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of economies of scale</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Determinants_of_economies_of_scale-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Determinants of economies of scale subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Determinants_of_economies_of_scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physical_and_engineering_basis:_economies_of_increased_dimension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_and_engineering_basis:_economies_of_increased_dimension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Physical and engineering basis: economies of increased dimension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_and_engineering_basis:_economies_of_increased_dimension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economies_in_holding_stocks_and_reserves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economies_in_holding_stocks_and_reserves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Economies in holding stocks and reserves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economies_in_holding_stocks_and_reserves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transaction_economies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transaction_economies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Transaction economies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transaction_economies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economies_deriving_from_the_balancing_of_production_capacity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economies_deriving_from_the_balancing_of_production_capacity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Economies deriving from the balancing of production capacity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economies_deriving_from_the_balancing_of_production_capacity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economies_resulting_from_the_division_of_labour_and_the_use_of_superior_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economies_resulting_from_the_division_of_labour_and_the_use_of_superior_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Economies resulting from the division of labour and the use of superior techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economies_resulting_from_the_division_of_labour_and_the_use_of_superior_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Managerial_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Managerial_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Managerial economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Managerial_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Learning_and_growth_economies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Learning_and_growth_economies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Learning and growth economies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Learning_and_growth_economies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Capital_and_operating_cost" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capital_and_operating_cost"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Capital and operating cost</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capital_and_operating_cost-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crew_size_and_other_operating_costs_for_ships,_trains_and_airplanes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crew_size_and_other_operating_costs_for_ships,_trains_and_airplanes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Crew size and other operating costs for ships, trains and airplanes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crew_size_and_other_operating_costs_for_ships,_trains_and_airplanes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economical_use_of_byproducts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economical_use_of_byproducts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Economical use of byproducts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economical_use_of_byproducts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economies_of_scale_and_the_size_of_exporter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economies_of_scale_and_the_size_of_exporter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Economies of scale and the size of exporter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economies_of_scale_and_the_size_of_exporter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economies_of_scale_and_returns_to_scale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economies_of_scale_and_returns_to_scale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Economies of scale and returns to scale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economies_of_scale_and_returns_to_scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economies_of_scale_in_the_history_of_economic_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economies_of_scale_in_the_history_of_economic_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Economies of scale in the history of economic analysis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economies_of_scale_in_the_history_of_economic_analysis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economies of scale in the history of economic analysis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economies_of_scale_in_the_history_of_economic_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economies_of_scale_in_classical_economists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economies_of_scale_in_classical_economists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Economies of scale in classical economists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economies_of_scale_in_classical_economists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economies_of_scale_in_Marx_and_distributional_consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economies_of_scale_in_Marx_and_distributional_consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Economies of scale in Marx and distributional consequences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economies_of_scale_in_Marx_and_distributional_consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economies_of_scale_in_Marshall" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economies_of_scale_in_Marshall"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Economies of scale in Marshall</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economies_of_scale_in_Marshall-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sraffa's_critique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sraffa's_critique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Sraffa's critique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sraffa's_critique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rule_of_six-tenths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rule_of_six-tenths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Rule of six-tenths</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rule_of_six-tenths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economies_of_scale_and_the_tendency_towards_monopoly:_"Cournot's_dilemma"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economies_of_scale_and_the_tendency_towards_monopoly:_"Cournot's_dilemma""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Economies of scale and the tendency towards monopoly: "Cournot's dilemma"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economies_of_scale_and_the_tendency_towards_monopoly:_"Cournot's_dilemma"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_economies_of_scale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_economies_of_scale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External economies of scale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_economies_of_scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Purchasing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purchasing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Purchasing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purchasing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Managerial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Managerial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Managerial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Managerial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Technological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>General and cited references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Economies of scale</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomie_van_skaal" title="Ekonomie van skaal – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ekonomie van skaal" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D9%85" title="وفورات الحجم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="وفورات الحجم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miqyas_iqtisadiyyatlar%C4%B1" title="Miqyas iqtisadiyyatları – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Miqyas iqtisadiyyatları" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%89%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Икономия от мащаба – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Икономия от мащаба" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomija_obima" title="Ekonomija obima – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ekonomija obima" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_d%27escala" title="Economia d'escala – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Economia d'escala" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Aspory_z_rozsahu" title="Úspory z rozsahu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Úspory z rozsahu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%B6%C3%9Fenvorteile" title="Größenvorteile – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Größenvorteile" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastaabis%C3%A4%C3%A4st" title="Mastaabisääst – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mastaabisääst" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%B5%CF%82_%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Οικονομίες κλίμακας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οικονομίες κλίμακας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa_de_escala" title="Economía de escala – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Economía de escala" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eskala-errendimendu" title="Eskala-errendimendu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Eskala-errendimendu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D9%85%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3" title="مزیت مقیاس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مزیت مقیاس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89conomie_d%27%C3%A9chelle" title="Économie d'échelle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Économie d'échelle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barainneachta%C3%AD_sc%C3%A1la" title="Barainneachtaí scála – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Barainneachtaí scála" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa_de_escala" title="Economía de escala – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Economía de escala" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%9C%EB%AA%A8%EC%9D%98_%EA%B2%BD%EC%A0%9C" title="규모의 경제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="규모의 경제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%B7%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%AB%D6%81_%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Մասշտաբից տնտեսում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մասշտաբից տնտեսում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keekonomian_skala" title="Keekonomian skala – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Keekonomian skala" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economie_di_scala" title="Economie di scala – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Economie di scala" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%9C%D7%92%D7%95%D7%93%D7%9C" title="יתרון לגודל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יתרון לגודל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomi_ech%C3%A8l" title="Ekonomi echèl – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Ekonomi echèl" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masto_ekonomija" title="Masto ekonomija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Masto ekonomija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomi_skala" title="Ekonomi skala – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ekonomi skala" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaalvoordeel" title="Schaalvoordeel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Schaalvoordeel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A6%8F%E6%A8%A1%E3%81%AE%E7%B5%8C%E6%B8%88" title="規模の経済 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="規模の経済" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skalafordel" title="Skalafordel – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Skalafordel" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korzy%C5%9Bci_skali" title="Korzyści skali – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Korzyści skali" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_de_escala" title="Economia de escala – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" 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The present address (URL) is a <a href="/wiki/Help:Permanent_link" title="Help:Permanent link">permanent link</a> to this version.</b></p><div id="revision-info-current-plain" style="display: none;">Revision as of 17:12, 6 November 2024 by <a href="/wiki/User:OAbot" class="mw-userlink" title="User:OAbot" data-mw-revid="1255781891"><bdi>OAbot</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:OAbot" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:OAbot">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/OAbot" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/OAbot">contribs</a>)</span> <span class="comment">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:OABOT" title="Wikipedia:OABOT">Open access bot</a>: doi updated in citation with #oabot.)</span></div></div><div id="mw-revision-nav">(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&diff=prev&oldid=1255781891" title="Economies of scale">diff</a>) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&direction=prev&oldid=1255781891" title="Economies of scale">← Previous revision</a> | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)</div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Cost advantages obtained via scale of operation</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Economies_of_scale.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Economies_of_scale.svg/330px-Economies_of_scale.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Economies_of_scale.svg/495px-Economies_of_scale.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Economies_of_scale.svg/660px-Economies_of_scale.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>As quantity of production increases from Q to Q2, the <a href="/wiki/Unit_cost" title="Unit cost">average cost of each unit</a> decreases from C to C1. LRAC is the long-run average cost.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Economics" title="Category:Economics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef;padding:0.2em;font-size:200%;"><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/120px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/180px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg/240px-Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="217" data-file-height="217" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_economics" title="Outline of economics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_economics_articles" title="Index of economics articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches and <a href="/wiki/JEL_classification_codes" title="JEL classification codes">classifications</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">Heterodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_economics" title="International economics">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Micro</a> / <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_methodology" title="Economic methodology">Methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JEL_classification_codes" title="JEL classification codes">JEL classification codes</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts, theory and techniques</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">Economic growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_accounts" title="National accounts">National accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">Experimental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_economics" title="Computational economics">Computational economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_income_trap" title="Middle income trap">Middle income trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_complex" title="Industrial complex">Industrial complex</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">By application</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_economics" title="Agricultural economics">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_economics" title="Business economics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_economics" title="Cultural economics">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_and_economic_growth" title="Democracy and economic growth">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_economics" title="Demographic economics">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_digitization" title="Economics of digitization">Digitization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_economics" title="Expeditionary economics">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Geographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">Industrial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetary_economics" title="Monetary economics">Monetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_economics" title="Organizational economics">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_participation" title="Economics of participation">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personnel_economics" title="Personnel economics">Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">Public choice</a> / <a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_economics" title="Regional economics">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_economy" title="Service economy">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">Socio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Sociological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_economy" title="Solidarity economy">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)">Notable <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Mandeville">de Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">von Thünen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Heinrich_Gossen" title="Hermann Heinrich Gossen">Gossen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">Jevons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Menger" title="Carl Menger">Menger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth" title="Francis Ysidro Edgeworth">Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark" title="John Bates Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_von_B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk" title="Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk">von Böhm-Bawerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Wieser" title="Friedrich von Wieser">von Wieser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cecil_Pigou" title="Arthur Cecil Pigou">Pigou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Heckscher" title="Eli Heckscher">Heckscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knight" title="Frank Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_R._Lange" title="Oskar R. Lange">Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Leontief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Koopmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">Baumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Solow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Greenspan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Thaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Piketty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Economists" title="Category:Economists">more</a></i></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economics_lists" title="Category:Economics lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economists" title="List of economists">Economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_economics" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_economics_journals" title="List of economics journals">journals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/16px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/24px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/32px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="465" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Money" title="Portal:Money">Money portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economics_sidebar" title="Template:Economics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Economics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_Network_Diagram_(segment).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/250px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/375px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/500px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Key themes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Perspectives</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of sociology">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_architecture" title="Sociology of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrosociology" title="Astrosociology">Astrosociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">Emotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_jealousy" title="Social aspects of jealousy">Jealousy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_sociology" title="Fiscal sociology">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Jewry" title="Sociology of Jewry">Jewry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_peace,_war,_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">Peace, war, and social conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">History of science</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement_theory" title="Social movement theory">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_utopian_sociology" title="Real utopian sociology">Utopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">Major theorists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b>1700s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> · <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a><br /></li></ul> <p><b>1800s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a> · <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> · <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a> · <a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a> · <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> · <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a> · <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> · <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> · <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a><br /> </p> <b>1900s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> · <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a> · <a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a> · <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a> · <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a> · <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> · <a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a> · <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a> · <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a> · <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_sociology" title="Bibliography of sociology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociological_terminology" title="Category:Sociological terminology">Terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociology_journals" title="List of sociology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociological_associations" title="List of sociological associations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_by_country" title="Category:Sociology by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> 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style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By technological eras</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Premodern / <a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">Pre-industrial</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_technology" title="Prehistoric technology">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">lithic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Ancient</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Modern</dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">Proto-industrialization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standardization" title="Standardization">Standardization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_Age" title="Machine Age">Machine Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Age" title="Atomic Age">Atomic Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_Age" title="Jet Age">Jet Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Age" title="Space Age">Space Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Third Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_transformation" title="Digital transformation">Digital transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Imagination age">Imagination Age</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Future</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">Post-industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By historical regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Ancient Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Ancient China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Hellenistic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance Europe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By type of technology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">History of agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware" class="mw-redirect" title="History of computer hardware">History of computer hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering#History" title="Electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="History of manufacturing">History of manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history" title="Maritime history">History of maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine">History of simple machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History" title="Nuclear technology">History of nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Technology timelines</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of historic inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">Technological revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Technology_timelines" title="Category:Technology timelines">Complete list by category</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Article indices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_technology" title="Outline of technology">Outline of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Outline of prehistoric technology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_technology_sidebar" title="Template:History of technology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_technology_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of technology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_technology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of technology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a>, <b>economies of scale</b> are the cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to their scale of operation, and are typically measured by the amount of <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">output produced per unit of time</a>. A decrease in <a href="/wiki/Unit_cost" title="Unit cost">cost per unit</a> of output enables an increase in scale that is, increased production with lowered cost.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the basis of economies of scale, there may be technical, statistical, organizational or related factors to the degree of <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">market</a> control. </p><p>Economies of scale arise in a variety of organizational and business situations and at various levels, such as a production, plant or an entire enterprise. When average costs start falling as output increases, then economies of scale occur. Some economies of scale, such as capital cost of manufacturing facilities and friction loss of transportation and industrial equipment, have a <a href="#Physical_and_engineering_basis">physical or engineering basis</a>. The economic concept dates back to <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> and the idea of obtaining larger production returns through the use of division of labor.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Diseconomies_of_scale" title="Diseconomies of scale">Diseconomies of scale</a> are the opposite. </p><p>Economies of scale often have limits, such as passing the optimum design point where costs per additional unit begin to increase. Common limits include exceeding the nearby raw material supply, such as wood in the lumber, <a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry" title="Pulp and paper industry">pulp and paper industry</a>. A common limit for a low cost per unit weight <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodities</a> is saturating the regional market, thus having to ship products uneconomic distances. Other limits include using energy less efficiently or having a higher defect rate. </p><p>Large producers are usually efficient at long runs of a product grade (a commodity) and find it costly to switch grades frequently. They will, therefore, avoid specialty grades even though they have higher margins. Often smaller (usually older) manufacturing facilities remain viable by changing from commodity-grade production to specialty products.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economies of scale must be distinguished from economies stemming from an increase in the production of a given plant. When a plant is used below its optimal <a href="/wiki/Productive_capacity" title="Productive capacity">production capacity</a>, increases in its degree of utilization bring about decreases in the total average cost of production. <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Georgescu-Roegen" title="Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen">Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen</a> (1966) and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Kaldor" title="Nicholas Kaldor">Nicholas Kaldor</a> (1972) both argue that these economies should not be treated as economies of scale. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The simple meaning of economies of scale is doing things more efficiently with increasing size.