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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_to_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Rise to power </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rise_to_power-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Rise to power subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Rise_to_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_campaigns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_campaigns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Early campaigns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_campaigns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defeating_rivals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defeating_rivals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Defeating rivals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defeating_rivals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_reign:_reforms_and_Chinese_campaigns_(1206–1215)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_reign:_reforms_and_Chinese_campaigns_(1206–1215)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Early reign: reforms and Chinese campaigns (1206–1215) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_reign:_reforms_and_Chinese_campaigns_(1206–1215)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Early reign: reforms and Chinese campaigns (1206–1215) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Early_reign:_reforms_and_Chinese_campaigns_(1206–1215)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kurultai_of_1206_and_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kurultai_of_1206_and_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Kurultai of 1206 and reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kurultai_of_1206_and_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consolidation_of_power_(1206–1210)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consolidation_of_power_(1206–1210)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Consolidation of power (1206–1210) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consolidation_of_power_(1206–1210)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Campaign_against_the_Jin_(1211–1215)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campaign_against_the_Jin_(1211–1215)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Campaign against the Jin (1211–1215) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campaign_against_the_Jin_(1211–1215)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_reign:_western_expansion_and_return_to_China_(1216–1227)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_reign:_western_expansion_and_return_to_China_(1216–1227)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Later reign: western expansion and return to China (1216–1227) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Later_reign:_western_expansion_and_return_to_China_(1216–1227)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Later reign: western expansion and return to China (1216–1227) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Later_reign:_western_expansion_and_return_to_China_(1216–1227)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Defeating_rebellions_and_Qara_Khitai_(1216–1218)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defeating_rebellions_and_Qara_Khitai_(1216–1218)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Defeating rebellions and Qara Khitai (1216–1218) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defeating_rebellions_and_Qara_Khitai_(1216–1218)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire_(1219–1221)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire_(1219–1221)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire (1219–1221) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire_(1219–1221)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Return_to_China_and_final_campaign_(1222–1227)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Return_to_China_and_final_campaign_(1222–1227)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Return to China and final campaign (1222–1227) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Return_to_China_and_final_campaign_(1222–1227)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Death and aftermath </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Death_and_aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Death and aftermath subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Death_and_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Succession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Succession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Succession </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Succession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Family </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Character_and_achievements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Character_and_achievements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Character and achievements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Character_and_achievements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy_and_historical_assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy_and_historical_assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Legacy and historical assessment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy_and_historical_assessment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy and historical assessment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy_and_historical_assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mongolia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongolia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Mongolia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongolia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elsewhere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elsewhere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Elsewhere </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elsewhere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Genghis Khan</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 172 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-172" aria-hidden="true" > 172 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djengis_Khan" title="Djengis Khan – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Djengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dschingis_Khan" title="Dschingis Khan – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Dschingis Khan" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%BA%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%B5_%E1%8A%AB%E1%8A%95" title="ቺንግስ ካን – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቺንግስ ካን" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="चंगेज़ ख़ान – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="चंगेज़ ख़ान" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جنكيز خان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جنكيز خان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinguis_Khan" title="Chinguis Khan – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Chinguis Khan" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C_%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="চেংগিজ খান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="চেংগিজ খান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genguis_%E1%B8%A4an" title="Genguis Ḥan – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Genguis Ḥan" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81" title="जंगेज खाँ – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="जंगेज खाँ" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gengis_Kan" title="Gengis Kan – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Gengis Kan" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87ingiz_xan" title="Çingiz xan – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çingiz xan" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چنگیزخان – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چنگیزخان" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C_%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="চেঙ্গিজ খান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চেঙ্গিজ খান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinggis_Khan" title="Chinggis Khan – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chinggis Khan" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8B%D2%A3%D2%93%D1%8B%D2%99%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Сыңғыҙхан – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сыңғыҙхан" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чынгісхан – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Чынгісхан" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чынгісхан – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Чынгісхан" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чингис хан – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Чингис хан" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%87%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8D" title="ཇིང་ཁི་ཁན། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཇིང་ཁི་ཁན།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEingis-kan" title="Džingis-kan – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Džingis-kan" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tchingiz_C%27han" title="Tchingiz C'han – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tchingiz C'han" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чингис хаан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Чингис хаан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genguis_Kan" title="Genguis Kan – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Genguis Kan" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чингисхан – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Чингисхан" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cingisch%C3%A1n" title="Čingischán – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Čingischán" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djengis_Khan" title="Djengis Khan – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Djengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جينكيز خان – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="جينكيز خان" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dschingis_Khan" title="Dschingis Khan – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Dschingis Khan" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEyngis_chan" title="Džyngis chan – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Džyngis chan" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%A1ingis-khaan" title="Tšingis-khaan – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tšingis-khaan" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%B9%CF%82_%CE%A7%CE%B1%CE%BD" title="Τζένγκις Χαν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τζένγκις Χαν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чингисхан – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Чингисхан" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gengis_Kan" title="Gengis Kan – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gengis Kan" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%9Cingis-%C4%A4ano" title="Ĝingis-Ĥano – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ĝingis-Ĥano" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gengis_Kan" title="Gengis Kan – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Gengis Kan" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gengis_Khan" title="Gengis Khan – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B2_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چنگیز خان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="چنگیز خان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gengis_Kan" title="Gengis Kan – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Gengis Kan" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gengis_Khan" title="Gengis Khan – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Gengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzjengis_Khan" title="Dzjengis Khan – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Dzjengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geingeas_C%C3%A1n" title="Geingeas Cán – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Geingeas Cán" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenxis_Khan" title="Xenxis Khan – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xenxis Khan" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%90%E5%90%89%E6%80%9D%E6%B1%97" title="成吉思汗 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="成吉思汗" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%AD%EA%B8%B0%EC%A6%88_%EC%B9%B8" title="칭기즈 칸 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="칭기즈 칸" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%89%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A6_%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Չինգիզ խան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Չինգիզ խան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="चंगेज़ ख़ान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चंगेज़ ख़ान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEingis-kan" title="Džingis-kan – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Džingis-kan" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenghis_Khan" title="Jenghis Khan – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Jenghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Hulontalo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chingiz-kano" title="Chingiz-kano – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Chingiz-kano" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenghis_Khan" title="Jenghis Khan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Jenghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gengis_Khan" title="Gengis Khan – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Gengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чингисхан – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Чингисхан" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djengis_Khan" title="Djengis Khan – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Djengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gengis_Khan" title="Gengis Khan – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Gengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A1_%D7%97%D7%90%D7%9F" title="ג'ינגיס חאן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'ינגיס חאן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%98%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%96%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಜೆಂಘಿಸ್ ಖಾನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜೆಂಘಿಸ್ ಖಾನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%96-%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ჩინგიზ-ყაენი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჩინგიზ-ყაენი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%8B%D2%A3%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%81_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Шыңғыс хан – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Шыңғыс хан" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chingis_Khan" title="Chingis Khan – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Chingis Khan" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gengis_Khan" title="Gengis Khan – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Gengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceng%C3%AEz_Xan" title="Cengîz Xan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Cengîz Xan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%8B%D2%A3%D0%B3%D1%8B%D0%B7_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чыңгыз хан – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Чыңгыз хан" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghiz_Khan" title="Genghiz Khan – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Genghiz Khan" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cingischam" title="Cingischam – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cingischam" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cingishans" title="Čingishans – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Čingishans" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dschingis_Khan" title="Dschingis Khan – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Dschingis Khan" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чингисхан – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Чингисхан" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cingischanas" title="Čingischanas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Čingischanas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Txingis_Han" title="Txingis Han – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Txingis Han" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/tcingis._xan" title="tcingis. xan – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="tcingis. xan" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzsingisz_mongol_nagyk%C3%A1n" title="Dzsingisz mongol nagykán – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Dzsingisz mongol nagykán" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81" title="जंगेज खाँ – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="जंगेज खाँ" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81-%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Џингис-хан – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Џингис-хан" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gengis_Khan" title="Gengis Khan – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Gengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%96%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB" title="ജെങ്കിസ് ഖാൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജെങ്കിസ് ഖാൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9D_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="चंगीझ खान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="चंगीझ खान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%96-%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ჩინგიზ-ყაენი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჩინგიზ-ყაენი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جنكيزخان – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جنكيزخان" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenghis_Khan" title="Jenghis Khan – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Jenghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чингис хаан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Чингис хаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%82%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="ဂျင်ဂစ်ခန် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂျင်ဂစ်ခန်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzjengis_Khan" title="Dzjengis Khan – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Dzjengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzjengis_Khan" title="Dzjengis Khan – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Dzjengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81" title="जङ्गेज खाँ – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जङ्गेज खाँ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="चेंगिस खान – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="चेंगिस खान" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%81%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AE%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AB%E3%83%B3" title="チンギス・カン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="チンギス・カン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чингисхан – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Чингисхан" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djingis_Khan" title="Djingis Khan – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Djingis Khan" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djengis_Khan" title="Djengis Khan – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Djengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djengis_khan" title="Djengis khan – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Djengis khan" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chingizxon" title="Chingizxon – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Chingizxon" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC_%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8" title="ਚੰਗੇਜ਼ ਖ਼ਾਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਚੰਗੇਜ਼ ਖ਼ਾਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B2_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چنگیز خان – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چنگیز خان" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%90%D8%B2_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چنگېز خان – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="چنگېز خان" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F_%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%8B" title="ជេនហ្គិស ខាន់ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ជេនហ្គិស ខាន់" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gengis_Khan" title="Gengis Khan – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Gengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dschingis_Khan" title="Dschingis Khan – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Dschingis Khan" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czyngis-chan" title="Czyngis-chan – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Czyngis-chan" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gengis_Khan" title="Gengis Khan – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gengis Khan" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C4%B1%C5%84%C7%B5%C4%B1sxan" title="Shıńǵısxan – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Shıńǵısxan" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cengiz_Han" title="Cengiz Han – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Cengiz Han" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginghis_Han" title="Ginghis Han – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ginghis Han" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%96%D0%BD%D2%91%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чінґізхан – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Чінґізхан" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чингисхан – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Чингисхан" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%8B%D2%A5%D1%8B%D1%81_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чыҥыс Хаан – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Чыҥыс Хаан" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cen-ci-se-han" title="Cen-ci-se-han – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Cen-ci-se-han" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9D_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="चङ्गेझ खान – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="चङ्गेझ खान" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B2_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چنگیز خان – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="چنگیز خان" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xhingis_Han" title="Xhingis Han – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Xhingis Han" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%9B%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A" title="ජෙන්ගිස් ඛාන් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජෙන්ගිස් ඛාන්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چنگيز خان – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="چنگيز خان" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cingisch%C3%A1n" title="Čingischán – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Čingischán" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEingiskan" title="Džingiskan – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Džingiskan" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinkis_Khan" title="Jinkis Khan – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Jinkis Khan" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%95%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چەنگیزخان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="چەنگیزخان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Џингис-кан – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Џингис-кан" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEingis-kan" title="Džingis-kan – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Džingis-kan" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenghis_Khan" title="Jenghis Khan – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Jenghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%A1ingis-kaani" title="Tšingis-kaani – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tšingis-kaani" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djingis_khan" title="Djingis khan – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Djingis khan" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="செங்கிஸ் கான் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="செங்கிஸ் கான்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinkiz_Xan" title="Jinkiz Xan – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Jinkiz Xan" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C7%A6engis_Xan" title="Ǧengis Xan – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Ǧengis Xan" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%8B%D2%A3%D0%B3%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чыңгызхан – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Чыңгызхан" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9A%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%98%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%96%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="చెంఘీజ్ ఖాన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="చెంఘీజ్ ఖాన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA_%E0%B8%82%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="เจงกิส ข่าน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เจงกิส ข่าน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Чингизхон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Чингизхон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cengiz_Han" title="Cengiz