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<span>Works</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Works-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Works subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Systems_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systems_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Systems theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systems_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Luhmann's_reception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Luhmann's_reception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Luhmann's reception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Luhmann's_reception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Note-taking_system_(Zettelkasten)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Note-taking_system_(Zettelkasten)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Note-taking system (<i>Zettelkasten</i>)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Note-taking_system_(Zettelkasten)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miscellaneous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miscellaneous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Miscellaneous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miscellaneous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Publications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="نيكلاس لوهمان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نيكلاس لوهمان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="نیکلاس لومان – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نیکلاس لومان" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="نیکلاس لومان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نیکلاس لومان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%88%ED%81%B4%EB%9D%BC%EC%8A%A4_%EB%A3%A8%EB%A7%8C" title="니클라스 루만 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="니클라스 루만" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Luhmann" title="Nicolaus Luhmann – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Nicolaus Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Никлас Луман – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Никлас Луман" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%87%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="نيكلاس لوهمان – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="نيكلاس لوهمان" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8B%E3%82%AF%E3%83%A9%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3" title="ニクラス・ルーマン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ニクラス・ルーマン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD,_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Луман, Никлас – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Луман, Никлас" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luman" title="Niklas Luman – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Niklas Luman" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Niklas Luhmann" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ніклас Луман – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ніклас Луман" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%85%8B%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%8D%A2%E6%9B%BC" title="尼克拉斯·卢曼 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="尼克拉斯·卢曼" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q57238#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu 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searchaux" style="display:none">German sociologist (1927–1998)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Niklas Luhmann</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:HSGH_022-000941_Niklas_Luhmann_(cropped).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/HSGH_022-000941_Niklas_Luhmann_%28cropped%29.png/220px-HSGH_022-000941_Niklas_Luhmann_%28cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/HSGH_022-000941_Niklas_Luhmann_%28cropped%29.png/330px-HSGH_022-000941_Niklas_Luhmann_%28cropped%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/HSGH_022-000941_Niklas_Luhmann_%28cropped%29.png/440px-HSGH_022-000941_Niklas_Luhmann_%28cropped%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1965" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1927-12-08</span>)</span>December 8, 1927<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCneburg" title="Lüneburg">Lüneburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Weimar Germany">Germany</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">November 11, 1998<span style="display:none">(1998-11-11)</span> (aged 70)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Oerlinghausen" title="Oerlinghausen">Oerlinghausen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Freiburg" title="University of Freiburg">University of Freiburg</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_M%C3%BCnster" title="University of Münster">University of Münster</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Autopoiesis" title="Autopoiesis">Theory of autopoietic social systems</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Functional_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Functional differentiation">Functional differentiation</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Operational constructivist epistemology</a><br />Double contingency<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Systems theory</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication theory">Communication theory</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Bielefeld" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Bielefeld">University of Bielefeld</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dirk_Baecker&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dirk Baecker (page does not exist)">Dirk Baecker</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirk_Baecker" class="extiw" title="de:Dirk Baecker">de</a>; <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BF%AA%E5%B0%94%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E8%B4%9D%E5%85%8B" class="extiw" title="zh:迪尔克·贝克">zh</a>]</span></li><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Fuchs_(sociologist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Fuchs (sociologist) (page does not exist)">Peter Fuchs</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Fuchs_(Soziologe)" class="extiw" title="de:Peter Fuchs (Soziologe)">de</a>]</span></li><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Stichweh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rudolf Stichweh (page does not exist)">Rudolf Stichweh</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Stichweh" class="extiw" title="de:Rudolf Stichweh">de</a>]</span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Esposito" title="Elena Esposito">Elena Esposito</a></li><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maren_Lehmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maren Lehmann (page does not exist)">Maren Lehmann</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maren_Lehmann" class="extiw" title="de:Maren Lehmann">de</a>]</span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Niklas Luhmann</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">German:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈluːman]</a></span>; December 8, 1927 – November 11, 1998) was a German <a href="/wiki/Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">sociologist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">philosopher of social science</a>, and a prominent thinker in <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niklas_Luhmann&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Luhmann was born in <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCneburg" title="Lüneburg">Lüneburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia">Free State of Prussia</a>, where his father's family had been running a <a href="/wiki/Brewery" title="Brewery">brewery</a> for several generations. He entered the Gymnasium Johanneum at Luneburg in 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1943, he was conscripted as a <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffenhelfer" title="Luftwaffenhelfer">Luftwaffenhelfer</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and served for two years until, at the age of 17, he was taken <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoner of war</a> by American troops in 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the war Luhmann studied law at the <a href="/wiki/Albert_Ludwigs_University_of_Freiburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg">University of Freiburg</a> from 1946 to 1949, where he obtained a law degree, and then began a career in Lüneburg's public administration. During a sabbatical in 1961, he went to <a href="/wiki/Harvard" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard">Harvard</a>, where he met and studied under <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a>, then the world's most influential social systems theorist. </p><p>In later days, Luhmann dismissed Parsons' theory, developing a rival approach of his own. Leaving the civil service in 1962, he lectured at the national <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Hochschule_f%C3%BCr_Verwaltungswissenschaften" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutsche Hochschule für Verwaltungswissenschaften">Deutsche Hochschule für Verwaltungswissenschaften</a> (University for Administrative Sciences) in <a href="/wiki/Speyer" title="Speyer">Speyer</a>, Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1965, he was offered a position at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sozialforschungsstelle_an_der_Universit%C3%A4t_M%C3%BCnster&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sozialforschungsstelle an der Universität Münster (page does not exist)">Sozialforschungsstelle an der Universität Münster</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozialforschungsstelle_an_der_Universit%C3%A4t_M%C3%BCnster" class="extiw" title="de:Sozialforschungsstelle an der Universität Münster">de</a>]</span> (Social Research Centre of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_M%C3%BCnster" title="University of Münster">University of Münster</a>), led by <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schelsky" title="Helmut Schelsky">Helmut Schelsky</a>. From 1965/66 he studied one semester of sociology at the University of Münster. </p><p>Two earlier books were retroactively accepted as a PhD thesis and <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">habilitation</a> at the University of Münster in 1966, qualifying him for a university professorship. In 1968/1969, he briefly served as a lecturer at <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Adorno" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodor Adorno">Theodor Adorno</a>'s former chair at the <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_Goethe_University_Frankfurt_am_Main" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main">University of Frankfurt</a> and then was appointed full professor of sociology at the newly founded <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bielefeld" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Bielefeld">University of Bielefeld</a>, Germany (until 1993). When asked about his plan, he said, "The theory of modern society. Duration 30 years. No costs."