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common sources of economies of scale are <a href="/wiki/Purchase" class="mw-redirect" title="Purchase">purchasing</a> (bulk buying of materials through long-term contracts), managerial (increasing the specialization of managers), financial (obtaining lower-<a href="/wiki/Interest" title="Interest">interest</a> charges when borrowing from banks and having access to a greater range of financial instruments), <a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">marketing</a> (spreading the cost of advertising over a greater range of output in <a href="/wiki/Media_market" title="Media market">media markets</a>), and technological (taking advantage of <a href="/wiki/Returns_to_scale" title="Returns to scale">returns to scale</a> in the production function). Each of these factors reduces the <a href="/wiki/Long_run_average_cost" class="mw-redirect" title="Long run average cost">long run average costs</a> (LRAC) of production by shifting the <a href="/wiki/Cost_curve" title="Cost curve">short-run average total cost (SRATC) curve</a> down and to the right. </p><p>Economies of scale is a concept that may explain patterns in international trade or in the number of firms in a given market. The exploitation of economies of scale helps explain why companies grow large in some industries. It is also a justification for <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> policies, since some economies of scale may require a larger market than is possible within a particular country—for example, it would not be efficient for <a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein" title="Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a> to have its own carmaker if they only sold to their local market. A lone carmaker may be profitable, but even more so if they exported cars to global markets in addition to selling to the local market. Economies of scale also play a role in a "<a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">natural monopoly</a>". There is a distinction between two types of economies of scale: internal and external. An industry that exhibits an internal economy of scale is one where the costs of production fall when the number of firms in the industry drops, but the remaining firms increase their production to match previous levels. Conversely, an industry exhibits an external economy of scale when costs drop due to the introduction of more firms, thus allowing for more efficient use of specialized services and machinery. </p><p>Economies of scale exist whenever the <a href="/wiki/Total_cost" title="Total cost">total cost</a> of producing two quantities of a product X is lower when a single firm instead of two separate firms produce it. See <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scope#Economics" title="Economies of scope">Economies of scope#Economics</a>. </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle TC((Q_{1}+Q_{2})X)<TC(Q_{1}X)+TC(Q_{2}X)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mi>C</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mi>X</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo><</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mi>C</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi>X</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mi>C</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi>X</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle TC((Q_{1}+Q_{2})X)<TC(Q_{1}X)+TC(Q_{2}X)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8a3e23bf37c920d8b27a1de4684c0a48faa5138d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:43.735ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle TC((Q_{1}+Q_{2})X)<TC(Q_{1}X)+TC(Q_{2}X)}"></span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Determinants_of_economies_of_scale">Determinants of economies of scale</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Determinants of economies of scale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_and_engineering_basis:_economies_of_increased_dimension">Physical and engineering basis: economies of increased dimension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Physical and engineering basis: economies of increased dimension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the economies of scale recognized in engineering have a physical basis, such as the <a href="/wiki/Square%E2%80%93cube_law" title="Square–cube law">square–cube law</a>, by which the surface of a vessel increases by the square of the dimensions while the volume increases by the cube. This law has a direct effect on the capital cost of such things as buildings, factories, pipelines, ships and airplanes.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In structural engineering, the strength of <a href="/wiki/Beam_(structure)" title="Beam (structure)">beams</a> increases with the cube of the thickness. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">Drag</a> loss of vehicles like aircraft or ships generally increases less than proportional with increasing cargo volume, although the physical details can be quite complicated. Therefore, making them larger usually results in less fuel consumption per ton of cargo at a given speed. </p><p>Heat loss from industrial processes vary per unit of volume for pipes, tanks and other vessels in a relationship somewhat similar to the square–cube law.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson195822–23Scherer198082–83Pratten199116–17_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson195822–23Scherer198082–83Pratten199116–17-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some productions, an increase in the size of the plant reduces the average variable cost, thanks to the energy savings resulting from the lower dispersion of heat. </p><p>Economies of increased dimension are often misinterpreted because of the confusion between indivisibility and three-dimensionality of space. This confusion arises from the fact that three-dimensional production elements, such as pipes and ovens, once installed and operating, are always technically indivisible. However, the economies of scale due to the increase in size do not depend on indivisibility but exclusively on the three-dimensionality of space. Indeed, indivisibility only entails the existence of economies of scale produced by the balancing of productive capacities, considered above; or of increasing returns in the utilisation of a single plant, due to its more efficient use as the quantity produced increases. However, this latter phenomenon has nothing to do with the economies of scale which, by definition, are linked to the use of a larger plant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006169–170_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006169–170-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economies_in_holding_stocks_and_reserves">Economies in holding stocks and reserves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Economies in holding stocks and reserves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the base of economies of scale there are also returns to scale linked to statistical factors. In fact, the greater of the number of resources involved, the smaller, in proportion, is the quantity of reserves necessary to cope with unforeseen contingencies (for instance, machine spare parts, inventories, circulating capital, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumol19611_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumol19611-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transaction_economies">Transaction economies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Transaction economies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the reasons firms appear is to <a href="/wiki/The_Nature_of_the_Firm" title="The Nature of the Firm">reduce transaction costs</a>. A larger scale generally determines greater bargaining power over input prices and therefore benefits from pecuniary economies in terms of purchasing raw materials and intermediate goods compared to companies that make orders for smaller amounts. In this case, we speak of pecuniary economies, to highlight the fact that nothing changes from the "physical" point of view of the returns to scale. Furthermore, supply contracts entail fixed costs which lead to decreasing average costs if the scale of production increases.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006170–171_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006170–171-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is of important utility in the study of <a href="/wiki/Corporate_finance" title="Corporate finance">corporate finance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economies_deriving_from_the_balancing_of_production_capacity">Economies deriving from the balancing of production capacity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Economies deriving from the balancing of production capacity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Economies of productive capacity balancing derives from the possibility that a larger scale of production involves a more efficient use of the production capacities of the individual phases of the production process. If the inputs are indivisible and complementary, a small scale may be subject to idle times or to the underutilization of the productive capacity of some sub-processes. A higher production scale can make the different production capacities compatible. The reduction in machinery idle times is crucial in the case of a high cost of machinery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006166_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006166-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economies_resulting_from_the_division_of_labour_and_the_use_of_superior_techniques">Economies resulting from the division of labour and the use of superior techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Economies resulting from the division of labour and the use of superior techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A larger scale allows for a more efficient division of labour. The economies of division of labour derive from the increase in production speed, from the possibility of using specialized personnel and adopting more efficient techniques. An increase in the division of labour inevitably leads to changes in the quality of inputs and outputs.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Managerial_economics">Managerial economics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Managerial economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many administrative and organizational activities are mostly cognitive and, therefore, largely independent of the scale of production.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the size of the company and the division of labour increase, there are a number of advantages due to the possibility of making organizational management more effective and perfecting accounting and control techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScherer198086Penrose195992_ff.Demsetz199531–2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScherer198086Penrose195992_ff.Demsetz199531–2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the procedures and routines that turned out to be the best can be reproduced by managers at different times and places. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Learning_and_growth_economies">Learning and growth economies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Learning and growth economies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Learning-by-doing_(economics)" title="Learning-by-doing (economics)">Learning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">growth economies</a> are at the base of dynamic economies of scale, associated with the process of growth of the scale dimension and not to the dimension of scale per se. Learning by doing implies improvements in the ability to perform and promotes the introduction of incremental innovations with a progressive lowering of average costs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982LevinKlevorickNelsonWinter1987Scherer200022_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982LevinKlevorickNelsonWinter1987Scherer200022-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Learning economies are directly proportional to the cumulative production (<a href="/wiki/Experience_curve_effects" title="Experience curve effects">experience curve</a>). Growth economies emerge if a company gains an added benefit by expanding its size. These economies are due to the presence of some resource or competence that is not fully utilized, or to the existence of specific market positions that create a differential advantage in expanding the size of the firms. That growth economies disappear once the scale size expansion process is completed. For example, a company that owns a supermarket chain benefits from an economy of growth if, opening a new supermarket, it gets an increase in the price of the land it owns around the new supermarket. The sale of these lands to economic operators, who wish to open shops near the supermarket, allows the company in question to make a profit, making a profit on the revaluation of the value of building land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenrose195999–101Morroni2006172_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenrose195999–101Morroni2006172-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capital_and_operating_cost">Capital and operating cost</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Capital and operating cost"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Overall costs of capital projects are known to be subject to economies of scale. A crude estimate is that if the capital cost for a given sized piece of equipment is known, changing the size will change the capital cost by the 0.6 power of the capacity ratio (the <a href="#Rule_of_six-tenths">point six to the power rule</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In estimating capital cost, it typically requires an insignificant amount of labor, and possibly not much more in materials, to install a larger capacity electrical wire or pipe having significantly greater capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cost of a unit of capacity of many types of equipment, such as electric motors, centrifugal pumps, diesel and gasoline engines, decreases as size increases. Also, the efficiency increases with size.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crew_size_and_other_operating_costs_for_ships,_trains_and_airplanes"><span id="Crew_size_and_other_operating_costs_for_ships.2C_trains_and_airplanes"></span>Crew size and other operating costs for ships, trains and airplanes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Crew size and other operating costs for ships, trains and airplanes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Operating crew size for ships, airplanes, trains, etc., does not increase in direct proportion to capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982[httpsarchiveorgdetailsinsideblackboxte00rosepage63_63]_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982[httpsarchiveorgdetailsinsideblackboxte00rosepage63_63]-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Operating crew consists of pilots, co-pilots, navigators, etc. and does not include passenger service personnel.) Many aircraft models were significantly lengthened or "stretched" to increase payload.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982127–128_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982127–128-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many manufacturing facilities, especially those making bulk materials like chemicals, refined petroleum products, cement and paper, have labor requirements that are not greatly influenced by changes in plant capacity. This is because labor requirements of automated processes tend to be based on the complexity of the operation rather than production rate, and many manufacturing facilities have nearly the same basic number of processing steps and pieces of equipment, regardless of production capacity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economical_use_of_byproducts">Economical use of byproducts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Economical use of byproducts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> noted that large scale manufacturing allowed economical use of products that would otherwise be waste.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marx cited the chemical industry as an example, which today along with petrochemicals, remains highly dependent on turning various residual reactant streams into salable products. In the pulp and paper industry, it is economical to burn bark and fine wood particles to produce <a href="/w/index.php?title=Process_steam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Process steam (page does not exist)">process steam</a> and to recover the spent pulping chemicals for conversion back to a usable form. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economies_of_scale_and_the_size_of_exporter">Economies of scale and the size of exporter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Economies of scale and the size of exporter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Large and more productive firms typically generate enough net revenues abroad to cover the fixed costs associated with exporting.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in the event of trade liberalization, resources will have to be reallocated toward the more productive firm, which raises the average productivity within the industry.