Han – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Cengiz Han" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87ingiz_han" title="Çingiz han – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Çingiz han" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D2%A3%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81-%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чиңгис-хаан – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Чиңгис-хаан" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чингисхан – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Чингисхан" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чингісхан – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Чингісхан" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B2_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چنگیز خان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چنگیز خان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%89%DA%AD%DA%AF%D9%89%D8%B2%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چىڭگىزخان – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="چىڭگىزخان" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cingishan" title="Čingishan – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Čingishan" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh_C%C3%A1t_T%C6%B0_H%C3%A3n" title="Thành Cát Tư Hãn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thành Cát Tư Hãn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%A1ingis-khaan" title="Tšingis-khaan – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Tšingis-khaan" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%90%E5%90%89%E6%80%9D%E6%B1%97" title="成吉思汗 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="成吉思汗" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Genghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%90%E5%90%89%E6%80%9D%E6%B1%97" title="成吉思汗 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="成吉思汗" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%96%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A1_%D7%9B%D7%90%D7%9F" title="דזשינגיס כאן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="דזשינגיס כאן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%90%B5%E6%9C%A8%E7%9C%9F" title="鐵木真 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="鐵木真" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cing%C4%97schans" title="Čingėschans – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Čingėschans" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%90%E5%90%89%E6%80%9D%E6%B1%97" title="成吉思汗 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="成吉思汗" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A8nggis_Han" title="Jènggis Han – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Jènggis Han" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenghis_Khan" title="Jenghis Khan – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Jenghis Khan" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q720#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Genghis Khan (disambiguation)">Genghis Khan (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genghis_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Genghis (disambiguation)">Genghis (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinggis_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Chinggis (disambiguation)">Chinggis (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Temujin_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Temujin (disambiguation)">Temujin (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #cbe; color:inherit; font-size: 125%">Genghis Khan</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image photo"><a href="/wiki/File:YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of an old, bearded Genghis dressed in white clothing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg/220px-YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg/330px-YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg/440px-YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3180" data-file-height="4040" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;">Reproduction of a 1278 portrait taken from a <a href="/wiki/Yuan-era" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuan-era">Yuan-era</a> album – <a href="/wiki/National_Palace_Museum" title="National Palace Museum">National Palace Museum</a>, Taipei</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Khan_of_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Khan of the Mongol Empire">Khan of the Mongol Empire</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">1206 – August 1227</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui</a> (<a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei Khan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">Temüjin <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1162 <a href="/wiki/Khentii_Mountains" title="Khentii Mountains">Khentii Mountains</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">August 1227 (aged around 65) <a href="/wiki/Xingqing_Prefecture" title="Xingqing Prefecture">Xingqing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Burial</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="label"><a href="/wiki/Burial_place_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Burial place of Genghis Khan">Unknown</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6rte" title="Börte">Börte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wives_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Wives of Genghis Khan">others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Issue_(genealogy)" title="Issue (genealogy)">Issue</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei" class="mw-redirect" title="Ögedei">Ögedei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descent_from_Genghis_Khan" title="Descent from Genghis Khan">others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left">Names</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data nickname" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;">Temüjin (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237794275">.mw-parser-output .font-mong{font-family:"Menk Hawang Tig","Menk Qagan Tig","Menk Garqag Tig","Menk Har_a Tig","Menk Scnin Tig","Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig","Oyun Qagan Tig","Oyun Garqag Tig","Oyun Har_a Tig","Oyun Scnin Tig","Oyun Agula Tig","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White","Mongol Usug","Mongolian White","MongolianScript","Code2000","Menksoft Qagan"}.mw-parser-output .font-mong-mnc,.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(mnc-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(dta-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(sjo-Mong){font-family:"Abkai Xanyan","Abkai Xanyan LA","Abkai Xanyan VT","Abkai Xanyan XX","Abkai Xanyan SC","Abkai Buleku","Daicing White","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White"}</style>ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠵᠢᠨ)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Regnal_name" title="Regnal name">Regnal name</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;">Chinggis Khaan (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275">ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ; <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%90#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:成">成</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:吉">吉</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%80%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:思">思</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:皇帝">皇帝</a>)</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">House</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Borjigin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Father</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yesugei" title="Yesugei">Yesugei</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Mother</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B6%27el%C3%BCn" title="Hö'elün">Hö'elün</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks sidebar-person vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image"><a href="/wiki/File:YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/75px-YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/113px-YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2258" data-file-height="3014" /></a></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title"><div>This article is part of a series about</div><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genghis Khan</a></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Tribal campaigns</div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Early_life">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Rise of Genghis Khan">Rise to power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dalan_Baljut" title="Battle of Dalan Baljut">Dalan Baljut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Khalakhaljid_Sands" title="Battle of Khalakhaljid Sands">Khalakhaljid Sands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baljuna_Covenant" title="Baljuna Covenant">Baljuna Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chakirmaut" title="Battle of Chakirmaut">Chakirmaut</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Invasions and conquests</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Western_Xia" title="Mongol conquest of Western Xia">Western Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">Jin dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Qara_Khitai" title="Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Legacy</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wives_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Wives of Genghis Khan">Wives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burial_place_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Burial place of Genghis Khan">Burial place</a></li> <li>Descendants <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinggisids" title="Chinggisids">Chinggisids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_descent_from_Genghis_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic descent from Genghis Khan">Genetics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan_in_popular_culture" title="Genghis Khan in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Mausoleum of Genghis Khan">Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_History_of_the_Mongols" title="Secret History of the Mongols">Secret History of the Mongols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Equestrian statue of Genghis Khan">Statue</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Genghis_Khan" title="Category:Genghis Khan">Category</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Genghis_Khan" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Genghis Khan">Gallery</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Genghis Khan">Quotes</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genghis_Khan" title="Template:Genghis Khan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genghis_Khan" title="Template talk:Genghis Khan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genghis_Khan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genghis Khan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Genghis Khan<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a> (born Temüjin; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1162 – August 1227), also known as Chinggis Khan,<a href="#cite_note-2">[b]</a> was the founder and first <a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">khan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>. After spending most of his life uniting the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol tribes</a>, he launched <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">a series of military campaigns</a>, conquering large parts of <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China" title="Mongol conquest of China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. <a href="#Birth_and_childhood">Born between 1155 and 1167</a> and given the name Temüjin, he was the eldest child of <a href="/wiki/Yesugei" title="Yesugei">Yesugei</a>, a Mongol chieftain of the <a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Borjigin clan</a>, and his wife <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B6%27el%C3%BCn" title="Hö'elün">Hö'elün</a>. When Temüjin was eight, his father died and his family was abandoned by its tribe. Reduced to near-poverty, Temüjin killed <a href="/wiki/Behter" title="Behter">his older half-brother</a> to secure his familial position. His charismatic personality helped to attract his first followers and to form alliances with two prominent <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe" title="Eurasian Steppe">steppe</a> leaders named <a href="/wiki/Jamukha" title="Jamukha">Jamukha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toghrul" title="Toghrul">Toghrul</a>; they worked together to retrieve Temüjin's newlywed wife <a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6rte" title="Börte">Börte</a>, who had been kidnapped by raiders. As his reputation grew, his relationship with Jamukha deteriorated into open warfare. Temüjin was <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dalan_Balzhat" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Dalan Balzhat">badly defeated</a> in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1187, and may have spent the following years as a subject of the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a>; upon reemerging in 1196, he swiftly began gaining power. Toghrul came to view Temüjin as a threat and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Qalaqaljid_Sands" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Qalaqaljid Sands">launched a surprise attack on him</a> in 1203. Temüjin retreated, then <a href="/wiki/Baljuna_Covenant" title="Baljuna Covenant">regrouped</a> and overpowered Toghrul; after defeating the <a href="/wiki/Naimans" title="Naimans">Naiman tribe</a> and executing Jamukha, he was left as the sole ruler on the Mongolian steppe. Temüjin formally adopted the title "Genghis Khan", the meaning of which is uncertain, at an assembly in 1206. Carrying out reforms designed to ensure long-term stability, he transformed the Mongols' tribal structure into an integrated <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a> dedicated to the service of the ruling family. After thwarting a <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup</a> attempt from a powerful <a href="/wiki/Shaman" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaman">shaman</a>, Genghis began to consolidate his power. In 1209, he led a large-scale raid into the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a>, who agreed to Mongol terms the following year. He then launched <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">a campaign against the Jin dynasty</a>, which lasted for four years and ended in 1215 with <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zhongdu" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Zhongdu">the capture</a> of the Jin capital <a href="/wiki/Zhongdu" title="Zhongdu">Zhongdu</a>. His general <a href="/wiki/Jebe" title="Jebe">Jebe</a> annexed the Central Asian state of <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a> in 1218. Genghis was provoked to invade the <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a> the following year by the execution of his envoys; <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">the campaign toppled the Khwarazmian state</a> and devastated the regions of <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, while Jebe and his colleague <a href="/wiki/Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a> led an expedition that reached <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Georgia" title="Mongol invasions of Georgia">Georgia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>. In 1227, Genghis died while subduing the rebellious Western Xia; following a two-year <a href="/wiki/Interregnum" title="Interregnum">interregnum</a>, his third son and heir <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei" class="mw-redirect" title="Ögedei">Ögedei</a> acceded to the throne in 1229. Genghis Khan remains a controversial figure. He was generous and intensely loyal to his followers, but ruthless towards his enemies. He welcomed advice from diverse sources in his quest for world domination, for which he believed the shamanic supreme deity <a href="/wiki/Tengri" title="Tengri">Tengri</a> had destined him. <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Military of the Mongol Empire">The Mongol army</a> under Genghis killed millions of people, yet his conquests also facilitated unprecedented commercial and cultural exchange over a vast geographical area. He is remembered as a backwards, savage tyrant in <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, while recent Western scholarship has begun to reassess its previous view of him as a barbarian warlord. He was posthumously <a href="/wiki/Deified" class="mw-redirect" title="Deified">deified</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>; modern Mongolians recognise him as the founding father of their nation. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name_and_title">Name and title</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the uncertain meanings of the name Temüjin and the title Genghis, see the below sections <a href="#Meaning_of_Temüjin">Birth and early life</a> and <a href="#Meaning_of_Genghis">Kurultai of 1206</a> respectively.</div> There is no universal <a href="/wiki/Romanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanisation">romanisation</a> system used for <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>; as a result, modern spellings of Mongolian names vary greatly and may result in considerably different pronunciations from the original.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991x–xi-3">[1]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Honorific" title="Honorific">honorific</a> most commonly rendered as "Genghis" ultimately derives from the Mongolian <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275">ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ, which may be romanised as Činggis. This was adapted into Chinese as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%90%E5%90%89%E6%80%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:成吉思">成吉思</a> Chéngjísī, and into Persian as چنگیز Čəngīz. As <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> lacks a sound similar to [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a>], represented in the Mongolian and Persian romanisations by ⟨č⟩, writers transcribed the name as J̌ingiz, while <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> authors used Šīngīz.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPelliot1959281-4">[2]</a> In addition to "Genghis", introduced into English during the 18th century based on a misreading of Persian sources, modern English spellings include "Chinggis", "Chingis", "Jinghis", and "Jengiz".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBawden2022§_"Introduction"Wilkinson2012776Morgan1990-5">[3]</a> His birth name "Temüjin" (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275">ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠵᠢᠨ; <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%90%B5%E6%9C%A8%E7%9C%9F" class="extiw" title="wikt:鐵木真">鐵木真</a> Tiěmùzhēn) is sometimes also spelled "Temuchin" in English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBawden2022§_"Introduction"-6">[4]</a> When Genghis's grandson <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> in 1271, he bestowed the <a href="/wiki/Temple_name" title="Temple name">temple name</a> Taizu (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:太祖">太祖</a>, meaning 'Supreme Progenitor') and the <a href="/wiki/Posthumous_name" title="Posthumous name">posthumous name</a> Shengwu Huangdi (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%81%96#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:聖">聖</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AD%A6#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:武">武</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:皇帝">皇帝</a>, meaning 'Holy-Martial Emperor') upon his grandfather. Kublai's great-grandson <a href="/wiki/K%C3%BCl%C3%BCg_Khan" title="Külüg Khan">Külüg Khan</a> later expanded this title into Fatian Qiyun Shengwu Huangdi (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:法">法</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:天">天</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%95%9F#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:啟">啟</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%81%8B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:運">運</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%81%96#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:聖">聖</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AD%A6#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:武">武</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:皇帝">皇帝</a>, meaning 'Interpreter of the Heavenly Law, Initiator of the Good Fortune, Holy-Martial Emperor').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter201624Fiaschetti201477–82-7">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> As the sources are written in more than a dozen languages from across Eurasia, modern historians have found it difficult to compile information on the life of Genghis Khan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan19864–5-8">[6]</a> All accounts of his adolescence and <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Rise of Genghis Khan">rise to power</a> derive from two Mongolian-language sources—the <a href="/wiki/Secret_History_of_the_Mongols" title="Secret History of the Mongols">Secret History of the Mongols</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Altan_Debter" title="Altan Debter">Altan Debter</a> (Golden Book). The latter, now lost, served as inspiration for two Chinese chronicles—the 14th-century <a href="/wiki/History_of_Yuan" title="History of Yuan">History of Yuan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Shengwu_qinzheng_lu" title="Shengwu qinzheng lu">Shengwu qinzheng lu</a> (Campaigns of Genghis Khan).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991xii-9">[7]</a> The History of Yuan, while poorly edited, provides a large amount of detail on individual campaigns and people; the Shengwu is more disciplined in its chronology, but does not criticise Genghis and occasionally contains errors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESverdrup2017xiv-10">[8]</a> The Secret History survived through being <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliterated</a> into <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> during the 14th and 15th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHung1951481-11">[9]</a> Its historicity has been disputed: the 20th-century sinologist <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Waley" title="Arthur Waley">Arthur Waley</a> considered it a literary work with no historiographical value, but more recent historians have given the work much more credence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaley20027–8Morgan198611-12">[10]</a> Although it is clear that the work's chronology is suspect and that some passages were removed or modified for better narration, the Secret History is valued highly because the anonymous author is often critical of Genghis Khan: in addition to presenting him as indecisive and as having a <a href="/wiki/Cynophobia" title="Cynophobia">phobia of dogs</a>, the Secret History also recounts taboo events such as his <a href="#Adolescence">fratricide</a> and the possibility of his son Jochi's illegitimacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991xiv–xv-13">[11]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jame%27_al-Tavarikh_(Compendium_of_Chronicles)_manuscript_by_Rashid_al-Din_Fazlullah,_Iran,_early_15th_century_AD,_ink,_watercolour,_and_gold_on_paper_-_Aga_Khan_Museum_-_Toronto,_Canada_-_DSC06735.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A book written in Persian script with many emblems on parchment" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Jame%27_al-Tavarikh_%28Compendium_of_Chronicles%29_manuscript_by_Rashid_al-Din_Fazlullah%2C_Iran%2C_early_15th_century_AD%2C_ink%2C_watercolour%2C_and_gold_on_paper_-_Aga_Khan_Museum_-_Toronto%2C_Canada_-_DSC06735.jpg/310px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Jame%27_al-Tavarikh_%28Compendium_of_Chronicles%29_manuscript_by_Rashid_al-Din_Fazlullah%2C_Iran%2C_early_15th_century_AD%2C_ink%2C_watercolour%2C_and_gold_on_paper_-_Aga_Khan_Museum_-_Toronto%2C_Canada_-_DSC06735.jpg/465px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Jame%27_al-Tavarikh_%28Compendium_of_Chronicles%29_manuscript_by_Rashid_al-Din_Fazlullah%2C_Iran%2C_early_15th_century_AD%2C_ink%2C_watercolour%2C_and_gold_on_paper_-_Aga_Khan_Museum_-_Toronto%2C_Canada_-_DSC06735.jpg/620px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5294" data-file-height="3328" /></a><figcaption>15th-century copy of the <a href="/wiki/Jami%27_al-tawarikh" title="Jami' al-tawarikh">Jami' al-tawarikh</a> by <a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid al-Din Hamadani</a></figcaption></figure> Multiple chronicles in Persian have also survived, which display a mix of positive and negative attitudes towards Genghis Khan and the Mongols. Both <a href="/wiki/Minhaj-i_Siraj_Juzjani" title="Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani">Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ata-Malik_Juvayni" title="Ata-Malik Juvayni">Ata-Malik Juvayni</a> completed their respective histories in 1260.