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#9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Weasel plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Weasel" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">weasel words</a>: vague phrasing that often accompanies <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">biased</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">unverifiable</a> information</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Such statements should be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">clarified or removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>This article covers the conversations between <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a>, and mutual influence on each other in response to questions and challenges brought into wide circulation through <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-platonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-platonism">Neo-platonism</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a>, focusing especially on the period from 800–1400 CE. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Freedom_versus_fatalism_and_the_Kalam">Freedom versus fatalism and the Kalam</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Freedom versus fatalism and the Kalam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A century after the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> was written, numerous religious schisms arose in Islam. Skeptics sought to investigate the doctrines of the Qur'an, which until then had been accepted as divine revelation. The first independent protest was that of the <a href="/wiki/Qadar" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadar">Qadar</a> ("Destiny"), whose partisans affirmed the freedom of the will, in contrast with the Jabarites (<i>jabar</i>, force, constraint), who maintained the traditional belief in <a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">fatalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the second century of the <a href="/wiki/Hijrah" title="Hijrah">Hijrah</a>, a schism arose in the theological schools of <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, over which <a href="/wiki/Hasan_al-Basri" title="Hasan al-Basri">Hasan al-Basri</a> presided. A pupil, <a href="/wiki/Wasil_ibn_Ata" title="Wasil ibn Ata">Wasil ibn Ata</a>, who was expelled from the school because his answers were contrary to tradition, proclaimed himself leader of a new school, and systematized all the radical opinions of preceding sects, particularly those of the <a href="/wiki/Kadarites" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadarites">Kadarites</a>. This new school or sect was called <a href="/wiki/Mutazilites" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutazilites">Mutazilites</a> (from 'tazala, to separate oneself, to dissent). The sect had three principal dogmas: (1) God is an absolute unity, and no attribute can be ascribed to Him. (2) Man is a free agent. Because of these two principles the Mutazilites designate themselves the "AsḦab al-'Adl w'al TauḦid" (The Partisans of Justice and Unity). (3) All knowledge necessary for the salvation of man emanates from his reason; he could acquire knowledge before as well as after Revelation, by the sole light of reason—a fact which, therefore, makes knowledge obligatory upon all men and women, at all times, and in all places.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Mutazilites, compelled to defend their principles against the orthodox Islamic faith, looked for support to the doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, and thus founded a <a href="/wiki/Rational_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational theology">rational theology</a>, which they designated "<i> 'Ilm-al-<a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a></i>"; and those professing it were called Motekallamin. This appellation, originally designating the Mutazilites, soon became the common name for all seeking philosophical demonstration in confirmation of religious principles. The first Motekallamin had to combat both the orthodox and the infidel parties, between whom they occupied the middle ground; but the efforts of subsequent generations were entirely concentrated against the philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later Motekallamin formed a school known as <a href="/wiki/Ash%27ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash'ari">Ash'arism</a>, which regarded itself as the champion of orthodoxy, and references by the later philosophers to "Motekallamin" (theologians) should usually be taken as meaning the Ash'arites. </p><p>From the ninth century onward, owing to <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> al-Ma'mun and his successor, Greek philosophy was introduced among the Arabs, and the <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a> began to find able representatives among them; such were <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Roshd</a>, all of whose fundamental principles were considered as heresies by the Motekallamin.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Argument_for_creation_against_the_Peripatetics">Argument for creation against the Peripatetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Argument for creation against the Peripatetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, the prince of the philosophers, demonstrated the necessary existence of the <a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">unmoved mover</a>, and therefore the unity of God, but from the view which he maintained, that matter was eternal, it followed that God could not be the Creator of the world. Again, to assert, as the Peripatetics did, that God's knowledge extends only to the general laws of the universe, and not to individual and accidental things, is tantamount to giving denial to prophecy. One other point shocked the faith of the Motekallamin—the theory of the intellect. The Peripatetics taught that the human soul was only an aptitude—a faculty capable of attaining every variety of passive perfection—and that through information and virtue it became qualified for union with the active intellect, which latter emanates from God. To admit this theory would be to deny the immortality of the soul (see <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wherefore the Motekallamin had, before anything else, to establish a system of philosophy to demonstrate the creation of matter, and they adopted to that end the theory of atoms as enunciated by <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>. They taught that atoms possess neither quantity nor extension. Originally atoms were created by God, and are created now as occasion seems to require. Bodies come into existence or die, through the aggregation or the sunderance of these atoms. But this theory did not remove the objections of philosophy to a creation of matter. For, indeed, if it be supposed that God commenced His work at a certain definite time by His "will," and for a certain definite object, it must be admitted that He was imperfect before accomplishing His will, or before attaining His object. In order to obviate this difficulty, the Motekallamin extended their theory of the atoms to Time, and claimed that just as Space is constituted of atoms and vacuum, Time, likewise, is constituted of small indivisible moments. The creation of the world once established, it was an easy matter for them to demonstrate the existence of a Creator, and that He is unique, omnipotent, and omniscient.