <a href="/wiki/Baryon_number" title="Baryon number">baryon number</a> (<a href="/wiki/Quark_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Quark number">quark number</a>) is <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_baryon_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of baryon number">conserved</a> (under normal circumstances; see <i><a href="/wiki/Chiral_anomaly" title="Chiral anomaly">Chiral anomaly</a></i> for an exception). Therefore, protons will not decay into other particles on their own, because they are the lightest (and therefore least energetic) baryon. <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">Positron emission</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron capture</a>—forms of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> in which a proton becomes a neutron—are not proton decay, since the proton interacts with other particles within the atom. </p><p>Some beyond-the-Standard-Model <a href="/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory" title="Grand Unified Theory">grand unified theories</a> (GUTs) explicitly break the baryon number symmetry, allowing protons to decay via the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Higgs particle">Higgs particle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopoles" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic monopoles">magnetic monopoles</a>, or new <a href="/wiki/X_boson" class="mw-redirect" title="X boson">X bosons</a> with a half-life of 10<sup>31</sup> to 10<sup>36</sup> years. For comparison, the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">universe is roughly <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7010137999999999999♠"></span>1.38<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>10</sup></span> years old</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To date, all attempts to observe new phenomena predicted by GUTs (like proton decay or the existence of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopoles" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic monopoles">magnetic monopoles</a>) have failed. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunnelling" title="Quantum tunnelling">Quantum tunnelling</a> may be one of the mechanisms of proton decay.<sup id="cite_ref-url[nucl-th/9809006]_Time-dependent_properties_of_proton_decay_from_crossing_single-particle_metastable_states_in_deformed_nuclei_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-url[nucl-th/9809006]_Time-dependent_properties_of_proton_decay_from_crossing_single-particle_metastable_states_in_deformed_nuclei-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dadicus_1982_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dadicus_1982-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-urlQuantum_Tunnelling_to_the_Origin_and_Evolution_of_Life_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlQuantum_Tunnelling_to_the_Origin_and_Evolution_of_Life-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (via <a href="/wiki/Virtual_black_hole" title="Virtual black hole">virtual black holes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hawking_radiation" title="Hawking radiation">Hawking radiation</a>) may also provide a venue of proton decay at magnitudes or lifetimes well beyond the GUT scale decay range above, as well as extra dimensions in <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">supersymmetry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-urlProton_Decay,_Black_Holes,_and_Large_Extra_Dimensions_-_NASA/ADS_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlProton_Decay,_Black_Holes,_and_Large_Extra_Dimensions_-_NASA/ADS-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-url[1903.02940]_Proton_Decay_and_the_Quantum_Structure_of_Spacetime_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-url[1903.02940]_Proton_Decay_and_the_Quantum_Structure_of_Spacetime-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are theoretical methods of baryon violation other than proton decay including interactions with changes of baryon and/or lepton number other than 1 (as required in proton decay). These included <a href="/wiki/Baryon_number" title="Baryon number"><i>B</i></a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Lepton_number" title="Lepton number"><i>L</i></a> violations of 2, 3, or other numbers, or <a href="/wiki/B_%E2%88%92_L" title="B − L"><i>B</i> − <i>L</i></a> violation. Such examples include neutron oscillations and the electroweak <a href="/wiki/Sphaleron" title="Sphaleron">sphaleron</a> <a href="/wiki/Chiral_anomaly" title="Chiral anomaly">anomaly</a> at high energies and temperatures that can result between the collision of protons into antileptons<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or vice versa (a key factor in <a href="/wiki/Leptogenesis_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Leptogenesis (physics)">leptogenesis</a> and non-GUT baryogenesis). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Baryogenesis">Baryogenesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Baryogenesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Baryogenesis" title="Baryogenesis">Baryogenesis</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1233989161">.mw-parser-output .unsolved{margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;border:#ccc solid;padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.35em 2.2em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle);background-image:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Question%2C_Web_Fundamentals.svg");background-position:top 50%left 0.35em;background-size:1.5em;background-repeat:no-repeat}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .unsolved{clear:right;float:right;max-width:25%}}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-label{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-body{margin:0.35em;font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-more{font-size:smaller}</style> <div role="note" aria-labelledby="unsolved-label-physics" class="unsolved"> <div><span class="unsolved-label" id="unsolved-label-physics">Unsolved problem in physics</span>:</div> <div class="unsolved-body">Do protons <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">decay</a>? If so, then what is the <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a>? Can <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">nuclear binding energy</a> affect this?