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan198616–17-14">[12]</a> Juzjani was an eyewitness to the brutality of the Mongol conquests, and the hostility of his chronicle reflects his experiences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESverdrup2017xvi-15">[13]</a> His contemporary Juvayni, who had travelled twice to Mongolia and attained a high position in the administration of <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">a Mongol successor state</a>, was more sympathetic; his account is the most reliable for Genghis Khan's western campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan198618Ratchnevsky1991xv–xvi-16">[14]</a> The most important Persian source is the <a href="/wiki/Jami%27_al-tawarikh" title="Jami' al-tawarikh">Jami' al-tawarikh</a> (Compendium of Chronicles) compiled by <a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid al-Din</a> on the order of Genghis's descendant <a href="/wiki/Ghazan" title="Ghazan">Ghazan</a> in the early 14th century. Ghazan allowed Rashid privileged access to both confidential Mongol sources such as the Altan Debter and to experts on the Mongol oral tradition, including Kublai Khan's ambassador <a href="/wiki/Bolad_Chingsang" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolad Chingsang">Bolad Chingsang</a>. As he was writing an official chronicle, Rashid censored inconvenient or taboo details.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991xvAtwood2004117Morgan198618–21-17">[15]</a> There are many other contemporary histories which include additional information on Genghis Khan and the Mongols, although their neutrality and reliability are often suspect. Additional Chinese sources include the chronicles of the dynasties conquered by the Mongols, and the Song diplomat <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhao_Hong_(Song_diplomat)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhao Hong (Song diplomat) (page does not exist)">Zhao Hong</a>, who visited the Mongols in 1221.<a href="#cite_note-19">[c]</a> Arabic sources include a contemporary biography of the Khwarazmian prince <a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Din_Mangburni" title="Jalal al-Din Mangburni">Jalal al-Din</a> by his companion <a href="/wiki/Shihab_al-Din_Muhammad_al-Nasawi" title="Shihab al-Din Muhammad al-Nasawi">al-Nasawi</a>. There are also several later Christian chronicles, including the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Chronicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian Chronicles">Georgian Chronicles</a>, and works by European travellers such as <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_da_Pian_del_Carpine" title="Giovanni da Pian del Carpine">Carpini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESverdrup2017xiv–xviWright2017-20">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birth_and_childhood">Birth and childhood</h3></div> The year of Temüjin's birth is disputed, as historians favour different dates: 1155, 1162 or 1167. Some traditions place his birth in the <a href="/wiki/Pig_(zodiac)" title="Pig (zodiac)">Year of the Pig</a>, which was either 1155 or 1167.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan198655-21">[18]</a> While a dating to 1155 is supported by the writings of both Zhao Hong and Rashid al-Din, other major sources such as the History of Yuan and the Shengwu favour the year 1162.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199117–18-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[d]</a> The 1167 dating, favoured by the sinologist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Pelliot" title="Paul Pelliot">Paul Pelliot</a>, is derived from a minor source—a text of the Yuan artist <a href="/wiki/Yang_Weizhen" title="Yang Weizhen">Yang Weizhen</a>—but is more compatible with the events of Genghis Khan's life than a 1155 placement, which implies that he did not have children until after the age of thirty and continued actively campaigning into his seventh decade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199117–18Pelliot1959284–287-24">[20]</a> 1162 is the date accepted by most historians;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMan200470Biran201233Atwood200497May201822Jackson201763-25">[21]</a> the historian Paul Ratchnevsky noted that Temüjin himself may not have known the truth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199119-26">[22]</a> The location of Temüjin's birth, which the Secret History records as <a href="/wiki/Del%C3%BC%C3%BCn_Boldog" title="Delüün Boldog">Delüün Boldog</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Onon_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Onon River">Onon River</a>, is similarly debated: it has been placed at either <a href="/wiki/Dadal" title="Dadal">Dadal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Khentii_Province" title="Khentii Province">Khentii Province</a> or in southern <a href="/wiki/Agin-Buryat_Okrug" title="Agin-Buryat Okrug">Agin-Buryat Okrug</a>, Russia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood200497-27">[23]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OnonRiver.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A dark river flowing between bushes and open ground, curving to avoid a high ridge" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/OnonRiver.jpg/360px-OnonRiver.jpg" decoding="async" width="360" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/OnonRiver.jpg/540px-OnonRiver.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/OnonRiver.jpg/720px-OnonRiver.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2103" data-file-height="894" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Onon_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Onon River">Onon River</a>, near which Temüjin was born, pictured here in <a href="/wiki/Khentii_Province" title="Khentii Province">Khentii Province</a>, Mongolia</figcaption></figure> Temüjin was born into the <a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Borjigin</a> clan of the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol tribe</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[e]</a> to <a href="/wiki/Yes%C3%BCgei" class="mw-redirect" title="Yesügei">Yesügei</a>, a chieftain who claimed descent from the legendary warlord <a href="/wiki/Bodonchar_Munkhag" title="Bodonchar Munkhag">Bodonchar Munkhag</a>, and his principal wife <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B6%27el%C3%BCn" title="Hö'elün">Hö'elün</a>, originally of the <a href="/wiki/Olkhonud" title="Olkhonud">Olkhonud</a> clan, whom Yesügei had abducted from her <a href="/wiki/Merkit" title="Merkit">Merkit</a> bridegroom Chiledu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199114–15May201820–21-30">[25]</a> The origin of his birth name is contested: the earliest traditions hold that his father had just returned from a successful campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a> with a captive named Temüchin-uge, after whom he named the newborn in celebration of his victory, while later traditions highlight the <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a> temür (meaning 'iron') and connect to theories that "Temüjin" means 'blacksmith'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPelliot1959289–291Man200467–68Ratchnevsky199117-31">[26]</a> Several legends surround Temüjin's birth. The most prominent is that he was born clutching a <a href="/wiki/Blood_clot" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood clot">blood clot</a> in his hand, a motif in Asian folklore indicating the child would be a warrior.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrose2014§_"The_Young_Temüjin"Pelliot1959288-32">[27]</a> Others claimed that Hö'elün was <a href="/wiki/Miraculous_births" title="Miraculous births">impregnated by a ray of light</a> which announced the child's destiny, a legend which echoed that of the mythical Borjigin ancestor <a href="/wiki/Alan_Gua" title="Alan Gua">Alan Gua</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199117-33">[28]</a> Yesügei and Hö'elün had three younger sons after Temüjin: <a href="/wiki/Qasar" title="Qasar">Qasar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hachiun" title="Hachiun">Hachiun</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tem%C3%BCge" title="Temüge">Temüge</a>, as well as one daughter, <a href="/wiki/Tem%C3%BCl%C3%BCn" title="Temülün">Temülün</a>. Temüjin also had two half-brothers, <a href="/wiki/Behter" title="Behter">Behter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belgutei" title="Belgutei">Belgutei</a>, from Yesügei's secondary wife <a href="/wiki/Sochigel" title="Sochigel">Sochigel</a>, whose identity is uncertain. The siblings grew up at Yesugei's main camp on the banks of the Onon, where they learned how to ride a horse and shoot a bow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199115–19-34">[29]</a> When Temüjin was eight years old, his father decided to betroth him to a suitable girl. Yesügei took his heir to the pastures of Hö'elün's prestigious <a href="/wiki/Onggirat" class="mw-redirect" title="Onggirat">Onggirat</a> tribe, which had intermarried with the Mongols on many previous occasions. There, he arranged a betrothal between Temüjin and <a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6rte" title="Börte">Börte</a>, the daughter of an Onggirat chieftain named <a href="/wiki/Dei_Sechen" title="Dei Sechen">Dei Sechen</a>. As the betrothal meant Yesügei would gain a powerful ally and as Börte commanded a high <a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">bride price</a>, Dei Sechen held the stronger negotiating position, and demanded that Temüjin remain in his household to work off his future debt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199120–21FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009100-35">[30]</a> Accepting this condition, Yesügei requested a meal from a band of Tatars he encountered while riding homewards alone, relying on the steppe tradition of hospitality to strangers. However, the Tatars recognised their old enemy and slipped poison into his food. Yesügei gradually sickened but managed to return home; close to death, he requested a trusted retainer called Münglig to retrieve Temüjin from the Onggirat. He died soon after.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199121–22Broadbridge201850–51-36">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adolescence">Adolescence</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Hoelun_Monument_to_Genghis_Khan%27s_Mother_at_the_Mother_Hoelun_Memorial_Complex_in_Tsonjin_Boldog_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large stone statue, atop a podium, of a robed woman with an elaborate headdress" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/The_Hoelun_Monument_to_Genghis_Khan%27s_Mother_at_the_Mother_Hoelun_Memorial_Complex_in_Tsonjin_Boldog_02.jpg/220px-The_Hoelun_Monument_to_Genghis_Khan%27s_Mother_at_the_Mother_Hoelun_Memorial_Complex_in_Tsonjin_Boldog_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/The_Hoelun_Monument_to_Genghis_Khan%27s_Mother_at_the_Mother_Hoelun_Memorial_Complex_in_Tsonjin_Boldog_02.jpg/330px-The_Hoelun_Monument_to_Genghis_Khan%27s_Mother_at_the_Mother_Hoelun_Memorial_Complex_in_Tsonjin_Boldog_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/The_Hoelun_Monument_to_Genghis_Khan%27s_Mother_at_the_Mother_Hoelun_Memorial_Complex_in_Tsonjin_Boldog_02.jpg/440px-The_Hoelun_Monument_to_Genghis_Khan%27s_Mother_at_the_Mother_Hoelun_Memorial_Complex_in_Tsonjin_Boldog_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="2881" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Hö'elün located near the <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Equestrian statue of Genghis Khan">equestrian statue of her son</a> at Tsonjin Boldog, <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></figcaption></figure> Yesügei's death shattered the unity of his people, which included members of the Borjigin, <a href="/wiki/Tayichiud" class="mw-redirect" title="Tayichiud">Tayichiud</a>, and other clans. As Temüjin was not yet ten and Behter around two years older, neither was considered experienced enough to rule. The Tayichiud faction excluded Hö'elün from the <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestor worship">ancestor worship</a> ceremonies which followed a ruler's death and soon abandoned her camp. The Secret History relates that the entire Borjigin clan followed, despite Hö'elün's attempts to shame them into staying by appealing to their honour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199122May201825de_Rachewiltz_2015§_71–73-37">[32]</a> Rashid al-Din and the Shengwu however imply that Yesügei's brothers stood by the widow. It is possible that Hö'elün may have refused to join in <a href="/wiki/Levirate_marriage" title="Levirate marriage">levirate marriage</a> with one, resulting in later tensions, or that the author of the Secret History dramatised the situation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199122–23Atwood200497–98-38">[33]</a> All the sources agree that most of Yesügei's people renounced his family in favour of the Tayichiuds and that Hö'elün's family were reduced to a much harsher life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrose2014§_"The_Young_Temüjin"Atwood200498-39">[34]</a> Taking up a <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> lifestyle, they collected roots and nuts, hunted for small animals, and caught fish.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201825-40">[35]</a> Tensions developed as the children grew older. Both Temüjin and Behter had claims to be their father's heir: although Temüjin was the child of Yesügei's chief wife, Behter was at least two years his senior. There was even the possibility that, as permitted under levirate law, Behter could marry Hö'elün upon attaining his <a href="/wiki/Age_of_majority" title="Age of majority">majority</a> and become Temüjin's stepfather.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201825–26-41">[36]</a> As the friction, exacerbated by frequent disputes over the division of hunting spoils, intensified, Temüjin and his younger brother Qasar ambushed and killed Behter. This taboo act was omitted from the official chronicles but not from the Secret History, which recounts that Hö'elün angrily reprimanded her sons. Behter's younger full-brother Belgutei did not seek vengeance, and became one of Temüjin's highest-ranking followers alongside Qasar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199123–24de_Rachewiltz_2015§76–78-42">[37]</a> Around this time, Temüjin developed a close friendship with <a href="/wiki/Jamukha" title="Jamukha">Jamukha</a>, another boy of aristocratic descent; the Secret History notes that they exchanged <a href="/wiki/Shagai" title="Shagai">knucklebones</a> and arrows as gifts and swore the anda pact—the traditional oath of Mongol <a href="/wiki/Blood_brother" title="Blood brother">blood brothers</a>–at eleven.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMan200474de_Rachewiltz_2015§116FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009101-43">[38]</a> As the family lacked allies, Temüjin was taken prisoner on multiple occasions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199125–26FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009100–101-44">[39]</a> Captured by the Tayichiuds, he escaped during a feast and hid first in the Onon and then in the tent of <a href="/wiki/Sorqan_Shira" title="Sorqan Shira">Sorkan-Shira</a>, a man who had seen him in the river and not raised the alarm. Sorkan-Shira sheltered Temüjin for three days at great personal risk before helping him to escape.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199126–27May201826–27-45">[40]</a> Temüjin was assisted on another occasion by <a href="/wiki/Bo%27orchu" title="Bo'orchu">Bo'orchu</a>, an adolescent who aided him in retrieving stolen horses. Soon afterwards, Bo'orchu joined Temüjin's camp as his first <a href="/wiki/N%C3%B6ker_(military)" title="Nöker (military)">nökor</a> ('personal companion'; <abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr> nökod).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201828-46">[41]</a> These incidents, related by the Secret History, are indicative of the emphasis its author put on Genghis' personal charisma.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199127-47">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rise_to_power">Rise to power</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Rise of Genghis Khan">Rise of Genghis Khan</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_campaigns">Early campaigns</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burkhan_Khaldun_mount3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of a landscape in winter, with trees bare, and valleys and mountains covered in snow." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Burkhan_Khaldun_mount3.jpg/290px-Burkhan_Khaldun_mount3.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Burkhan_Khaldun_mount3.jpg/435px-Burkhan_Khaldun_mount3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Burkhan_Khaldun_mount3.jpg/580px-Burkhan_Khaldun_mount3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="471" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Burkhan_Khaldun" title="Burkhan Khaldun">Burkhan Khaldun</a> mountain, where Temüjin hid during the <a href="/wiki/Merkit" title="Merkit">Merkit</a> attack, and which he later came to honour as sacred</figcaption></figure> Temüjin returned to Dei Sechen to marry Börte when he reached the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_majority" title="Age of majority">age of majority</a> at fifteen. Delighted to see the son-in-law he feared had died, Dei Sechen consented to the marriage and accompanied the newlyweds back to Temüjin's camp; his wife Čotan presented Hö'elün with an expensive <a href="/wiki/Sable" title="Sable">sable</a> cloak.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201828Ratchnevsky199131-48">[43]</a> Seeking a patron, Temüjin chose to regift the cloak to <a href="/wiki/Toghrul" title="Toghrul">Toghrul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">khan</a> (ruler) of the <a href="/wiki/Kerait" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerait">Kerait</a> tribe, who had fought alongside Yesügei and sworn the anda pact with him. Toghrul ruled a vast territory in central Mongolia but distrusted many of his followers. In need of loyal replacements, he was delighted with the valuable gift and welcomed Temüjin into his protection. The two grew close, and Temüjin began to build a following, as nökod such as <a href="/wiki/Jelme" title="Jelme">Jelme</a> entered into his service.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004295–296,_390Ratchnevsky199132–33May201828–29-49">[44]</a> Temüjin and Börte had their first child, a daughter named Qojin, around this time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201858-50">[45]</a> Soon afterwards, seeking revenge for Yesügei's abduction of Hö'elün, around 300 Merkits raided Temüjin's camp. While Temüjin and his brothers were able to hide on <a href="/wiki/Burkhan_Khaldun" title="Burkhan Khaldun">Burkhan Khaldun mountain</a>, Börte and Sochigel were abducted. In accordance with levirate law, Börte was given in marriage to the younger brother of the now-deceased Chiledu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199134–35Brose2014§_"Emergence_of_Chinggis_Khan"-51">[46]</a> Temüjin appealed for aid from Toghrul and his childhood anda Jamukha, who had risen to become chief of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jadaran&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jadaran (page does not exist)">Jadaran</a> tribe. Both chiefs were willing to field armies of 20,000 warriors, and with Jamukha in command, the campaign was soon won. A now-pregnant Börte was recovered successfully and soon gave birth to a son, <a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a>; although Temüjin raised him as his own, questions over his true paternity followed Jochi throughout his life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201830Bawden2022§_"Early_struggles"-52">[47]</a> This is narrated in the Secret History and contrasts with Rashid al-Din's account, which protects the family's reputation by removing any hint of illegitimacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199134–35May201830–31-53">[48]</a> Over the next decade and a half, Temüjin and Börte had three more sons (<a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei" class="mw-redirect" title="Ögedei">Ögedei</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui</a>) and four more daughters (<a href="/wiki/Checheikhen" class="mw-redirect" title="Checheikhen">Checheyigen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alakhai_Bekhi" title="Alakhai Bekhi">Alaqa</a>, Tümelün, and <a href="/wiki/Al-Altan" title="Al-Altan">Al-Altan</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201866–68-54">[49]</a> The followers of Temüjin and Jamukha camped together for a year and a half, during which their leaders reforged their anda pact and slept together under one blanket, according to the Secret History. The source presents this period as close friends bonding, but Ratchnevsky questioned if Temüjin actually entered into Jamukha's service in return for the assistance with the Merkits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199137–38-55">[50]</a> Tensions arose and the two leaders parted, ostensibly on account of a cryptic remark made by Jamukha on the subject of camping;<a href="#cite_note-57">[f]</a> in any case, Temüjin followed the advice of Hö'elün and Börte and began to build an independent following. The major tribal rulers remained with Jamukha, but forty-one leaders gave their support to Temüjin along with many commoners: these included <a href="/wiki/Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a> and others of the <a href="/wiki/Uriankhai" title="Uriankhai">Uriankhai</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Barlas" title="Barlas">Barulas</a>, the Olkhonuds, and many more.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201831Ratchnevsky199137–41Broadbridge201864-58">[52]</a> Many were attracted by Temüjin's reputation as a fair and generous lord who could offer better lives, while his <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">shamans</a> prophesied that heaven had allocated him a great destiny.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199139–41-59">[53]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Djengiz_Kh%C3%A2n_et_Toghril_Ong_Khan.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of two men wearing crowns on a couch, with three men on either side looking at them" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Djengiz_Kh%C3%A2n_et_Toghril_Ong_Khan.jpeg/290px-Djengiz_Kh%C3%A2n_et_Toghril_Ong_Khan.jpeg" decoding="async" width="290" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Djengiz_Kh%C3%A2n_et_Toghril_Ong_Khan.jpeg/435px-Djengiz_Kh%C3%A2n_et_Toghril_Ong_Khan.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Djengiz_Kh%C3%A2n_et_Toghril_Ong_Khan.jpeg/580px-Djengiz_Kh%C3%A2n_et_Toghril_Ong_Khan.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="4477" data-file-height="2372" /></a><figcaption>Temüjin and <a href="/wiki/Toghrul" title="Toghrul">Toghrul</a>, illustrated in a 15th-century <a href="/wiki/Jami%27_al-tawarikh" title="Jami' al-tawarikh">Jami' al-tawarikh</a> manuscript</figcaption></figure> Temüjin was soon acclaimed by his close followers as khan of the Mongols.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood200498Brose2014§_"Building_the_Mongol_Confederation"-60">[54]</a> Toghrul was pleased at his vassal's elevation but Jamukha was resentful. Tensions escalated into open hostility, and in around 1187 the two leaders clashed in battle <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dalan_Balzhat" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Dalan Balzhat">at Dalan Baljut</a>: the two forces were evenly matched but Temüjin suffered a clear defeat. Later chroniclers including Rashid al-Din instead state that he was victorious but their accounts contradict themselves and each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199144–47-61">[55]</a> Modern historians such as Ratchnevsky and Timothy May consider it very likely that Temüjin spent a large portion of the decade following the clash at Dalan Baljut as a servant of the Jurchen <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199149–50May201832-62">[56]</a> Zhao Hong recorded that the future Genghis Khan spent several years as a slave of the Jin. Formerly seen as an expression of nationalistic arrogance, the statement is now thought to be based in fact, especially as no other source convincingly explains Temüjin's activities between Dalan Baljut and <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1195.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199149–50-63">[57]</a> Taking refuge across the border was a common practice both for disaffected steppe leaders and disgraced Chinese officials. Temüjin's reemergence having retained significant power indicates that he probably profited in the service of the Jin. As he later overthrew that state, such an episode, detrimental to Mongol prestige, was omitted from all their sources. Zhao Hong was bound by no such taboos.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199149–50May201832FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009101-64">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defeating_rivals">Defeating rivals</h3></div> The sources do not agree on the events of Temüjin's return to the steppe. In early summer 1196, he participated in a joint campaign with the Jin against the Tatars, who had begun to act contrary to Jin interests. As a reward, the Jin awarded him the honorific cha-ut kuri, the meaning of which probably approximated "commander of hundreds" in <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_language" title="Jurchen language">Jurchen</a>. At around the same time, he assisted Toghrul with reclaiming the lordship of the Kereit, which had been usurped by one of Toghrul's relatives with the support of the powerful <a href="/wiki/Naimans" title="Naimans">Naiman tribe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199152–53Pelliot1959291–295-65">[59]</a> The actions of 1196 fundamentally changed Temüjin's position in the steppe—although nominally still Toghrul's vassal, he was de facto an equal ally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199152–53Sverdrup201756-66">[60]</a> Jamukha behaved cruelly following his victory at Dalan Baljut—he allegedly <a href="/wiki/Death_by_boiling" title="Death by boiling">boiled seventy prisoners alive</a> and humiliated the corpses of leaders who had opposed him. A number of disaffected followers, including Yesügei's follower Münglig and his sons, <a href="/wiki/Defection" title="Defection">defected</a> to Temüjin as a consequence; they were also probably attracted by his newfound wealth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199146–47May201832-67">[61]</a> Temüjin subdued the disobedient <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurkin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jurkin (page does not exist)">Jurkin</a> tribe that had previously offended him at a feast and refused to participate in the Tatar campaign. After executing their leaders, he had Belgutei symbolically break a leading Jurkin's back in a staged <a href="/wiki/Wrestling" title="Wrestling">wrestling</a> match in retribution. This latter incident, which contravened Mongol customs of justice, was only noted by the author of the Secret History, who openly disapproved. These events occurred c. 1197.