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Toward the middle of the eighth century a dissenting sect—still in existence to-day—called <a href="/wiki/Karaite_(Jewish_sect)" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaite (Jewish sect)">Karaites</a>, arose in Judaism. In order to give a philosophical tinge to their polemics with their opponents, they borrowed the dialectic forms of the Motekallamin, and even adopted their name (Mas'udi, in "Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits de la Bibliothèque Royale," viii. 349–351), and thus transplanted the Kalam gradually to Jewish soil, to undergo the same transformations there as among the Arabs.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Saadia_Gaon">Saadia Gaon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Saadia Gaon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a></div> <p>One of the most important early Jewish philosophers influenced by Islamic philosophy is Saadia Gaon (892–942). His most important work is <i><a href="/wiki/Emunoth_ve-Deoth" class="mw-redirect" title="Emunoth ve-Deoth">Emunoth ve-Deoth</a></i> (Book of Beliefs and Opinions). In this work Saadia treats of the questions that interested the Motekallamin so deeply—such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc. — and he criticizes the philosophers severely.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For Saadia creation is not problematic: God created the world <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_nihilo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex nihilo">ex nihilo</a></i>, just as Scripture attests; and he contests the theory of the Motekallamin in reference to atoms, which theory, he declares, is just as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of the philosophers professing the eternity of matter. To prove the unity of God, Saadia uses the demonstrations of the Motekallamin. Only the attributes of essence (sifat-al-datiat) can be ascribed to God, but not the attributes of action (sifat-al-af'aliyat). The soul is a substance more delicate even than that of the celestial spheres. Here Saadia contradicts the Motekallamin, who considered the soul an "accident" (compare "Moreh," i. 74), and employs the following one of their premises to justify his position: "Only a substance can be the substratum of an accident" (that is, of a non-essential property of things). Saadia argues: "If the soul be an accident only, it can itself have no such accidents as wisdom, joy, love," etc. Saadia was thus in every way a supporter of the Kalam; and if at times he deviated from its doctrines, it was owing to his religious views; just as the Jewish and Muslim Peripatetics stopped short in their respective <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> whenever there was danger of wounding orthodox religion.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neoplatonic_philosophy">Neoplatonic philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Neoplatonic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jewish philosophy entered upon a new period in the eleventh century. The works of the Peripatetics —Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina (<a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>)—on the one side, and the "Encyclopedia of the <a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Brethren of Purity</a>"—a transformed Kalam founded on <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonic">Neoplatonic</a> theories—on the other side, exercised considerable influence upon Jewish thinkers of that age. The two leading philosophers of the period are <a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Ibn Gabirol</a> (Avicebron) and <a href="/wiki/Bahya_ibn_Pakuda" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahya ibn Pakuda">Bahya ibn Pakuda</a> — the former standing upon a purely philosophical platform, the latter upon a religio-philosophical one; and both attaining similar results. Both believe in a universal matter as the substratum of all (except God) that exists; but Bahya goes further and determines what that matter is: it is Darkness ("Ma'ani al-Nafs," translated by Broydé, p. 17). But this matter did not exist from all eternity, as the Peripatetics claimed. It is easy to perceive here the growth of the Peripatetic ideas as to substance and form; but influenced by religion, these ideas are so shaped as to admit the non-eternity of matter. In all that pertains to the soul and its action, Gabirol and Bahya are undoubtedly influenced by the "Brethren of Purity." Man (the microcosm) is in every way like the celestial spheres (the macrocosm). Just as the heavenly spheres receive their motion from the universal soul—which is a simple substance emanating from God—so man receives his motion from the rational soul—another simple substance emanating from Him.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In fact, creation came through emanation, and in the following sequence: (1) The active intellect; (2) the universal soul—which moves the heavenly sphere; (3) nature; (4) darkness—which at the beginning was but a capacity to receive form; (5) the celestial spheres; (6) the heavenly bodies; (7) fire; (8) air; (9) water; (10) earth ("Ma'ani al-Nafs," 72; compare Munk, l.c., p. 201). But as regards the question of the attributes which occupy the Jewish and Muslim theologians so much, Bahya, in his work on ethics, "Hovot ha-Levavot," written in Arabic under the title of "Kitab al-Hidayat fi faraidh al Kulub" (The Duties of the Heart), is of the same opinion as the Motazilites, that the attributes by which one attempts to describe God should be taken in a negative sense, as excluding the opposite attributes. With reference to Gabirol, a positive opinion can not be given on this point, as his "Fons Vitæ" does not deal with the question; but there is reason to believe that he felt the influence of the Asharites, who admitted attributes. In fact, in his poetical philosophy, entitled "Keter Malkut" (The Crown of Royalty), Gabirol uses numerous attributes in describing God. By way of a general statement, one