</div> <div class="unsolved-more"><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">(more unsolved problems in physics)</a></div> </div> <p>One of the outstanding problems in modern physics is the predominance of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> over <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>. The universe, as a whole, seems to have a nonzero positive baryon number density – that is, there is more matter than antimatter. Since it is assumed in <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">cosmology</a> that the particles we see were created using the same physics we measure today, it would normally be expected that the overall baryon number should be zero, as matter and antimatter should have been created in equal amounts. This has led to a number of proposed mechanisms for <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_breaking" title="Symmetry breaking">symmetry breaking</a> that favour the creation of normal matter (as opposed to antimatter) under certain conditions. This imbalance would have been exceptionally small, on the order of 1 in every 10<sup>10</sup> particles a small fraction of a second after the Big Bang, but after most of the matter and antimatter annihilated, what was left over was all the baryonic matter in the current universe, along with a much greater number of <a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">bosons</a>. </p><p>Most grand unified theories explicitly break the baryon number symmetry, which would account for this discrepancy, typically invoking reactions mediated by very massive <a href="/wiki/X_boson" class="mw-redirect" title="X boson">X bosons</a> <span class="nowrap">(<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>X<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>)</span> or massive <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs bosons</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">0</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>). The rate at which these events occur is governed largely by the mass of the intermediate <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>X<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> or <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">0</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> particles, so by assuming these reactions are responsible for the majority of the baryon number seen today, a maximum mass can be calculated above which the rate would be too slow to explain the presence of matter today. These estimates predict that a large volume of material will occasionally exhibit a spontaneous proton decay. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experimental_evidence">Experimental evidence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Experimental evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proton decay is one of the key predictions of the various grand unified theories (GUTs) proposed in the 1970s, another major one being the existence of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopoles" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic monopoles">magnetic monopoles</a>. Both concepts have been the focus of major experimental physics efforts since the early 1980s. To date, all attempts to observe these events have failed; however, these experiments have been able to establish lower bounds on the half-life of the proton. Currently, the most precise results come from the <a href="/wiki/Super-Kamiokande" title="Super-Kamiokande">Super-Kamiokande</a> water <a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a> detector in Japan:<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a lower bound on the proton's half-life of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7041757382400000000♠"></span>2.4<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>34</sup> years</span> via positron decay, and similarly, <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7041504921600000000♠"></span>1.6<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>34</sup> years</span> via <a href="/wiki/Antimuon" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimuon">antimuon</a> decay, close to a supersymmetry (SUSY) prediction of 10<sup>34</sup>–10<sup>36</sup> years.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An upgraded version, <a href="/wiki/Hyper-Kamiokande" title="Hyper-Kamiokande">Hyper-Kamiokande</a>, probably will have sensitivity 5–10 times better than Super-Kamiokande. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_motivation">Theoretical motivation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Theoretical motivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite the lack of observational evidence for proton decay, some <a href="/wiki/Grand_unification_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand unification theory">grand unification theories</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/SU(5)" class="mw-redirect" title="SU(5)">SU(5)</a> Georgi–Glashow model and <a href="/wiki/SO(10)" title="SO(10)">SO(10)</a>, along with their supersymmetric variants, require it. According to such theories, the proton has a <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of about 10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001310000000000000♠"></span>31</span></sup>~10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001360000000000000♠"></span>36</span></sup> years and decays into a <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> and a neutral <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pion</a> that itself immediately decays into two <a href="/wiki/Gamma_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma radiation">gamma ray</a> <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\rm {p^{+}\longrightarrow e^{+}+}}&\ \pi ^{0}\\&\downarrow \\&2\gamma \end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mi>π</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo stretchy="false">↓</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mn>2</mn> <mi>γ</mi> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\rm {p^{+}\longrightarrow e^{+}+}}&\ \pi ^{0}\\&\downarrow \\&2\gamma \end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/66c86f770388fd1b92cbf47ace6ecbb1ef6c56e8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:15.971ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\rm {p^{+}\longrightarrow e^{+}+}}&\ \pi ^{0}\\&\downarrow \\&2\gamma \end{aligned}}}"></span> </p><p>Since a positron is an <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">antilepton</a> this decay preserves <span class="nowrap"> <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;"><a href="/wiki/B_%E2%88%92_L" title="B − L">B − L</a></span> </span> number, which is conserved in most <abbr title="Grand Unified Theory">GUT</abbr>s. </p><p>Additional decay modes are available (e.g.: <span class="nowrap"> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>p<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> → <span class="texhtml"> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Antimuon" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimuon"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>μ<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span> </span> + <span class="texhtml"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>π<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">0</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span> </span> </span>), both directly and when catalyzed via interaction with <abbr title="Grand Unified Theory">GUT</abbr>-predicted <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopole" title="Magnetic monopole">magnetic monopoles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though this process has not been observed experimentally, it is within the realm of experimental testability for future planned very large-scale detectors on the megaton scale. Such detectors include the <a href="/wiki/Hyper-Kamiokande" title="Hyper-Kamiokande">Hyper-Kamiokande</a>. </p><p>Early <a href="/wiki/Grand_unification_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand unification theory">grand unification theories</a> (GUTs) such as the Georgi–Glashow model, which were the first consistent theories to suggest proton decay, postulated that the proton's half-life would be at least <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7038315575999999999♠"></span>10<sup>31</sup> years</span>. As further experiments and calculations were performed in the 1990s, it became clear that the proton half-life could not lie below <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7039315576000000000♠"></span>10<sup>32</sup> years</span>. Many books from that period refer to this figure for the possible decay time for baryonic matter. More recent findings have pushed the minimum proton half-life to at least 10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001340000000000000♠"></span>34</span></sup>–10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001350000000000000♠"></span>35</span></sup> years, ruling out the simpler GUTs (including minimal SU(5) / Georgi–Glashow) and most non-SUSY models. The maximum upper limit on proton lifetime (if unstable), is calculated at <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7047189345600000000♠"></span>6<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>39</sup> years</span>, a bound applicable to SUSY models,<sup id="cite_ref-Nath-Perez-2007_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nath-Perez-2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a maximum for (minimal) non-SUSY GUTs at <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7043441806400000000♠"></span>1.4<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>36</sup> years</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nath-Perez-2007_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nath-Perez-2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: part 5.6">(part 5.6)</span></sup> </p><p>Although the phenomenon is referred to as "proton decay", the effect would also be seen in <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> bound inside atomic nuclei. Free neutrons—those not inside an atomic nucleus—are already known to decay into protons (and an electron and an antineutrino) in a process called <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>. Free neutrons have a half-life of 10 minutes (<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002610200000000000♠"></span>610.2<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>0.8 s</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-RPP_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RPP-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due to the <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a>. Neutrons bound inside a nucleus have an immensely longer half-life – apparently as great as that of the proton. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Projected_proton_lifetimes">Projected proton lifetimes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Projected proton lifetimes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Theory class </th> <th>Proton lifetime (years)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Ruled out experimentally? </th></tr> <tr> <td>Minimal SU(5) (<a href="/wiki/Georgi%E2%80%93Glashow_model" title="Georgi–Glashow model">Georgi–Glashow</a>) </td> <td>10<sup>30</sup>–10<sup>31</sup> </td> <td style="background: #9EFF9E; color:black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-success">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td>Minimal <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">SUSY</a> SU(5) </td> <td>10<sup>28</sup>–10<sup>32</sup> </td> <td style="background: #9EFF9E; color:black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-success">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Supergravity" title="Supergravity">SUGRA</a> SU(5) </td> <td>10<sup>32</sup>–10<sup>34</sup> </td> <td style="background: #9EFF9E; color:black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-success">Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td>SUSY <a href="/wiki/SO(10)" title="SO(10)">SO(10)</a> </td> <td>10<sup>32</sup>–10<sup>35</sup> </td> <td style="background: #FFB; color:black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-partial">Partially </td></tr> <tr> <td>SUSY SU(5) (<a href="/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">MSSM</a>) </td> <td>~10<sup>34</sup> </td> <td style="background: #FFB; color:black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-partial">Partially </td></tr> <tr> <td>SUSY SU(5) – 5 dimensions </td> <td>10<sup>34</sup>–10<sup>35</sup> </td> <td style="background: #FFB; color:black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-partial">Partially </td></tr> <tr> <td>SUSY SO(10) MSSM G(224) </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7034199999999999999♠"></span>2<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>34</sup></span> </td> <td style="background: #FFC7C7; color:black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-failure">No </td></tr> <tr> <td>Minimal (Basic) SO(10) – Non-SUSY </td> <td>< ~10<sup>35</sup> (maximum range) </td> <td style="background: #FFC7C7; color:black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-failure">No </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Flipped_SU(5)" title="Flipped SU(5)">Flipped SU(5)</a> (MSSM) </td> <td>10<sup>35</sup>–10<sup>36</sup> </td> <td style="background: #FFC7C7; color:black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-failure">No </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The lifetime of the proton in vanilla SU(5) can be naively estimated as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \tau _{p}\sim M_{X}^{4}/m_{p}^{5}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>∼</mo> <msubsup> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msubsup> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \tau _{p}\sim M_{X}^{4}/m_{p}^{5}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/93d5e57034b28f3185665449ede646b8ce79d81b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:13.322ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\textstyle \tau _{p}\sim M_{X}^{4}/m_{p}^{5}}"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Supersymmetric GUTs with reunification scales around <span class="texhtml">µ ~</span> <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7016200000000000000♠"></span>2<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>16</sup> <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt#Mass" title="Electronvolt">GeV/<i>c</i><sup>2</sup></a></span> yield a lifetime of around <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7041315576000000000♠"></span>10<sup>34</sup> yr</span>, roughly the current experimental lower bound. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decay_operators">Decay operators</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Decay operators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dimension-6_proton_decay_operators">Dimension-6 proton decay operators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dimension-6 proton decay operators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Classical_scaling_dimension" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical scaling dimension">dimension</a>-6 proton decay operators are <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle qqq\ell /\Lambda ^{2},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>q</mi> <mi>q</mi> <mi>q</mi> <mi>ℓ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">Λ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle qqq\ell /\Lambda ^{2},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9ce90e89ae1dffcf8a45ec63b3e403a423fb7301" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.655ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\textstyle qqq\ell /\Lambda ^{2},}"></span> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle d^{c}u^{c}u^{c}e^{c}/\Lambda ^{2},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mi>u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mi>u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">Λ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle d^{c}u^{c}u^{c}e^{c}/\Lambda ^{2},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/184d49eb2e2b6093a96a79681968b1ab6879874c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:13.214ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\textstyle d^{c}u^{c}u^{c}e^{c}/\Lambda ^{2},}"></span> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle {\overline {e^{c}}}{\overline {u^{c}}}qq/\Lambda ^{2},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <msup> <mi>u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mi>q</mi> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">Λ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle {\overline {e^{c}}}{\overline {u^{c}}}qq/\Lambda ^{2},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9e665ce28410d37a231f855a34dca60231dc3776" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.147ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\textstyle {\overline {e^{c}}}{\overline {u^{c}}}qq/\Lambda ^{2},}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle {\overline {d^{c}}}{\overline {u^{c}}}q\ell /\Lambda ^{2},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <msup> <mi>u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mi>q</mi> <mi>ℓ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">Λ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle {\overline {d^{c}}}{\overline {u^{c}}}q\ell /\Lambda ^{2},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aa77f81424c3bd48805910eafb51897b53f9d9e1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.182ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\textstyle {\overline {d^{c}}}{\overline {u^{c}}}q\ell /\Lambda ^{2},}"></span> where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Lambda }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Λ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Lambda }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0ac0a4a98a414e3480335f9ba652d12571ec6733" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.613ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Lambda }"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Cutoff_(physics)" title="Cutoff (physics)">cutoff scale</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a>. All of these operators violate both baryon number (<span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">B</span>) and <a href="/wiki/Lepton_number" title="Lepton number">lepton number</a> (<span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">L</span>) conservation but not the combination <a href="/wiki/B_-_L" class="mw-redirect" title="B - L"><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">B</span> − <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">L</span></a>. </p><p>In <abbr title="Grand Unified Theory">GUT</abbr> models, the exchange of an <a href="/wiki/X_and_Y_bosons" title="X and