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199154–56-68">[62]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mongol_Empire_c.1207.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of the Mongol tribes c. 1207" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Mongol_Empire_c.1207.png/350px-Mongol_Empire_c.1207.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Mongol_Empire_c.1207.png/525px-Mongol_Empire_c.1207.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Mongol_Empire_c.1207.png/700px-Mongol_Empire_c.1207.png 2x" data-file-width="813" data-file-height="532" /></a><figcaption>The tribal polities united by Temüjin to found the Mongol Empire</figcaption></figure> During the following years, Temüjin and Toghrul campaigned against the Merkits, the Naimans, and the Tatars; sometimes separately and sometimes together. In around 1201, a collection of dissatisfied tribes including the Onggirat, the Tayichiud, and the Tatars swore to break the domination of the Borjigin-Kereit alliance, electing Jamukha as their leader and <a href="/wiki/Gurkhan" title="Gurkhan">gurkhan</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> '"khan of the tribes"'). After some initial successes, Temüjin and Toghrul routed this loose confederation <a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Yedi_Qunan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Yedi Qunan (page does not exist)">at Yedi Qunan</a>, and Jamukha was forced to beg for Toghrul's clemency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199161–62May201834–35-69">[63]</a> Desiring complete supremacy in eastern Mongolia, Temüjin defeated first the Tayichiud and then, in 1202, the Tatars; after both campaigns, he executed the clan leaders and took the remaining warriors into his service. These included Sorkan-Shira, who had come to his aid previously, and a young warrior named <a href="/wiki/Jebe" title="Jebe">Jebe</a>, who, by killing Temüjin's horse and refusing to hide that fact, had displayed martial ability and personal courage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199163–67de_Hartog199921–22FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009102-70">[64]</a> The absorption of the Tatars left three military powers in the steppe: the Naimans in the west, the Mongols in the east, and the Kereit in between.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201836-71">[65]</a> Seeking to cement his position, Temüjin proposed that his son Jochi marry one of Toghrul's daughters. Led by Toghrul's son Senggum, the Kereit elite believed the proposal to be an attempt to gain control over their tribe, while the doubts over Jochi's parentage would have offended them further. In addition, Jamukha drew attention to the threat Temüjin posed to the traditional steppe <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> by his habit of promoting commoners to high positions, which subverted social norms. Yielding eventually to these demands, Toghrul attempted to lure his vassal into an ambush, but his plans were overheard by two herdsmen. Temüjin was able to gather some of his forces, but was soundly defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Qalaqaljid_Sands" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Qalaqaljid Sands">Battle of Qalaqaljid Sands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood200498Ratchnevsky199167–70May201836–37-72">[66]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:32%;; ;"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="text-align: centre;">The <a href="/wiki/Baljuna_Covenant" title="Baljuna Covenant">Baljuna Covenant</a></div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <div class="poem"> "[Temüjin] raised his hands and looking up at Heaven swore, saying "If I am able to achieve my 'Great Work', I shall [always] share with you men the sweet and the bitter. If I break this word, may I be like the water of the River, drunk up by others." Among officers and men there was none who was not moved to tears. </div> </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Yuan" title="History of Yuan">History of Yuan</a>, vol 120 (1370)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleaves1955397-73">[67]</a></cite> </div> Retreating southeast to Baljuna, an unidentified lake or river, Temüjin waited for his scattered forces to regroup: Bo'orchu had lost his horse and was forced to flee on foot, while Temüjin's badly wounded son <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei" class="mw-redirect" title="Ögedei">Ögedei</a> had been transported and tended to by <a href="/wiki/Borokhula" class="mw-redirect" title="Borokhula">Borokhula</a>, a leading warrior. Temüjin called in every possible ally and swore a famous <a href="/wiki/Oath" title="Oath">oath of loyalty</a>, later known as the <a href="/wiki/Baljuna_Covenant" title="Baljuna Covenant">Baljuna Covenant</a>, to his faithful followers, which subsequently granted them great prestige.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrose2014§_"Building_the_Mongol_Confederation"Ratchnevsky199170–73Man200496–98-74">[68]</a> The oath-takers of Baljuna were a very <a href="/wiki/Heterogenous#Sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogenous">heterogeneous</a> group—men from nine different tribes who included Christians, Muslims, and Buddhists, united only by loyalty to Temüjin and to each other. This group became a model for the later empire, termed a "proto-government of a proto-nation" by historian <a href="/wiki/John_Man_(author)" title="John Man (author)">John Man</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMan201440Weatherford200458Biran201238-75">[69]</a> The Baljuna Covenant was omitted from the Secret History—as the group was predominantly non-Mongol, the author presumably wished to downplay the role of other tribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMan201440-76">[70]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Ruse_de_guerre" title="Ruse de guerre">ruse de guerre</a> involving Qasar allowed the Mongols to ambush the Kereit at the Jej'er Heights, but though the ensuing battle still lasted three days, it ended in a <a href="/wiki/Decisive_victory" title="Decisive victory">decisive victory</a> for Temüjin. Toghrul and Senggum were both forced to flee, and while the latter escaped to <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, Toghrul was killed by a Naiman who did not recognise him. Temüjin sealed his victory by absorbing the Kereit elite into his own tribe: he took the princess <a href="/wiki/Ibaqa_Beki" title="Ibaqa Beki">Ibaqa</a> as a wife, and married her sister <a href="/wiki/Sorghaghtani_Beki" title="Sorghaghtani Beki">Sorghaghtani</a> and niece <a href="/wiki/Doquz_Khatun" title="Doquz Khatun">Doquz</a> to his youngest son Tolui.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199178–80Atwood200498Lane200426–27-77">[71]</a> The ranks of the Naimans had swelled due to the arrival of Jamukha and others defeated by the Mongols, and they prepared for war. Temüjin was informed of these events by <a href="/wiki/Alaqush" title="Alaqush">Alaqush</a>, the sympathetic ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Ongud" title="Ongud">Ongud</a> tribe. In May 1204, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chakirmaut" title="Battle of Chakirmaut">Battle of Chakirmaut</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Altai_Mountains" title="Altai Mountains">Altai Mountains</a>, the Naimans were decisively defeated: their leader <a href="/wiki/Tayang_Khan" title="Tayang Khan">Tayang Khan</a> was killed, and his son <a href="/wiki/Kuchlug" title="Kuchlug">Kuchlug</a> was forced to flee west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESverdrup201781–83Ratchnevsky199183–86-78">[72]</a> The Merkits were decimated later that year, while Jamukha, who had abandoned the Naimans at Chakirmaut, was betrayed to Temüjin by companions who were executed for their lack of loyalty. According to the Secret History, Jamukha convinced his childhood anda to execute him honourably; other accounts state that he was killed by <a href="/wiki/Dismemberment" title="Dismemberment">dismemberment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrose2014§_"Building_the_Mongol_Confederation"FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009103Ratchnevsky199186–88McLynn201590–91-79">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_reign:_reforms_and_Chinese_campaigns_(1206–1215)">Early reign: reforms and Chinese campaigns (1206–1215)</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kurultai_of_1206_and_reforms">Kurultai of 1206 and reforms</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tem%C3%BCjin_proclaimed_as_Genghis_Khan_in_1206_Jami%27_al-tawarikh_manuscript.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Illustration of a crowned man on a throne, surrounded by retainers." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Tem%C3%BCjin_proclaimed_as_Genghis_Khan_in_1206_Jami%27_al-tawarikh_manuscript.jpg/260px-Tem%C3%BCjin_proclaimed_as_Genghis_Khan_in_1206_Jami%27_al-tawarikh_manuscript.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Tem%C3%BCjin_proclaimed_as_Genghis_Khan_in_1206_Jami%27_al-tawarikh_manuscript.jpg/390px-Tem%C3%BCjin_proclaimed_as_Genghis_Khan_in_1206_Jami%27_al-tawarikh_manuscript.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Tem%C3%BCjin_proclaimed_as_Genghis_Khan_in_1206_Jami%27_al-tawarikh_manuscript.jpg/520px-Tem%C3%BCjin_proclaimed_as_Genghis_Khan_in_1206_Jami%27_al-tawarikh_manuscript.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4347" data-file-height="5188" /></a><figcaption>Temüjin being proclaimed as Genghis Khan, as illustrated in a 15th-century <a href="/wiki/Jami%27_al-tawarikh" title="Jami' al-tawarikh">Jami' al-tawarikh</a> manuscript.<a href="#cite_note-81">[g]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201236-80">[74]</a></figcaption></figure> Now sole ruler of the steppe, Temüjin held a large assembly called a <a href="/wiki/Kurultai" title="Kurultai">kurultai</a> at the source of the Onon River in 1206.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009103-82">[75]</a> Here, he formally adopted the title "Genghis Khan", the etymology and meaning of which have been much debated. Some commentators hold that the title had no meaning, simply representing Temüjin's eschewal of the traditional gurkhan title, which had been accorded to Jamukha and was thus of lesser worth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPelliot1959296Favereau202137-83">[76]</a> Another theory suggests that the word "Genghis" bears connotations of strength, firmness, hardness, or righteousness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199189Pelliot1959297-84">[77]</a> A third hypothesis proposes that the title is related to the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a> tängiz ('ocean'), the title "Genghis Khan" would mean "master of the ocean", and as the ocean was believed to surround the earth, the title thus ultimately implied "Universal Ruler".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199189–90Pelliot1959298–301-85">[78]</a> Having attained control over one million people,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeatherford200465-86">[79]</a> Genghis Khan began a "social revolution", in May's words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201839-87">[80]</a> As traditional tribal systems had primarily evolved to benefit small clans and families, they were unsuitable as the foundations for larger states and had been the downfall of previous steppe confederations. Genghis thus began a series of administrative reforms designed to suppress the power of tribal affiliations and to replace them with unconditional loyalty to the khan and the ruling family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199190FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009104McLynn201597-88">[81]</a> As most of the traditional tribal leaders had been killed during his rise to power, Genghis was able to reconstruct the Mongol social hierarchy in his favour. The highest tier was occupied solely by his and his brothers' families, who became known as the altan uruq (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Golden Family') or chaghan yasun (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'white bone'); underneath them came the qara yasun (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'black bone'; sometimes qarachu), composed of the surviving pre-empire aristocracy and the most important of the new families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004505–506May201839-89">[82]</a> To break any concept of tribal loyalty, Mongol society was reorganised into a military decimal system. Every man between the age of fifteen and seventy was conscripted into a <a href="/wiki/Mingghan" title="Mingghan">minqan</a> (<abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr> minkad), a unit of a thousand soldiers, which was further subdivided into units of hundreds (jaghun, <abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr> jaghat) and tens (arban, <abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr> arbat).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay200730–31McLynn201599-90">[83]</a> The units also encompassed each man's household, meaning that each military minqan was supported by a minqan of households in what May has termed "a <a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">military–industrial complex</a>". Each minqan operated as both a political and social unit, while the warriors of defeated tribes were dispersed to different minqad to make it difficult for them to rebel as a single body. This was intended to ensure the disappearance of old tribal identities, replacing them with loyalty to the "Great Mongol State", and to commanders who had gained their rank through merit and loyalty to the khan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201839–40FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009104-91">[84]</a> This particular reform proved extremely effective—even after the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">division of the Mongol Empire</a>, fragmentation never happened along tribal lines. Instead, the descendants of Genghis continued to reign unchallenged, in some cases until as late as the 1700s, and even powerful non-imperial dynasts such as <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edigu" title="Edigu">Edigu</a> were compelled to rule from behind a puppet ruler of his lineage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson201765-92">[85]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:312px;max-width:312px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:310px;max-width:310px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:205px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_at_Government_Palace,_Ulaanbaator_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Statue of an armoured man, in front of a large pillared building." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Statue_at_Government_Palace%2C_Ulaanbaator_03.jpg/308px-Statue_at_Government_Palace%2C_Ulaanbaator_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="308" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Statue_at_Government_Palace%2C_Ulaanbaator_03.jpg/462px-Statue_at_Government_Palace%2C_Ulaanbaator_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Statue_at_Government_Palace%2C_Ulaanbaator_03.jpg/616px-Statue_at_Government_Palace%2C_Ulaanbaator_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4299" data-file-height="2866" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:310px;max-width:310px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:205px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_at_Government_Palace,_Ulaanbaator_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Statue of an armoured man, in front of a large pillared building." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Statue_at_Government_Palace%2C_Ulaanbaator_02.jpg/308px-Statue_at_Government_Palace%2C_Ulaanbaator_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="308" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Statue_at_Government_Palace%2C_Ulaanbaator_02.jpg/462px-Statue_at_Government_Palace%2C_Ulaanbaator_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Statue_at_Government_Palace%2C_Ulaanbaator_02.jpg/616px-Statue_at_Government_Palace%2C_Ulaanbaator_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4866" data-file-height="3244" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Modern statues of <a href="/wiki/Muqali" title="Muqali">Muqali</a> (top) and <a href="/wiki/Bo%27orchu" title="Bo'orchu">Bo'orchu</a> (bottom) in <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCkhbaatar_Square" title="Sükhbaatar Square">Sükhbaatar Square</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulaanbaatar" title="Ulaanbaatar">Ulaanbaatar</a></div></div></div></div> Genghis's senior nökod were appointed to the highest ranks and received the greatest honours. Bo'orchu and <a href="/wiki/Muqali" title="Muqali">Muqali</a> were each given ten thousand men to lead as commanders of the right and left wings of the army respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004393Weatherford200467-93">[86]</a> The other nökod were each given commands of one of the ninety-five minkad. In a display of Genghis' meritocratic ideals, many of these men were born to low social status: Ratchnevsky cited Jelme and Subutai, the sons of blacksmiths, in addition to a carpenter, a shepherd, and even the two herdsmen who had warned Temüjin of Toghrul's plans in 1203.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199192May201877Man2004104–105-94">[87]</a> As a special privilege, Genghis allowed certain loyal commanders to retain the tribal identities of their units. Alaqush of the Ongud was allowed to retain five thousand warriors of his tribe because his son had entered into an alliance pact with Genghis, marrying his daughter Alaqa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199192–93May201877Atwood2004460–462-95">[88]</a> A key tool which underpinned these reforms was the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Keshig" class="mw-redirect" title="Keshig">keshig</a> ('bodyguard'). After Temüjin defeated Toghrul in 1203, he had appropriated this Kereit institution in a minor form, but at the 1206 kurultai its numbers were greatly expanded, from 1,150 to 10,000 men. The keshig was not only the khan's bodyguard, but his household staff, a military academy, and the centre of governmental administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004297Weatherford200471–72May2018-96">[89]</a> All the warriors in this elite corps were brothers or sons of military commanders and were essentially hostages. The members of the keshig nevertheless received special privileges and direct access to the khan, whom they served and who in return evaluated their capabilities and their potential to govern or command.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201878Atwood2004297Ratchnevsky199194Man2004106-97">[90]</a> Commanders such as Subutai, <a href="/wiki/Chormaqan" title="Chormaqan">Chormaqan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baiju_Noyan" title="Baiju Noyan">Baiju</a> all started out in the keshig, before being given command of their own force.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004297-98">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consolidation_of_power_(1206–1210)">Consolidation of power (1206–1210)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Western_Xia" title="Mongol conquest of Western Xia">Mongol conquest of Western Xia</a></div> From 1204 to 1209, Genghis Khan was predominantly focused on consolidating and maintaining his new nation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991101-99">[92]</a> He faced a challenge from the <a href="/wiki/Shaman" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaman">shaman</a> Kokechu, whose father Münglig had been allowed to marry Hö'elün after he defected to Temüjin. Kokechu, who had proclaimed Temüjin as Genghis Khan and taken the <a href="/wiki/Tengrist" class="mw-redirect" title="Tengrist">Tengrist</a> title "Teb Tenggeri" (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> "Wholly Heavenly") on account of his sorcery, was very influential among the Mongol commoners and sought to divide the imperial family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199197–98Atwood2004531Weatherford200473-100">[93]</a> Genghis's brother Qasar was the first of Kokechu's targets—always distrusted by his brother, Qasar was humiliated and almost imprisoned on false charges before Hö'elün intervened by publicly reprimanding Genghis. Nevertheless, Kokechu's power steadily increased, and he publicly shamed Temüge, Genghis's youngest brother, when he attempted to intervene.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199198–100-101">[94]</a> Börte saw that Kokechu was a threat to Genghis's power and warned her husband, who still superstitiously revered the shaman but now recognised the political threat he posed. Genghis allowed Temüge to arrange Kokechu's death, and then usurped the shaman's position as the Mongols' highest spiritual authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991100–101Atwood2004100-102">[95]</a> During these years, the Mongols imposed their control on surrounding areas. Genghis dispatched Jochi northwards in 1207 to subjugate the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hoi-yin_Irgen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hoi-yin Irgen (page does not exist)">Hoi-yin Irgen</a> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9B%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B2%E3%83%B3" class="extiw" title="ja:ホイン・イルゲン">ja</a>], a collection of tribes on the edge of the <a href="/wiki/East_Siberian_taiga" title="East Siberian taiga">Siberian taiga</a>. Having secured a marriage alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Oirats" title="Oirats">Oirats</a> and defeated the <a href="/wiki/Yenisei_Kyrgyz" title="Yenisei Kyrgyz">Yenisei Kyrgyz</a>, he took control of the region's trade in grain and furs, as well as its <a href="/wiki/Gold_mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold mine">gold mines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201844–45Atwood2004502-103">[96]</a> Mongol armies also rode westwards, defeating the Naiman-Merkit alliance on the <a href="/wiki/Irtysh" title="Irtysh">River Irtysh</a> in late 1208. Their khan was killed and Kuchlug fled into <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991102May201845-104">[97]</a> Led by <a href="/wiki/Baurchuk_Art_Tekin" class="mw-redirect" title="Baurchuk Art Tekin">Barchuk</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a> freed themselves from the suzerainty of the <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a> and pledged themselves to Genghis in 1211 as the first <a href="/wiki/Sedentism" title="Sedentism">sedentary society</a> to submit to the Mongols.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991102–103Atwood2004563-105">[98]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram displaying nations of East and Central Asia in 13th century, their capitals and major cities, and the routes and times the Mongols attacked them in" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png/350px-Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png/525px-Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png/700px-Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png 2x" data-file-width="1061" data-file-height="739" /></a><figcaption>The states of East and Central Asia in the early 13th century</figcaption></figure> The Mongols had started raiding the border settlements of the <a href="/wiki/Tangut_people" title="Tangut people">Tangut</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a> kingdom in 1205, ostensibly in retaliation for allowing Senggum, Toghrul's son, refuge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004590Man2004-106">[99]</a> More prosaic explanations include rejuvenating the depleted Mongol economy with an influx of fresh goods and <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991103FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009104-107">[100]</a> or simply subjugating a semi-hostile state to protect the nascent Mongol nation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201238Waterson201337-108">[101]</a> Most Xia troops were stationed along the southern and eastern borders of the kingdom to guard against attacks from the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song">Song</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a> dynasties respectively, while its northern border relied only on the <a href="/wiki/Gobi_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Gobi desert">Gobi desert</a> for protection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESverdrup201796Man2004116-109">[102]</a> After a raid in 1207 sacked the Xia fortress of <a href="/wiki/Wuhai" title="Wuhai">Wulahai</a>, Genghis decided to personally lead <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Western_Xia#First_invasion_(1209-1210)" title="Mongol conquest of Western Xia">a full-scale invasion</a> in 1209.