may say that the Neoplatonic philosophy among the Jews of the eleventh century marks a transitional epoch, leading either to the pure philosophy of the Peripatetics or to the mysticism of the <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_apotheosis_of_philosophy">The apotheosis of philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The apotheosis of philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The twelfth century saw the apotheosis of pure philosophy and the decline of the Kalam, which latter, being attacked by both the philosophers and the orthodox, perished for lack of champions. This supreme exaltation of philosophy was due, in great measure, to <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> (c. 1058–1111) among the Arabs, and to <a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a> (1140) among the Jews. In fact, the attacks directed against the philosophers by Gazzali in his work, "TuḦfat al-Falasafa" (The Destruction of the Philosophers), not only produced, by reaction, a current favorable to philosophy, but induced the philosophers themselves to profit by his criticism, they thereafter making their theories clearer and their logic closer. The influence of this reaction brought forth the two greatest philosophers that the Arabic Peripatetic school ever produced, namely, Ibn Baja (<a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a>) and Ibn Roshd (<a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>), both of whom undertook the defense of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gazzali found an imitator in the person of Judah ha-Levi. This illustrious poet took upon himself to free religion from the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to this end wrote the "Cuzari," in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike. He passes severe censure upon the Motekallamin for seeking to support religion by philosophy. He says, "I consider him to have attained the highest degree of perfection who is convinced of religious truths without having scrutinized them and reasoned over them" ("Cuzari," v.). Then he reduced the chief propositions of the Motekallamin, to prove the unity of God, to ten in number, describing them at length, and concluding in these terms: "Does the Kalam give us more information concerning God and His attributes than the prophet did?" (Ib. iii. and iv.) Aristotelianism finds no favor in his eyes, for it is no less given to details and criticism; Neoplatonism alone suited him somewhat, owing to its appeal to his poetic temperament.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But the Hebrew Gazzali was no more successful than his Arabian prototype; and his attacks, although they certainly helped to discredit the Kalam—for which no one cared any longer—were altogether powerless against Peripatetic philosophy, which soon found numerous defenders. In fact, soon after the "Cuzari" made its appearance, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud" title="Abraham ibn Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</a> published his "Emunah Ramah" (The Sublime Faith), wherein he recapitulated the teachings of the Peripatetics, Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina, upon the physics and metaphysics of Aristotle, and sought to demonstrate that these theories were in perfect harmony with the doctrines of Judaism. "It is an error generally current," says Ibn Daud in the preface of his book, "that the study of speculative philosophy is dangerous to religion. True philosophy not only does not harm religion, it confirms and strengthens it."<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maimonides_with_Aristotle_against_the_MoteKallamin">Maimonides with Aristotle against the MoteKallamin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Maimonides with Aristotle against the MoteKallamin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The authority of Ibn Daud, however, did not suffice to give permanence to Aristotelianism in Judaism. This accomplishment was reserved for <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, who discussed the relevance of the philosophy of Aristotle to Judaism; and to this end he composed his immortal work, "Dalalat al-Ḥairin" (<a href="/wiki/Guide_for_the_Perplexed" class="mw-redirect" title="Guide for the Perplexed">Guide for the Perplexed</a>) —known better under its Hebrew title "<i>Moreh Nevuchim</i>"—which served for many centuries as the subject of discussion and comment by Jewish thinkers.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this work, Maimonides, after refuting the propositions of the Motekallamin, considers Creation, the Unity of God, the Attributes of God, the Soul, etc., and treats them in accordance with the theories of Aristotle to the extent in which these latter do not conflict with religion. For example, while accepting the teachings of Aristotle upon matter and form, he pronounces against the eternity of matter.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maimonides_against_Aristotle">Maimonides against Aristotle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Maimonides against Aristotle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to pronouncing against the eternity of matter, neither does he accept Aristotle's theory that God can have a knowledge of universals only, and not of particulars. If He had no knowledge of particulars, He would be subject to constant change. Maimonides argues: "God perceives future events before they happen, and this perception never fails Him. Therefore there are no new ideas to present themselves to Him. He knows that such and such an individual does not yet exist, but that he will be born at such a time, exist for such a period, and then return into non-existence. When then this individual comes into being, God does not learn any new fact; nothing has happened that He knew not of, for He knew this individual, such as he is now, before his birth" ("Moreh," i. 20). While seeking thus to avoid the troublesome consequences certain Aristotelian theories would entail upon religion, Maimonides could not altogether escape those involved in Aristotle's idea of the unity of souls; and herein he laid himself open to the attacks of the orthodox.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Averroism">Averroism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Averroism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></div> <p>Ibn Roshd (or Ibn Rushd or <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>), the contemporary of Maimonides, closes the philosophical era of the Arabs. The boldness of this great commentator of Aristotle aroused the full fury of the orthodox, who, in their zeal, attacked all philosophers indiscriminately, and had all philosophical writings committed to the flames.