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id="toc-Uriel_da_Costa's_early_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uriel_da_Costa's_early_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.1 Uriel da Costa's early influence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uriel_da_Costa's_early_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-School_days_and_the_family_business" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#School_days_and_the_family_business"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 School days and the family business </div> </a> <ul id="toc-School_days_and_the_family_business-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expulsion_from_the_Jewish_community" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expulsion_from_the_Jewish_community"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Expulsion from the Jewish community </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expulsion_from_the_Jewish_community-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education_and_study_group" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_and_study_group"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Education and study group </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_and_study_group-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Career_as_a_philosopher" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Career_as_a_philosopher"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Career as a philosopher </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Career_as_a_philosopher-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rijnsburg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rijnsburg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.1 Rijnsburg </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rijnsburg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voorburg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voorburg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.2 Voorburg </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voorburg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Hague" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Hague"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.3 The Hague </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Hague-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Correspondence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correspondence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.4 Correspondence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Correspondence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_rescue_of_unpublished_writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_rescue_of_unpublished_writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.5 Death and rescue of unpublished writings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_rescue_of_unpublished_writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Philosophy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Philosophy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus_(TTP)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus_(TTP)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (TTP) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus_(TTP)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metaphysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaphysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Metaphysics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metaphysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Substance,_attributes,_and_modes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substance,_attributes,_and_modes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1.1 Substance, attributes, and modes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substance,_attributes,_and_modes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1.2 Causality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_emotions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_emotions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1.3 The emotions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_emotions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Ethical philosophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethical_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tractatus_Politicus_(Political_Treatise)_(TP)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tractatus_Politicus_(Political_Treatise)_(TP)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Tractatus Politicus (Political Treatise) (TP) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tractatus_Politicus_(Political_Treatise)_(TP)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pantheism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pantheism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Pantheism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pantheism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_philosophical_connections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_philosophical_connections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Other philosophical connections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_philosophical_connections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Modern era </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern era subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reconsideration_of_Spinoza's_expulsion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconsideration_of_Spinoza's_expulsion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Reconsideration of Spinoza's expulsion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconsideration_of_Spinoza's_expulsion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memory_and_memorials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memory_and_memorials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Memory and memorials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memory_and_memorials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Depictions_and_influence_in_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Depictions_and_influence_in_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Depictions