<sup id="cite_ref-ArmenterKoren_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ArmenterKoren-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Firms differ in their labor productivity and the quality of their products, so more efficient firms are more likely to generate more net income abroad and thus become exporters of their goods or services. There is a correlating relationship between a firm's total sales and underlying efficiency. Firms with higher productivity will always outperform a firm with lower productivity which will lead to lower sales. Through trade liberalization, organizations are able to drop their trade costs due to export growth. However, trade liberalization does not account for any tariff reduction or shipping logistics improvement.<sup id="cite_ref-ArmenterKoren_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ArmenterKoren-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, total economies of scale is based on the exporters individual frequency and size. So large-scale companies are more likely to have a lower cost per unit as opposed to small-scale companies. Likewise, high trade frequency companies are able to reduce their overall cost attributed per unit when compared to those of low-trade frequency companies. <sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economies_of_scale_and_returns_to_scale">Economies of scale and returns to scale</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Economies of scale and returns to scale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Economies of scale is related to and can easily be confused with the theoretical economic notion of returns to scale. Where economies of scale refer to a firm's costs, returns to scale describe the relationship between inputs and outputs in a long-run (all inputs variable) production function. A production function has <i>constant</i> returns to scale if increasing all inputs by some proportion results in output increasing by that same proportion. Returns are <i>decreasing</i> if, say, doubling inputs results in less than double the output, and <i>increasing</i> if more than double the output. If a mathematical function is used to represent the production function, and if that production function is <a href="/wiki/Homogeneous_function" title="Homogeneous function">homogeneous</a>, returns to scale are represented by the degree of homogeneity of the function. Homogeneous production functions with constant returns to scale are first degree homogeneous, increasing returns to scale are represented by degrees of homogeneity greater than one, and decreasing returns to scale by degrees of homogeneity less than one. </p><p>If the firm is a perfect competitor in all input markets, and thus the per-unit prices of all its inputs are unaffected by how much of the inputs the firm purchases, then it can be shown that at a particular level of output, the firm has economies of scale if and only if it has increasing returns to scale, has diseconomies of scale if and only if it has decreasing returns to scale, and has neither economies nor diseconomies of scale if it has constant returns to scale.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case, with <a href="/wiki/Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">perfect competition</a> in the output market the long-run equilibrium will involve all firms operating at the minimum point of their long-run average cost curves (i.e., at the borderline between economies and diseconomies of scale). </p><p>If, however, the firm is not a perfect competitor in the input markets, then the above conclusions are modified. For example, if there are increasing returns to scale in some range of output levels, but the firm is so big in one or more input markets that increasing its purchases of an input drives up the input's per-unit cost, then the firm could have diseconomies of scale in that range of output levels. Conversely, if the firm is able to get bulk discounts of an input, then it could have economies of scale in some range of output levels even if it has decreasing returns in production in that output range. </p><p>In essence, <a href="/wiki/Returns_to_scale" title="Returns to scale">returns to scale</a> refer to the variation in the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">inputs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Output_(economics)" title="Output (economics)">output</a>. This relationship is therefore expressed in "physical" terms. But when talking about economies of scale, the relation taken into consideration is that between the average production cost and the dimension of scale. Economies of scale therefore are affected by variations in input prices. If input prices remain the same as their quantities purchased by the firm increase, the notions of increasing returns to scale and economies of scale can be considered equivalent. However, if input prices vary in relation to their quantities purchased by the company, it is necessary to distinguish between returns to scale and economies of scale. The concept of economies of scale is more general than that of returns to scale since it includes the possibility of changes in the price of inputs when the quantity purchased of inputs varies with changes in the scale of production.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorroni1992142Morroni2006164–165_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorroni1992142Morroni2006164–165-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The literature assumed that due to the competitive nature of <a href="/wiki/Reverse_auction" title="Reverse auction">reverse auctions</a>, and in order to compensate for lower prices and lower margins, suppliers seek higher volumes to maintain or increase the total revenue. Buyers, in turn, benefit from the lower transaction costs and economies of scale that result from larger volumes. In part as a result, numerous studies have indicated that the procurement volume must be sufficiently high to provide sufficient profits to attract enough suppliers, and provide buyers with enough savings to cover their additional costs.<sup id="cite_ref-ShalevAsbjornsen2010_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShalevAsbjornsen2010-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, Shalev and Asbjornse found, in their research based on 139 reverse auctions conducted in the <a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">public sector</a> by public sector buyers, that the higher auction volume, or economies of scale, did not lead to better success of the auction. They found that auction volume did not correlate with competition, nor with the number of bidders, suggesting that auction volume does not promote additional competition. They noted, however, that their data included a wide range of products, and the degree of competition in each market varied significantly, and offer that further research on this issue should be conducted to determine whether these findings remain the same when purchasing the same product for both small and high volumes. Keeping competitive factors constant, increasing auction volume may further increase competition.<sup id="cite_ref-ShalevAsbjornsen2010_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShalevAsbjornsen2010-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economies_of_scale_in_the_history_of_economic_analysis">Economies of scale in the history of economic analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Economies of scale in the history of economic analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economies_of_scale_in_classical_economists">Economies of scale in classical economists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Economies of scale in classical economists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first systematic analysis of the advantages of the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a> capable of generating economies of scale, both in a static and dynamic sense, was that contained in the famous First Book of <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">Wealth of Nations</a> (1776) by <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, generally considered the founder of <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a> as an autonomous discipline. </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>, in Chapter IX of the First Book of his Principles, referring to the work of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> (On the economics of machines and manufactories), widely analyses the relationships between increasing returns and scale of production all inside the production unit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economies_of_scale_in_Marx_and_distributional_consequences">Economies of scale in Marx and distributional consequences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Economies of scale in Marx and distributional consequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></i></span> (1867), <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, referring to <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a>, extensively analyzed economies of scale and concludes that they are one of the factors underlying the ever-increasing concentration of capital. Marx observes that in the capitalist system the technical conditions of the work process are continuously revolutionized in order to increase the surplus by improving the productive force of work. According to Marx, with the cooperation of many workers brings about an economy in the use of the means of production and an increase in productivity due to the increase in the division of labour. Furthermore, the increase in the size of the machinery allows significant savings in construction, installation and operation costs. The tendency to exploit economies of scale entails a continuous increase in the volume of production which, in turn, requires a constant expansion of the size of the market.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx1867432–442,_469_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx1867432–442,_469-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, if the market does not expand at the same rate as production increases, overproduction crises can occur. According to Marx the capitalist system is therefore characterized by two tendencies, connected to economies of scale: towards a growing concentration and towards economic crises due to overproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx1894172,_288,_360–365_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx1894172,_288,_360–365-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his 1844 <i><a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Philosophic_Manuscripts_of_1844" title="Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844">Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> observes that economies of scale have historically been associated with an increasing concentration of private wealth and have been used to justify such concentration. Marx points out that concentrated private ownership of large-scale economic enterprises is a historically contingent fact, and not essential to the nature of such enterprises. In the case of agriculture, for example, Marx calls attention to the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sophistry" class="extiw" title="wikt:sophistry">sophistical</a> nature of the arguments used to justify the system of concentrated ownership of land: </p> <dl><dd>As for large landed property, its defenders have always sophistically identified the economic advantages offered by large-scale agriculture with large-scale landed property, as if it were not precisely as a result of the abolition of property that this advantage, for one thing, received its greatest possible extension, and, for another, only then would be of social benefit.<sup id="cite_ref-marx1844_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marx1844-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Instead of concentrated private ownership of land, Marx recommends that economies of scale should instead be realized by <a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">associations</a>: </p> <dl><dd>Association, applied to land, shares the economic advantage of large-scale landed property, and first brings to realization the original tendency inherent in land-division, namely, equality. In the same way association re-establishes, now on a rational basis, no longer mediated by serfdom, overlordship and the silly mysticism of property, the intimate ties of man with the earth, for the earth ceases to be an object of huckstering, and through free labor and free enjoyment becomes once more a true personal property of man.<sup id="cite_ref-marx1844_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marx1844-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economies_of_scale_in_Marshall">Economies of scale in Marshall</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Economies of scale in Marshall"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Alfred Marshall</a> notes that <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Antoine Augustin Cournot</a> and others have considered "the internal economies [...] apparently without noticing that their premises lead inevitably to the conclusion that, whatever firm first gets a good start will obtain a monopoly of the whole business of its trade … ".<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marshall believes that there are factors that limit this trend toward monopoly, and in particular: </p> <ul><li>the death of the founder of the firm and the difficulty that the successors may have inherited his/her entrepreneurial skills;</li> <li>the difficulty of reaching new markets for one's goods;</li> <li>the growing difficulty of being able to adapt to changes in demand and to new techniques of production;</li> <li>The effects of external economies, that is the particular type of economies of scale connected not to the production scale of an individual production unit, but to that of an entire sector.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall1890232–238,_378–380_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1890232–238,_378–380-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sraffa's_critique"><span id="Sraffa.27s_critique"></span>Sraffa's critique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sraffa's critique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Piero Sraffa</a> observes that Marshall, in order to justify the operation of the law of increasing returns without it coming into conflict with the hypothesis of free competition, tended to highlight the advantages of external economies linked to an increase in the production of an entire sector of activity. However, "those economies which are external from the point of view of the individual firm, but internal as regards the industry in its aggregate, constitute precisely the class which is most seldom to be met with." "In any case - Sraffa notes – in so far as external economies of the kind in question exist, they are not linked to be called forth by small increases in production," as required by the marginalist theory of price.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESraffa192649Sraffa1925_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESraffa192649Sraffa1925-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sraffa points out that, in the equilibrium theory of the individual industries, the presence of external economies cannot play an important role because this theory is based on marginal changes in the quantities produced. </p><p>Sraffa concludes that, if the hypothesis of <a href="/wiki/Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">perfect competition</a> is maintained, economies of scale should be excluded. He then suggests the possibility of abandoning the assumption of free competition to address the study of firms that have their own particular market.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESraffa192658_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESraffa192658-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This stimulated a whole series of studies on the cases of <a href="/wiki/Imperfect_competition" title="Imperfect competition">imperfect competition</a> in Cambridge. However, in the succeeding years Sraffa followed a different path of research that brought him to write and publish his main work <i>Production of commodities by means of commodities</i> (<a href="#CITEREFSraffa1966">Sraffa 1966</a>). In this book, Sraffa determines relative prices assuming no changes in output, so that no question arises as to the variation or constancy of returns. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rule_of_six-tenths">Rule of six-tenths</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Rule of six-tenths"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1947, <a href="/wiki/DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a> engineer Roger Williams, Jr. (1930-2005) published a rule of thumb that costs of chemical process are roughly proportional to the tonnage <a href="/wiki/Power_law" title="Power law">in power ~0.6</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the following decades it became widely adopted other engineering industries<sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and terrestrial mining,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sometimes (e. g., in electrical power generation) with modified exponential scaling factors.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economies_of_scale_and_the_tendency_towards_monopoly:_"Cournot's_dilemma""><span id="Economies_of_scale_and_the_tendency_towards_monopoly:_.22Cournot.27s_dilemma.22"></span>Economies of scale and the tendency towards monopoly: "Cournot's dilemma"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Economies of scale and the tendency towards monopoly: "Cournot's dilemma""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It has been noted that in many industrial sectors there are numerous companies with different sizes and organizational structures, despite the presence of significant economies of scale. This contradiction, between the empirical evidence and the logical incompatibility between economies of scale and competition, has been called the 'Cournot dilemma'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrow1979156_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrow1979156-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Mario Morroni observes, Cournot's dilemma appears to be unsolvable if we only consider the effects of economies of scale on the dimension of scale.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006253–256_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006253–256-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If, on the other hand, the analysis is expanded, including the aspects concerning the development of knowledge and the organization of transactions, it is possible to conclude that economies of scale do not always lead to monopoly. In fact, the competitive advantages deriving from the development of the firm's capabilities and from the management of transactions with suppliers and customers can counterbalance those provided by the scale, thus counteracting the tendency towards a monopoly inherent in economies of scale. In other words, the heterogeneity of the organizational forms and of the size of the companies operating in a sector of activity can be determined by factors regarding the quality of the products, the production flexibility, the contractual methods, the learning opportunities, the heterogeneity of preferences of customers who express a differentiated demand with respect to the quality of the product, and assistance before and after the sale. Very different organizational forms can therefore co-exist in the same sector of activity, even in the presence of economies of scale, such as, for example, flexible production on a large scale, small-scale flexible production, mass production, industrial production based on rigid technologies associated with flexible organizational systems and traditional artisan production. The considerations regarding economies of scale are therefore important, but not sufficient to explain the size of the company and the market structure. It is also necessary to take into account the factors linked to the development of capabilities and the management of transaction costs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006253–256_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006253–256-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_economies_of_scale">External economies of scale</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External economies of scale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>External economies of scale tend to be more prevalent than internal economies of scale.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through the external economies of scale, the entry of new firms benefits all existing competitors as it creates greater competition and also reduces the average cost for all firms as opposed to internal economies of scale which only allows benefits to the individual firm.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advantages that arise from external economies of scale include; </p> <ul><li>Expansion of the industry.</li> <li>Benefits most or all of the firms within the industry.</li> <li>Can lead to rapid growth of local governments.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Economies-of-scale-external.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Economies-of-scale-external.webp/220px-Economies-of-scale-external.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Economies-of-scale-external.webp/330px-Economies-of-scale-external.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Economies-of-scale-external.webp/440px-Economies-of-scale-external.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="483" /></a><figcaption>Graph Depicting External Economies of Scale</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Purchasing">Purchasing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Purchasing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Firms are able to lower their average costs by buying their inputs required for the production process in bulk or from special wholesalers.<sup id="cite_ref-ComputationalExperiment_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ComputationalExperiment-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Managerial">Managerial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Managerial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Firms might be able to lower their average costs by improving their management structure within the firm. This can range from hiring better skilled or more experienced managers from the industry.<sup id="cite_ref-ComputationalExperiment_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ComputationalExperiment-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technological">Technological</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Technological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Technological advancements change production processes and subsequently reduce the overall cost per unit.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tim Hindle argues that the rollout of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a> "has completely reshaped the assumptions underlying economies of scale".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/28px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/42px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/56px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Economics" title="Portal:Economics">Economics portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_density" title="Economies of density">Economies of density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scope" title="Economies of scope">Economies of scope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_firm_size" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideal firm size">Ideal firm size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">Mass production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_effect" title="Network effect">Network effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capture" title="Regulatory capture">Regulatory capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience_curve_effects#Wright's_law_unit_cost_curve" title="Experience curve effects">Wright's Law unit cost curve</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manufacture of specialty grades by small scale producers is a common practice in steel, paper, and many commodity industries today. See various industry trade publications.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See various estimating guides, such as Means. Also see various engineering economics texts related to plant design and construction, etc.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The relationship is rather complex. See engineering texts on heat transfer.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In practice, capital cost estimates are prepared from specifications, budget grade vendor pricing for equipment, general arrangement drawings and materials take-offs from the drawings. This information is then used in cost formulas to arrive at a final detailed estimate.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/economiesofscale.asp">"Economies of Scale: What Are They and How Are They Used?"</a>. <i>Investopedia</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Investopedia&rft.atitle=Economies+of+Scale%3A+What+Are+They+and+How+Are+They+Used%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.investopedia.com%2Fterms%2Fe%2Feconomiesofscale.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'SullivanSheffrin2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_O%27Sullivan_(economist)" title="Arthur O'Sullivan (economist)">O'Sullivan, Arthur</a>; Sheffrin, Steven M. (2003). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economicsprincip00osul"><i>Economics: Principles in Action</i></a></span>. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economicsprincip00osul/page/n173">157</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-063085-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-063085-8"><bdi>978-0-13-063085-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2024</span> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics%3A+Principles+in+Action&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-13-063085-8&rft.aulast=O%27Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft.au=Sheffrin%2C+Steven+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feconomicsprincip00osul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandes1969" class="citation book cs1">Landes, David. S. (1969). <i>The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present</i>. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09418-4"><bdi>978-0-521-09418-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unbound+Prometheus%3A+Technological+Change+and+Industrial+Development+in+Western+Europe+from+1750+to+the+Present&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Press+Syndicate+of+the+University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09418-4&rft.aulast=Landes&rft.aufirst=David.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span> Landes describes the problem of new steel mills in late 19th century Britain being too large for the market and unable to economically produce short production runs of specialty grades. The old mills had another advantage in that they were fully amortized.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler1993" class="citation book cs1">Chandler, Alfred D. Jr. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/visiblehandmanag00chan/page/236"><i>The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business</i></a>. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/visiblehandmanag00chan/page/236">236</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674940529" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674940529"><bdi>978-0674940529</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Visible+Hand%3A+The+Management+Revolution+in+American+Business&rft.pages=236&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0674940529&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=Alfred+D.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvisiblehandmanag00chan%2Fpage%2F236&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span> Chandler uses the example of high turn over in distribution.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson195822–23Scherer198082–83Pratten199116–17-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson195822–23Scherer198082–83Pratten199116–17_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinson1958">Robinson (1958)</a>, pp. 22–23; <a href="#CITEREFScherer1980">Scherer (1980)</a>, pp. 82–83; <a href="#CITEREFPratten1991">Pratten (1991)</a>, pp. 16–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006169–170-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006169–170_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorroni2006">Morroni (2006)</a>, pp. 169–170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumol19611-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaumol19611_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaumol1961">Baumol (1961)</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006170–171-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006170–171_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorroni2006">Morroni (2006)</a>, pp. 170–171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/economics/economies-of-scale/">"Economies of Scale - Definition, Types, Effects of Economies of Scale"</a>. Corporate Finance Institute<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Economies+of+Scale+-+Definition%2C+Types%2C+Effects+of+Economies+of+Scale&rft.pub=Corporate+Finance+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcorporatefinanceinstitute.com%2Fresources%2Fknowledge%2Feconomics%2Feconomies-of-scale%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006166-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorroni2006166_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorroni2006">Morroni (2006)</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1976">Smith (1976)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFPratten1991">Pratten (1991)</a>, pp. 7, 17–8 On the relationship between built-in technical change and scale growth, see <a href="#CITEREFEvangelista1999">Evangelista (1999)</a>, chapter 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDemsetz1995">Demsetz (1995)</a>, pp. 11, 31–32 shows how these economies of scale in the acquisition of specialized knowledge play an essential role in the existence of the company.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScherer198086Penrose195992_ff.Demsetz199531–2-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScherer198086Penrose195992_ff.Demsetz199531–2_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScherer1980">Scherer (1980)</a>, p. 86; <a href="#CITEREFPenrose1959">Penrose (1959)</a>, pp. 92 ff.; <a href="#CITEREFDemsetz1995">Demsetz (1995)</a>, pp. 31–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982LevinKlevorickNelsonWinter1987Scherer200022-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982LevinKlevorickNelsonWinter1987Scherer200022_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosenberg1982">Rosenberg (1982)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFLevinKlevorickNelsonWinter1987">Levin et al. (1987)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFScherer2000">Scherer (2000)</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenrose195999–101Morroni2006172-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenrose195999–101Morroni2006172_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPenrose1959">Penrose (1959)</a>, pp. 99–101; <a href="#CITEREFMorroni2006">Morroni (2006)</a>, p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore1959" class="citation journal cs1">Moore, Fredrick T. (May 1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~lebelp/MooreEcsScaleQJE1959.pdf">"Economies of Scale: Some Statistical Evidence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Quarterly_Journal_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarterly Journal of Economics">Quarterly Journal of Economics</a></i>. <b>73</b> (2): 232–245. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1883722">10.2307/1883722</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1883722">1883722</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Economies+of+Scale%3A+Some+Statistical+Evidence&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=232-245&rft.date=1959-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1883722&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1883722%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Fredrick+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmsuweb.montclair.edu%2F~lebelp%2FMooreEcsScaleQJE1959.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See various estimating guides that publish tables of tasks commonly encountered in building trades with estimates of labor hours and costs per hour for the trade, often with regional pricing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See various engineering handbooks and manufacturers' data.