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The theories of Ibn Roshd do not differ fundamentally from those of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajjah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajjah">Ibn Bajjah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a>, who only follow the teachings of Ibn Sina and Al-Farabi. Like all Arabic Peripatetics, Ibn Roshd admits the hypothesis of the intelligence of the spheres and the hypothesis of universal emanation, through which motion is communicated from place to place to all parts of the universe as far as the supreme world—hypotheses which, in the mind of the Arabic philosophers, did away with the dualism involved in Aristotle's doctrine of pure energy and eternal matter. But while Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and other Arab philosophers hurried, so to speak, over subjects that trenched on religious dogmas, Ibn Roshd delighted in dwelling upon them with full particularity and stress. Thus he says, "Not only is matter eternal, but form is potentially inherent in matter; otherwise, it were a creation ex nihilo (Munk, "Mélanges," p. 444). According to this theory, therefore, the existence of this world is not only a possibility, as Ibn Sina declared—in order to make concessions to the orthodox—but also a necessity. Driven from the Arabian schools, Arabic philosophy found a refuge with the Jews, to whom belongs the honor of having transmitted it to the Christian world. A series of eminent men—such as the Tibbons, Narboni, Gersonides—joined in translating the Arabic philosophical works into Hebrew and commenting upon them. The works of Ibn Roshd especially became the subject of their study, due in great measure to Maimonides, who, in a letter addressed to his pupil <a href="/wiki/Joseph_ben_Judah" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph ben Judah">Joseph ben Judah</a>, spoke in the highest terms of Ibn Roshd's commentary.<sup id="cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JewishEncyclopedia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_of_Andalusi_mystical_theosophy">Influence of Andalusi mystical theosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Influence of Andalusi mystical theosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vahid Brown states that the cross-fertilization among Jewish and Islamic philosophical mysticism, including <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> during its <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a>, apart from its impact on European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, had a strong influence in later developments in both philosophies in the rest of the Jewish and Muslim world.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_ibn_Merwan_al-Mukkamas" title="David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas">David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic-Jewish_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic-Jewish relations">Islamic-Jewish relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output 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href="#cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JewishEncyclopedia_1-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSinger1901–1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al., eds. (1901–1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letter=A&artid=1688">"Arabic Philosophy—Its Influence on Judaism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arabic+Philosophy%E2%80%94Its+Influence+on+Judaism&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Funk+%26+Wagnalls&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Fview.jsp%3Fletter%3DA%26artid%3D1688&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudeo-Islamic+philosophies+%28800%E2%80%931400%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, Vahid (2006). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bahai-library.com/brown_andalusi_philosophy">Andalusí Theosophy: A Recontextualization</a></i>. In Lights of Irfan, Volume 7, pp. 1–28 , Irfan Colloquia. Wilmette, IL, US.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medieval_Philosophy" title="Template:Medieval Philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medieval_Philosophy" title="Template talk:Medieval Philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medieval_Philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medieval Philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medieval_philosophers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">John Scotus Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">11–12th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Laon" title="Anselm of Laon">Anselm of Laon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh of Saint Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Saint_Victor" title="Richard of Saint Victor">Richard of Saint Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscellinus" title="Roscellinus">Roscelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Hales" title="Alexander of Hales">Alexander of Hales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Chartres" title="Bernard of Chartres">Bernard of Chartres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Dominicus Gundissalinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_la_Porr%C3%A9e" title="Gilbert de la Porrée">Gilbert de la Porrée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Lille" title="Alain de Lille">Alain de Lille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">13–14th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scot" title="Michael Scot">Michael Scot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Ghent" title="Henry of Ghent">Henry of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitello" title="Vitello">Vitello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Ramon Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siger_of_Brabant" title="Siger of Brabant">Siger of Brabant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boetius_of_Dacia" title="Boetius of Dacia">Boetius of Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Peregrinus_de_Maricourt" title="Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt">Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Meister Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_of_Rome" title="Giles of Rome">Giles of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godfrey_of_Fontaines" title="Godfrey of Fontaines">Godfrey of Fontaines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durandus_of_Saint-Pour%C3%A7ain" title="Durandus of Saint-Pourçain">Durandus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Aureolus" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrus Aureolus">Petrus Aureolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Inghen" title="Marsilius of Inghen">Marsilius of