and influence in literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Depictions_and_influence_in_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Works </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Works-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Works subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Original_Editions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Original_Editions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Original Editions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Original_Editions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_Editions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_Editions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Contemporary Editions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_Editions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Other works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Baruch Spinoza</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 115 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-115" aria-hidden="true" > 115 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Baruch de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A3%E1%88%A9%E1%8A%AD_%E1%88%B5%E1%8D%92%E1%8A%96%E1%8B%9B" title="ባሩክ ስፒኖዛ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ባሩክ ስፒኖዛ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AE_%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="باروخ سبينوزا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="باروخ سبينوزا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedikt_Spinoza" title="Benedikt Spinoza – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Benedikt Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="باروخ اسپینوزا – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="باروخ اسپینوزا" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%96_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE" title="বারুখ স্পিনোজা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বারুখ স্পিনোজা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Бенедикт Спиноза – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Бенедикт Спиноза" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Бенедыкт Спіноза – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бенедыкт Спіноза" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D1%8C%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Бэнэдыкт Сьпіноза – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Бэнэдыкт Сьпіноза" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Барух Спиноза – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Барух Спиноза" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Бенедикт Спиноза – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Бенедикт Спиноза" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Baruch de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Baruch de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%87_%CE%A3%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C%CE%B6%CE%B1" title="Μπαρούχ Σπινόζα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μπαρούχ Σπινόζα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baru%C4%A5_Spinozo" title="Baruĥ Spinozo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Baruĥ Spinozo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="باروخ اسپینوزا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="باروخ اسپینوزا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Baruch de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Baruch de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%94%EB%A4%BC%ED%9D%90_%EC%8A%A4%ED%94%BC%EB%85%B8%EC%9E%90" title="바뤼흐 스피노자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="바뤼흐 스피노자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%BF_%D5%8D%D5%BA%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%A6%D5%A1" title="Բենեդիկտ Սպինոզա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բենեդիկտ Սպինոզա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A5_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BE" title="बारूथ स्पिनोज़ा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बारूथ स्पिनोज़ा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Baruch de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedictus_de_Spinoza" title="Benedictus de Spinoza – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Benedictus de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Baruch de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedicto_de_Spinoza" title="Benedicto de Spinoza – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Benedicto de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9A_%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%96%D7%94" title="ברוך שפינוזה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ברוך שפינוזה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AE_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%90" title="ბარუხ სპინოზა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბარუხ სპინოზა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Бенедикт Спиноза – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бенедикт Спиноза" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Бенедикт Спиноза – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Бенедикт Спиноза" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedictus_de_Spinoza" title="Benedictus de Spinoza – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Benedictus de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedikts_Spinoza" title="Benedikts Spinoza – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Benedikts Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedict_de_Spinoza" title="Benedict de Spinoza – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Benedict de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinoza" title="Spinoza – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Барух Спиноза – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Барух Спиноза" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B8" title="ബറൂക്ക് സ്പിനോസ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബറൂക്ക് സ്പിനോസ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A5_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE" title="बारुथ स्पिनोझा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बारुथ स्पिनोझा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AE_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%90" title="ბარუხ სპინოზა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბარუხ სპინოზა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="اسبينوزا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="اسبينوزا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="باروخ اسپینوزا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="باروخ اسپینوزا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Бенедикт Спиноза – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бенедикт Спиноза" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%86%E1%80%95%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%87%E1%80%AC" title="ဗာရွတ် ဆပင်နိုဇာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဗာရွတ် ဆပင်နိုဇာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedictus_de_Spinoza" title="Benedictus de Spinoza – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Benedictus de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%95%E3%83%BB%E3%83%87%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B9%E3%83%94%E3%83%8E%E3%82%B6" title="バールーフ・デ・スピノザ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="バールーフ・デ・スピノザ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Baruch de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Baruch de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਸਪੀਨੋਜ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਪੀਨੋਜ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="سپینوزا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سپینوزا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%86_%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="باروچ سپینوزا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="باروچ سپینوزا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Baruch de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Espinoza" title="Baruch Espinoza – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Baruch Espinoza" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0,_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Спиноза, Бенедикт – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Спиноза, Бенедикт" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_de_Spinoza" title="Baruch de Spinoza – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Baruch de Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruk_Spinoza" title="Baruk Spinoza – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Baruk Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%88%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="برووخ اسپنوزا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="برووخ اسپنوزا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AE_%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%86%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="باروخ سپینۆزا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="باروخ سپینۆزا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Барух Спиноза – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Барух Спиноза" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE" title="பரூக் இசுப்பினோசா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பரூக் இசுப்பினோசா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrux_Spinu%E1%BA%93a" title="Barrux Spinuẓa – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Barrux Spinuẓa" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Бенедикт Спиноза – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Бенедикт Спиноза" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%9A%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE" title="బరూచ్ స్పినోజా – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బరూచ్ స్పినోజా" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84_%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B2" title="บารุค สปิโนซา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="บารุค สปิโนซา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Бенедикт Спіноза – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бенедикт Спіноза" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7" title="اسپینوزا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اسپینوزا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bendito_Spinoza" title="Bendito Spinoza – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Bendito Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E9%AD%AF%E8%B5%AB%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E8%B3%93%E8%AB%BE%E8%8E%8E" title="巴魯赫·斯賓諾莎 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="巴魯赫·斯賓諾莎" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9A_%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%96%D7%90" title="ברוך שפינאזא – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ברוך שפינאזא" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Baruch Spinoza" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E8%B3%93%E8%AB%BE%E6%B2%99" title="史賓諾沙 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="史賓諾沙" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedikts_Spinuoza" title="Benedikts Spinuoza – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Benedikts Spinuoza" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E9%AD%AF%E8%B5%AB%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E8%B3%93%E8%AB%BE%E8%8E%8E" title="巴魯赫·斯賓諾莎 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="巴魯赫·斯賓諾莎" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q35802#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Spinoza_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Spinoza (disambiguation)">Spinoza (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Baruch Spinoza</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Spinoza.jpg/220px-Spinoza.