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004590–591Ratchnevsky1991104-110">[103]</a> Wulahai was captured again in May and the Mongols advanced on the capital Zhongxing (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Yinchuan" title="Yinchuan">Yinchuan</a>) but suffered a reverse against a Xia army. After a two-month stalemate, Genghis broke the deadlock with a <a href="/wiki/Feigned_retreat" title="Feigned retreat">feigned retreat</a>; the Xia forces were deceived out of their defensive positions and overpowered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991104Sverdrup201797–98-111">[104]</a> Although Zhongxing was now mostly undefended, the Mongols lacked any <a href="/wiki/Siege_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege equipment">siege equipment</a> better than crude <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">battering rams</a> and were unable to progress the siege.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201848Man201455-112">[105]</a> The Xia requested aid from the Jin, but <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Zhangzong_of_Jin" title="Emperor Zhangzong of Jin">Emperor Zhangzong</a> rejected the plea. Genghis's attempt to redirect the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> into the city with a dam initially worked, but the poorly-constructed <a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">earthworks</a> broke—possibly breached by the Xia—in January 1210 and the Mongol camp was flooded, forcing them to retreat. A peace treaty was soon formalised: the Xia emperor <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiangzong_of_Western_Xia" title="Emperor Xiangzong of Western Xia">Xiangzong</a> submitted and handed over tribute, including his daughter Chaka, in exchange for the Mongol withdrawal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMan2004132–133Atwood2004591May201848Ratchnevsky1991104–105Waterson201338-113">[106]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Campaign_against_the_Jin_(1211–1215)">Campaign against the Jin (1211–1215)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:240px;max-width:240px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:146px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_(1211).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of cavalry pursuing and attacking other horsemen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_%281211%29.jpeg/238px-Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_%281211%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="238" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_%281211%29.jpeg/357px-Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_%281211%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_%281211%29.jpeg/476px-Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_%281211%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1925" data-file-height="1181" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:240px;max-width:240px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:376px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Chingiz_Khan_in_battle_-_Collection_of_epic_poems_(1397-1398),_f.49v_-_BL_Or._2780.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of a confrontation between two groups of cavalry in a mountain pass." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chingiz_Khan_in_battle_-_Collection_of_epic_poems_%281397-1398%29%2C_f.49v_-_BL_Or._2780.jpg/238px-Chingiz_Khan_in_battle_-_Collection_of_epic_poems_%281397-1398%29%2C_f.49v_-_BL_Or._2780.jpg" decoding="async" width="238" height="376" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chingiz_Khan_in_battle_-_Collection_of_epic_poems_%281397-1398%29%2C_f.49v_-_BL_Or._2780.jpg/357px-Chingiz_Khan_in_battle_-_Collection_of_epic_poems_%281397-1398%29%2C_f.49v_-_BL_Or._2780.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chingiz_Khan_in_battle_-_Collection_of_epic_poems_%281397-1398%29%2C_f.49v_-_BL_Or._2780.jpg/476px-Chingiz_Khan_in_battle_-_Collection_of_epic_poems_%281397-1398%29%2C_f.49v_-_BL_Or._2780.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1040" data-file-height="1644" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:240px;max-width:240px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:187px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Si%C3%A8ge_de_Beijing_(1213-1214).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of a horseman, with other cavalry behind, approaching a large building." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Si%C3%A8ge_de_Beijing_%281213-1214%29.jpeg/238px-Si%C3%A8ge_de_Beijing_%281213-1214%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="238" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Si%C3%A8ge_de_Beijing_%281213-1214%29.jpeg/357px-Si%C3%A8ge_de_Beijing_%281213-1214%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Si%C3%A8ge_de_Beijing_%281213-1214%29.jpeg/476px-Si%C3%A8ge_de_Beijing_%281213-1214%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1503" data-file-height="1181" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Depictions of Mongol-Jin conflict from 14th-century Persian manuscripts. From top: the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yehuling" title="Battle of Yehuling">Battle of Yehuling</a> (1211); a skirmish between Mongol and Jin cavalry; Genghis entering <a href="/wiki/Zhongdu" title="Zhongdu">Zhongdu</a> after capturing it in 1215.</div></div></div></div> <a href="/wiki/Wanyan_Yongji" title="Wanyan Yongji">Wanyan Yongji</a> usurped the Jin throne in 1209. He had previously served on the steppe frontier and Genghis greatly disliked him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004275-114">[107]</a> When asked to submit and pay the annual tribute to Yongji in 1210, Genghis instead mocked the emperor, spat, and rode away from the Jin envoy—a challenge that meant war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991108Man2004134-115">[108]</a> Despite the possibility of being outnumbered eight-to-one by 600,000 Jin soldiers, Genghis had prepared to invade the Jin since learning in 1206 that the state was wracked by internal instabilities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991106–108-116">[109]</a> Genghis had two aims: to take vengeance for past wrongs committed by the Jin, foremost among which was the death of <a href="/wiki/Ambaghai_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambaghai Khan">Ambaghai Khan</a> in the mid-12th century, and to win the vast amounts of plunder his troops and vassals expected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991109–109Atwood2004275–276May201239-117">[110]</a> After calling for a kurultai in March 1211, Genghis launched <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">his invasion of Jin China</a> in May, reaching the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Great_Wall_of_China#Liao,_Western_Xia,_Jin,_and_Yuan_dynasties_(907–1368)" title="History of the Great Wall of China">outer ring of Jin defences</a> the following month. These <a href="/wiki/March_(territory)" title="March (territory)">border</a> fortifications were guarded by Alaqush's Ongud, who allowed the Mongols to pass without difficulty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991109–109Sverdrup2017104Atwood2004424-118">[111]</a> The three-pronged <a href="/wiki/Chevauch%C3%A9e" title="Chevauchée">chevauchée</a> aimed both to plunder and burn a vast area of Jin territory to deprive them of supplies and popular legitimacy, and to secure the <a href="/wiki/Mountain_pass" title="Mountain pass">mountain passes</a> which allowed access to the <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North China Plain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaterson201339May201850Atwood2004275–277-119">[112]</a> The Jin lost numerous towns and were hindered by a series of defections, the most prominent of which led directly to Muqali's victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yehuling" title="Battle of Yehuling">Battle of Huan'erzhui</a> in autumn 1211.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991109–110Atwood2004501Man2004135–136Sverdrup2017105–106-120">[113]</a> The campaign was halted in 1212 when Genghis was wounded by an arrow during the unsuccessful siege of Xijing (modern <a href="/wiki/Datong" title="Datong">Datong</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991110Man2004137-121">[114]</a> Following this failure, Genghis set up a corps of <a href="/wiki/Siege_engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege engineers">siege engineers</a>, which recruited 500 Jin experts over the next two years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESverdrup2017111–112Waterson201342-122">[115]</a> The defences of <a href="/wiki/Juyong_Pass" title="Juyong Pass">Juyong Pass</a> had been strongly reinforced by the time the conflict resumed in 1213, but a Mongol detachment led by Jebe managed to infiltrate the pass and surprise the elite Jin defenders, opening the road to the Jin capital <a href="/wiki/Zhongdu" title="Zhongdu">Zhongdu</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991110–111Sverdrup2017114–115Man2004137-123">[116]</a> The Jin administration began to disintegrate: after the <a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitans</a>, a tribe subject to the Jin, entered open rebellion, Hushahu, the commander of the forces at Xijing, abandoned his post and staged a coup in Zhongdu, killing Yongji and installing his own puppet ruler, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xuanzong_of_Jin" title="Emperor Xuanzong of Jin">Xuanzong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991111–112Man2004137–138Waterson201342–43-124">[117]</a> This governmental breakdown was fortunate for Genghis's forces; emboldened by their victories, they had seriously overreached and lost the initiative. Unable to do more than camp before Zhongdu's <a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">fortifications</a> while his army suffered from an epidemic and famine—they resorted to <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a> according to <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_da_Pian_del_Carpine" title="Giovanni da Pian del Carpine">Carpini</a>, who may have been exaggerating—Genghis opened peace negotiations despite his commanders' militance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991112–113Atwood2004620Man2004139–140-125">[118]</a> He secured tribute, including 3,000 horses, 500 slaves, a Jin princess, and massive amounts of gold and silk, before lifting the siege and setting off homewards in May 1214.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991113–114May201852–54Man2004140Sverdrup2017114–116-126">[119]</a> As the northern Jin lands had been ravaged by plague and war, Xuanzong moved the capital and <a href="/wiki/Royal_court" title="Royal court">imperial court</a> 600 kilometres (370 mi) southwards to <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMan2004140–141Ratchnevsky1991114-127">[120]</a> Interpreting this as an attempt to regroup in the south and then restart the war, Genghis concluded the terms of the peace treaty had been broken. He immediately prepared to return and capture Zhongdu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991114Weatherford200497May201854-128">[121]</a> According to Christopher Atwood, it was only at this juncture that Genghis decided to fully conquer northern China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004277-129">[122]</a> Muqali captured numerous towns in <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong</a> during winter 1214–15, and although the inhabitants of Zhongdu surrendered to Genghis on 31 May 1215, the city was sacked.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991114–115Atwood2004277-130">[123]</a> When Genghis returned to Mongolia in early 1216, Muqali was left in command in China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201855-131">[124]</a> He waged a brutal but effective campaign against the unstable Jin regime until his death in 1223.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004393-132">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_reign:_western_expansion_and_return_to_China_(1216–1227)">Later reign: western expansion and return to China (1216–1227)</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defeating_rebellions_and_Qara_Khitai_(1216–1218)">Defeating rebellions and Qara Khitai (1216–1218)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Qara_Khitai" title="Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai">Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai</a></div> In 1207, Genghis had appointed a man named Qorchi as governor of the subdued Hoi-yin Irgen tribes in Siberia. Appointed not for his talents but for prior services rendered, Qorchi's tendency to abduct women as <a href="/wiki/Concubinage" title="Concubinage">concubines</a> for his <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a> caused the tribes to rebel and take him prisoner in early 1216. The following year, they ambushed and killed <a href="/wiki/Boroqul" title="Boroqul">Boroqul</a>, one of Genghis's highest-ranking nökod.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201857Atwood2004502Ratchnevsky1991116–117-133">[126]</a> The khan was livid at the loss of his close friend and prepared to lead a retaliatory campaign; eventually dissuaded from this course, he dispatched his eldest son Jochi and a <a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6rbet_Oirat" title="Dörbet Oirat">Dörbet</a> commander. They managed to surprise and defeat the rebels, securing control over this economically important region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991117–118May201857–58Atwood2004502-134">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kuchlug" title="Kuchlug">Kuchlug</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Naimans" title="Naimans">Naiman</a> prince who had been defeated in 1204, had usurped the throne of the Central Asian Qara Khitai dynasty between 1211 and 1213. He was a greedy and arbitrary ruler who probably earned the enmity of the native <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> populace whom he attempted to <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">forcibly convert</a> to <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991118–119Atwood2004445–446May201860Favereau202145–46-135">[128]</a> Genghis reckoned that Kuchlug could be a threat to his empire, and Jebe was sent with an army of 20,000 cavalry to the city of <a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a>; he undermined Kuchlug's rule by emphasising the Mongol policies of religious tolerance and gained the loyalty of the local elite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991118–119Atwood2004446Man2004150-136">[129]</a> Kuchlug was forced to flee southwards to the <a href="/wiki/Pamir_Mountains" title="Pamir Mountains">Pamir Mountains</a>, but was captured by local hunters. Jebe had him beheaded and paraded his corpse through Qara Khitai, proclaiming the end of religious persecution in the region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFavereau202146Atwood2004446Man2004151Pow201735-137">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire_(1219–1221)">Invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire (1219–1221)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genghis_Khan_empire-switch.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of Central Asian Mongol campaigns between 1216 and 1223." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Genghis_Khan_empire-switch.svg/350px-Genghis_Khan_empire-switch.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Genghis_Khan_empire-switch.svg/525px-Genghis_Khan_empire-switch.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Genghis_Khan_empire-switch.svg/700px-Genghis_Khan_empire-switch.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="331" /></a><figcaption>Campaigns of Genghis Khan between 1207 and 1225</figcaption></figure> Genghis had now attained complete control of the eastern portion of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>, and his territory bordered that of the <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a>, which ruled over much of Central Asia, <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeatherford2004105Atwood2004100-138">[131]</a> Merchants from both sides were eager to restart trading, which had halted during Kuchlug's rule; the Khwarazmian ruler <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarazm" title="Muhammad II of Khwarazm">Muhammad II</a> dispatched an envoy shortly after the Mongol capture of Zhongdu, while Genghis instructed <a href="/wiki/Ortogh" title="Ortogh">his merchants</a> to obtain the high-quality textiles and steel of Central and Western Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson201771–73Ratchnevsky1991119–120-139">[132]</a> Many members of the altan uruq invested in one particular caravan of 450 merchants which set off to Khwarazmia in 1218 with a large quantity of wares. <a href="/wiki/Inalchuq" title="Inalchuq">Inalchuq</a>, the governor of the Khwarazmian border town of <a href="/wiki/Otrar" title="Otrar">Otrar</a>, decided to massacre the merchants on grounds of <a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">espionage</a> and seize the goods; Muhammad had grown suspicious of Genghis's intentions and either supported Inalchuq or turned a blind eye.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004429,_431Ratchnevsky1991120–123May201242Favereau202154-140">[133]</a> A Mongol ambassador was sent with two companions to avert war, but Muhammad killed him and humiliated his companions. The killing of an envoy infuriated Genghis, who resolved to leave Muqali with a small force in North China and invade Khwarazmia with most of his army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFavereau202155Ratchnevsky1991123Atwood2004431FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009104-141">[134]</a> Muhammad's empire was large but disunited: he ruled alongside his mother <a href="/wiki/Terken_Khatun_(wife_of_Ala_al-Din_Tekish)" title="Terken Khatun (wife of Ala al-Din Tekish)">Terken Khatun</a> in what the historian <a href="/wiki/Peter_Benjamin_Golden" title="Peter Benjamin Golden">Peter Golden</a> terms "an uneasy diarchy", while the Khwarazmian nobility and populace were discontented with his warring and the centralisation of government. For these reasons and others he declined to meet the Mongols in the field, instead garrisoning his unruly troops in his major cities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991123–125Golden200914–15Jackson201776–77-142">[135]</a> This allowed the lightly armoured, highly mobile Mongol armies uncontested superiority outside city walls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004307-143">[136]</a> <a href="/wiki/Otrar_Catastrophe" title="Otrar Catastrophe">Otrar was besieged</a> in autumn 1219—the siege dragged on for five months, but in February 1220 the city fell and Inalchuq was executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991130Atwood2004307-144">[137]</a> Genghis had meanwhile divided his forces. Leaving his sons Chagatai and <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei" class="mw-redirect" title="Ögedei">Ögedei</a> to besiege the city, he had sent Jochi northwards down the <a href="/wiki/Syr_Darya" title="Syr Darya">Syr Darya</a> river and another force southwards into central <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>, while he and Tolui took the main Mongol army across the <a href="/wiki/Kyzylkum_Desert" title="Kyzylkum Desert">Kyzylkum Desert</a>, surprising the garrison of <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Pincer_movement" title="Pincer movement">pincer movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991130May201862Jackson201777–78Man2004163–164-145">[138]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jalal_al-Din_Khwarazm-Shah_crossing_the_rapid_Indus_river,_escaping_Chinggis_Khan_and_his_army.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of a horseman emerging out of a river, watched from the other side by an army of cavalry" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Jalal_al-Din_Khwarazm-Shah_crossing_the_rapid_Indus_river%2C_escaping_Chinggis_Khan_and_his_army.jpg/220px-Jalal_al-Din_Khwarazm-Shah_crossing_the_rapid_Indus_river%2C_escaping_Chinggis_Khan_and_his_army.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Jalal_al-Din_Khwarazm-Shah_crossing_the_rapid_Indus_river%2C_escaping_Chinggis_Khan_and_his_army.jpg/330px-Jalal_al-Din_Khwarazm-Shah_crossing_the_rapid_Indus_river%2C_escaping_Chinggis_Khan_and_his_army.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Jalal_al-Din_Khwarazm-Shah_crossing_the_rapid_Indus_river%2C_escaping_Chinggis_Khan_and_his_army.jpg/440px-Jalal_al-Din_Khwarazm-Shah_crossing_the_rapid_Indus_river%2C_escaping_Chinggis_Khan_and_his_army.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1610" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of <a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Din_Mangburni" title="Jalal al-Din Mangburni">Jalal al-Din</a> crossing the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a>, from a late 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Jami_al-tawarikh" class="mw-redirect" title="Jami al-tawarikh">Jami al-tawarikh</a> manuscript</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bukhara" title="Siege of Bukhara">Bukhara's citadel was captured</a> in February 1220 and Genghis moved against Muhammad's residence <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Samarkand_(1220)" title="Siege of Samarkand (1220)">fell the following month</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991130–133Man2004164,_172Atwood2004307-146">[139]</a> Bewildered by the speed of the Mongol conquests, Muhammad fled from <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>, closely followed by Jebe and Subutai; the two generals pursued the Khwarazmshah until he died from <a href="/wiki/Dysentry" class="mw-redirect" title="Dysentry">dysentry</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> island in winter 1220–21, having nominated his eldest son <a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Din_Mangburni" title="Jalal al-Din Mangburni">Jalal al-Din</a> as his successor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004307May201862–63Ratchnevsky1991133Pow201736-147">[140]</a> Jebe and Subutai then set out on a 7,500-kilometre (4,700 mi)-expedition around the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>. Later called the Great Raid, this lasted four years and saw the Mongols come into contact with Europe for the first time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMan2004184–191Atwood2004521May201243-148">[141]</a> Meanwhile, the Khwarazmian capital of <a href="/wiki/Gurganj" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurganj">Gurganj</a> was being besieged by Genghis's three eldest sons. <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gurganj" title="Siege of Gurganj">The long siege</a> ended in spring 1221 amid brutal urban conflict.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMan2004173–174Sverdrup2017161-149">[142]</a> Jalal al-Din moved southwards to Afghanistan, gathering forces on the way and defeating a Mongol unit under the command of <a href="/wiki/Shigi_Qutuqu" title="Shigi Qutuqu">Shigi Qutuqu</a>, Genghis's adopted son, in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Parwan" title="Battle of Parwan">Battle of Parwan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004307,_436Ratchnevsky1991133-150">[143]</a> Jalal was weakened by arguments among his commanders, and after losing decisively at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Indus" title="Battle of the Indus">Battle of the Indus</a> in November 1221, he was compelled to escape across the <a href="/wiki/Indus_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus river">Indus river</a> into India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201863Sverdrup2017162–163Ratchnevsky1991133–134-151">[144]</a> Genghis's youngest son Tolui was concurrently conducting <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Khorasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest of Khorasan">a brutal campaign</a> in the regions of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>. Every city that resisted was destroyed—<a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>, three of the largest and wealthiest cities in the world, were all annihilated.<a href="#cite_note-153">[h]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004307May201863Man2004174–175Sverdrup2017160–161,_164-154">[146]</a> This campaign established Genghis's lasting image as a ruthless, inhumane conqueror. Contemporary Persian historians placed the death toll from the three sieges alone at over 5.7 million—a number regarded as grossly exaggerated by modern scholars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMan2004177–181Weatherford2004118–119Atwood2004308,_344-155">[147]</a> Nevertheless, even a total death toll of 1.25 million for the entire campaign, as estimated by John Man, would have been a demographic catastrophe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMan2004180–181Atwood2004244-156">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Return_to_China_and_final_campaign_(1222–1227)">Return to China and final campaign (1222–1227)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China" title="Mongol conquest of China">Mongol conquest of China</a></div> Genghis abruptly halted his Central Asian campaigns in 1221.