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He continued to publish after his retirement, when he finally found the time to complete his magnum opus, <i>Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft</i> (literally, "The Society of Society"), which was published in 1997, and has been translated into English as <i>Theory of Society</i> (volume I in 2012 and volume II in 2013). This work describes segmented societies divided into specialized functional subsystems.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niklas_Luhmann&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Luhmann wrote prolifically, with more than 70 books and nearly 400 scholarly articles published on a variety of subjects, including law, economy, politics, art, religion, ecology, mass media, and love. While his theories have yet to make a major mark in American sociology, his theory is currently well known and popular in German sociology,<sup id="cite_ref-(Roth_2011)_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-(Roth_2011)-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has also been rather intensively received in Japan, Scandinavia, and Eastern Europe, including in Russia. His relatively low profile elsewhere is partly due to the fact that translating his work is a difficult task, since his writing presents a challenge even to readers of German, including many sociologists. (p. xxvii Social Systems 1995) </p><p>Much of Luhmann's work directly deals with the operations of the legal system and his <a href="/wiki/Autopoiesis" title="Autopoiesis">autopoietic</a> theory of law is regarded as one of the more influential contributions to the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">sociology of law</a> and socio-legal studies.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Luhmann is probably best known to North Americans for his debate with the <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theorist</a> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> over the potential of <a href="/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system">social systems</a> theory. Like his erstwhile mentor <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a>, Luhmann is an advocate of "<a href="/wiki/Grand_theory" title="Grand theory">grand theory</a>", although neither in the sense of philosophical foundationalism nor in the sense of "<a href="/wiki/Metanarrative" title="Metanarrative">meta-narrative</a>" as often invoked in the critical works of post-modernist writers. Rather, Luhmann's work tracks closer to <a href="/wiki/Complexity_theory_for_the_social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Complexity theory for the social sciences">complexity theory</a>, broadly speaking, in that it aims to address any aspect of social life within a universal theoretical framework—as the diversity of subjects he wrote on indicates. Luhmann's theory is sometimes dismissed as highly abstract and complex, particularly within the Anglophone world, whereas his work has had a more lasting influence on scholars from German-speaking countries, Scandinavia and Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-(Roth_2011)_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-(Roth_2011)-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Luhmann himself described his theory as "labyrinthine" or "non-linear", and claimed he was deliberately keeping his prose enigmatic to prevent it from being understood "too quickly", which would only produce simplistic misunderstandings.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Systems_theory">Systems theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niklas_Luhmann&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Systems theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Luhmann's systems theory focuses on three topics, which are interconnected in his entire work.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Systems theory as societal theory</li> <li>Communication theory and</li> <li>Evolution theory</li></ol> <p>The core element of Luhmann's theory pivots around the problem of the contingency of meaning, and thereby it becomes a theory of <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>. Social systems are systems of communication, and society is the most encompassing social system. Being the social system that comprises all (and only) communication, today's society is a world society.<sup id="cite_ref-Luhmann_1982_pp._131–138_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luhmann_1982_pp._131–138-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">system</a> is defined by a boundary between itself and its <a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">environment</a>, dividing it from an infinitely complex, or (colloquially) chaotic, exterior. The interior of the system is thus a zone of reduced complexity: communication within a system operates by selecting only a limited amount of all information available outside. This process is also called "reduction of complexity". The criterion according to which information is selected and processed is meaning (in German, <i>Sinn</i>). Meaning being thereby referral from one set of potential space to another set of potential space. Both social systems and psychic systems (see below for an explanation of this distinction) operate by processing meaning. </p><p>Furthermore, each system has a distinctive identity that is constantly reproduced in its communication and depends on what is considered meaningful and what is not. If a system fails to maintain that identity, it ceases to exist as a system and dissolves back into the environment it emerged from. Luhmann called this process of reproduction from elements previously filtered from an over-complex environment <a href="/wiki/Autopoiesis" title="Autopoiesis">autopoiesis</a> (pronounced "auto-poy-E-sis"; literally: self-creation), using a term coined in <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">cognitive biology</a> by Chilean thinkers <a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a>. Social systems are <i>operationally closed</i> in that while they use and rely on resources from their environment, those resources do not become part of the systems' operation. Both thought and digestion are important preconditions for communication, but neither appears in communication as such.<sup id="cite_ref-Luhmann_1982_pp._131–138_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luhmann_1982_pp._131–138-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Maturana, however, argued very vocally that this appropriation of autopoietic theory was conceptually unsound, as it presupposes the autonomy of communications from actual persons. That is, by describing social systems as operationally closed networks of communications, Luhmann (according to Maturana) ignores the fact that communications presuppose human communicators. Autopoiesis only applies to networks of processes that reproduce themselves,<sup id="cite_ref-Varela_Maturana_Uribe_1974_pp._187–196_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Varela_Maturana_Uribe_1974_pp._187–196-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but communications are reproduced by humans. For this reason, the analogy from biology to sociology does not, in this case, hold.<sup id="cite_ref-Maturana_2004_p._14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maturana_2004_p.-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, Luhmann explicitly stressed that he does not refer to a "society without humans", but to the fact that communication is autopoietic. Communication is made possible by human bodies and consciousness,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this does not make communication operationally open. To "participate" in communication, one must be able to render one's thoughts and perceptions into elements of communication. This can only ever occur as a communicative operation (thoughts and perceptions cannot be directly transmitted) and must therefore satisfy internal system conditions that are specific to communication: intelligibility, reaching an addressee and gaining acceptance.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Luhmann likens the operation of autopoiesis (the filtering and processing of information from the environment) to a <a href="/wiki/Program_(management)" class="mw-redirect" title="Program (management)">program</a>; making a series of logical distinctions (in German, <i>Unterscheidungen</i>). Here, Luhmann refers to the British mathematician <a href="/wiki/G._Spencer-Brown" title="G. Spencer-Brown">G. Spencer-Brown</a>'s logic of distinctions that Maturana and Varela had earlier identified as a model for the functioning of any cognitive process. The supreme criterion guiding the "self-creation" of any given system is a defining <a href="/wiki/Binary_code" title="Binary code">binary code</a>. This binary code is not to be confused with a computer's operation: Luhmann (following Spencer-Brown and <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a>) assumes that auto-referential systems are continuously confronted with the dilemma of disintegration/continuation. This dilemma is framed with an ever-changing set of available choices; every one of those potential choices can be the system's selection or not (a binary state, selected/rejected). The influence of Spencer-Brown's book, <i><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_Form" title="Laws of Form">Laws of Form</a></i>, on Luhmann can hardly be overestimated. </p><p>Although Luhmann first developed his understanding of social systems theory under Parsons' influence, he soon moved away from the Parsonian concept. The most important difference is that Parsons framed systems as forms of <a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(sociology)" title="Action theory (sociology)">action</a>, in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/AGIL_paradigm" title="AGIL paradigm">AGIL paradigm</a>. Parsons' systems theory treats systems as <a href="/wiki/Open_system_(systems_theory)" title="Open system (systems theory)">operationally open</a>, and interactive through an <a href="/wiki/Input/output" title="Input/output">input and output schema</a>. Influenced by <a href="/wiki/Second-order_cybernetics" title="Second-order cybernetics">second-order cybernetics</a>, Luhmann instead treats systems as <a href="/wiki/Autopoietic" class="mw-redirect" title="Autopoietic">autopoietic</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Open_and_closed_systems_in_social_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Open and closed systems in social science (page does not exist)">operationally closed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Systems must continually construct themselves and their perspective of reality through processing the distinction between system and <a href="/wiki/Environment_(systems)" title="Environment (systems)">environment</a>, and self-reproduce themselves as the product of their own elements. Social systems are defined by Luhmann not as action but as <a href="/wiki/Recursion" title="Recursion">recursive</a> communication. Modern society is defined as a world system consisting of the sum total of all communication happening at once,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and individual function systems (such as the economy, politics, science, love, art, the media, etc.) are described as social subsystems which have "outdifferentiated" from the social system and achieved their own operational closure and autopoiesis.