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Spinoza.jpg/330px-Spinoza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Spinoza.jpg/440px-Spinoza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1377" data-file-height="1600" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Baruch Espinosa<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler199945-10">[9]</a> / Bento de Spinosa<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler1999119-11">[10]</a></div> (1632-11-24)24 November 1632 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">21 February 1677(1677-02-21) (aged 44) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>, Dutch Republic</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data nickname">Benedictus de Spinoza</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Talmud Torah</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Leiden" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Leiden">University of Leiden</a> (no degree)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdler201427-12">[11]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="17th-century philosophy">17th-century philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarber2015121-1">[1]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewlands201764-2">[2]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence theory of truth</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct realism">Direct realism</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoistinen2018288-6">[5]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> (according to <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKreines201525-7">[6]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Egoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological Egoism">Psychological Egoism</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYovel1989b3-9">[8]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza%27s_signature_(1664).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Spinoza%27s_signature_%281664%29.svg/150px-Spinoza%27s_signature_%281664%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Spinoza%27s_signature_%281664%29.svg/225px-Spinoza%27s_signature_%281664%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Spinoza%27s_signature_%281664%29.svg/300px-Spinoza%27s_signature_%281664%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="73" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> Baruch (de) Spinoza<a href="#cite_note-16">[b]</a> (24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677), also known under his Latinized pen name Benedictus de Spinoza, was a philosopher of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Portuguese-Jewish</a> origin. A forerunner of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, Spinoza significantly influenced modern <a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">biblical criticism</a>, 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, and Dutch intellectual culture, establishing himself as one of the most important and radical philosophers of the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018xiii–xiv-17">[15]</a> Influenced by <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAttar200752-19">[17]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heterodoxy" title="Heterodoxy">heterodox</a> Christians, Spinoza was a leading philosopher of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Dutch Golden Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael202363-20">[18]</a> Spinoza was born in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">Marrano</a> family that fled <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a> for the more tolerant <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>. He received a traditional Jewish education, learning <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and studying sacred texts within the Portuguese Jewish community, where his father was a prominent merchant. As a young man, Spinoza challenged rabbinic authority and questioned Jewish doctrines, leading to his <a href="/wiki/Herem_(censure)" title="Herem (censure)">permanent expulsion</a> from the Jewish community in 1656. Following his excommunication, he distanced himself from all religious affiliations and devoted himself to philosophical inquiry and lens grinding. Spinoza attracted a dedicated circle of followers who gathered to discuss his writings and joined him in the intellectual pursuit of truth. Spinoza published little to avoid persecution and bans on his books. In his <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus" title="Tractatus Theologico-Politicus">Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</a>, described by <a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Steven Nadler</a> as "one of the most important books of Western thought", Spinoza questioned the divine origin of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> and the nature of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> while arguing that ecclesiastic authority should have no role in a secular, democratic state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2011xi–xii-21">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018332-22">[20]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a> argues for a <a href="/wiki/Pantheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantheistic">pantheistic</a> view of God and explores the place of human freedom in a world devoid of theological, cosmological, and political moorings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2006308-23">[21]</a> Rejecting messianism and the emphasis on the afterlife, Spinoza emphasized appreciating and valuing life for oneself and others. By advocating for individual liberty in its moral, psychological, and metaphysical dimensions, Spinoza helped establish the genre of political writing called <a href="/wiki/Secular_theology" title="Secular theology">secular theology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith19972–3-24">[22]</a> Spinoza's philosophy spans nearly every area of philosophical discourse, including <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Political Philosophy">political philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of Mind">philosophy of mind</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of Science">philosophy of science</a>. His friends posthumously published his works, captivating philosophers for the next two centuries. Celebrated as one of the most original and influential thinkers of the seventeenth century, <a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Goldstein" title="Rebecca Goldstein">Rebecca Goldstein</a> dubbed him "the renegade Jew who gave us modernity."