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991134Atwood2004591-157">[149]</a> Initially aiming to return via <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">India</a>, Genghis realised that the heat and humidity of the South Asian climate impeded his army's skills, while the <a href="/wiki/Omen" title="Omen">omens</a> were additionally unfavourable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991134May201864-158">[150]</a> Although the Mongols spent much of 1222 repeatedly overcoming rebellions in Khorasan, they withdrew completely from the region to avoid overextending themselves, setting their new frontier on the <a href="/wiki/Amu_Darya" title="Amu Darya">Amu Darya</a> river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESverdrup2017167–169May201243-159">[151]</a> During his lengthy return journey, Genghis prepared a new administrative division which would govern the conquered territories, appointing <a href="/wiki/Darughachi" title="Darughachi">darughachi</a> (commissioners, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> "those who press the seal") and <a href="/wiki/Basqaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Basqaq">basqaq</a> (local officials) to manage the region back to normalcy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991137–140Biran201266–67-160">[152]</a> He also summoned and spoke with the <a href="/wiki/Taoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist">Taoist</a> patriarch <a href="/wiki/Qiu_Chuji" title="Qiu Chuji">Changchun</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a>. The khan listened attentively to Changchun's teachings and granted his followers numerous privileges, including <a href="/wiki/Tax_exemption" title="Tax exemption">tax exemptions</a> and authority over all monks throughout the empire—a grant which the Taoists later used to try to gain superiority over Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991134–136Atwood2004a245–246Jagchid197911–13-161">[153]</a> The usual reason given for the halting of the campaign is that the <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a>, having declined to provide auxiliaries for the 1219 invasion, had additionally disobeyed Muqali in his campaign against the remaining Jin in <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991134Atwood2004591-157">[149]</a> May has disputed this, arguing that the Xia fought in concert with Muqali until his death in 1223, when, frustrated by Mongol control and sensing an opportunity with Genghis campaigning in Central Asia, they ceased fighting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201864–65Kwanten197834-162">[154]</a> In either case, Genghis initially attempted to resolve the situation diplomatically, but when the Xia elite failed to come to an agreement on the hostages they were to send to the Mongols, he lost patience.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran201261May201865-163">[155]</a> Returning to Mongolia in early 1225, Genghis spent the year in preparation for a campaign against them. This began in the first months of 1226 with the capture of <a href="/wiki/Khara-Khoto" title="Khara-Khoto">Khara-Khoto</a> on the Xia's western border.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMan2004209–212Atwood2004591Biran201261-164">[156]</a> The invasion proceeded apace. Genghis ordered that the cities of the <a href="/wiki/Gansu_Corridor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gansu Corridor">Gansu Corridor</a> be sacked one by one, granting <a href="/wiki/Clemency" class="mw-redirect" title="Clemency">clemency</a> only to a few.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004100,_591Man2004212–213-165">[157]</a> Having crossed the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> in autumn, the Mongols besieged present-day <a href="/wiki/Lingwu" title="Lingwu">Lingwu</a>, located just 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of the Xia capital <a href="/wiki/Yinchuan" title="Yinchuan">Zhongxing</a>, in November. On 4 December, Genghis decisively defeated a Xia <a href="/wiki/Relief_army" title="Relief army">relief army</a>; the khan left the siege of the capital to his generals and moved southwards with Subutai to plunder and secure Jin territories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991140Atwood2004591Man2004214–215-166">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_and_aftermath">Death and aftermath</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Burial_place_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Burial place of Genghis Khan">Burial place of Genghis Khan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genghis_Khan_with_sons_(Marco_Polo,_1400s).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Drawing of an old man lying in a bed at the entrance to white tent, gesturing with arrows to four standing men. They are surrounded by grassland and rolling hills, with clumps of trees in the distance." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Genghis_Khan_with_sons_%28Marco_Polo%2C_1400s%29.jpg/440px-Genghis_Khan_with_sons_%28Marco_Polo%2C_1400s%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Genghis_Khan_with_sons_%28Marco_Polo%2C_1400s%29.jpg/660px-Genghis_Khan_with_sons_%28Marco_Polo%2C_1400s%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Genghis_Khan_with_sons_%28Marco_Polo%2C_1400s%29.jpg/880px-Genghis_Khan_with_sons_%28Marco_Polo%2C_1400s%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="911" data-file-height="604" /></a><figcaption>Early 15th-century miniature of Genghis Khan advising his sons on his deathbed, taken from <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>'s section of the <a href="/wiki/Livre_des_merveilles_(BNF_Fr2810)" title="Livre des merveilles (BNF Fr2810)">Livre des merveilles manuscript</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201866-167">[159]</a></figcaption></figure> Genghis fell from his horse while hunting in the winter of 1226–27 and became increasingly ill during the following months. This slowed the siege of Zhongxing's progress, as his sons and commanders urged him to end the campaign and return to Mongolia to recover, arguing that the Xia would still be there another year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay200717Favereau202177-168">[160]</a> Incensed by insults from Xia's leading commander, Genghis insisted that the siege be continued. He died on either 18 or 25 August 1227, but his death was kept a closely guarded secret and Zhongxing, unaware, fell the following month. The city was put to the sword and its population was treated with extreme savagery—the Xia civilization was essentially extinguished in what Man described as a "very successful <a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">ethnocide</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991141Biran201261Man2004117,_254Atwood2004100,_591May201865–66-169">[161]</a> The exact nature of the khan's death has been the subject of intense speculation. Rashid al-Din and the History of Yuan mention he suffered from an illness—possibly <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991141YouGalassiVarottoHenneberg2021347–348-170">[162]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> claimed that he was shot by an arrow during a siege, while <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_da_Pian_del_Carpine" title="Giovanni da Pian del Carpine">Carpini</a> reported that Genghis was <a href="/wiki/Lightning_injury" title="Lightning injury">struck by lightning</a>. Legends sprang up around the event—the most famous recounts how the beautiful Gurbelchin, formerly the Xia emperor's wife, injured Genghis's genitals with a dagger during sex.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991141–142Biran201261Man2004246–247-171">[163]</a> After his death, Genghis was transported back to Mongolia and buried on or near the sacred <a href="/wiki/Burkhan_Khaldun" title="Burkhan Khaldun">Burkhan Khaldun</a> peak in the <a href="/wiki/Khentii_Mountains" title="Khentii Mountains">Khentii Mountains</a>, on a site he had chosen years before.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004163Morgan198672-172">[164]</a> Specific details of the <a href="/wiki/Funeral_procession" title="Funeral procession">funeral procession</a> and burial were not made public knowledge; the mountain, declared ikh khorig (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> "Great Taboo"; i.e. prohibited zone), was out of bounds to all but its <a href="/wiki/Uriankhai" title="Uriankhai">Uriankhai</a> guard. When Ögedei acceded to the throne in 1229, the grave was honoured with three days of offerings and the sacrifice of thirty maidens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004163May201895–96Ratchnevsky1991144Craig2017-173">[165]</a> Ratchnevsky theorised that the Mongols, who had no knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Embalming" title="Embalming">embalming techniques</a>, may have buried the khan in the <a href="/wiki/Ordos_Plateau" title="Ordos Plateau">Ordos</a> to avoid his body decomposing in the summer heat while en route to Mongolia; Atwood rejects this hypothesis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991142–143Atwood2004163-174">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Succession">Succession</h3></div> The tribes of the Mongol steppe had no fixed succession system, but often defaulted to some form of <a href="/wiki/Ultimogeniture" title="Ultimogeniture">ultimogeniture</a>—succession of the youngest son—because he would have had the least time to gain a following for himself and needed the help of his father's inheritance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009109-175">[167]</a> However, this type of inheritance applied only to property, not to titles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETogan2016408–409May201868-176">[168]</a> The Secret History records that Genghis chose his successor while preparing for the Khwarazmian campaigns in 1219; Rashid al-Din, on the other hand, states that the decision came before Genghis's final campaign against the Xia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991125May201869-177">[169]</a> Regardless of the date, there were five possible candidates: Genghis's four sons and his youngest brother Temüge, who had the weakest claim and who was never seriously considered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201869-178">[170]</a> Even though there was a strong possibility Jochi was illegitimate, Genghis was not particularly concerned by this;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote1999434May201869Favereau202165-179">[171]</a> nevertheless, he and Jochi became increasingly estranged over time, due to Jochi's preoccupation with his own appanage. After the siege of Gurganj, where he only reluctantly participated in besieging the wealthy city that would become part of his territory, he failed to give Genghis the normal share of the booty, which exacerbated the tensions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarthold1992457–458Favereau202161–62-180">[172]</a> Genghis was angered by Jochi's refusal to return to him in 1223, and was considering sending Ögedei and Chagatai to bring him to heel when news came that Jochi had died from an illness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991136–137Atwood2004278–279-181">[173]</a> Chagatai's attitude towards Jochi's possible succession—he had termed his elder brother "a Merkit bastard" and had brawled with him in front of their father—led Genghis to view him as uncompromising, arrogant, and narrow-minded, despite his great knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Mongol legal customs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood200481May201869-182">[174]</a> His elimination left Ögedei and Tolui as the two primary candidates. Tolui was unquestionably superior in military terms—his campaign in Khorasan had broken the Khwarazmian Empire, while his elder brother was far less able as a commander.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201869–70Barthold1992463-183">[175]</a> Ögedei was also known to <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">drink excessively</a> even by Mongol standards—it eventually caused his death in 1241.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201869Atwood2004418-184">[176]</a> However, he possessed talents all his brothers lacked—he was generous and generally well-liked. Aware of his own lack of military skill, he was able to trust his capable subordinates, and unlike his elder brothers, compromise on issues; he was also more likely to preserve Mongol traditions than Tolui, whose wife Sorghaghtani, herself a <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian Christian">Nestorian Christian</a>, was a patron of many religions including Islam. Ögedei was thus recognised as the heir to the Mongol throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991126–128May201869–70Boyle1968540–541Barthold1992463-185">[177]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A portrait of a Mongol man wearing an orange robe and a pointed green cap; his mustache and beard are long and thin." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg/220px-YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg/330px-YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg/440px-YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3176" data-file-height="4039" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> portrait of <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei" class="mw-redirect" title="Ögedei">Ögedei</a>, Genghis's third son and eventual successor.</figcaption></figure> Serving as <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a> after Genghis's death, Tolui established a precedent for the customary traditions after a khan's death. These included the halting of all military offensives involving Mongol troops, the establishment of a lengthy mourning period overseen by the regent, and the holding of a kurultai which would nominate successors and select them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004542May201868–69-186">[178]</a> For Tolui, this presented an opportunity. He was still a viable candidate for succession and had the support of the family of Jochi. Any general kurultai, attended by the commanders Genghis had promoted and honoured, would however observe their former ruler's desires without question and appoint Ögedei as ruler. It has been suggested that Tolui's reluctance to hold the kurultai was driven by the knowledge of the threat it posed to his ambitions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarthold1992463May201870–71,_94–95-187">[179]</a> In the end, Tolui had to be persuaded by the advisor <a href="/wiki/Yel%C3%BC_Chucai" title="Yelü Chucai">Yelü Chucai</a> to hold the kurultai; in 1229, it crowned Ögedei as khan, with Tolui in attendance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarthold1992463May201894–95-188">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Family">Family</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Wives_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Wives of Genghis Khan">Wives of Genghis Khan</a></div> Börte, whom Temüjin married <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1178, remained his senior wife.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201855–56-189">[181]</a> She gave birth to four sons and five daughters, who all became influential figures in the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirgeBroadbridge2023635-190">[182]</a> Genghis granted Börte's sons lands and property through the <a href="/wiki/Appanage#Mongol_Empire" title="Appanage">Mongol appanage system</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood200445-191">[183]</a> while he secured marriage alliances by marrying her daughters to important families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirgeBroadbridge2023635-190">[182]</a> Her children were: <ol><li>Qojin, a daughter born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1179, who later married Butu of the Ikires, one of Temüjin's earliest and closest supporters and the widower of <a href="/wiki/Tem%C3%BCl%C3%BCn" title="Temülün">Temülün</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201867,_138–139-192">[184]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a>, a son born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1182 after Börte's kidnapping, whose paternity was thus suspect even though Temüjin accepted his legitimacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201859–63-193">[185]</a> Jochi predeceased Genghis; his appanage, along the <a href="/wiki/Irtysh" title="Irtysh">Irtysh river</a> and extending into <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFavereau202165Biran201269Atwood2004201,_278–279-194">[186]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai</a>, a son born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1184;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201867-195">[187]</a> his appanage was the former <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a> territories surrounding <a href="/wiki/Almaliq,_Xinjiang" title="Almaliq, Xinjiang">Almaligh</a> in <a href="/wiki/Turkestan" title="Turkestan">Turkestan</a>, which became the <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran201269Atwood200418,_82–83-196">[188]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei" class="mw-redirect" title="Ögedei">Ögedei</a>, a son born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1186, who received lands in <a href="/wiki/Dzungaria" title="Dzungaria">Dzungaria</a> and who succeeded his father as ruler of the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201867Biran201269-197">[189]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checheikhen" class="mw-redirect" title="Checheikhen">Checheyigen</a>, a daughter born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1188, whose marriage to Törelchi secured the loyalty of the <a href="/wiki/Oirats" title="Oirats">Oirats</a> to the north.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201867,_146BirgeBroadbridge2023636-198">[190]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alakhai_Bekhi" title="Alakhai Bekhi">Alaqa</a>, a daughter born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1190, who married several members of the <a href="/wiki/Ongud" title="Ongud">Ongud</a> tribe between 1207 and 1225.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201867,_140–142BirgeBroadbridge2023636-199">[191]</a></li> <li>Tümelün, a daughter born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1192, who married Chigu of the <a href="/wiki/Onggirat" class="mw-redirect" title="Onggirat">Onggirat</a> tribe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201867,_144-200">[192]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui</a>, a son born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1193, who received lands near the <a href="/wiki/Altai_Mountains" title="Altai Mountains">Altai Mountains</a> as an appanage; two of his sons, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan" title="Möngke Khan">Möngke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai</a>, later ruled the empire, while another, <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu</a>, founded the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood200418,_542-201">[193]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Altan" title="Al-Altan">Al-Altan</a>, a daughter born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1196, married the powerful <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uighur</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Barchuq_Art_Tegin" title="Barchuq Art Tegin">Barchuk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201867,_156-202">[194]</a> Shortly after the accession of <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Khan" title="Güyük Khan">Güyük Khan</a> in the 1240s, she was tried and executed on charges that were later suppressed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge2018187–188-203">[195]</a></li></ol> After Börte's final childbirth, Temüjin began to acquire a number of junior wives through conquest. These wives had all previously been princesses or queens, and Temüjin married them to demonstrate his political ascendancy. They included the Kereit princess <a href="/wiki/Ibaqa_Beki" title="Ibaqa Beki">Ibaqa</a>; the Tatar sisters <a href="/wiki/Yesugen" title="Yesugen">Yesugen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yesui" class="mw-redirect" title="Yesui">Yesui</a>; <a href="/wiki/Khulan_Khatun" title="Khulan Khatun">Qulan</a>, a Merkit; Gürbesu, the queen of the Naiman <a href="/wiki/Tayang_Khan" title="Tayang Khan">Tayang Khan</a>; and two Chinese princesses, Chaqa and Qiguo, of the Western Xia and Jin dynasties respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201873–75-204">[196]</a> The children of these junior wives were always subservient to those of Börte, with daughters married off to seal lesser alliances and sons, such as Qulan's child <a href="/w/index.php?title=K%C3%B6lgen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kölgen (page does not exist)">Kölgen</a> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B2%E3%83%B3_(%E3%83%A2%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B4%E3%83%AB%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD)" class="extiw" title="ja:コルゲン (モンゴル帝国)">ja</a>], never a candidate for succession.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201874,_88–89BirgeBroadbridge2023636-205">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Character_and_achievements">Character and achievements</h2></div> No eyewitness description or contemporaneous depiction of Genghis Khan survives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELkhagvasurenShinLeeTumen2016433-206">[198]</a> The Persian chronicler Juzjani and the Song diplomat Zhao Hong provide the two earliest descriptions.<a href="#cite_note-209">[i]</a> Both recorded that he was tall and strong with a powerful stature. Zhao wrote that Genghis had a broad brow and long beard while Juzjani commented on his cat's eyes and lack of grey hair. The Secret History records that Börte's father remarked on his "flashing eyes and lively face" when meeting him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991145-208">[200]</a> Atwood has suggested that many of Genghis Khan's values, especially the emphasis he placed on an orderly society, derive from his turbulent youth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004101-210">[201]</a> He valued loyalty above all and mutual fidelity became a cornerstone of his new nation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004101FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009100-211">[202]</a> Genghis did not find it difficult to gain the allegiance of others: he was superbly charismatic even as a youth, as shown by the number of people who left existing social roles behind to join him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote1999433FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009100May201831-212">[203]</a> Although his trust was hard to earn, if he felt loyalty was assured, he granted his total confidence in return.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991149-213">[204]</a> Recognised for his generosity towards his followers, Genghis unhesitatingly rewarded previous assistance. The nökod most honoured at the 1206 kurultai were those who had accompanied him since the beginning, and those who had sworn the Baljuna Covenant with him at his lowest point.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991147–148Morgan198663-214">[205]</a> He took responsibility for the families of nökod killed in battle or who otherwise fell on hard times by raising a tax to provide them with clothing and sustenance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991147–148-215">[206]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:32%;; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote right-aligned" style=""> Heaven grew weary of the excessive pride and luxury in China ... I am from the barbaric North ... I wear the same clothing and eat the same food as the cowherds and horse-herders. We make the same sacrifices and we share our riches. I look upon the nation as a new-born child and I care for my soldiers as if they were my brothers. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">Genghis Khan's letter to <a href="/wiki/Qiu_Chuji" title="Qiu Chuji">Changchun</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote1999433-216">[207]</a></cite> </div> The principal source of steppe wealth was post-battle plunder, of which a leader would normally claim a large share; Genghis eschewed this custom, choosing instead to divide booty equally between himself and all his men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote1999433FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009102-217">[208]</a> Disliking any form of luxury, he extolled the simple life of the nomad in a letter to Changchun, and objected to being addressed with obsequious flattery. He encouraged his companions to address him informally, give him advice, and criticise his mistakes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991149–150-218">[209]</a> Genghis's openness to criticism and willingness to learn saw him seeking the knowledge of family members, companions, neighbouring states, and enemies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran201271–72Atwood2004101May201831-219">[210]</a> He sought and gained knowledge of sophisticated weaponry from China and the Muslim world, appropriated the <a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_alphabet" title="Old Uyghur alphabet">Uyghur alphabet</a> with the help of the captured scribe <a href="/wiki/Tata-tonga" title="Tata-tonga">Tata-tonga</a>, and employed numerous specialists across legal, commercial, and administrative fields.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran201271–72FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009107–108-220">[211]</a> He also understood the need for a smooth succession and modern historians agree he showed good judgement in choosing his heir.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran201272May201898–99-221">[212]</a> Although he is today renowned for his military conquests, very little is known about Genghis's personal generalship. His skills were more suited to identifying potential commanders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004101FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009102-222">[213]</a> His institution of a meritocratic <a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">command structure</a> gave the Mongol army military superiority, even though it was not technologically or tactically innovative.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran201270FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009103-223">[214]</a> The army that Genghis created was characterised by its draconian <a href="/wiki/Military_discipline" title="Military discipline">discipline</a>, its ability to gather and use <a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">military intelligence</a> efficiently, a mastery of <a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">psychological warfare</a>, and a willingness to be utterly ruthless.