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another difference is that Parsons asks how certain subsystems contribute to the functioning of overall society. Luhmann starts with the <a href="/wiki/Differentiation_(sociology)" title="Differentiation (sociology)">differentiation of the systems</a> themselves out of a nondescript environment. While he does observe how certain systems fulfill functions that contribute to "society" as a whole, he dispenses with the assumption of <i>a priori</i> <a href="/wiki/Collective_consciousness" title="Collective consciousness">cultural or normative consensus</a> or "complimentary purpose" which was common to Durkheim and Parsons' conceptualization of a social function.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Luhmann, functional differentiation is a consequence of selective pressure under temporalized complexity, and it occurs as function systems independently establish their own ecological niches by performing a function.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Functions are therefore not the coordinated components of the organic social whole, but rather contingent and selective responses to reference problems which obey no higher principle of order and could have been responded to in other ways. </p><p>Finally, the systems' autopoietic closure is another fundamental difference from Parsons' concept. Each system works strictly according to its very own code and can observe other systems only by applying its code to their operations. For example, the code of the economy involves the application of the distinction between payment and non-payment. Other system operations appear within the economic field of references only insofar as this economic code can be applied to them. Hence, a political decision becomes an economic operation when it is observed as a government spending money or not. Likewise, a legal judgement may also be an economic operation when settlement of a contractual dispute obliges one party to pay for the goods or services they had acquired. The codes of the economy, politics and law operate autonomously, but their "interpenetration"<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is evident when observing "events"<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which simultaneously involve the participation of more than one system. </p><p>One seemingly peculiar, but, within the overall framework, strictly logical, axiom of Luhmann's theory is the human being's position outside the strict boundaries of any social system, as initially developed by Parsons. Consisting of, but not being solely constituted by, "communicative actions" (a reference to <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>), any social system requires human consciousnesses (personal or psychical systems) as an obviously necessary, but nevertheless environmental resource. In Luhmann's terms, human beings are neither part of society nor of any specific system, just as they are not part of a conversation. People make conversation possible. Luhmann himself once said concisely that he was "not interested in people". That is not to say that people were not a matter for Luhmann, but rather alluding to the scope of the theory where,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (February 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the communicative behavior of people is constituted (but not defined) by the dynamics of the social system, and society is constituted (but not defined) by the communicative behavior of people: society is people's environment, and people are society's environment. </p><p>Thus, sociology can explain how persons can change society; the influence of the environment (the people) on a given social system (a society), the so-called <i>"structural coupling"</i> of <i>"partially interpenetrating systems"</i>. In fact Luhmann himself replied to the relevant criticism by stating that, "In fact the theory of autopoietic systems could bear the title <i>Taking Individuals Seriously</i>, certainly more seriously than our humanistic tradition" (Niklas Luhmann, <i>Operational Closure and Structural Coupling: The Differentiation of the Legal System</i>, Cardozo Law Review, vol. 13: 1422). Luhmann was devoted to the ideal of non-normative science introduced to sociology in the early 20th century by <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> and later re-defined and defended against its critics by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>. However, in an academic environment that never strictly separated descriptive and normative theories of society, Luhmann's sociology has widely attracted criticism from various intellectuals, including <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Luhmann's_reception"><span id="Luhmann.27s_reception"></span>Luhmann's reception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niklas_Luhmann&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Luhmann's reception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Luhmann's systems theory is not without its critics; his definitions of "autopoietic" and "social system" differ from others. At the same time, his theory is being applied worldwide by sociologists and other scholars. It is often used in analyses dealing with <a href="/wiki/Corporate_Social_Responsibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate Social Responsibility">corporate social responsibility</a>, organisational <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(family_law)" title="Legitimacy (family law)">legitimacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">governance structures</a> as well as with <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">sociology of law</a>, and of course general <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>. His systems theory has also been used to study media discourse of various energy technologies throughout the US, including smart grids, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a>, and wind energy,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but also to highlight how diplomacy differs from politics as these two may pose two distinct systems with distinct functions and distinct media (peace and power, respectively).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His approach has attracted criticism from those who argue that Luhmann has at no point demonstrated the operational closure of social systems, or in fact that autopoietic social systems actually exist. He has instead taken this as a premise or presupposition, resulting in the logical need to exclude humans from social systems, which prevents the social systems view from accounting for the individual behavior, action, motives, or indeed existence of any individual person.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Note-taking_system_(Zettelkasten)"><span id="Note-taking_system_.28Zettelkasten.29"></span>Note-taking system (<i>Zettelkasten</i>)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niklas_Luhmann&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Note-taking system (Zettelkasten)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Luhmann was famous for his extensive use of the "slip box" or <i><a href="/wiki/Zettelkasten" title="Zettelkasten">Zettelkasten</a></i> note-taking method. He built up a zettelkasten of some 90,000 index cards for his research, and credited it with making his extraordinarily prolific writing possible. It was digitized and made available online in 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Luhmann described the zettelkasten as part of his research into systems theory in the essay <i>Kommunikation mit Zettelkästen</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niklas_Luhmann&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Miscellaneous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Luhmann also appears as a character in <a href="/wiki/Paul_W%C3%BChr" title="Paul Wühr">Paul Wühr</a>'s work of literature <i><a href="/wiki/Das_falsche_Buch" title="Das falsche Buch">Das falsche Buch</a></i>, along with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulrich_Sonnemann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ulrich Sonnemann (page does not exist)">Ulrich Sonnemann</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulrich_Sonnemann" class="extiw" title="de:Ulrich Sonnemann">de</a>]</span>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Johann Georg Hamann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Buckminster_Fuller" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Buckminster Fuller">Richard Buckminster Fuller</a> and others. </p><p>Luhmann owned a pub called "Pons" in his parents' house in his native town of <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCneburg" title="Lüneburg">Lüneburg</a>. The house, which also contained his father's brewery, had been in his family since 1857. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niklas_Luhmann&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1963: (with Franz Becker): <i>Verwaltungsfehler und Vertrauensschutz: Möglichkeiten gesetzlicher Regelung der Rücknehmbarkeit von Verwaltungsakten</i>, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot</li> <li>1964: <i>Funktionen und Folgen formaler Organisation</i>, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot</li> <li>1965: <i>Öffentlich-rechtliche Entschädigung rechtspolitisch betrachtet</i>, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot</li> <li>1965: <i>Grundrechte als Institution: Ein Beitrag zur politischen Soziologie</i>, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot</li> <li>1966: <i>Recht und Automation in der öffentlichen Verwaltung: Eine verwaltungswissenschaftliche Untersuchung</i>, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot</li> <li>1966: <i>Theorie der Verwaltungswissenschaft: Bestandsaufnahme und Entwurf</i>, Köln-Berlin</li> <li>1968: <i>Vertrauen: Ein Mechanismus der Reduktion sozialer Komplexität</i>, Stuttgart: Enke <br />(English translation: <i>Trust and Power</i>, Chichester: Wiley, 1979.)