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982[httpsarchiveorgdetailsinsideblackboxte00rosepage63_63]-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982[httpsarchiveorgdetailsinsideblackboxte00rosepage63_63]_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosenberg1982">Rosenberg 1982</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/63">63</a><Specifically mentions ships.></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982127–128-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982127–128_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosenberg1982">Rosenberg (1982)</a>, pp. 127–128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenberg1982_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosenberg1982">Rosenberg (1982)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelitz2003" class="citation journal cs1">Melitz, Marc J (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/melitz/files/aggprod_ecma.pdf">"The Impact of Trade on Intra-industry Reallocations and Aggregate Industry Productivity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Econometrica</i>. <b>71</b> (6): 1695–1725. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-0262.00467">10.1111/1468-0262.00467</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Econometrica&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+Trade+on+Intra-industry+Reallocations+and+Aggregate+Industry+Productivity&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1695-1725&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1468-0262.00467&rft.aulast=Melitz&rft.aufirst=Marc+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Fmelitz%2Ffiles%2Faggprod_ecma.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ArmenterKoren-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ArmenterKoren_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ArmenterKoren_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmenterKoren2015" class="citation journal cs1">Armenter, Roc; Koren, Miklós (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1448001">"Economies of Scale and the Size of Exporters"</a>. <i>Journal of the European Economic Association</i>. <b>13</b> (1): 482–511. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjeea.12108">10.1111/jeea.12108</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1448001">1448001</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+European+Economic+Association&rft.atitle=Economies+of+Scale+and+the+Size+of+Exporters&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=482-511&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1448001%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjeea.12108&rft.aulast=Armenter&rft.aufirst=Roc&rft.au=Koren%2C+Mikl%C3%B3s&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1448001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumgartnerFuettererThoneman2012" class="citation journal cs1">Baumgartner, Kerstin; Fuetterer, André; Thoneman, Ulrich W (2012). "Supply chain design considering economies of scale and transport frequencies". <i>European Journal of Operational Research</i>. <b>218</b> (3): 789–800. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2011.11.032">10.1016/j.ejor.2011.11.032</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Operational+Research&rft.atitle=Supply+chain+design+considering+economies+of+scale+and+transport+frequencies&rft.volume=218&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=789-800&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2011.11.032&rft.aulast=Baumgartner&rft.aufirst=Kerstin&rft.au=Fuetterer%2C+Andr%C3%A9&rft.au=Thoneman%2C+Ulrich+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGellesMitchell1996" class="citation journal cs1">Gelles, Gregory M.; Mitchell, Douglas W. (1996). "Returns to Scale and Economies of Scale: Further Observations". <i>Journal of Economic Education</i>. <b>27</b> (3): 259–261. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00220485.1996.10844915">10.1080/00220485.1996.10844915</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1183297">1183297</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Education&rft.atitle=Returns+to+Scale+and+Economies+of+Scale%3A+Further+Observations&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=259-261&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00220485.1996.10844915&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1183297%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gelles&rft.aufirst=Gregory+M.&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+Douglas+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrisch1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Frisch, R.</a> (1965). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theoryofproducti0000fris"><i>Theory of Production</i></a></span>. Dordrecht: D. Reidel.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+Production&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pub=D.+Reidel&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Frisch&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheoryofproducti0000fris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson1969" class="citation book cs1">Ferguson, C. E. (1969). <i>The Neoclassical Theory of Production & Distribution</i>. London: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-07453-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-07453-7"><bdi>978-0-521-07453-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Neoclassical+Theory+of+Production+%26+Distribution&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-521-07453-7&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=C.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorroni1992142Morroni2006164–165-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorroni1992142Morroni2006164–165_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorroni1992">Morroni (1992)</a>, p. 142; <a href="#CITEREFMorroni2006">Morroni (2006)</a>, pp. 164–165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ShalevAsbjornsen2010-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ShalevAsbjornsen2010_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ShalevAsbjornsen2010_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShalevAsbjornsen2010" class="citation journal cs1">Shalev, Moshe Eitan; Asbjornsen, Stee (2010). 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Uckfield: The Iowa State University Press. pp. 153–164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813819006" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813819006"><bdi>978-0813819006</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+division+of+labor+in+the+economy%2C+the+polity%2C+and+society&rft.btitle=Adam+Smith+and+Modern+Political+Economy.+Bicentennial+Essays+on+the+Wealth+of+Nations&rft.place=Uckfield&rft.pages=153-164&rft.pub=The+Iowa+State+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0813819006&rft.aulast=Arrow&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBabbage1832" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Babbage, Charles</a> (1832). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oneconomyofmachi00babb"><i>On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures</i></a>. London: Knight.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Economy+of+Machinery+and+Manufactures&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Knight&rft.date=1832&rft.aulast=Babbage&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foneconomyofmachi00babb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumol1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">Baumol, William Jack</a> (1961). <i>Economic Theory and Operational Analysis</i> (4 ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780132271240" title="Special:BookSources/9780132271240"><bdi>9780132271240</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Theory+and+Operational+Analysis&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+New+Jersey&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=9780132271240&rft.aulast=Baumol&rft.aufirst=William+Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCournot1838" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot, Antoine Augustin</a> (1838). <i>Recherches sur les Principes Mathématiques de la Théorie des Richesses</i> (in French). Paris: Hachette. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2012871786" title="Special:BookSources/978-2012871786"><bdi>978-2012871786</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recherches+sur+les+Principes+Math%C3%A9matiques+de+la+Th%C3%A9orie+des+Richesses&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Hachette&rft.date=1838&rft.isbn=978-2012871786&rft.aulast=Cournot&rft.aufirst=Antoine+Augustin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span> New ed. with Appendices by Léon Walras, Joseph Bertrand and Vilfredo Pareto, Introduction and notes by Georges Lutfalla, Paris: Librairie des Sciences Politiques et Sociales Marcel Rivière, 1938. English translation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCournot1927" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot, Antoine Augustin</a> (1927). <i>Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth</i>. Translated by Bacon, Nathaniel T. New York: Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Researches+into+the+Mathematical+Principles+of+the+Theory+of+Wealth&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Cournot&rft.aufirst=Antoine+Augustin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span> Repr. New York: A.M. Kelley, 1971.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemsetz1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harold_Demsetz" title="Harold Demsetz">Demsetz, Harold</a> (1995). <i>The Economics of the Business Firm. Seven Critical Comments</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521588650" title="Special:BookSources/0521588650"><bdi>0521588650</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economics+of+the+Business+Firm.+Seven+Critical+Comments&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0521588650&rft.aulast=Demsetz&rft.aufirst=Harold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span> Repr. 1997.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvangelista1999" class="citation book cs1">Evangelista, Rinaldo (1999). <i>Knowledge and Investment. The Source of Innovation in Industry</i>. cheltenham: Elgar.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Knowledge+and+Investment.+The+Source+of+Innovation+in+Industry&rft.place=cheltenham&rft.pub=Elgar&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Evangelista&rft.aufirst=Rinaldo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFäreGrosskopfLovell1986" class="citation journal cs1">Färe, Rolf; <a href="/wiki/Shawna_Grosskopf" title="Shawna Grosskopf">Grosskopf, Shawna</a>; Lovell, C. A. Knox (June 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226333503">"Scale Economies and Duality"</a>. <i>Journal of Economics</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 175–182. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01229228">10.1007/BF01229228</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154480027">154480027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Scale+Economies+and+Duality&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-182&rft.date=1986-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01229228&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154480027%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=F%C3%A4re&rft.aufirst=Rolf&rft.au=Grosskopf%2C+Shawna&rft.au=Lovell%2C+C.+A.+Knox&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F226333503&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorgescu-Roegen1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Georgescu-Roegen" title="Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen">Georgescu-Roegen, Nicholas</a> (1966). <i>Analytical Economics: Issues and Problems</i>. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674281639" title="Special:BookSources/9780674281639"><bdi>9780674281639</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analytical+Economics%3A+Issues+and+Problems&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=9780674281639&rft.aulast=Georgescu-Roegen&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanoch1975" class="citation journal cs1">Hanoch, Giora (June 1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:aea:aecrev:v:65:y:1975:i:3:p:492-97">"The Elasticity of Scale and the Shape of Average Costs"</a>. <i>American Economic Review</i>. <b>65</b> (3): 492–497. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1804855">1804855</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=The+Elasticity+of+Scale+and+the+Shape+of+Average+Costs&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=492-497&rft.date=1975-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1804855%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hanoch&rft.aufirst=Giora&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2FEconPapers.repec.org%2FRePEc%3Aaea%3Aaecrev%3Av%3A65%3Ay%3A1975%3Ai%3A3%3Ap%3A492-97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaldor1972" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Kaldor" title="Nicholas Kaldor">Kaldor, Nicholas</a> (December 1972). "The irrelevance of equilibrium economics". <i>The Economic Journal</i>. <b>82</b> (328): 1237–1255. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2231304">10.2307/2231304</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2231304">2231304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+Journal&rft.atitle=The+irrelevance+of+equilibrium+economics&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=328&rft.pages=1237-1255&rft.date=1972-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2231304&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2231304%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kaldor&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevinKlevorickNelsonWinter1987" class="citation journal cs1">Levin, Richard C.; Klevorick, Alvin K.; Nelson, Richard R.; Winter, Sidney G. (1987). Baily, M.N.; Winston, C. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/1987/12/1987c_bpea_levin_klevorick_nelson_winter_gilbert_griliches.pdf">"Appropriating the returns from industrial research and development"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Brookings Papers on Economic Activity</i>. <b>1987</b> (3): 783–820. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2534454">10.2307/2534454</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2534454">2534454</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51821102">51821102</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brookings+Papers+on+Economic+Activity&rft.atitle=Appropriating+the+returns+from+industrial+research+and+development&rft.volume=1987&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=783-820&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A51821102%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2534454%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2534454&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rft.au=Klevorick%2C+Alvin+K.&rft.au=Nelson%2C+Richard+R.&rft.au=Winter%2C+Sidney+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brookings.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F1987%2F12%2F1987c_bpea_levin_klevorick_nelson_winter_gilbert_griliches.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall1890" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall, Alfred</a> (1890). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/principlesecono00marsgoog"><i>Principles of Economics</i></a> (8 ed.). London: Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Economics&rft.place=London&rft.edition=8&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1890&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprinciplesecono00marsgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span> Repr. 1990.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarx1867" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx, Karl</a> (1867). <i>Das Kapital</i> [<i>Capital. A Critique to Political Economy</i>]. Vol. 1. Translated by Fowkes, Ben. London: Penguin Books in association with New Left Review.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Das+Kapital&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+in+association+with+New+Left+Review&rft.date=1867&rft.aulast=Marx&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span> Repr. 1990.