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran201270–71FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009103–104Ratchnevsky1991169–174Morgan198684–93-224">[215]</a> Genghis thoroughly enjoyed exacting vengeance on his enemies—the concept lay at the heart of achi qari'ulqu (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> '"good for good, evil for evil"'), the steppe code of justice. In exceptional circumstances, such as when Muhammad of Khwarazm executed his envoys, the need for vengeance overrode all other considerations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004101Ratchnevsky1991151–152Mote1999433–434-225">[216]</a> Genghis came to believe the supreme deity <a href="/wiki/Tengri" title="Tengri">Tengri</a> had ordained a great destiny for him. Initially, the bounds of this ambition were limited only to Mongolia, but as success followed success and the reach of the Mongol nation expanded, he and his followers came to believe he was embodied with <a href="/wiki/Kut_(mythology)" title="Kut (mythology)">suu</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> ''divine grace'').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran201273-226">[217]</a> Believing that he had an intimate connection with Heaven, anyone who did not recognise his right to world power was treated as an enemy. This viewpoint allowed Genghis to rationalise any hypocritical or duplicitous moments on his own part, such as killing his anda Jamukha or killing nökod who wavered in their loyalties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran201245,_73Ratchnevsky1991158–159-227">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy_and_historical_assessment">Legacy and historical assessment</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan_in_popular_culture" title="Genghis Khan in popular culture">Genghis Khan in popular culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pax_Mongolica" title="Pax Mongolica">Pax Mongolica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Destruction under the Mongol Empire">Destruction under the Mongol Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emperoryuandinastycollage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Collage of eight portraits" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Emperoryuandinastycollage.jpg/280px-Emperoryuandinastycollage.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Emperoryuandinastycollage.jpg/420px-Emperoryuandinastycollage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Emperoryuandinastycollage.jpg/560px-Emperoryuandinastycollage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1880" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Genghis Khan and seven of his successors from Bust Portraits of Yuan Dynasty Emperors, by Anonymous, Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)<a href="#cite_note-229">[j]</a></figcaption></figure> Genghis Khan left a vast and controversial legacy. His unification of the Mongol tribes and his foundation of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest contiguous state in world history</a> "permanently alter[ed] the worldview of European, Islamic, [and] East Asian civilizations", according to Atwood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004369FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009108-230">[220]</a> His conquests enabled the creation of <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasian</a> trading systems unprecedented in their scale, which brought wealth and security to the tribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004369FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009108Ratchnevsky1991198–200-231">[221]</a> Although he very likely did not codify the written body of laws known as the <a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Great Yasa</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan198696–99Biran201242–44-232">[222]</a> he did reorganise the legal system and establish a powerful judicial authority under <a href="/wiki/Shigi_Qutuqu" title="Shigi Qutuqu">Shigi Qutuqu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran201244-233">[223]</a> On the other hand, his conquests were ruthless and brutal. The prosperous civilizations of China, Central Asia, and Persia were devastated by the Mongol assaults, and underwent multi-generational trauma and suffering as a result.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991209–210FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009108–109-234">[224]</a> Perhaps Genghis's greatest failing was his inability to create a working succession system—his division of his empire into <a href="/wiki/Appanage" title="Appanage">appanages</a>, meant to ensure stability, actually did the reverse, as local and state-wide interests diverged and the empire <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">began splitting</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> in the late 1200s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991207Biran201269FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009109-235">[225]</a> In the mid-1990s, the <a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a> acclaimed Genghis Khan as the "man of the millennium" who "embodied the half-civilized, half-savage duality of the human race".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2012158FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009104Washington_Post_1995-236">[226]</a> This complex image has remained prevalent in modern scholarship, with historians emphasising both Genghis Khan's positive and negative contributions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991212–213FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009105–109Atwood200497Mote1999434-237">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongolia">Mongolia</h3></div> For many centuries, Genghis was remembered in Mongolia as a religious figure, not a political one. After <a href="/wiki/Altan_Khan" title="Altan Khan">Altan Khan</a> converted to <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> in the late 1500s, Genghis was <a href="/wiki/Deification" class="mw-redirect" title="Deification">deified</a> and given a central role in the Mongolian religious tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2008138–139Biran2012139-238">[228]</a> As a deity, Genghis drew upon Buddhist, shamanistic, and <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folk traditions</a>: for example, he was defined as a new incarnation of a <a href="/wiki/Chakravarti_(Sanskrit_term)" title="Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)">chakravartin</a> (idealised ruler) like <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>, or of <a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapani</a>, the martial <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a>; he was connected genealogically to the <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> and to ancient Buddhist kings; he was invoked during weddings and festivals; and he took a large role in <a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">ancestor veneration</a> rituals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2008139Biran2012139-239">[229]</a> He also became the focus point of a <a href="/wiki/King_asleep_in_mountain" title="King asleep in mountain">sleeping hero legend</a>, which says he will return to help the Mongol people in a time of great need.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2008140–141-240">[230]</a> His cult was centred at the naiman chagan ordon (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> '"Eight White Yurts"'), today <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Mausoleum of Genghis Khan">a mausoleum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004161-241">[231]</a> In the 19th and early 20th century, Genghis began to be viewed as the <a href="/wiki/National_hero" class="mw-redirect" title="National hero">national hero</a> of the Mongolian people. Foreign powers recognised this: during its <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">occupation of Inner Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japan">Imperial Japan</a> funded the construction of a temple to Genghis, while both the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> used the memory of Genghis to woo potential allies in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2008141–142Atwood2004101-242">[232]</a> This attitude was maintained during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, when the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet-aligned</a> <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolian People's Republic</a> promoted Genghis to build patriotic zeal against invaders; however, as he was a non-Russian hero who could serve as an <a href="/wiki/Anticommunist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticommunist">anticommunist</a> figurehead, this attitude swiftly changed after the war's end. According to May, Genghis "was condemned as a <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudal</a> and reactionary lord [who] exploited the people."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2008142–143Biran2012142–143Atwood2004101-243">[233]</a> His cult was repressed, the alphabet he chose was replaced with the <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a>, and celebrations planned for the 800th anniversary of his birth in 1962 were cancelled and denigrated after loud Soviet complaints. Because Chinese historians were largely more favourable towards him than their Soviet circumstances, Genghis played a minor role in the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2008143–144Biran2012143Atwood2004101–102-244">[234]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:492px;max-width:492px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:223px;max-width:223px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:147px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Monument_to_Genghis_Khan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A statue of a seated man, placed on an inscribed plinth." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Monument_to_Genghis_Khan.jpg/221px-Monument_to_Genghis_Khan.jpg" decoding="async" width="221" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Monument_to_Genghis_Khan.jpg/332px-Monument_to_Genghis_Khan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Monument_to_Genghis_Khan.jpg/442px-Monument_to_Genghis_Khan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4242" data-file-height="2828" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:265px;max-width:265px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:147px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Dschingis_Khan_in_Zonjin_Boldog_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A gigantic statue of a man on a horse stands on top of a building." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Dschingis_Khan_in_Zonjin_Boldog_02.JPG/263px-Dschingis_Khan_in_Zonjin_Boldog_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="263" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Dschingis_Khan_in_Zonjin_Boldog_02.JPG/395px-Dschingis_Khan_in_Zonjin_Boldog_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Dschingis_Khan_in_Zonjin_Boldog_02.JPG/526px-Dschingis_Khan_in_Zonjin_Boldog_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3328" data-file-height="1872" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:167px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:20000_Togrog.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A banknote with worth 20000 featuring a picture of a man" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/20000_Togrog.jpg/350px-20000_Togrog.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/20000_Togrog.jpg/525px-20000_Togrog.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/20000_Togrog.jpg/700px-20000_Togrog.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="382" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:136px;max-width:136px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:167px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:ChinggisOdon_GGR51980.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A gold and silver-coloured medal depicting the silhouette of a man." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/ChinggisOdon_GGR51980.jpg/134px-ChinggisOdon_GGR51980.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/ChinggisOdon_GGR51980.jpg/201px-ChinggisOdon_GGR51980.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/ChinggisOdon_GGR51980.jpg/268px-ChinggisOdon_GGR51980.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4148" data-file-height="5185" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Depictions of Genghis Khan in modern Mongolia. Clockwise from top left: a statue outside the <a href="/wiki/Government_Palace_(Mongolia)" title="Government Palace (Mongolia)">Government Palace</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Equestrian statue of Genghis Khan">equestrian statue at Tsonjin Boldog</a>; an <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Order of Genghis Khan">Order of Genghis Khan</a> medal, the highest <a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Mongolia" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Mongolia">decoration of Mongolia</a>; and a <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_t%C3%B6gr%C3%B6g" title="Mongolian tögrög">₮20,000 banknote</a>.</div></div></div></div> The arrival of the policies of <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a> in the 1980s paved the way for official rehabilitation. Less than two years after <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">the 1990 revolution</a>, Lenin Avenue in the capital Ulaanbaatar was renamed Chinggis Khan Avenue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004102Biran2012143–144May2008144–145-245">[235]</a> Since then, Mongolia has named <a href="/wiki/Chinggis_Khaan_International_Airport" title="Chinggis Khaan International Airport">Chinggis Khaan International Airport</a> and erected a large statue in <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCkhbaatar_Square" title="Sükhbaatar Square">Sükhbaatar Square</a> (which was itself renamed after Genghis between 2013 and 2016). His visage appears on items ranging from <a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Mongolia" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Mongolia">postage stamps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_t%C3%B6gr%C3%B6g" title="Mongolian tögrög">high-value banknotes</a> to brands of alcohol and toilet paper. In 2006, the Mongolian parliament officially discussed the trivialization of his name through excessive advertising.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2008137–138Biran2012143–144Sanders2017lxxviii,_lxxxiv-246">[236]</a> Modern Mongolians tend to downplay Genghis's military conquests in favour of his political and civil legacy—they view the destructive campaigns as "a product of their time", in the words of the historian Michal Biran, and secondary to his other contributions to Mongolian and world history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2012144May2008145-247">[237]</a> His policies—such his use of the kurultai, his establishment of the rule of law through an independent judiciary, and human rights—are seen as the foundations that allowed the creation of the modern, democratic Mongolian state. Viewed as someone who brought peace and knowledge rather than war and destruction, Genghis Khan is idealised for making Mongolia the centre of international culture for a period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2012144–145May2008145–146-248">[238]</a> He is generally recognised as the founding father of Mongolia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay2008145Mote1999434-249">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elsewhere">Elsewhere</h3></div> The historical and modern <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> has associated Genghis Khan with a myriad of ideologies and beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2012136-250">[240]</a> Its first instinct, as Islamic thought had never previously envisioned being ruled by a non-Muslim power, was to view Genghis as the herald of <a href="/wiki/Judgement_Day_in_Islam" title="Judgement Day in Islam">the approaching Judgement Day</a>. Over time, as the world failed to end and as his descendants began converting to Islam, Muslims began to see Genghis as an instrument of God's will who was destined to strengthen the Muslim world by cleansing its innate corruption.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2012112–114Jackson202386,_101–102-251">[241]</a> In post-Mongol Asia, Genghis was also a source of political legitimacy, because <a href="/wiki/Descent_from_Genghis_Khan" title="Descent from Genghis Khan">his descendants</a> had been recognised as the only ones entitled to reign. As a result, aspiring potentates not descended from him had to justify their rule, either by nominating puppet rulers of Genghis's dynasty, or by stressing their own connections to him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2012121–122Jackson2017382–384Jackson2023337-252">[242]</a> Most notably, the great conqueror <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a>, who established <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">his own empire</a> in Central Asia, did both: he was obliged to pay homage to Genghis's descendants <a href="/wiki/Soyurgatmish" title="Soyurgatmish">Soyurgatmish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Mahmud_(Chagatai)" title="Sultan Mahmud (Chagatai)">Sultan Mahmud</a>, and his propaganda campaigns vastly exaggerated the prominence of his ancestor <a href="/wiki/Qarachar_Noyan" title="Qarachar Noyan">Qarachar Noyan</a>, one of Genghis's lesser commanders, depicting him as Genghis's blood relative and second-in-command. He also married at least two of Genghis's descendants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2012122–125Jackson2017384–387Jackson2023338,_357–360-253">[243]</a> <a href="/wiki/Babur" title="Babur">Babur</a>, the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> in India,<a href="#cite_note-255">[k]</a> in turn derived his authority through his descent from both Timur and Genghis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran201283Jackson2023437–438-256">[245]</a> Until the eighteenth century in Central Asia, Genghis was considered the progenitor of the social order, and was second only to the prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> in legal authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2012106,_127-257">[246]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fall_Of_Baghdad_(Diez_Albums).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Fall_Of_Baghdad_%28Diez_Albums%29.jpg/400px-Fall_Of_Baghdad_%28Diez_Albums%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Fall_Of_Baghdad_%28Diez_Albums%29.jpg/600px-Fall_Of_Baghdad_%28Diez_Albums%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Fall_Of_Baghdad_%28Diez_Albums%29.jpg/800px-Fall_Of_Baghdad_%28Diez_Albums%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9472" data-file-height="5963" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of the 1258 <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Siege of Baghdad</a>, conducted by Genghis's grandson <a href="/wiki/Hulegu_Khan" title="Hulegu Khan">Hulegu Khan</a> and seen in the modern Arab world as the culmination of Genghis's destructive conquests.</figcaption></figure> With the rise of <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a> in the nineteenth century, the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> began to view Genghis increasingly negatively. Today, he is perceived as the ultimate "accursed enemy", a "barbarian savage who began the demolition of civilization which culminated in [the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">Siege of Baghdad</a> in 1258]" by his grandson <a href="/wiki/Hulegu_Khan" title="Hulegu Khan">Hulegu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2012128–132-258">[247]</a> Similarly, Genghis is viewed extremely negatively in Russia, where historians have consistently portrayed the rule of the Golden Horde—the "Tatar Yoke"—as backwards, destructive, inimical to all progress, and the reason for all of Russia's flaws.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2012153–155Ratchnevsky1991212-259">[248]</a> His treatment in modern Central Asia and Turkey is more ambivalent: his position as a non-Muslim means other national traditions and heroes, such as Timur and the <a href="/wiki/Seljuks" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuks">Seljuks</a>, are viewed more highly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2012132–135-260">[249]</a> Under the Yuan dynasty in China, Genghis was revered as the nation's creator, and he remained in this position even after the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> in 1368. Although the late Ming somewhat disavowed his memory, the positive viewpoint was restored under the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> (1644–1911), who positioned themselves as his heirs. The rise of 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">Chinese nationalism</a> initially caused the denigration of Genghis as a traumatic occupier, but he was later resurrected as a useful political symbol on a variety of issues. Modern <a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Chinese historiography</a> has generally viewed Genghis positively and he has been portrayed as a Chinese hero.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2012145–153Ratchnevsky1991211–212-261">[250]</a> In contemporary Japan, he is most known for <a href="/w/index.php?title=Identification_of_Genghis_Khan_with_Minamoto_no_Yoshitsune&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Identification of Genghis Khan with Minamoto no Yoshitsune (page does not exist)">the legend</a> that he was originally <a href="/wiki/Minamoto_no_Yoshitsune" title="Minamoto no Yoshitsune">Minamoto no Yoshitsune</a>, a samurai and tragic hero who was forced to commit <a href="/wiki/Seppuku" title="Seppuku">seppuku</a> in 1189.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFogel2008-262">[251]</a> The Western world, never directly affected by Genghis, has viewed him in shifting and contrasting ways. During the 14th century, as shown by the works of Marco Polo and <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>, he was seen as a just and wise ruler, but during the eighteenth century he came to embody the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> stereotype of a tyrannical Oriental despot, and by the twentieth century he represented a prototypical barbarian warlord. In recent decades, Western scholarship has become increasingly nuanced, viewing Genghis as a more complex individual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran2012156–158May2008146Rosenfeld2018255,_269-263">[252]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Genghis Khan at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Genghis_Khan" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Genghis Khan">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" class="extiw" title="c:Genghis Khan">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan" class="extiw" title="q:Genghis Khan">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Ghengis_Khan" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Ghengis Khan">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q720" class="extiw" title="d:Q720">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈdʒɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> See <a href="#Name_and_title">§ Name and title</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Also transliterated as Zhao Gong, his <a href="/w/index.php?title=Meng_Da_beilu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meng Da beilu (page does not exist)">Meng Da beilu</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mengda_beilu" class="extiw" title="de:Mengda beilu">de</a>] (A Complete Record of the Mongol Tartars) is the only surviving source on the Mongols written during Genghis's lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004154-18">[16]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolian People's Republic</a> chose to commemorate the 800th anniversary of Temüjin's birth in 1962.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan198655-21">[18]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> At this point in time, the word "Mongols" only referred to the members of one tribe in northeast Mongolia; because this tribe played a central role in the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>, their name was later used for all the tribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004389–391-28">[24]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> According to the Secret History, Jamukha said "If we camp close to the hill those who herd our horses will have their tents. If we camp beside the mountain stream those who herd our sheep and lambs will have food for their gullets."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky199137-56">[51]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tug_(banner)" title="Tug (banner)">tuq</a>, a banner fashioned from the tails of <a href="/wiki/Yak" title="Yak">yaks</a> or horses, is placed on the right; the white tuq pictured here represent peace, while a black tuq would represent war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay201236-80">[74]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a> initially surrendered to Tolui, but later rebelled and was destroyed in 1222; its population was massacred.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESverdrup2017160–167-152">[145]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Zhao Hong visited Mongolia in 1221, while Genghis was campaigning in Khorasan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuell2010-207">[199]</a> Juzjani, writing thirty years after Genghis's death, relied on eyewitnesses from the same campaign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991145-208">[200]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> Subjects include (top to bottom, left to right): Genghis, Ögedei, Kublai, Temür, Külüg, Buyantu and Rinchinbal.