Y bosons">X or Y boson</a> with the mass <span class="texhtml">Λ</span><sub>GUT</sub> can lead to the last two operators suppressed by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle 1/\Lambda _{\text{GUT}}^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msubsup> <mi mathvariant="normal">Λ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>GUT</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle 1/\Lambda _{\text{GUT}}^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4faff58fc0471c3c542a421c7cc7ff0d0d153b84" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:7.879ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\textstyle 1/\Lambda _{\text{GUT}}^{2}}"></span>. The exchange of a triplet Higgs with mass <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">M</span> can lead to all of the operators suppressed by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle 1/M^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msup> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle 1/M^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c5881cc30883acf46319130a06e063d7dd2a9f3d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.878ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\textstyle 1/M^{2}}"></span>. See <i><a href="/wiki/Doublet%E2%80%93triplet_splitting_problem" title="Doublet–triplet splitting problem">Doublet–triplet splitting problem</a></i>. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 879px;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Proton decay. These graphics refer to the <a href="/wiki/X_and_Y_bosons" title="X and Y bosons">X bosons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs bosons</a>.</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 285px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 280px; height: 330px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Proton_decay2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dimension-6 proton decay mediated by the X boson (3,2) −5⁄6 in SU(5) GUT"><img alt="Dimension-6 proton decay mediated by the X boson (3,2) −5⁄6 in SU(5) GUT" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Proton_decay2.svg/202px-Proton_decay2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="202" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Proton_decay2.svg/303px-Proton_decay2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Proton_decay2.svg/403px-Proton_decay2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="263" data-file-height="391" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dimension-6 proton decay mediated by the <b>X boson (3,2)<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">6</span></span></sub></span></span></b> in SU(5) GUT</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 285px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 280px; height: 330px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Proton_decay3.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dimension-6 proton decay mediated by the X boson (3,2) 1⁄6 in flipped SU(5) GUT"><img alt="Dimension-6 proton decay mediated by the X boson (3,2) 1⁄6 in flipped SU(5) GUT" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Proton_decay3.svg/250px-Proton_decay3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Proton_decay3.svg/375px-Proton_decay3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Proton_decay3.svg/500px-Proton_decay3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="259" data-file-height="174" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dimension-6 proton decay mediated by the<br /><b>X boson (3,2)<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">6</span></span></sub></span></span></b> in flipped SU(5) GUT</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 285px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 280px; height: 330px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Proton_decay4.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dimension-6 proton decay mediated by the triplet Higgs T (3,1) −1⁄3 and the anti-triplet Higgs T (3,1) 1⁄3 in SU(5) GUT"><img alt="Dimension-6 proton decay mediated by the triplet Higgs T (3,1) −1⁄3 and the anti-triplet Higgs T (3,1) 1⁄3 in SU(5) GUT" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Proton_decay4.svg/200px-Proton_decay4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Proton_decay4.svg/299px-Proton_decay4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Proton_decay4.svg/399px-Proton_decay4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="261" data-file-height="392" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dimension-6 proton decay mediated by the<br /><b>triplet Higgs T (3,1)<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span></sub></span></span></b> and the<br /><b>anti-triplet Higgs <span style="text-decoration:overline;">T</span> (<span style="text-decoration:overline;">3</span>,1)<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span></sub></span></span></b> in SU(5) GUT</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dimension-5_proton_decay_operators">Dimension-5 proton decay operators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Dimension-5 proton decay operators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In supersymmetric extensions (such as the <a href="/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">MSSM</a>), we can also have dimension-5 operators involving two fermions and two <a href="/wiki/Sfermion" title="Sfermion">sfermions</a> caused by the exchange of a tripletino of mass <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">M</span>. The sfermions will then exchange a <a href="/wiki/Gaugino" title="Gaugino">gaugino</a> or <a href="/wiki/Higgsino" title="Higgsino">Higgsino</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gravitino" title="Gravitino">gravitino</a> leaving two fermions. The overall <a href="/wiki/Feynman_diagram" title="Feynman diagram">Feynman diagram</a> has a loop (and other complications due to strong interaction physics). This decay rate is suppressed by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle 1/MM_{\text{SUSY}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>M</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>SUSY</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle 1/MM_{\text{SUSY}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8e6cd44405b6ab045081f40d6aa2c0c3baa70638" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.546ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle 1/MM_{\text{SUSY}}}"></span> where <span class="texhtml"><i>M</i><sub>SUSY</sub></span> is the mass scale of the <a href="/wiki/Superpartner" title="Superpartner">superpartners</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dimension-4_proton_decay_operators">Dimension-4 proton decay operators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dimension-4 proton decay operators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:R-parity_violating_decay.