</li> <li>1968: <i>Zweckbegriff und Systemrationalität: Über die Funktion von Zwecken in sozialen Systemen</i>, Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr, Paul Siebeck</li> <li>1969: <i>Legitimation durch Verfahren</i>, Neuwied/Berlin: <a href="/wiki/Luchterhand_Literaturverlag" title="Luchterhand Literaturverlag">Luchterhand</a></li> <li>1970: <i>Soziologische Aufklärung: Aufsätze zur Theorie sozialer Systeme</i>, Köln/Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag <br />(English translation of some of the articles: <i>The Differentiation of Society</i>, New York: Columbia University Press, 1982)</li> <li>1971 (with <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>): <i>Theorie der Gesellschaft oder Sozialtechnologie – Was leistet die Systemforschung?</i> Frankfurt: Suhrkamp</li> <li>1971: <i>Politische Planung: Aufsätze zur Soziologie von Politik und Verwaltung</i>, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag</li> <li>1972: <i>Rechtssoziologie</i>, 2 volumes, Reinbek: Rowohlt <br />(English translation: <i>A Sociological Theory of Law</i>, London: Routledge, 1985)</li> <li>1973: (with <a href="/wiki/Renate_Mayntz" title="Renate Mayntz">Renate Mayntz</a>): <i>Personal im öffentlichen Dienst: Eintritt und Karrieren</i>, Baden-Baden: Nomos</li> <li>1974: <i>Rechtssystem und Rechtsdogmatik</i>, Stuttgart: <a href="/wiki/Kohlhammer_Verlag" title="Kohlhammer Verlag">Kohlhammer Verlag</a></li> <li>1975: <i>Macht</i>, Stuttgart: Enke <br />(English translation: <i>Trust and Power</i>, Chichester: Wiley, 1979.)</li> <li>1975: <i>Soziologische Aufklärung 2: Aufsätze zur Theorie der Gesellschaft</i>, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output 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.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-531-61281-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-531-61281-2">978-3-531-61281-2</a> <br />(English translation of some of the articles: <i>The Differentiation of Society</i>, New York: Columbia University Press, 1982)</li> <li>1977: <i>Funktion der Religion</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp <br />(English translation of pp. 72–181: <i>Religious Dogmatics and the Evolution of Societies</i> <a href="/wiki/Lewiston,_New_York" title="Lewiston, New York">Lewiston, New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Mellen_Press" title="Edwin Mellen Press">Edwin Mellen Press</a>)</li> <li>1978: <i>Organisation und Entscheidung</i> (= Rheinisch-Westfälische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vorträge G 232), Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag</li> <li>1979 (with Karl Eberhard Schorr): <i>Reflexionsprobleme im Erziehungssystem</i>, Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta</li> <li>1980: <i>Gesellschaftsstruktur und Semantik: Studien zur Wissenssoziologie der modernen Gesellschaft I</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp</li> <li>1981: <i>Politische Theorie im Wohlfahrtsstaat</i>, München: Olzog <br />(English translation with essays from <i>Soziologische Aufklärung 4</i>: <i>Political Theory in the Welfare State</i>, Berlin: de Gruyter, 1990)</li> <li>1981: <i>Gesellschaftsstruktur und Semantik: Studien zur Wissenssoziologie der modernen Gesellschaft II</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp</li> <li>1981: <i>Ausdifferenzierung des Rechts: Beiträge zur Rechtssoziologie und Rechtstheorie</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp</li> <li>1981: <i>Soziologische Aufklärung 3: Soziales System, Gesellschaft, Organisation</i>, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag</li> <li>1982: <i>Liebe als Passion: Zur Codierung von Intimität</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp <br />(English translation: <i>Love as Passion: The Codification of Intimacy</i>, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1986, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3253-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3253-6">978-0-8047-3253-6</a>)</li> <li>1984: <i>Soziale Systeme: Grundriß einer allgemeinen Theorie</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp <br />(English translation: <i>Social Systems</i>, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995)</li> <li>1985: <i>Kann die moderne Gesellschaft sich auf ökologische Gefährdungen einstellen?</i> (= Rheinisch-Westfälische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vorträge G 278), Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag</li> <li>1986: <i>Die soziologische Beobachtung des Rechts</i>, Frankfurt: Metzner</li> <li>1986: <i>Ökologische Kommunikation: Kann die moderne Gesellschaft sich auf ökologische Gefährdungen einstellen?</i> Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag <br />(English translation: <i>Ecological communication</i>, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989)</li> <li>1987: <i>Soziologische Aufklärung 4: Beiträge zur funktionalen Differenzierung der Gesellschaft</i>, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag</li> <li>1987 (edited by Dirk Baecker and Georg Stanitzek): <i>Archimedes und wir: Interviews</i>, Berlin: Merve</li> <li>1988: <i>Die Wirtschaft der Gesellschaft</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp</li> <li>1988: <i>Erkenntnis als Konstruktion</i>, Bern: Benteli</li> <li>1989: <i>Gesellschaftsstruktur und Semantik: Studien zur Wissenssoziologie der modernen Gesellschaft 3</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp</li> <li>1989 (with Peter Fuchs): <i>Reden und Schweigen</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp <br />(partial English translation: "Speaking and Silence", <i><a href="/wiki/New_German_Critique" title="New German Critique">New German Critique</a></i> 61 (1994), pp. 25–37)</li> <li>1990: <i>Risiko und Gefahr</i> (= Aulavorträge 48), St. Gallen</li> <li>1990: <i>Paradigm lost: Über die ethische Reflexion der Moral</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp <br />(partial English translation: "Paradigm Lost: On the Ethical Reflection of Morality: Speech on the Occasion of the Award of the <a href="/wiki/Hegel_Prize" title="Hegel Prize">Hegel Prize</a> 1988", <i>Thesis Eleven</i> 29 (1991), pp. 82–94)</li> <li>1990: <i>Essays on Self-Reference</i>, New York: Columbia University Press</li> <li>1990: <i>Soziologische Aufklärung 5: Konstruktivistische Perspektiven</i>, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag</li> <li>1990: <i>Die Wissenschaft der Gesellschaft</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp <br />(English translation of chapter 10: "The Modernity of Science", <i><a href="/wiki/New_German_Critique" title="New German Critique">New German Critique</a></i> 61 (1994), pp. 9–23)</li> <li>1991: <i>Soziologie des Risikos</i>, Berlin: de Gruyter <br />(English translation: <i>Risk: A Sociological Theory</i>, Berlin: de Gruyter)</li> <li>1992 (with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Raffaele_De_Giorgi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Raffaele De Giorgi (page does not exist)">Raffaele De Giorgi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raffaele_De_Giorgi" class="extiw" title="it:Raffaele De Giorgi">it</a>]</span>): <i>Teoria della società</i>, Milano: Franco Angeli</li> <li>1992: <i>Beobachtungen der Moderne</i>, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag</li> <li>1992 (edited by André Kieserling): <i>Universität als Milieu</i>, Bielefeld: Haux</li> <li>1993: <i>Gibt es in unserer Gesellschaft noch unverzichtbare Normen?</i>, Heidelberg: C.F. Müller</li> <li>1993: <i>Das Recht der Gesellschaft</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp <br />(English translation: <i>Law as a Social System</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-826238-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-826238-8">0-19-826238-8</a>)</li> <li>1994: <i>Die Ausdifferenzierung des Kunstsystems</i>, Bern: Benteli</li> <li>1995: <i>Die Realität der Massenmedien</i> (= Nordrhein-Westfälischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vorträge G 333), Opladen 1995; second, extended edition 1996.) <br />(English translation: <i>The Reality of the Mass Media</i>, Stanford: Stanford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4077-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4077-7">978-0-8047-4077-7</a>)</li> <li>1995: <i>Soziologische Aufklärung 6: Die Soziologie und der Mensch</i>, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag</li> <li>1995: <i>Gesellschaftsstruktur und Semantik: Studien zur Wissenssoziologie der modernen Gesellschaft 4</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp</li> <li>1995: <i>Die Kunst der Gesellschaft</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp <br />(English translation: <i>Art as a Social System</i>, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000.)</li> <li>1996: <i>Die neuzeitlichen Wissenschaften und die Phänomenologie</i>, Wien: Picus</li> <li>1996 (edited by Kai-Uwe Hellmann: <i>Protest: Systemtheorie und soziale Bewegungen</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp</li> <li>1996: <i>Modern Society Shocked by its Risks</i> (= University of Hong Kong, Department of Sociology Occasional Papers 17), Hong Kong, available via <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hub.hku.hk/handle/10722/42552">HKU Scholars HUB</a></li> <li>1997: <i>Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp <br />(English translation: <i>Theory of Society</i>, Stanford: Stanford University Press)</li> <li>1998: <i>Die Politik der Gesellschaft</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp (Herausgegeben von André Kieserling, 2000)</li> <li>1998: <i>Die Religion der Gesellschaft</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp (Herausgegeben von André Kieserling, 2000)</li> <li>1998: <i>Das Erziehungssystem der Gesellschaft</i>, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp (Herausgegeben von Dieter Lenzen, 2002)</li> <li>2000: <i>Organisation und Entscheidung</i>, Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften</li> <li>2006, "System as Difference". <i>Organization</i>, Volume 13 (1) (January 2006), pp. 37–57</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niklas_Luhmann&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raf Vanderstraeten, "Parsons, Luhmann and the Theorem of Double Contingency," <i>Journal of Classical Sociology</i> <b>2</b>(1), 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bechmann and Stehr, 'The Legacy of Niklas Luhmann' Society (2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJahrausNassehiGrizeljSaake2012" class="citation book cs1">Jahraus, Oliver; Nassehi, Armin; Grizelj, Mario; Saake, Irmhild; Kirchmeier, Christian; Müller, Julian (2012). <i>Luhmann-Handbuch: Leben – Werk – Wirkung</i>. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p. 441. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-476-05271-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-476-05271-1"><bdi>978-3-476-05271-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Luhmann-Handbuch%3A+Leben+%E2%80%93+Werk+%E2%80%93+Wirkung&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=441&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-476-05271-1&rft.aulast=Jahraus&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft.au=Nassehi%2C+Armin&rft.au=Grizelj%2C+Mario&rft.au=Saake%2C+Irmhild&rft.au=Kirchmeier%2C+Christian&rft.au=M%C3%BCller%2C+Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiklas+Luhmann" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In an interview Luhmann once said: "<i>... die Behandlung war—gelinde gesagt—nicht nach den Regeln der internationalen Konventionen</i> [... the way I was treated was—to put it mildly—not according to the rules of the international conventions]". Source: Detlef Horster (1997), <i>Niklas Luhmann</i>, München, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllan2006" class="citation book cs1">Allan, Kenneth (2006). <i>The Social Lens: An Invitation to Social and Sociological Theory</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. p. 453. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-1410-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-1410-9"><bdi>978-1-4129-1410-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+Lens%3A+An+Invitation+to+Social+and+Sociological+Theory&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=453&rft.pub=Pine+Forge+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-1410-9&rft.aulast=Allan&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiklas+Luhmann" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBechmannStehr2002" class="citation journal cs1">Bechmann, Gotthard; Stehr, Nico (January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02717531">"The legacy of Niklas Luhmann"</a>. <i>Society</i>. <b>39</b> (2): 67–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02717531">10.1007/BF02717531</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0147-2011">0147-2011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Society&rft.atitle=The+legacy+of+Niklas+Luhmann&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=67-75&rft.date=2002-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02717531&rft.issn=0147-2011&rft.aulast=Bechmann&rft.aufirst=Gotthard&rft.au=Stehr%2C+Nico&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2FBF02717531&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiklas+Luhmann" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuhmann2013" class="citation book cs1">Luhmann, Niklas (2013). <i>A Sociological Theory of Law</i>. Oxon: Routledge. pp. xxxii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-14255-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-14255-1"><bdi>978-1-135-14255-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Sociological+Theory+of+Law&rft.place=Oxon&rft.pages=xxxii&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-135-14255-1&rft.aulast=Luhmann&rft.aufirst=Niklas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiklas+Luhmann" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-(Roth_2011)-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-(Roth_2011)_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-(Roth_2011)_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Roth, S. (2011) Les deux angleterres et le continent. Anglophone sociology as the guardian of Old European semantics, Journal of Sociocybernetics, Vol. 9, No. 1-2, available for <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ssrn.com/abstract=2265350">download at SSRN</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luhmann, N, <i>A Sociological Theory of Law</i> (1985) and <i>Law As a Social System</i>, translated by Klaus A. Ziegert (Oxford University Press, 2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Niklas Luhmann: Unverständliche Wissenschaft: Probleme einer theorieeigenen Sprache, in: Luhmann, <i>Soziologische Aufklärung 3: Soziales System, Gesellschaft, Organisation</i>. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag, 4th. ed. 2005, pp. 193–205, quote on p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Niklas Luhmann (1975), "Systemtheorie, Evolutionstheorie und Kommunikationstheorie", in: <i>Soziologische Gids</i> 22 3. pp.154–168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Luhmann_1982_pp._131–138-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Luhmann_1982_pp._131–138_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Luhmann_1982_pp._131–138_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuhmann1982" class="citation journal cs1">Luhmann, Niklas (1982). "The World Society as a Social System". <i>International Journal of General Systems</i>. <b>8</b> (3). Informa UK Limited: 131–138. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03081078208547442">10.1080/03081078208547442</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0308-1079">0308-1079</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+General+Systems&rft.atitle=The+World+Society+as+a+Social+System&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=131-138&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03081078208547442&rft.issn=0308-1079&rft.aulast=Luhmann&rft.aufirst=Niklas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiklas+Luhmann" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Varela_Maturana_Uribe_1974_pp._187–196-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Varela_Maturana_Uribe_1974_pp._187–196_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarelaMaturanaUribe1974" class="citation journal cs1">Varela, F.G.; Maturana, H.R.; Uribe, R. (1974). "Autopoiesis: The organization of living systems, its characterization and a model". <i>Biosystems</i>. <b>5</b> (4). Elsevier BV: 187–196. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974BiSys...5..187V">1974BiSys...5..187V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0303-2647%2874%2990031-8">10.1016/0303-2647(74)90031-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0303-2647">0303-2647</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4407425">4407425</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biosystems&rft.atitle=Autopoiesis%3A+The+organization+of+living+systems%2C+its+characterization+and+a+model&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=187-196&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0303-2647%2874%2990031-8&rft.issn=0303-2647&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4407425&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1974BiSys...5..187V&rft.aulast=Varela&rft.aufirst=F.G.&rft.au=Maturana%2C+H.R.&rft.au=Uribe%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiklas+Luhmann" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maturana_2004_p.-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Maturana_2004_p._14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaturana2004" class="citation book cs1">Maturana, Humberto (2004). <i>From being to doing : the origins of the biology of cognition</i>. Heidelberg: Carl Auer Verlag. pp. 105–108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-89670-448-6" title="Special:BookSources/3-89670-448-6"><bdi>3-89670-448-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59207392">59207392</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+being+to+doing+%3A+the+origins+of+the+biology+of+cognition&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pages=105-108&rft.pub=Carl+Auer+Verlag&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59207392&rft.isbn=3-89670-448-6&rft.aulast=Maturana&rft.aufirst=Humberto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiklas+Luhmann" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luhmann, N. <i>Theory of Society, Vol. 1</i>. Stanford University Press, 2012, pp.56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luhmann, N. <i>Social Systems</i>. Stanford University Press, 1995, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luhmann, N. <i>Social Systems</i>. Stanford University Press, 1995.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luhmann, N. <i>Introduction to Systems Theory</i>. Polity, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luhmann, N. <i>Theory of Society, Vol. 1</i>. Stanford University Press, 2012, pp. 83–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luhmann, N. <i>Theory of Society, Vol. 2</i>. Stanford University Press, 2013, pp. 65ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luhmann, N. <i>Theory of Society, Vol. 1</i>. Stanford University Press, 2012, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luhmann, N. <i>Theory of Society, Vol. 1</i>. Stanford University Press, 2012, esp. pp. 336–343.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luhmann, N. <i>Social Systems</i>. Stanford University Press, 1995, Chapter 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luhmann, N. <i>Theory of Society, Vol. 2</i>. Stanford University Press, 2013, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNishikawa-Pacher2023" class="citation journal cs1">Nishikawa-Pacher, Andreas (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14789299231169860">"Diplomacy Versus Politics: Two Mutually (In)Dependent Systems"</a>. <i>Political Studies Review</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14789299231169860">10.1177/14789299231169860</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:258526002">258526002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Studies+Review&rft.atitle=Diplomacy+Versus+Politics%3A+Two+Mutually+%28In%29Dependent+Systems&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F14789299231169860&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A258526002%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Nishikawa-Pacher&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F14789299231169860&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiklas+Luhmann" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuchsHofkirchner2009" class="citation book cs1">Fuchs, C.; Hofkirchner, W. (2009). "Autopoiesis and Critical Social Systems Theory. In Magalhães, R., Sanchez, R., (Eds.)". <i>Autopoiesis in Organization: Theory and Practice</i>. Bingley, UK: Emerald. pp. 111–129.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Autopoiesis+and+Critical+Social+Systems+Theory.+In+Magalh%C3%A3es%2C+R.%2C+Sanchez%2C+R.%2C+%28Eds.