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein2006i-25">[23]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mozes_en_Aaronkerk_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Mozes_en_Aaronkerk_1.jpg/200px-Mozes_en_Aaronkerk_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Mozes_en_Aaronkerk_1.jpg/300px-Mozes_en_Aaronkerk_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Mozes_en_Aaronkerk_1.jpg/400px-Mozes_en_Aaronkerk_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2307" data-file-height="3029" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mozes_en_A%C3%A4ronkerk" title="Mozes en Aäronkerk">Moses and Aaron Church</a> now stands at the site of Spinoza's childhood home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023115-26">[24]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_background">Family background</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Family background">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Amsterdam" title="History of the Jews in Amsterdam">History of the Jews in Amsterdam</a></div> Spinoza's ancestors, adherents of <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Judaism</a>, faced persecution during the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition" title="Portuguese Inquisition">Portuguese Inquisition</a>, enduring torture and public displays of humiliation. In 1597, his paternal grandfather's family left <a href="/wiki/Vidigueira" title="Vidigueira">Vidigueira</a> for <a href="/wiki/Nantes" title="Nantes">Nantes</a> and lived outwardly as <a href="/wiki/New_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="New Christians">New Christians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael202385–87-27">[25]</a> eventually transferring to Holland for an unknown reason.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023134-28">[26]</a> His maternal ancestors were a leading <a href="/wiki/Oporto" class="mw-redirect" title="Oporto">Oporto</a> commercial family,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael202388-29">[27]</a> and his maternal grandfather was a foremost merchant who drifted between Judaism and Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023299-30">[28]</a> Spinoza was raised by his grandmother from ages six to nine and probably learned much about his family history from her.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023124-31">[29]</a> Spinoza's father Michael was a prominent and wealthy merchant in Amsterdam with a business that had wide geographical reach.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023158-32">[30]</a> In 1649, he was elected to serve as an administrative officer of the recently united congregation <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Synagogue_(Amsterdam)" title="Portuguese Synagogue (Amsterdam)">Talmud Torah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023144-33">[31]</a> He married his cousin Rachael d'Espinosa, daughter of his uncle Abraham d'Espinosa, who was also a community leader and Michael's business partner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023140-34">[32]</a> Marrying cousins was common in the Portuguese Jewish community then, giving Michael access to his father-in-law's commercial network and capital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023140-41-35">[33]</a> Rachel's children died in infancy, and she died in 1627.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler201838-36">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023140-41-35">[33]</a> After the death of Rachel, Michael married Hannah Deborah, with whom he had five children. His second wife brought a dowry to the marriage that was absorbed into Michael's business capital instead of being set aside for her children, which may have caused a grudge between Spinoza and his father.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023183-37">[35]</a> The family lived on the artificial island on the south side of the River Amstel, known as the <a href="/wiki/Vlooienburg" title="Vlooienburg">Vlooienburg</a>, at the fifth house along the <a href="/wiki/Houtgracht" title="Houtgracht">Houtgracht</a> canal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023115-26">[24]</a> The Jewish quarter was not formally divided. The family lived close to the Bet Ya'acov synagogue, and nearby were Christians, including the artist <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023117-38">[36]</a> Miriam was their first child, followed by Isaac who was expected to take over as head of the family and the commercial enterprise but died in 1649.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023183-37">[35]</a> Baruch Espinosa, the third child, was born on 24 November 1632 and named as per tradition for his maternal grandfather.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler199945-10">[9]</a> Spinoza's younger brother Gabriel was born in 1634, followed by another sister Rebecca. Miriam married <a href="/wiki/Caceres_family" title="Caceres family">Samuel de Caceres</a> but died shortly after childbirth. According to Jewish practice, Samuel had to marry his former sister-in-law Rebecca.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023185-39">[37]</a> Following his brother's death, Spinoza's place as head of the family and its business meant scholarly ambitions were pushed aside.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023158-32">[30]</a> Spinoza's mother, Hannah Deborah, died when Spinoza was six years old. Michael's third wife, Esther, raised Spinoza from age nine; she lacked formal Jewish knowledge due to growing up a New Christian and only spoke Portuguese at home. The marriage was childless.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023145-46-40">[38]</a> Spinoza's sister Rebecca, brother Gabriel, and nephew eventually migrated to <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cura%C3%A7ao" title="History of the Jews in Curaçao">Curaçao</a>, and the remaining family joined them after Spinoza's death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023185-39">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Uriel_da_Costa's_early_influence">Uriel da Costa's early influence</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Uriel da Costa's early influence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dacosta_und_Spinoza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Dacosta_und_Spinoza.jpg/240px-Dacosta_und_Spinoza.