<a href="#cite_note-228">[219]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> The word "Mughal" derives from "Mongol", which was used in India for any northern invaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiran201283-254">[244]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991x–xi-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991x–xi_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRatchnevsky1991">Ratchnevsky 1991</a>, pp. x–xi. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPelliot1959281-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPelliot1959281_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPelliot1959">Pelliot 1959</a>, p. 281. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBawden2022§_"Introduction"Wilkinson2012776Morgan1990-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBawden2022§_"Introduction"Wilkinson2012776Morgan1990_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBawden2022">Bawden 2022</a>, § "Introduction"; 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<a href="#CITEREFMay2018">May 2018</a>, pp. 69–70; <a href="#CITEREFBoyle1968">Boyle 1968</a>, pp. 540–541; <a href="#CITEREFBarthold1992">Barthold 1992</a>, p. 463. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004542May201868–69-186"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004542May201868–69_186-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAtwood2004">Atwood 2004</a>, p. 542; <a href="#CITEREFMay2018">May 2018</a>, pp. 68–69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarthold1992463May201870–71,_94–95-187"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarthold1992463May201870–71,_94–95_187-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarthold1992">Barthold 1992</a>, p. 463; <a href="#CITEREFMay2018">May 2018</a>, pp. 70–71, 94–95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarthold1992463May201894–95-188"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarthold1992463May201894–95_188-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarthold1992">Barthold 1992</a>, p. 463; <a href="#CITEREFMay2018">May 2018</a>, pp. 94–95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201855–56-189"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201855–56_189-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBroadbridge2018">Broadbridge 2018</a>, pp. 55–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirgeBroadbridge2023635-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirgeBroadbridge2023635_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirgeBroadbridge2023635_190-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBirgeBroadbridge2023">Birge & Broadbridge 2023</a>, p. 635. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood200445-191"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwood200445_191-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAtwood2004">Atwood 2004</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201867,_138–139-192"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201867,_138–139_192-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBroadbridge2018">Broadbridge 2018</a>, pp. 67, 138–139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201859–63-193"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroadbridge201859–63_193-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBroadbridge2018">Broadbridge 2018</a>, pp. 59–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFavereau202165Biran201269Atwood2004201,_278–279-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFavereau202165Biran201269Atwood2004201,_278–279_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFavereau2021">Favereau 2021</a>, p. 65; 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<a href="#CITEREFBirgeBroadbridge2023">Birge & Broadbridge 2023</a>, p. 636. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELkhagvasurenShinLeeTumen2016433-206"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELkhagvasurenShinLeeTumen2016433_206-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLkhagvasurenShinLeeTumen2016">Lkhagvasuren et al. 2016</a>, p. 433. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuell2010-207"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuell2010_207-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBuell2010">Buell 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991145-208">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991145_208-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatchnevsky1991145_208-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRatchnevsky1991">Ratchnevsky 1991</a>, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004101-210"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004101_210-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAtwood2004">Atwood 2004</a>, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004101FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009100-211"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004101FitzhughRossabiHoneychurch2009100_211-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAtwood2004">Atwood 2004</a>, p. 101; 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id="CITEREFYouGalassiVarottoHenneberg2021" class="citation journal cs1">You, Wenpeng; Galassi, Francesco M.; Varotto, Elena; Henneberg, Maciej (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1201971221000205">"Genghis Khan's death (AD 1227): An unsolvable riddle or simply a pandemic disease?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Infectious_Diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="International Journal of Infectious Diseases">International Journal of Infectious Diseases</a>. 104: 347–348. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijid.2020.12.089">10.1016/j.ijid.2020.12.089</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10447%2F620953">10447/620953</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1201-9712">1201-9712</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33444749">33444749</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:231610775">231610775</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Genghis+Khan%27s+death+%28AD+1227%29%3A+An+unsolvable+riddle+or+simply+a+pandemic+disease%3F&rft.volume=104&rft.pages=347-348&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10447%2F620953&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A231610775%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijid.2020.12.089&rft.issn=1201-9712&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33444749&rft.aulast=You&rft.aufirst=Wenpeng&rft.au=Galassi%2C+Francesco+M.&rft.au=Varotto%2C+Elena&rft.au=Henneberg%2C+Maciej&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS1201971221000205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenghis+Khan" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFD700; text-align:center;"><div>Genghis Khan </div><div><a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">House of Borjigin</a></div>Born: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1162 Died: 1227 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ACE777;">Regnal titles </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">New title <div style="font-size:90%">Mongol Empire established</div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> 1206–1227 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui</a> As regent</div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Khagan_of_the_Mongol_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Khagans_of_Mongol_Empire" title="Template:Khagans of Mongol Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Khagans_of_Mongol_Empire" title="Template talk:Khagans of Mongol Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a 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href="/wiki/G%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Khan" title="Güyük Khan">Güyük Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghul_Qaimish" title="Oghul Qaimish">Oghul Qaimish</a> (as <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">Regent</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan" title="Möngke Khan">Möngke Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ariq_B%C3%B6ke" title="Ariq Böke">Ariq Böke</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Yuan (Kublaid) Khagans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Setsen Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tem%C3%BCr_Khan" title="Temür Khan">Öljeytü Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%BCl%C3%BCg_Khan" title="Külüg Khan">Külüg Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurbarwada_Buyantu_Khan" title="Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan">Buyantu Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gegeen_Khan" title="Gegeen Khan">Gegeen Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yes%C3%BCn_Tem%C3%BCr_(Yuan_dynasty)" title="Yesün Temür (Yuan dynasty)">Yesün Temür Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragibagh_Khan" title="Ragibagh Khan">Ragibagh Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayaatu_Khan_Tugh_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür">Jayaatu Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khutughtu_Khan_Kusala" title="Khutughtu Khan Kusala">Khutughtu Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinchinbal_Khan" title="Rinchinbal Khan">Rinchinbal Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toghon_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Toghon Temür">Ukhaantu Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biligt%C3%BC_Khan_Ayushiridara" title="Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara">Biligtü Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uskhal_Khan_T%C3%B6g%C3%BCs_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür">Uskhal Khan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mongol_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mongol_Empire" title="Template:Mongol Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mongol_Empire" title="Template talk:Mongol Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mongol_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mongol Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mongol_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Terminology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Terminology</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_nobility" title="Mongolian nobility">Titles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">Khagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khatun" title="Khatun">Khatun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanum" title="Khanum">Khanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinong" title="Jinong">Jinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khong_Tayiji" title="Khong Tayiji">Khong Tayiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noyan" title="Noyan">Noyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarkhan" title="Tarkhan">Tarkhan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Political</li><li>Military</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jarlig" title="Jarlig">Jarlig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yam_(route)" title="Yam (route)">Örtöö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orda_(organization)" title="Orda (organization)">Orda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Mongolica" title="Pax Mongolica">Pax Mongolica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurultai" title="Kurultai">Kurultai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiza" title="Paiza">Paiza / Gerege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manghud" title="Manghud">Manghit / Mangudai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumen_(unit)" title="Tumen (unit)">Tümen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kheshig" title="Kheshig">Kheshig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darughachi" title="Darughachi">Darughachi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="PoliticsOrganizationLife" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Politics</li><li>Organization</li><li>Life</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_divisions_and_vassals_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire">Administrative divisions and vassals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tug_(banner)" title="Tug (banner)">Banner/Bunchuk/Tug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Invasions and conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Destruction under the Mongol Empire">Destructiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Seal_of_the_Mongols" title="Imperial Seal of the Mongols">Imperial Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Military of the Mongol Empire">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Religion in the Mongol Empire">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Society of the Mongol Empire">Society and economy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">House of Borjigin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_%C3%96gedei" title="House of Ögedei">House of Ögedei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Armenia" title="Mongol Armenia">Mongol Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Mongol_Alliance" title="Byzantine–Mongol Alliance">Byzantine–Mongol Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Mongol_alliance" title="Franco-Mongol alliance">Franco-Mongol alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles_of_the_Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe">Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battles_of_the_Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mongol_states" title="List of Mongol states">Khanates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_%C3%96gedei" title="House of Ögedei">House of Ögedei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wings_of_the_Golden_Horde" title="Wings of the Golden Horde">Wings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almaliq,_Xinjiang" title="Almaliq, Xinjiang">Almalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avarga" title="Avarga">Avarga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azov" title="Azov">Azov (Azaq)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolghar" title="Bolghar">Bolghar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakorum" title="Karakorum">Karakorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Dadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majar_(Golden_Horde)" title="Majar (Golden Horde)">Majar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maragheh" title="Maragheh">Maragheh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarshi" title="Qarshi">Qarshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarai_(city)" title="Sarai (city)">Sarai Batu/Berke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saray-J%C3%BCk" title="Saray-Jük">Saray-Jük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangdu" title="Shangdu">Shangdu (Xanadu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soltaniyeh" title="Soltaniyeh">Soltaniyeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukek" title="Ukek">Ukek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xacitarxan" title="Xacitarxan">Xacitarxan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="CampaignsBattles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Campaigns</li><li>Battles</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Asia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Central Asia">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaigns_in_Siberia" title="Mongol campaigns in Siberia">Siberia (1207-1308)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Sakhalin" title="Mongol invasions of Sakhalin">Sakhalin (1264–1308)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Qara_Khitai" title="Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai (1216–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire (1219–1221)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Persia_and_Mesopotamia" title="Mongol invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia">Persia (1219–1256)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests#East_Asia" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Western_Xia" title="Mongol conquest of Western Xia">Western Xia (1205 / 1207 / 1209–10 / 1225–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">Northern China (1211–34)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Korea (1231–60)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">Southern China (1235–79)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Tibet" title="Mongol invasions of Tibet">Tibet (1236 / 1240 / 1252)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China#Conquest_of_Yunnan" title="Mongol conquest of China">Yunnan (1253–56)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">Japan (1274 / 1281)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests#Southeast_Asian_and_Korean_vassals" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Southeast</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="First Mongol invasion of Burma">Burma (1277 / 1283 / 1287)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Java" title="Mongol invasion of Java">Java (1293)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">Vietnam (1257 / 1284–88)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">Burma (1300–02)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_India" title="Mongol invasions of India">India (1221–1327)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Georgia" title="Mongol invasions of Georgia">Georgia (1220–22 / 1226–31 / 1237–64)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Circassia" title="Mongol invasion of Circassia">Circassia (1237–1300s)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Durdzuketi" title="Mongol invasions of Durdzuketi">Chechnya (1237–1300s)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Volga_Bulgaria" title="Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria (1229–36)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Alania" title="Mongol invasion of Alania">Alania (1238–1239)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus' (1223 / 1236–40)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="First Mongol invasion of Poland">Poland and Bohemia (1240–41)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="First Mongol invasion of Hungary">Hungary (1241–42)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_incursions_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Mongol incursions in the Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire (1241–42)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Bulgaria_and_Serbia" title="Mongol invasion of Bulgaria and Serbia">Serbia and Bulgaria (1242)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Latin_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Latin Empire">Latin Empire (1242)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Lithuania" title="Mongol invasions of Lithuania">Lithuania (1258–59)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Second Mongol invasion of Poland">Poland (1259–60)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Byzantine_Thrace" title="Mongol invasion of Byzantine Thrace">Thrace (1264–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="Second Mongol invasion of Hungary">Hungary (1285–86)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Third Mongol invasion of Poland">Poland (1287–88)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_conflict_with_the_Nogai_Horde" title="Serbian conflict with the Nogai Horde">Serbia (1291)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Anatolia" title="Mongol conquest of Anatolia">Anatolia (1241–43)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaign_against_the_Nizaris" title="Mongol campaign against the Nizaris">Alamut (1253–1256)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Baghdad (1258)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Syria (1260–1323)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_raids_into_Palestine" title="Mongol raids into Palestine">Palestine (1260 / 1301)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civil wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">Division of the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toluid_Civil_War" title="Toluid Civil War">Toluid Civil War (1260–64)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berke%E2%80%93Hulagu_war" title="Berke–Hulagu war">Berke–Hulagu war (1262)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaidu%E2%80%93Kublai_war" title="Kaidu–Kublai war">Kaidu–Kublai war (1268–1301)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esen_Buqa%E2%80%93Ayurbarwada_war" title="Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war">Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war (1314–1318)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="People" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">People</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mongol_rulers" title="List of Mongol rulers">Great Khans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genghis Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui (regent)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%B6regene_Khatun" title="Töregene Khatun">Töregene Khatun (regent)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Khan" title="Güyük Khan">Güyük Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghul_Qaimish" title="Oghul Qaimish">Oghul Qaimish (regent)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan" title="Möngke Khan">Möngke Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Yuan_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Yuan emperors">Khagans of the Yuan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Khans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batu_Khan" title="Batu Khan">Batu Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sartaq_Khan" title="Sartaq Khan">Sartaq Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orda_Khan" title="Orda Khan">Orda Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berke" title="Berke">Berke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toqta" title="Toqta">Toqta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96zbeg_Khan" title="Özbeg Khan">Özbeg Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duwa" title="Duwa">Duwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebek" title="Kebek">Kebek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulegu_Khan" title="Hulegu Khan">Hulegu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abaqa_Khan" title="Abaqa Khan">Abaqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arghun" title="Arghun">Arghun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazan" title="Ghazan">Ghazan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebe" title="Jebe">Jebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqali" title="Muqali">Muqali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negudar" title="Negudar">Negudar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo%27orchu" title="Bo'orchu">Bo'orchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Kan" title="Guo Kan">Guo Kan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boroqul" title="Boroqul">Boroqul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jelme" title="Jelme">Jelme</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khubilai_Noyon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khubilai Noyon (page does not exist)">Khubilai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aju" title="Aju">Aju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayan_of_the_Baarin" title="Bayan of the Baarin">Bayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadan" title="Kadan">Kadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boroldai" title="Boroldai">Boroldai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nogai_Khan" title="Nogai Khan">Nogai Khan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Timeline of the Mongol Empire">Timeline of the Mongol Empire</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q720#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q720#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q720#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/87611/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PCjxkcHMRKYHKXP9ccBMhQC">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118527576">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n82024842">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12098160c">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12098160c">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00625007">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35118014">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20010525146&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX945965">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p071585958">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90269160">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000079005&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000048387&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000039341">Chile</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=108887">Greece</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC201624303">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/gdsvpsv01w1kcbk">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810632408905606">Poland</a></li><li><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/10103">Vatican</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007261512205171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:au:finaf:000132144">Finland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058614787306706">Catalonia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA12786413?l=en">CiNii</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/831718">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118527576.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" 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