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/R-parity_violating_decay.svg/134px-R-parity_violating_decay.svg.png" decoding="async" width="134" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/R-parity_violating_decay.svg/201px-R-parity_violating_decay.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/R-parity_violating_decay.svg/268px-R-parity_violating_decay.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="134" data-file-height="112" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>In the absence of <a href="/wiki/Matter_parity" class="mw-redirect" title="Matter parity">matter parity</a>, supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model can give rise to the last operator suppressed by the inverse square of <a href="/wiki/Sdown" class="mw-redirect" title="Sdown">sdown</a> quark mass. This is due to the dimension-4 operators <span class="texhtml"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>q<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>ℓ<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>d͂<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span><sup>c</sup></span> and <span class="texhtml"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>u<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span><sup>c</sup><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>d<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span><sup>c</sup><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>d͂<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span><sup>c</sup></span>. </p><p>The proton decay rate is only suppressed by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle 1/M_{\text{SUSY}}^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msubsup> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>SUSY</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle 1/M_{\text{SUSY}}^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ba34b3e7d0410c83ee16804fc8e3a680040388aa" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:9.104ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\textstyle 1/M_{\text{SUSY}}^{2}}"></span> which is far too fast unless the couplings are very small. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">Age of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_%E2%88%92_L" title="B − L">B − L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_black_hole" title="Virtual black hole">Virtual black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_hypercharge" title="Weak hypercharge">Weak hypercharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X_and_Y_bosons" title="X and Y bosons">X and Y bosons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_star" title="Iron star">Iron star</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span 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(Particle Data Group) (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/2015/tables/rpp2015-sum-baryons.pdf">"Review of Particle Physics – N Baryons"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Physics_C" title="Chinese Physics C">Chinese Physics C</a></i>. <b>38</b> (9): 090001. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0601168">astro-ph/0601168</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ChPhC..38i0001O">2014ChPhC..38i0001O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1674-1137%2F38%2F9%2F090001">10.1088/1674-1137/38/9/090001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118395784">118395784</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Physics+C&rft.atitle=Review+of+Particle+Physics+%E2%80%93+N+Baryons&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=090001&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0601168&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118395784%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1674-1137%2F38%2F9%2F090001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014ChPhC..38i0001O&rft.aulast=Olive&rft.aufirst=K.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdg.lbl.gov%2F2015%2Ftables%2Frpp2015-sum-baryons.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton+decay" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuenoMelgarejoNavasDai2007" class="citation journal cs1">Bueno, Antonio; Melgarejo, Antonio J; Navas, Sergio; Dai, Zuxiang; Ge, Yuanyuan; Laffranchi, Marco; Meregaglia, Anselmo; Rubbia, André (2007-04-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stacks.iop.org/1126-6708/2007/i=04/a=041?key=crossref.289d2df8e7c5228ed3c2136a08194b62">"Nucleon decay searches with large liquid Argon TPC detectors at shallow depths: atmospheric neutrinos and cosmogenic backgrounds"</a>. <i>Journal of High Energy Physics</i>. <b>2007</b> (4): 041. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0701101">hep-ph/0701101</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JHEP...04..041B">2007JHEP...04..041B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1126-6708%2F2007%2F04%2F041">10.1088/1126-6708/2007/04/041</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1029-8479">1029-8479</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119426496">119426496</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+High+Energy+Physics&rft.atitle=Nucleon+decay+searches+with+large+liquid+Argon+TPC+detectors+at+shallow+depths%3A+atmospheric+neutrinos+and+cosmogenic+backgrounds&rft.volume=2007&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=041&rft.date=2007-04-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119426496%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007JHEP...04..041B&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-ph%2F0701101&rft.issn=1029-8479&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1126-6708%2F2007%2F04%2F041&rft.aulast=Bueno&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft.au=Melgarejo%2C+Antonio+J&rft.au=Navas%2C+Sergio&rft.au=Dai%2C+Zuxiang&rft.au=Ge%2C+Yuanyuan&rft.au=Laffranchi%2C+Marco&rft.au=Meregaglia%2C+Anselmo&rft.au=Rubbia%2C+Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstacks.iop.org%2F1126-6708%2F2007%2Fi%3D04%2Fa%3D041%3Fkey%3Dcrossref.289d2df8e7c5228ed3c2136a08194b62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton+decay" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChanowitzEllisGaillard1977" class="citation journal cs1">Chanowitz, Michael S.; Ellis, John; Gaillard, Mary K. (3 October 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/record/878518">"The price of natural flavour conservation in neutral weak interactions"</a>. <i>Nuclear Physics B</i>. <b>128</b> (3): 506–536. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977NuPhB.128..506C">1977NuPhB.128..506C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0550-3213%2877%2990057-8">10.1016/0550-3213(77)90057-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0550-3213">0550-3213</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121007369">121007369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Physics+B&rft.atitle=The+price+of+natural+flavour+conservation+in+neutral+weak+interactions&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=506-536&rft.date=1977-10-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0550-3213%2877%2990057-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A121007369%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0550-3213&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977NuPhB.128..506C&rft.aulast=Chanowitz&rft.aufirst=Michael+S.&rft.au=Ellis%2C+John&rft.au=Gaillard%2C+Mary+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcds.cern.ch%2Frecord%2F878518&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton+decay" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmsler2008" class="citation journal cs1">Amsler, C.; et al. (<a href="/wiki/Particle_Data_Group" title="Particle Data Group">Particle Data Group</a>) (September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/tables/rpp2008-tab-baryons-N.pdf">"Review of Particle Physics – <i>N</i> Baryons"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_Letters_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Physics Letters B">Physics Letters B</a></i>. <b>667</b> (1–5): 1–6. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PhLB..667....1A">2008PhLB..667....1A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2008.07.018">10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1854%2FLU-685594">1854/LU-685594</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:227119789">227119789</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Letters+B&rft.atitle=Review+of+Particle+Physics+%E2%80%93+N+Baryons&rft.volume=667&rft.issue=1%E2%80%935&rft.pages=1-6&rft.date=2008-09&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1854%2FLU-685594&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A227119789%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2008.07.018&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PhLB..667....1A&rft.aulast=Amsler&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdg.lbl.gov%2F2008%2Ftables%2Frpp2008-tab-baryons-N.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton+decay" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHagiwara2002" class="citation journal cs1">Hagiwara, K.; et al. (<a href="/wiki/Particle_Data_Group" title="Particle Data Group">Particle Data Group</a>) (July 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/2002/bxxxn.pdf">"Review of Particle Physics – <i>N</i> Baryons"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_D" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical Review D">Physical Review D</a></i>. <b>66</b> (1): 010001. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PhRvD..66a0001H">2002PhRvD..66a0001H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.66.010001">10.1103/PhysRevD.66.010001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0556-2821">0556-2821</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Review+of+Particle+Physics+%E2%80%93+N+Baryons&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=010001&rft.date=2002-07&rft.issn=0556-2821&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.66.010001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002PhRvD..66a0001H&rft.aulast=Hagiwara&rft.aufirst=K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdg.lbl.gov%2F2002%2Fbxxxn.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton+decay" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsLaughlin2000" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Fred; Laughlin, Greg (2000). <i>The five ages of the universe: inside the physics of eternity</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Touchstone_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Touchstone Books">Touchstone Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-86576-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-86576-8"><bdi>978-0-684-86576-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+five+ages+of+the+universe%3A+inside+the+physics+of+eternity&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Touchstone+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-684-86576-8&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft.au=Laughlin%2C+Greg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton+decay" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauss2001" class="citation book cs1">Krauss, Lawrence Maxwell (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atomodysseyfromt00krau"><i>Atom: an odyssey from the big bang to life on earth-- and beyond</i></a></span>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Little_Brown_%26_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Little Brown & Company">Little Brown & Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-49946-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-316-49946-0"><bdi>978-0-316-49946-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atom%3A+an+odyssey+from+the+big+bang+to+life+on+earth--+and+beyond&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Little+Brown+%26+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-316-49946-0&rft.aulast=Krauss&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+Maxwell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatomodysseyfromt00krau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton+decay" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWuLi1985" class="citation journal cs1">Wu, Dan-di; Li, Tie-zhong (1985). "Proton decay, annihilation or fusion?". <i><a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Physik" title="Zeitschrift für Physik">Zeitschrift für Physik</a></i>. <b>27</b> (2): 321–323. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985ZPhyC..27..321W">1985ZPhyC..27..321W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01556623">10.1007/BF01556623</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0170-9739">0170-9739</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121868029">121868029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=Proton+decay%2C+annihilation+or+fusion%3F&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=321-323&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01556623&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A121868029%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0170-9739&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985ZPhyC..27..321W&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Dan-di&rft.au=Li%2C+Tie-zhong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton+decay" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNathFileviez_Pérez2007" class="citation journal cs1">Nath, Pran; Fileviez Pérez, Pavel (April 2007). "Proton stability in grand unified theories, in strings and in branes". <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_Reports" title="Physics Reports">Physics Reports</a></i>. <b>441</b> (5–6): 191–317. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0601023">hep-ph/0601023</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhR...441..191N">2007PhR...441..191N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physrep.2007.02.010">10.1016/j.physrep.2007.02.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119542637">119542637</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Reports&rft.atitle=Proton+stability+in+grand+unified+theories%2C+in+strings+and+in+branes&rft.volume=441&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=191-317&rft.date=2007-04&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-ph%2F0601023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119542637%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physrep.2007.02.010&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PhR...441..191N&rft.aulast=Nath&rft.aufirst=Pran&rft.au=Fileviez+P%C3%A9rez%2C+Pavel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton+decay" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 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class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Luciano_Maiani" title="Luciano Maiani">Luciano Maiani</a> (8 February 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://axpd24.pd.infn.it/NO-VE2006/talks/NOVE_Maiani.pdf"><i>The problem of proton decay</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://axpd24.pd.infn.it/NO-VE2006/">Third NO-VE International Workshop on Neutrino Oscillations in Venice</a>. 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Proton_decay_experiments" title="Template:Proton decay experiments"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Proton_decay_experiments" title="Template talk:Proton decay experiments"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Proton_decay_experiments" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Proton decay experiments"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Proton_decay_experiments" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proton decay</a> experiments</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operating</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Super-Kamiokande" title="Super-Kamiokande">Super-Kamiokande</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Retired</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modane_Underground_Laboratory" title="Modane Underground Laboratory">Frejus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestake_experiment" title="Homestake experiment">Homestake</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harvard-Purdue-Wisconsin_(detector)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harvard-Purdue-Wisconsin (detector) (page does not exist)">HPW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irvine%E2%80%93Michigan%E2%80%93Brookhaven_(detector)" title="Irvine–Michigan–Brookhaven (detector)">IMB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamioka_Observatory#Past_experiments" title="Kamioka Observatory">Kamiokande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_experiments_at_Kolar_Gold_Fields" title="Particle experiments at Kolar Gold Fields">KGF</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=NUSEX&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NUSEX (page does not exist)">NUSEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soudan_1" title="Soudan 1">Soudan 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soudan_2" title="Soudan 2">Soudan 2</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerator_Neutrino_Neutron_Interaction_Experiment" title="Accelerator Neutrino Neutron Interaction Experiment">ANNIE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyper-Kamiokande" title="Hyper-Kamiokande">Hyper-Kamiokande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Apparatus_studying_Grand_Unification_and_Neutrino_Astrophysics" title="Large Apparatus studying Grand Unification and Neutrino Astrophysics">LAGUNA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B_%E2%88%92_L" title="B − L"><i>B</i> − <i>L</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory" title="Grand Unified Theory">Grand Unified Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgi%E2%80%93Glashow_model" title="Georgi–Glashow model">Georgi–Glashow model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&oldid=1248789296">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proton_decay&oldid=1248789296</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Proton" title="Category:Proton">Proton</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_physics" title="Category:Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model" title="Category:Physics beyond the Standard 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