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Dacosta_und_Spinoza.jpg/360px-Dacosta_und_Spinoza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Dacosta_und_Spinoza.jpg/480px-Dacosta_und_Spinoza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hirszenberg" title="Samuel Hirszenberg">Samuel Hirszenberg</a>'s imagined scene of Uriel da Costa instructing Spinoza (1901)</figcaption></figure> Through his mother, Spinoza was related to the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Uriel_da_Costa" title="Uriel da Costa">Uriel da Costa</a>, who stirred controversy in Amsterdam's Portuguese Jewish community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023159-41">[39]</a> Da Costa questioned traditional Christian and Jewish beliefs, asserting that, for example, their origins were based on human inventions instead of God's revelation. His clashes with the religious establishment led to his excommunication twice by rabbinic authorities, who imposed humiliation and social exclusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023160-42">[40]</a> In 1639, as part of an agreement to be readmitted, da Costa had to prostrate himself for worshippers to step over him. He died in 1640, reportedly committing suicide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023161-43">[41]</a> During his childhood, Spinoza was likely unaware of his family connection with Uriel da Costa; still, as a teenager, he certainly heard discussions about him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael202390-44">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Steven Nadler</a> explains that, although da Costa died when Spinoza was eight, his ideas shaped Spinoza's intellectual development. Amsterdam's Jewish communities long remembered and discussed da Costa's skepticism about organized religion, denial of the soul's immortality, and the idea that Moses didn't write the Torah, influencing Spinoza's intellectual journey.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler201884-45">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="School_days_and_the_family_business">School days and the family business</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: School days and the family business">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baruch_Espinosa_crossed_out_from_pupil_list,_Ets_Haim,_Amsterdam,_17th_century.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Baruch_Espinosa_crossed_out_from_pupil_list%2C_Ets_Haim%2C_Amsterdam%2C_17th_century.jpeg/220px-Baruch_Espinosa_crossed_out_from_pupil_list%2C_Ets_Haim%2C_Amsterdam%2C_17th_century.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Baruch_Espinosa_crossed_out_from_pupil_list%2C_Ets_Haim%2C_Amsterdam%2C_17th_century.jpeg/330px-Baruch_Espinosa_crossed_out_from_pupil_list%2C_Ets_Haim%2C_Amsterdam%2C_17th_century.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Baruch_Espinosa_crossed_out_from_pupil_list%2C_Ets_Haim%2C_Amsterdam%2C_17th_century.jpeg/440px-Baruch_Espinosa_crossed_out_from_pupil_list%2C_Ets_Haim%2C_Amsterdam%2C_17th_century.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1742" data-file-height="404" /></a><figcaption>Spinoza's name crossed out on the list of pupils of Talmud Torah</figcaption></figure> Spinoza attended the Talmud Torah school adjoining the Bet Ya'acov synagogue, a few doors down from his home, headed by the senior Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Saul_Levi_Morteira" title="Saul Levi Morteira">Saul Levi Morteira</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023148–49-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler199965–66-47">[45]</a> Instructed in Spanish, the language of learning and literature, students in the elementary school learned to read the prayerbook and the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> in Hebrew, translate the weekly section into Spanish, and study <a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a>'s commentary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler201872–75-48">[46]</a> Spinoza's name does not appear on the registry after age fourteen, and he likely never studied with rabbis such as <a href="/wiki/Manasseh_ben_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Manasseh ben Israel">Manasseh ben Israel</a> and Morteira. Spinoza possibly went to work around fourteen and almost certainly was needed in his father's business after his brother died in 1649.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler201893-49">[47]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="First Anglo-Dutch War">First Anglo-Dutch War</a>, much of the Spinoza firm's ships and cargo were captured by <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">English</a> ships, severely affecting the firm's financial viability. The firm was saddled with debt by the war's end in 1654 due to its merchant voyages being intercepted by the English, leading to its decline.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018100–101-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023206-51">[49]</a> Spinoza's father died in 1654, making him the head of the family, responsible for organizing and leading the Jewish mourning rituals, and in a business partnership with his brother of their inherited firm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023204–05-52">[50]</a> As Spinoza's father had poor health for some years before his death, he was significantly involved in the business, putting his intellectual curiosity on hold.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023205–06-53">[51]</a> Until 1656, he continued financially supporting the synagogue and attending services in compliance with synagogue conventions and practice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023210-54">[52]</a> By 1655, the family's wealth had evaporated and the business effectively ended.