Inghen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Saxony_(philosopher)" title="Albert of Saxony (philosopher)">Albert of Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesc_Eiximenis" title="Francesc Eiximenis">Francesc Eiximenis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Ferrer" title="Vincent Ferrer">Vincent Ferrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Venice" title="Paul of Venice">Paul of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambertus_de_Monte" title="Lambertus de Monte">Lambertus de Monte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hennon" title="John Hennon">John Hennon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Medieval" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli ben Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud" title="Abraham ibn Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nachmanides" title="Nachmanides">Nachmanides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Albo" title="Joseph Albo">Joseph Albo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Nazzam" title="Ibrahim al-Nazzam">al-Nazzam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi (Alkindus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Ikhwan al-Safa' (Brethren of Purity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bishr_Matta_ibn_Yunus" title="Abu Bishr Matta ibn Yunus">Matta ibn Yunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi (Alpharabius)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_al-Sijistani" title="Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani">Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Masarra" title="Ibn Masarra">Ibn Masarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadi_Abd_al-Jabbar" title="Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar">Abd al-Jabbar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Al-Amiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sulayman_Sijistani" title="Abu Sulayman Sijistani">Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Miskawayh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">al-Biruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_al-Din_al-Kirmani" title="Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani">al-Kirmani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">High</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina (Avicenna)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali (Algazel)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu l-Barakat al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Ibn Bajjah (Avempace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Quzat_Hamadani" title="Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani">Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd (Averroes)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sab%27in" title="Ibn Sab'in">Ibn Sab'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Yahya_ibn_Habash_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi">Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid al-Din</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakariya_al-Qazwini" title="Zakariya al-Qazwini">al-Qazwini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi" title="Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi">Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athir_al-Din_al-Abhari" title="Athir al-Din al-Abhari">Athir al-Din al-Abhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_philosophy" title="Template:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology"><i>Aqidah</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(theology)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Aql" title="'Aql">'<i>Aql</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(intellect)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">medieval astronomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam"><i>Kalam</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(dialectic)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh"><i>Fiqh</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(jurisprudence)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Natural philosophy <span style="font-size:85%;">(physics)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa"><i>Madrasah</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(education)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism <span style="font-size:85%;">(mysticism)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Schools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Farabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_cosmology" title="Sufi cosmology">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_metaphysics" title="Sufi metaphysics">metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_psychology" title="Sufi psychology">psychology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">Transcendent theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Traditionalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">ʻAṣabīya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hal_(Sufism)" title="Hal (Sufism)">Ḥāl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27jaz" title="I'jaz">Iʻjaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ʼIjtihād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_(Arabic)" title="Ilm (Arabic)">ʻIlm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irfan" title="Irfan">ʻIrfān</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">Ijmāʿ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maslaha" title="Maslaha">Maslaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafs" title="Nafs">Nafs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalb" title="Qalb">Qalb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">Qiyās</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">Shūrā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawḥīd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philosophers_by_century_(CE)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_philosophers" title="List of Muslim philosophers">Philosophers</a> by century (<a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th–10th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Sahl_Rabban_al-Tabari" title="Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari">Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Abbas_Iranshahri" title="Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri">Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abu Bakr al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Apharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hatim_Ahmad_ibn_Hamdan_al-Razi" title="Abu Hatim Ahmad ibn Hamdan al-Razi">Abu Hatim al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Al Amiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Ikhwan