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarx1894" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx, Karl</a> (1894). <i>Das Kapital</i> [<i>Capital. A Critique to Political Economy</i>]. Vol. 3. Translated by Fernbach, David B.; introduced by Mandel, Ernest. London: Penguin Books in association with New Left Review.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Das+Kapital&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+in+association+with+New+Left+Review&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Marx&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorroni1992" class="citation book cs1">Morroni, Mario (1992). <i>Production Process and Technical Change</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511599019" title="Special:BookSources/9780511599019"><bdi>9780511599019</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Production+Process+and+Technical+Change&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780511599019&rft.aulast=Morroni&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorroni2006" class="citation book cs1">Morroni, Mario (2006). <i>Knowledge, Scale and Transactions in the Theory of the Firm</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107321007" title="Special:BookSources/9781107321007"><bdi>9781107321007</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Knowledge%2C+Scale+and+Transactions+in+the+Theory+of+the+Firm&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781107321007&rft.aulast=Morroni&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span> Repr. 2009.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanzarWillig1977" class="citation journal cs1">Panzar, John; Willig, Robert D. (August 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://econpapers.repec.org/article/oupqjecon/v_3a91_3ay_3a1977_3ai_3a3_3ap_3a481-493..htm">"Economies of Scale in Multi-Output Production"</a>. <i>The Quarterly Journal of Economics</i>. <b>91</b> (3): 481–493. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1885979">10.2307/1885979</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1885979">1885979</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Economies+of+Scale+in+Multi-Output+Production&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=481-493&rft.date=1977-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1885979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1885979%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Panzar&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Willig%2C+Robert+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feconpapers.repec.org%2Farticle%2Foupqjecon%2Fv_3a91_3ay_3a1977_3ai_3a3_3ap_3a481-493..htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenrose1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edith_Penrose" title="Edith Penrose">Penrose, Edith</a> (1959). <i>The Theory of the Growth of the Firm</i> (3 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198289777" title="Special:BookSources/9780198289777"><bdi>9780198289777</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+of+the+Growth+of+the+Firm&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=9780198289777&rft.aulast=Penrose&rft.aufirst=Edith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span> Repr. (1997).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPratten1991" class="citation book cs1">Pratten, Clifford Frederick (1991). <i>The Competitiveness of Small Firms</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Competitiveness+of+Small+Firms&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Pratten&rft.aufirst=Clifford+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Austin_Robinson" title="Austin Robinson">Robinson, Austin</a> (1958) [1931]. <i>The Structure of Competitive Industry</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+of+Competitive+Industry&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Austin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Rosenberg" title="Nathan Rosenberg">Rosenberg, Nathan</a> (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose">"Learning by using"</a></span>. <i>Inside the Black Box. Technology and Economics</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Learning+by+using&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Black+Box.+Technology+and+Economics&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finsideblackboxte00rose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScherer1980" class="citation book cs1">Scherer, F.M. (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/industrialmarket00sche"><i>Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance</i></a></span> (2 ed.). Chicago: Rand McNally. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780528671029" title="Special:BookSources/9780528671029"><bdi>9780528671029</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Industrial+Market+Structure+and+Economic+Performance&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Rand+McNally&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=9780528671029&rft.aulast=Scherer&rft.aufirst=F.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findustrialmarket00sche&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScherer2000" class="citation journal cs1">Scherer, F.M. (2000). "Professor Sutton's 'Technology and market structure'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>The Journal of Industrial Economics</i>. <b>48</b> (2): 215–223. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-6451.00120">10.1111/1467-6451.00120</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Industrial+Economics&rft.atitle=Professor+Sutton%27s+%27Technology+and+market+structure%27&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=215-223&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-6451.00120&rft.aulast=Scherer&rft.aufirst=F.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilvestre1987" class="citation book cs1">Silvestre, Joaquim (1987). "Economies and Diseconomies of Scale". <a href="/wiki/The_New_Palgrave:_A_Dictionary_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics"><i>The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics</i></a>. Vol. 2. London: Macmillan. pp. 80–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-37235-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-37235-7"><bdi>978-0-333-37235-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Economies+and+Diseconomies+of+Scale&rft.btitle=The+New+Palgrave%3A+A+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.place=London&rft.pages=80-84&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-333-37235-7&rft.aulast=Silvestre&rft.aufirst=Joaquim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith, Adam</a> (1976) [1776]. <i>An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations</i>. Vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Inquiry+into+the+Nature+and+Causes+of+the+Wealth+of+Nations&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSraffa1925" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa, Piero</a> (1925). "Sulle relazioni tra costo e quantità prodotta". <i>Annali di Economia</i> (in Italian). <b>2</b>: 277–328.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annali+di+Economia&rft.atitle=Sulle+relazioni+tra+costo+e+quantit%C3%A0+prodotta&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=277-328&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Sraffa&rft.aufirst=Piero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span> English translation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSraffa1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa, Piero</a> (1998). "On the relations between cost and quantity produced". <i>Italian Economic Papers. Volume III</i>. Translated by Pasinetti, L.L. (1998 ed.). Bologna: Società Italiana degli Economisti, Oxford University Press, Il Mulino. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198290346" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198290346"><bdi>978-0198290346</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+relations+between+cost+and+quantity+produced&rft.btitle=Italian+Economic+Papers.+Volume+III&rft.place=Bologna&rft.edition=1998&rft.pub=Societ%C3%A0+Italiana+degli+Economisti%2C+Oxford+University+Press%2C+Il+Mulino&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0198290346&rft.aulast=Sraffa&rft.aufirst=Piero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span> Repr. in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurzSalvadori2003" class="citation book cs1">Kurz, H.D.; Salvadori, N. (2003). <i>The Legacy of Piero Sraffa</i>. Vol. 2 (2003 ed.). Cheltenham: An Elgar Reference Collection. pp. 3–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84064-439-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84064-439-5"><bdi>978-1-84064-439-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legacy+of+Piero+Sraffa&rft.place=Cheltenham&rft.pages=3-43&rft.edition=2003&rft.pub=An+Elgar+Reference+Collection&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-84064-439-5&rft.aulast=Kurz&rft.aufirst=H.D.&rft.au=Salvadori%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSraffa1926" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa, Piero</a> (December 1926). "The law of returns under competitive conditions". <i>The Economic Journal</i>. <b>36</b> (144): 535–550. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2959866">10.2307/2959866</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2959866">2959866</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6458099">6458099</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+Journal&rft.atitle=The+law+of+returns+under+competitive+conditions&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=144&rft.pages=535-550&rft.date=1926-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6458099%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2959866%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2959866&rft.aulast=Sraffa&rft.aufirst=Piero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span> Repr. in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurzSalvadori2003" class="citation book cs1">Kurz, H.D.; Salvadori, N. (2003). <i>The Legacy of Piero Sraffa</i>. Vol. 2 (2003 ed.). Cheltenham: An Elgar Reference Collection. pp. 44–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84064-439-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84064-439-5"><bdi>978-1-84064-439-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legacy+of+Piero+Sraffa&rft.place=Cheltenham&rft.pages=44-59&rft.edition=2003&rft.pub=An+Elgar+Reference+Collection&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-84064-439-5&rft.aulast=Kurz&rft.aufirst=H.D.&rft.au=Salvadori%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSraffa1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa, Piero</a> (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/productionofcomm00srafrich"><i>Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities. Prelude to a Critique of Economic Theory</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521099691" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521099691"><bdi>978-0521099691</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Production+of+Commodities+by+Means+of+Commodities.+Prelude+to+a+Critique+of+Economic+Theory&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0521099691&rft.aulast=Sraffa&rft.aufirst=Piero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fproductionofcomm00srafrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZelenyuk2013" class="citation journal cs1">Zelenyuk, V. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377221713000398">"A scale elasticity measure for directional distance function and its dual: Theory and DEA estimation"</a>. <i>European Journal of Operational Research</i>. <b>228</b> (3): 592–600. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2013.01.012">10.1016/j.ejor.2013.01.012</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Operational+Research&rft.atitle=A+scale+elasticity+measure+for+directional+distance+function+and+its+dual%3A+Theory+and+DEA+estimation&rft.volume=228&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=592-600&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2013.01.012&rft.aulast=Zelenyuk&rft.aufirst=V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0377221713000398&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZelenyuk2014" class="citation journal cs1">Zelenyuk, V. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11123-013-0361-z">"Scale efficiency and homotheticity: equivalence of primal and dual measures"</a>. <i>Journal of Productivity Analysis</i>. <b>42</b> (1): 15–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11123-013-0361-z">10.1007/s11123-013-0361-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122978026">122978026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Productivity+Analysis&rft.atitle=Scale+efficiency+and+homotheticity%3A+equivalence+of+primal+and+dual+measures&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=15-24&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11123-013-0361-z&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122978026%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Zelenyuk&rft.aufirst=V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%252Fs11123-013-0361-z&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEconomies+of+scale" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Economies_of_scale&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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aria-labelledby="Microeconomics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Microeconomics" title="Template:Microeconomics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Microeconomics" title="Template talk:Microeconomics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Microeconomics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Microeconomics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Microeconomics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggregation_problem" title="Aggregation problem">Aggregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budget_set" title="Budget set">Budget set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_choice" title="Consumer choice">Consumer choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convexity_in_economics" title="Convexity in economics">Convexity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-convexity_(economics)" title="Non-convexity (economics)">non-convexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_cost" title="Economic cost">Cost</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Average_cost" title="Average cost">Average</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_cost" title="Marginal cost">Marginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunity_cost" title="Opportunity cost">Opportunity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_cost" title="Implicit cost">Implicit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cost" title="Social cost">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunk_cost" title="Sunk cost">Sunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transaction_cost" title="Transaction cost">Transaction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">Cost–benefit analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deadweight_loss" title="Deadweight loss">Deadweight loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distribution_(economics)" title="Distribution (economics)">Distribution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Economies of scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scope" title="Economies of scope">Economies of scope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(economics)" title="Elasticity (economics)">Elasticity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross_elasticity_of_demand" title="Cross elasticity of demand">Cross elasticity of demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_elasticity_of_demand" title="Income elasticity of demand">Income elasticity of demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_elasticity_of_demand" title="Price elasticity of demand">Price elasticity of demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_elasticity_of_supply" title="Price elasticity of supply">Price elasticity of supply</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_equilibrium" title="Economic equilibrium">Equilibrium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_equilibrium_theory" title="General equilibrium theory">General</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_firm" title="Theory of the firm">Firms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goods_and_services" title="Goods