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023205–06-53">[51]</a> In March 1656, Spinoza went to the city authorities for protection against debts in the Portuguese Jewish community. To free himself from the responsibility of paying debts owed by his late father, Spinoza appealed to the city to declare him an orphan;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler200125-55">[53]</a> since he was a legal minor, not understanding his father's indebtedness would remove the obligation to repay his debts and retrospectively renounce his inheritance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023220–22-56">[54]</a> Though he was released of all debts and legally in the right, his reputation as a merchant was permanently damaged in addition to violating a synagogue regulation that business matters are to be arbitrated within the community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023222-57">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler200125-55">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expulsion_from_the_Jewish_community">Expulsion from the Jewish community</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Expulsion from the Jewish community">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hirszenberg,_Spinoza_wykl%C3%AAty_(Excommunicated_Spinoza),_1907.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Hirszenberg%2C_Spinoza_wykl%C3%AAty_%28Excommunicated_Spinoza%29%2C_1907.jpg/220px-Hirszenberg%2C_Spinoza_wykl%C3%AAty_%28Excommunicated_Spinoza%29%2C_1907.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Hirszenberg%2C_Spinoza_wykl%C3%AAty_%28Excommunicated_Spinoza%29%2C_1907.jpg/330px-Hirszenberg%2C_Spinoza_wykl%C3%AAty_%28Excommunicated_Spinoza%29%2C_1907.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Hirszenberg%2C_Spinoza_wykl%C3%AAty_%28Excommunicated_Spinoza%29%2C_1907.jpg/440px-Hirszenberg%2C_Spinoza_wykl%C3%AAty_%28Excommunicated_Spinoza%29%2C_1907.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3138" data-file-height="2404" /></a><figcaption>Excommunicated Spinoza by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hirszenberg" title="Samuel Hirszenberg">Samuel Hirszenberg</a> (1907), the second of his two modern paintings imagining scenes of Spinoza's life.</figcaption></figure> Amsterdam was tolerant of religious diversity so long as it was practiced discreetly. The community was concerned with protecting its reputation and not associating with Spinoza lest his controversial views provide the basis for possible persecution or expulsion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler200117–22-58">[56]</a> Spinoza did not openly break with Jewish authorities until his father died in 1654 when he became public and defiant, resulting from lengthy and stressful religious, financial, and legal clashes involving his business and synagogue, such as when Spinoza violated synagogue regulations by going to city authorities rather than resolving his disputes within the community to free himself from paying his father's debt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler200125-55">[53]</a> On 27 July, 1656, the Talmud Torah community leaders, which included <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Aboab_da_Fonseca" title="Isaac Aboab da Fonseca">Aboab de Fonseca</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael202374-59">[57]</a> issued a writ of <a href="/wiki/Herem_(censure)" title="Herem (censure)">herem</a> against the 23-year-old Spinoza.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScruton200221-60">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETouber201845-61">[59]</a> Spinoza's censure was the harshest ever pronounced in the community, carrying tremendous emotional and spiritual impact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler20012–7-62">[60]</a> The exact reason for expelling Spinoza is not stated, only referring to his "abominable heresies", "monstrous deeds", and the testimony of witnesses "in the presence of the said Espinoza".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2003xx-63">[61]</a> Even though the Amsterdam municipal authorities were not directly involved in Spinoza's censure, the town council expressly ordered the Portuguese-Jewish community to regulate their conduct and ensure that the community kept strict observance of Jewish law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler200119-64">[62]</a> Other evidence indicates a concern about upsetting civil authorities, such as the synagogue's bans on public weddings, funeral processions, and discussing religious matters with Christians, lest such activity might "disturb the liberty we enjoy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler200120-65">[63]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ban_of_Baruch_Spinoza,_Amsterdam,_27_July_1656,_6_Av_5416.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Ban_of_Baruch_Spinoza%2C_Amsterdam%2C_27_July_1656%2C_6_Av_5416.jpg/220px-Ban_of_Baruch_Spinoza%2C_Amsterdam%2C_27_July_1656%2C_6_Av_5416.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Ban_of_Baruch_Spinoza%2C_Amsterdam%2C_27_July_1656%2C_6_Av_5416.jpg/330px-Ban_of_Baruch_Spinoza%2C_Amsterdam%2C_27_July_1656%2C_6_Av_5416.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Ban_of_Baruch_Spinoza%2C_Amsterdam%2C_27_July_1656%2C_6_Av_5416.jpg/440px-Ban_of_Baruch_Spinoza%2C_Amsterdam%2C_27_July_1656%2C_6_Av_5416.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1066" /></a><figcaption>Text of Spinoza's expulsion on 6 Av 5416 (27 July 1656)</figcaption></figure> Before the expulsion, Spinoza had not published anything or written a treatise; <a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Steven Nadler</a> states that if Spinoza was voicing his criticism of Judaism that later appeared through his philosophical works, such as Part I of <a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a>, then there can be no wonder that he was severely punished.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler200116-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018160-67">[65]</a> Unlike most censures issued by the Amsterdam congregation, it was never rescinded since the censure did not lead to repentance. After the censure, Spinoza may have written an <a href="/wiki/Apologia" title="Apologia">Apologia</a> in Spanish defending his views, but it is now lost.