%29&rft.btitle=Autopoiesis+in+Organization%3A+Theory+and+Practice&rft.place=Bingley%2C+UK&rft.pages=111-129&rft.pub=Emerald&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Fuchs&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Hofkirchner%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiklas+Luhmann" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoack2019" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Noack, Pit (7 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Missing-Link-Luhmanns-Denkmaschine-endlich-im-Netz-4364512.html">"Missing Link: Luhmanns Denkmaschine endlich im Netz"</a>. <i>heise online</i> (in German)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=heise+online&rft.atitle=Missing+Link%3A+Luhmanns+Denkmaschine+endlich+im+Netz&rft.date=2019-04-07&rft.aulast=Noack&rft.aufirst=Pit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.heise.de%2Fnewsticker%2Fmeldung%2FMissing-Link-Luhmanns-Denkmaschine-endlich-im-Netz-4364512.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiklas+Luhmann" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Niklas Luhmann: <i>Kommunikation mit Zettelkästen. Ein Erfahrungsbericht</i>, in: André Kieserling (ed.), <i>Universität als Milieu. Kleine Schriften</i>, Haux, Bielefeld 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-925471-13-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-925471-13-8">3-925471-13-8</a>, p. 53–61; translated in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://luhmann.surge.sh/communicating-with-slip-boxes">"Communicating with Slip Boxes"</a>. <i>luhmann.surge.sh</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=luhmann.surge.sh&rft.atitle=Communicating+with+Slip+Boxes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fluhmann.surge.sh%2Fcommunicating-with-slip-boxes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiklas+Luhmann" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niklas_Luhmann&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Detlef Horster (1997), <i>Niklas Luhmann</i>, München.</li> <li>David Seidl and Kai Helge Becker: Niklas Luhmann and Organization Studies. Copenhagen Business School Press, Copenhagen 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-630-0162-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-630-0162-5">978-87-630-0162-5</a>.</li> <li>Michele Infante (2012). Teoria sistemica dei media. Luhmann e la comunicazione, 262 pp., Aracne Editrice, Roma, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-548-4723-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-548-4723-1">978-88-548-4723-1</a></li> <li>Michele Infante (2013) : "Codification: signal, canal, noise, encoding and decoding", in New Atlantis. Nature and Human Sciences and Complexity Journal, Year 28th – n° 2 – Jul/Dec. 2013, pp. 57–60, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2281-9495">2281-9495</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-548-6611-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-548-6611-9">978-88-548-6611-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4399%2F97888548661198">10.4399/97888548661198</a></li> <li>Michele Infante (2013), "Information", in New Atlantis, Nature and Human Sciences and Complexity Journal Year 28th – n° 2 – Jul / Dec 2013 pp. 61–64, Aracne Editrice, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4399%2F97888548661199">10.4399/97888548661199</a></li> <li>Michele Infante (2013), "Systemic Boundary" in New Atlantis, Nature and Human Sciences and Complexity Journal, Year 28th – n° 2 – Jul/Dec 2013, Aracne Editrice, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2281-9495">2281-9495</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-548-6611-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-548-6611-9">978-88-548-6611-9</a>, pp. 65–68, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4399%2F978885486611910">10.4399/978885486611910</a></li> <li>Michele Infante (2013). Media Construction of Fair and Social Risk in the Late-2000s Financial Crisis. NEW ATLANTIS, Nature and Human Sciences and Complexity Journal, Year 28th – n° 1- Dec/Jun 2013, Aracne Editrice vol. 1, pp. 59–78, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2281-9495">2281-9495</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4399%2F97888548601559">10.4399/97888548601559</a></li> <li>Ilana Gershon (2005) "Seeing Like a System: Luhmann for Anthropologists." Anthropological Theory 5(2): 99–116.</li> <li>Giorgio Manfré, "La società della società", QuattroVenti, Urbino, 2008.</li> <li>Giorgio Manfré, "Eros e società-mondo. Luhmann/Marx Freud", QuattroVenti, Urbino, 2004.</li> <li>Hans-Georg Moeller (2012). <i>The Radical Luhmann</i>, New York.</li> <li>Javier Torres Nafarrete y Darío Rodríguez Mansilla (2008): <i>Introducción a la Teoría de la Sociedad de Niklas Luhmann</i>. México: Editorial Herder.</li> <li>Oliver Jahraus, Armin Nassehi et al. (2012). Luhmann-Handbuch. Leben – Werk – Wirkung, Stuttgart.</li> <li>Georg Kneer and Armin Nassehi (2004). Niklas Luhmann. Eine Einführung, München.</li> <li>Alexander Riegler and Armin Scholl (eds.) (2012) <i>Luhmann's Relation to and Relevance for Constructivist Approaches</i>. Special issue. <a href="/wiki/Constructivist_Foundations" title="Constructivist Foundations">Constructivist Foundations</a> 8(1): 1–116, freely available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/8/1">the journal's web site</a></li> <li>Magdalena Tzaneva (ed.), Nachtflug der Eule. Gedenkbuch zum 15. Todestag von Niklas Luhmann, Berlin 2013.</li> <li>Alberto Cevolini, Where Does Niklas Luhmann's Card Index Come From? «Erudition and the Republic of Letters», vol. 3, n. 4, 2018, pp. 390–420. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F24055069-00304002">10.1163/24055069-00304002</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niklas_Luhmann&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Althusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Bataille" title="Georges Bataille">Bataille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Blanchot" title="Maurice Blanchot">Blanchot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Castoriadis" title="Cornelius Castoriadis">Castoriadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Cioran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Cixous" title="Hélène Cixous">Cixous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Eagleton" title="Terry Eagleton">Eagleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Fisher" title="Mark Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Guattari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Ingarden" title="Roman Ingarden">Ingarden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Jaspers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Kojève</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koyr%C3%A9" title="Alexandre Koyré">Koyré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Kristeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Latour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Levinas</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Said</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Serres" title="Michel Serres">Serres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sloterdijk" title="Peter Sloterdijk">Sloterdijk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absurdism" title="Absurdism">Absurdism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freudo-Marxism" title="Freudo-Marxism">Freudo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-philosophy" title="Non-philosophy">Non-philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_realism" title="Speculative realism">Speculative realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">Alterity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Always_already" title="Always already">Always already</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">Angst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonian_and_Dionysian" title="Apollonian and Dionysian">Apollonian and Dionysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_in_itself" title="Being in itself">Being in itself</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_oppositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary oppositions">Binary oppositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boredom" title="Boredom">Boredom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique" title="Critique">Critique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immanent_critique" title="Immanent critique">Immanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dasein" title="Dasein">Dasein</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of God">Death of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_drive" title="Death drive">Death drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diff%C3%A9rance" title="Différance">Différance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difference_(philosophy)" title="Difference (philosophy)">Difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence_precedes_essence" title="Existence precedes essence">Existence precedes essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_crisis" title="Existential crisis">Existential crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facticity" title="Facticity">Facticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy_(philosophy)" title="Genealogy (philosophy)">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">Habitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauntology" title="Hauntology">Hauntology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpellation_(philosophy)" title="Interpellation (philosophy)">Interpellation (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">Intersubjectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leap_of_faith" title="Leap of faith">Leap of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%E2%80%93slave_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Master–slave dialectic">Master–slave dialectic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%E2%80%93slave_morality" title="Master–slave morality">Master–slave morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oedipus_complex" title="Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontic">Ontic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontopoetics" title="Ontopoetics">Ontopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">Other</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-deception" title="Self-deception">Self-deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_(deconstruction)" title="Trace (deconstruction)">Trace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaluation_of_values" title="Transvaluation of values">Transvaluation of values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence#Philosophical_perspectives" title="Violence">Violence § Philosophical perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wertkritik" class="mw-redirect" title="Wertkritik">Wertkritik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_to_power" title="Will