al-Safa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sulayman_Sijistani" title="Abu Sulayman Sijistani">Abu Sulayman Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Masarra" title="Ibn Masarra">Ibn Masarrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_al-Sijistani" title="Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani">Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Ibn Miskawayh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahmany%C4%81r" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmanyār">Bahmanyār</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27ayyad_fi%27l-Din_al-Shirazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi">Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Khusraw" title="Nasir Khusraw">Nasir Khusraw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_al-Din_al-Kirmani" title="Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani">Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afdal_al-Din_Kashani" title="Afdal al-Din Kashani">Afdal al-Din Kashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahi_Evren" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahi Evren">Ahi Evren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoja_Akhmet_Yassawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoja Akhmet Yassawi">Ahmad Yasavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Quzat_Hamadani" title="Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani">Ayn-al-Quzat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayyam" title="Omar Khayyam">Omar Khayyám</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Yahya_ibn_Habash_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi">Suhrawardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_Tabrizi" title="Shams Tabrizi">Shams Tabrizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Bektash_Veli" title="Haji Bektash Veli">Hajji Bektash Wali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sab%27in" title="Ibn Sab'in">Ibn Sab’in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ath%C4%ABr_al-D%C4%ABn_al-Abhar%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Athīr al-Dīn al-Abharī">al-Abharī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadr_al-Din_al-Qunawi" title="Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi">Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th–16th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunus_Emre" title="Yunus Emre">Yunus Emre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Bayram_Veli" title="Haji Bayram Veli">Hajji Bayram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalaladdin_Davani" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalaladdin Davani">Jalaladdin Davani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadr_ad-Din_Dashtaki" title="Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki">Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Hudayi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud Hudayi">Aziz Mahmud Hudayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadi_Mir_Husayn_al-Maybudi" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi">Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Shabestari" title="Mahmoud Shabestari">Mahmud Shabistari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Haydar_Amuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid Haydar Amuli">Sayyid Haydar Amuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daw%C5%ABd_al-Qay%E1%B9%A3ar%C4%AB" title="Dawūd al-Qayṣarī">Dawūd al-Qayṣarī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jami" title="Jami">Jami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th–19th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mir_Damad" title="Mir Damad">Mir Damad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_Fendereski" title="Mir Fendereski">Mir Fendereski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohsen_Fayz_Kashani" title="Mohsen Fayz Kashani">Mohsen Fayz Kashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Razzaq_Lahiji" title="Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji">Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sirhindi" title="Ahmad Sirhindi">Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajab_Ali_Tabrizi" title="Rajab Ali Tabrizi">Rajab Ali Tabrizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qazi_Sa%E2%80%99id_Qumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Qazi Sa’id Qumi">Qazi Sa’id Qumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shah_Waliullah_Dehlawi" title="Shah Waliullah Dehlawi">Shah Waliullah Dehlawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadi_Sabzavari" title="Hadi Sabzavari">Hādī Sabzavārī</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Tabataba%27i" title="Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i">Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riaz_Ahmed_Gohar_Shahi" title="Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi">Gohar Shahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Baqir_al-Sadr" title="Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr">Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ismail_al-Faruqi" title="Ismail al-Faruqi">Ismail al-Faruqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Seyyed Hossein Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syed_Muhammad_Naquib_al-Attas" title="Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas">Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdolkarim_Soroush" title="Abdolkarim Soroush">Abdolkarim Soroush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gholamhossein_Ebrahimi_Dinani" title="Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani">Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Abdurrahman" title="Taha Abdurrahman">Taha Abdurrahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Abed_al-Jabri" title="Mohammed Abed al-Jabri">Mohammed Abed al-Jabri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Arkoun" title="Mohammed Arkoun">Mohammed Arkoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fouad_Zakariyya" title="Fouad Zakariyya">Fouad Zakariyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reza_Davari_Ardakani" title="Reza Davari Ardakani">Reza Davari Ardakani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Fardid" title="Ahmad Fardid">Ahmad Fardid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mostafa_Malekian" title="Mostafa Malekian">Mostafa Malekian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Hassanzadeh_Amoli" title="Hassan Hassanzadeh Amoli">Hasanzadeh Amoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdollah_Javadi-Amoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdollah Javadi-Amoli">Javadi Amoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_Nasir_Hunzai" title="Nasir al-Din Nasir Hunzai">Partawi Shah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: 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