and services">Goods and services</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goods" title="Goods">Goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_economics" title="Family economics">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income%E2%80%93consumption_curve" title="Income–consumption curve">Income–consumption curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indifference_curve" title="Indifference curve">Indifference curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertemporal_choice" title="Intertemporal choice">Intertemporal choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">Market failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_structure" title="Market structure">Market structure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">Competition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monopolistic_competition" title="Monopolistic competition">Monopolistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">Perfect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duopoly" title="Duopoly">Duopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilateral_monopoly" title="Bilateral monopoly">Bilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementary_monopoly" title="Complementary monopoly">Complementary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopsony" title="Monopsony">Monopsony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">Oligopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligopsony" title="Oligopsony">Oligopsony</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pareto_efficiency" title="Pareto efficiency">Pareto efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preference_(economics)" title="Preference (economics)">Preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price" title="Price">Price</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Price_controls" title="Price controls">Price controls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_ceiling" title="Price ceiling">Price ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_floor" title="Price floor">Price floor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_discrimination" title="Price discrimination">Price discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_signal" title="Price signal">Price signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_system" title="Price system">Price system</a>/<a href="/wiki/Free_price_system" title="Free price system">Free</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pricing" title="Pricing">Pricing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_set" title="Production set">Production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" title="Public good (economics)">Public goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationing" title="Rationing">Rationing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_rent" title="Economic rent">Rent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Returns_to_scale" title="Returns to scale">Returns to scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_aversion" title="Risk aversion">Risk aversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scarcity" title="Scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortage" title="Shortage">Shortage</a>/<a href="/wiki/Excess_supply" title="Excess supply">Excess supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substitution_effect" title="Substitution effect">Substitution effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_surplus" title="Economic surplus">Surplus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">Supply and demand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand" title="Demand">Demand</a>/<a href="/wiki/Law_of_demand" title="Law of demand">Law of demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_(economics)" title="Supply (economics)">Supply</a>/<a href="/wiki/Law_of_supply" title="Law of supply">Law of supply</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">Utility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expected_utility_hypothesis" title="Expected utility hypothesis">Expected</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_utility" title="Marginal utility">Marginal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage" title="Wage">Wage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_economics" title="Business economics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_economics" title="Computational economics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_decision_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical decision theory">Statistical decision theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics_(civil_engineering)" title="Engineering economics (civil engineering)">Civil engineering economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_economy" title="Green economy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">Industrial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfoundations" title="Microfoundations">Microfoundations of macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">Applied</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Microeconomics" title="Category:Microeconomics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Industrial_and_technological_revolution" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Industrial_Revolution" title="Template:Industrial Revolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Industrial_Revolution" title="Template talk:Industrial Revolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Industrial_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Industrial Revolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Industrial_and_technological_revolution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">technological</a> revolution</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">Proto</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">First</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Third</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">Fifth</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution#Potential_future_technological_revolutions" title="Technological revolution">Potential future</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">Coke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_(manufacturing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Industry (manufacturing)">Industry/Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">Machinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">Steam power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Water power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">Workforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_agglomeration" title="Economies of agglomeration">Economies of agglomeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_density" title="Economies of density">Economies of density</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Economies of scale</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/100px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/150px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/200px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="760" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People/<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Arkwright" title="Richard Arkwright">Richard Arkwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Boulsover" title="Thomas Boulsover">Thomas Boulsover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" title="Matthew Boulton">Matthew Boulton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Brindley" title="James Brindley">James Brindley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel" title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Cartwright" title="Edmund Cartwright">Edmund Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cort_(Template)" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Cort (Template)">Henry Cort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranege_brothers" title="Cranege brothers">Thomas and George Cranege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Crompton" title="Samuel Crompton">Samuel Crompton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I" title="Abraham Darby I">Abraham Darby I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_II" title="Abraham Darby II">Abraham Darby II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_III" title="Abraham Darby III">Abraham Darby III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Egerton,_3rd_Duke_of_Bridgewater" title="Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater">Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Fairbairn" title="William Fairbairn">William Fairbairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hargreaves" title="James Hargreaves">James Hargreaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawks_family" title="Hawks family">Hawks family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Highs" title="Thomas Highs">Thomas Highs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eaton_Hodgkinson" title="Eaton Hodgkinson">Eaton Hodgkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Huntsman" title="Benjamin Huntsman">Benjamin Huntsman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard" title="Joseph Marie Jacquard">Joseph Marie Jacquard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kay_(flying_shuttle)" title="John Kay (flying shuttle)">John Kay (flying shuttle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kay_(spinning_frame)" title="John Kay (spinning frame)">John Kay (spinning frame)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Cabot_Lowell_(businessman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Cabot Lowell (businessman)">Francis Cabot Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar Society">Lunar Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Newcomen" title="Thomas Newcomen">Thomas Newcomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Robert Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Paul" title="Lewis Paul">Lewis Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Radcliffe" title="William Radcliffe">William Radcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Roberts_(engineer)" title="Richard Roberts (engineer)">Richard Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Savery" title="Thomas Savery">Thomas Savery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Slater" title="Samuel Slater">Samuel Slater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Stephenson" title="George Stephenson">George Stephenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Stephenson" title="Robert Stephenson">Robert Stephenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Telford" title="Thomas Telford">Thomas Telford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Trevithick" title="Richard Trevithick">Richard Trevithick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)" title="John Wilkinson (industrialist)">John Wilkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wyatt_(inventor)" title="John Wyatt (inventor)">John Wyatt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbeydale_Industrial_Hamlet" title="Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet">Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allentown,_Pennsylvania" title="Allentown, Pennsylvania">Allentown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethlehem,_Pennsylvania" title="Bethlehem, Pennsylvania">Bethlehem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal" title="Bridgewater Canal">Bridgewater Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broseley" title="Broseley">Broseley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalbrookdale" title="Coalbrookdale">Coalbrookdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cromford" title="Cromford">Cromford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derwent_Valley_Mills" title="Derwent Valley Mills">Derwent Valley Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ironbridge" title="Ironbridge">Ironbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Lanark" title="New Lanark">New Lanark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portsmouth_Block_Mills" title="Portsmouth Block Mills">Portsmouth Block Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry_Bank_Mill" title="Quarry Bank Mill">Quarry Bank Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soho_Foundry" title="Soho Foundry">Soho Foundry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockton_and_Darlington_Railway" title="Stockton and Darlington Railway">Stockton and Darlington Railway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Invention/<br />technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_mill" title="Cotton mill">Cotton mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">Factory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_shuttle" title="Flying shuttle">Flying shuttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newcomen_steam_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcomen steam engine">Newcomen steam engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_loom" title="Power loom">Power loom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">Reverberatory furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheffield_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheffield plate">Sheffield plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_frame" title="Spinning frame">Spinning frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">Spinning jenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">Steam engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephenson%27s_Rocket" title="Stephenson's Rocket">Stephenson's Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_frame" title="Water frame">Water frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watt_steam_engine" title="Watt steam engine">Watt steam engine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social impact</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_cooperative_movement" title="History of the cooperative movement">History of the cooperative Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottage_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cottage industry">Cottage industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factory_Acts" title="Factory Acts">Factory Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial unrest">Industrial unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luddite" title="Luddite">Luddite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rochdale_Pioneers" class="mw-redirect" title="Rochdale Pioneers">Rochdale Pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">Industrial warfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reference</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_canal_system" title="History of the British canal system">History of the British canal system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_archaeology" title="Industrial archaeology">Industrial archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Kingdom-related_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United Kingdom-related topics">List of United Kingdom-related topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">Timeline of clothing and textiles technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">Timeline of materials technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_steam_power" title="Timeline of steam power">Timeline of steam power</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Industrial_Revolution" title="Category:Industrial Revolution">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Industrial_revolution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Industrial revolution"><b>Commons</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_technology" title="Template:History of technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_technology" title="Template talk:History of technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>History of technology cultures</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_technology" title="Inca technology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>History of technology domains</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering#History" title="Electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History_and_scientific_background" title="Nuclear technology">History of nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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