to power">Will to power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics_of_suspicion" title="Hermeneutics of suspicion">Hermeneutics of suspicion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic theory">Linguistic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_theory" title="Film theory">Film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic turn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Continental_philosophy" title="Category:Continental philosophy">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_continental_philosophy_articles" title="Index of continental philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Subfields_of_and_cyberneticians_involved_in_cybernetics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cybernetics" title="Template:Cybernetics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cybernetics" title="Template talk:Cybernetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cybernetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cybernetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Subfields_of_and_cyberneticians_involved_in_cybernetics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Subfields of and cyberneticians involved in <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocybernetics" title="Biocybernetics">Biological cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_cybernetics" title="Biomedical cybernetics">Biomedical cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorobotics" title="Biorobotics">Biorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Neurocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophe_theory" title="Catastrophe theory">Catastrophe theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_theory" title="Conversation theory">Conversation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">Decision theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_cybernetics" title="Engineering cybernetics">Engineering cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_cybernetics" title="Management cybernetics">Management cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_cybernetics" title="Medical cybernetics">Medical cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-order_cybernetics" title="Second-order cybernetics">Second-order cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersemiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Cybersemiotics">Cybersemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergetics_(Haken)" title="Synergetics (Haken)">Synergetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyberneticist" title="Cyberneticist">Cyberneticians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lerner" title="Alexander Lerner">Alexander Lerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexey_Lyapunov" title="Alexey Lyapunov">Alexey Lyapunov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Radcliffe-Brown" title="Alfred Radcliffe-Brown">Alfred Radcliffe-Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allenna_Leonard" title="Allenna Leonard">Allenna Leonard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wilden" title="Anthony Wilden">Anthony Wilden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buckminster_Fuller" title="Buckminster Fuller">Buckminster Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_(systems_scientist)" title="Charles François (systems scientist)">Charles François</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genevieve_Bell" title="Genevieve Bell">Genevieve Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Boden" title="Margaret Boden">Margaret Boden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Bernard" title="Claude Bernard">Claude Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_Joslyn" title="Cliff Joslyn">Cliff Joslyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_von_Holst" title="Erich von Holst">Erich von Holst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_von_Glasersfeld" title="Ernst von Glasersfeld">Ernst von Glasersfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Heylighen" title="Francis Heylighen">Francis Heylighen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Vester" title="Frederic Vester">Frederic Vester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Vickers" title="Geoffrey Vickers">Charles Geoffrey Vickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Pask" title="Gordon Pask">Gordon Pask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Brown" title="Gordon S. Brown">Gordon S. Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_von_Foerster" title="Heinz von Foerster">Heinz von Foerster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">I. A. Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Aleksander" title="Igor Aleksander">Igor Aleksander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacque_Fresco" title="Jacque Fresco">Jacque Fresco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_Johann_von_Uexk%C3%BCll" title="Jakob Johann von Uexküll">Jakob von Uexküll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_Jixuan_Hu" title="Jason Jixuan Hu">Jason Jixuan Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Wilby" title="Jennifer Wilby">Jennifer Wilby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_N._Warfield" title="John N. Warfield">John N. Warfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maleyka_Abbaszadeh" title="Maleyka Abbaszadeh">Maleyka Abbaszadeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Clynes" title="Manfred Clynes">Manfred Clynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_Mazur" title="Marian Mazur">Marian Mazur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N._Katherine_Hayles" title="N. Katherine Hayles">N. Katherine Hayles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Bekhtereva" title="Natalia Bekhtereva">Natalia Bekhtereva</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Niklas Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petro_Grigorenko" title="Petro Grigorenko">Pyotr Grigorenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranulph_Glanville" title="Ranulph Glanville">Ranulph Glanville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Trappl" title="Robert Trappl">Robert Trappl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_P._Kurdyumov" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergei P. Kurdyumov">Sergei P. Kurdyumov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_Beer" title="Stafford Beer">Anthony Stafford Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Kauffman" title="Stuart Kauffman">Stuart Kauffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Umpleby" title="Stuart Umpleby">Stuart Umpleby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulla_Mitzdorf" title="Ulla Mitzdorf">Ulla Mitzdorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Turchin" title="Valentin Turchin">Valentin Turchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentino_Braitenberg" title="Valentino Braitenberg">Valentin Braitenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._Ross_Ashby" title="W. Ross Ashby">William Ross Ashby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Bradford_Cannon" title="Walter Bradford Cannon">Walter Bradford Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Pitts" title="Walter Pitts">Walter Pitts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Sturgis_McCulloch" title="Warren Sturgis McCulloch">Warren McCulloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Grey_Walter" title="William Grey Walter">William Grey Walter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Systems_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Systems_science" title="Template:Systems science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Systems_science" title="Template talk:Systems science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Systems_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Systems science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Systems_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Systems_science" title="Systems science">Systems science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/System" title="System">System</a><br />types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_art" title="Systems art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_human%E2%80%93environment_system" title="Coupled human–environment system">Coupled human–environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-agent_system" title="Multi-agent system">Multi-agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recommender_system" title="Recommender system">Recommender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system">Social</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doubling_time" title="Doubling time">Doubling time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_leverage_points" title="Twelve leverage points">Leverage points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_factor" title="Limiting factor">Limiting factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">Negative feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">Positive feedback</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical<br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_systems" title="Living systems">Living systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_pharmacology" title="Systems pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_philosophy" title="Systems philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">Systems thinking</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_scientists" title="List of systems scientists">Scientists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russell_L._Ackoff" title="Russell L. Ackoff">Russell L. Ackoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Aladjev" title="Victor Aladjev">Victor Aladjev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ross_Ashby" class="mw-redirect" title="William Ross Ashby">William Ross Ashby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruzena_Bajcsy" title="Ruzena Bajcsy">Ruzena Bajcsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_H._B%C3%A1n%C3%A1thy" title="Béla H. Bánáthy">Béla H. Bánáthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Stafford_Beer" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Stafford Beer">Anthony Stafford Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Bellman" title="Richard E. Bellman">Richard E. Bellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Boden" title="Margaret Boden">Margaret Boden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_E._Boulding" title="Kenneth E. Boulding">Kenneth E. Boulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bowen" title="Murray Bowen">Murray Bowen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Carley" title="Kathleen Carley">Kathleen Carley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Cartwright" title="Mary Cartwright">Mary Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._West_Churchman" title="C. West Churchman">C. West Churchman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Clynes" title="Manfred Clynes">Manfred Clynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Dantzig" title="George Dantzig">George Dantzig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Emery" title="Fred Emery">Fred Emery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_von_Foerster" title="Heinz von Foerster">Heinz von Foerster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Forrest" title="Stephanie Forrest">Stephanie Forrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_J._Grosz" title="Barbara J. Grosz">Barbara Grosz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._S._Hall" title="Charles A. S. Hall">Charles A. S. Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Jackson_(systems_scientist)" title="Mike Jackson (systems scientist)">Mike Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydia_Kavraki" title="Lydia Kavraki">Lydia Kavraki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_J._Kay" title="James J. Kay">James J. Kay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faina_Mihajlovna_Kirillova" class="mw-redirect" title="Faina Mihajlovna Kirillova">Faina M. Kirillova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Klir" title="George Klir">George Klir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allenna_Leonard" title="Allenna Leonard">Allenna Leonard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Norton_Lorenz" title="Edward Norton Lorenz">Edward Norton Lorenz</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Niklas Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donella_Meadows" title="Donella Meadows">Donella Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihajlo_D._Mesarovic" title="Mihajlo D. Mesarovic">Mihajlo D. Mesarovic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Grier_Miller" title="James Grier Miller">James Grier Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radhika_Nagpal" title="Radhika Nagpal">Radhika Nagpal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_T._Odum" title="Howard T. Odum">Howard T. Odum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatol_Rapoport" title="Anatol Rapoport">Anatol Rapoport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Seddon" title="John Seddon">John Seddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Senge" title="Peter Senge">Peter Senge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katia_Sycara" title="Katia Sycara">Katia Sycara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Trist" title="Eric Trist">Eric Trist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuela_M._Veloso" title="Manuela M. Veloso">Manuela M. Veloso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Wilby" title="Jennifer Wilby">Jennifer Wilby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wilden" title="Anthony Wilden">Anthony Wilden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory in anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_archaeology" title="Systems theory in archaeology">Systems theory in archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_political_science" title="Systems theory in political science">Systems theory in political science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_sciences_organizations" title="List of systems sciences organizations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Cybernetica" title="Principia Cybernetica">Principia Cybernetica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jurisprudence" title="Template:Jurisprudence"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jurisprudence" title="Template talk:Jurisprudence"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jurisprudence" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jurisprudence"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jurisprudence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_law_articles" title="Index of philosophy of law articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal theory">Legal theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_legal_studies" title="Critical legal studies">Critical legal studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Economic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal norms">Legal norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="International legal theory">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_law" title="Category:Philosophers of law">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Alexy" title="Robert Alexy">Alexy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio" title="Norberto Bobbio">Bobbio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartosz_Bro%C5%BCek" title="Bartosz Brożek">Brożek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Ehrlich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lon_L._Fuller" title="Lon L. Fuller">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Gurvitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axel_H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m" title="Axel Hägerström">Hägerström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Jellinek" title="Georg Jellinek">Jellinek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Jhering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Kelsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Leoni" title="Bruno Leoni">Leoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Llewellyn" title="Karl Llewellyn">Llewellyn</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Olivecrona" title="Karl Olivecrona">Olivecrona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Pashukanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Petra%C5%BCycki" title="Leon Petrażycki">Petrażycki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Radbruch" title="Gustav Radbruch">Radbruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Raz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Reinach" title="Adolf Reinach">Reinach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Renner" title="Karl Renner">Renner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_Ross" title="Alf Ross">Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Mucius_Scaevola_Pontifex" title="Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex">Scaevola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl" title="Friedrich Julius Stahl">Stahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Mangabeira_Unger" title="Roberto Mangabeira Unger">Unger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Books_about_jurisprudence" title="Category:Books about jurisprudence">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)">Laws</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 355 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pure_Theory_of_Law" title="Pure Theory of Law">Pure Theory of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1934)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law">The Concept of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1961)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law_and_Natural_Rights" title="Natural Law and Natural Rights">Natural Law and Natural Rights</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Law%27s_Empire" title="Law's Empire">Law's Empire</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1986)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_law" title="Category:Theories of law">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_jurisprudence" title="Analytical jurisprudence">Analytical jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontological ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy,_theology,_and_fundamental_theory_of_Catholic_canon_law" title="Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law">Fundamental theory of Catholic canon law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretivism_(legal)" title="Interpretivism (legal)">Interpretivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_moralism" title="Legal moralism">Legal moralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">Legal realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian theories of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">Paternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_jurisprudence" title="Virtue jurisprudence">Virtue jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa_(concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fa (concept)">Fa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_without_the_state" title="Law without the state">Law without the state</a></li> 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style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118575147">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79123583">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12018601k">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12018601k">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00448182">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Luhmann, Niklas"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV000322">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35658061">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=xx0002990&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX986556">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/48675">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p06844575X">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90051998">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000006608&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000031486&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000042701">Chile</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=80854">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC200105809">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/86lnrj7s1j1prc8">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810555751905606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007264595305171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058513007706706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14371842">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00306678?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500064306">ULAN</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1030007">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118575147.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118575147">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028327667">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6g28dd7">SNAC</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elmcip.net/node/7600">ELMCIP</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" 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