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScruton200222-68">[66]</a> Spinoza's expulsion did not lead him to convert to Christianity or belong to a confessional religion or sect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018338-69">[67]</a> From 1656 to 1661, Spinoza found lodgings elsewhere in Amsterdam and Leiden, supporting himself with teaching while learning lens grinding and constructing microscopes and telescopes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023243-70">[68]</a> Spinoza did not maintain a sense of Jewish identity; he argued that without adherence to Jewish law, the Jewish people lacked a sustaining source of difference and identity, rendering the notion of a secular Jew incoherent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2011167-71">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_and_study_group">Education and study group</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Education and study group">edit</a>]</div> Sometime between 1654 and 1657, Spinoza started studying Latin with political radical <a href="/wiki/Franciscus_van_den_Enden" title="Franciscus van den Enden">Franciscus van den Enden</a>, a former <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> and atheist, who likely introduced Spinoza to scholastic and modern philosophy, including Descartes, who had a dominant influence on Spinoza's philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018129–30-72">[70]</a> While boarding with Van den Enden, Spinoza studied in his school, where he learned the arts and sciences and likely taught others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018125–26-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023229–30-74">[72]</a> Many of his friends were either secularized freethinkers or belonged to dissident Christian groups that rejected the authority of established churches and traditional dogmas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023342-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018164-76">[74]</a> Spinoza was acquainted with members of the <a href="/wiki/Collegiants" title="Collegiants">Collegiants</a>, a group of disaffected <a href="/wiki/Mennonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Mennonite">Mennonites</a> and other dissenting Reformed sects that shunned official theology and must have played some role in Spinoza's developing views on religion and directed him to Van Enden.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018168-77">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Israel" title="Jonathan Israel">Jonathan Israel</a> conjectures that another possible influential figure was atheist translator <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hendriksz_Glazemaker" title="Jan Hendriksz Glazemaker">Jan Hendriksz Glazemaker</a>, a collaborator of Spinoza's friend and publisher Rieuwertsz, who could not have mentored Spinoza but was in a unique position to introduce Spinoza to Cartesian philosophy, mathematics, and lens grinding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023338–39-78">[76]</a> After learning Latin with Van Enden, Spinoza studied at <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a> around 1658,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018184-79">[77]</a> where he audited classes in Cartesian philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-81">[c]</a> From 1656 to 1661, Spinoza's main discussion partners who formed his circle and played a formative part in Spinoza's life were Van den Enden, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pieter_Balling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pieter Balling (page does not exist)">Pieter Balling</a>, Jarig Jelles, <a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Lodewijk Meyer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bouwmeester" title="Johannes Bouwmeester">Johannes Bouwmeester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Adriaan Koerbagh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023333–38-82">[79]</a> Spinoza's following, or philosophical sect,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023322-83">[80]</a> scrutinized the propositions of the Ethics while it was in draft and Spinoza's second text, Short Treatise on God, Man, and His Well-Being.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023330-84">[81]</a> Though a few prominent people in Amsterdam discussed the teachings of the secretive but marginal group, it was mainly a testing ground for Spinoza's philosophy to extend his challenge to the status quo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023350-85">[82]</a> Their public reputation in Amsterdam was negative, with <a href="/wiki/Ole_Borch" title="Ole Borch">Ole Borch</a> disparaging them as "atheists".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023344-86">[83]</a> Throughout his life, Spinoza's general approach was to avoid intellectual battles, clashes, and public controversies, viewing them as a waste of energy that served no real purpose.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023343-87">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Career_as_a_philosopher">Career as a philosopher</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Career as a philosopher">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rijnsburg">Rijnsburg</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rijnsburg">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza_museum_Rijnsburg_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Spinoza_museum_Rijnsburg_2.jpg/220px-Spinoza_museum_Rijnsburg_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Spinoza_museum_Rijnsburg_2.jpg/330px-Spinoza_museum_Rijnsburg_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Spinoza_museum_Rijnsburg_2.jpg/440px-Spinoza_museum_Rijnsburg_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Spinoza's lodging in Rijnsburg, now a museum</figcaption></figure> Between 1660 and 1661, Spinoza moved from Amsterdam to <a href="/wiki/Rijnsburg" title="Rijnsburg">Rijnsburg</a>, allowing for a quiet retreat in the country and access to the university town, Leiden, where he still had many friends.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018214-88">[85]</a> Around this time, he wrote his Short Treatise on God, Man, and His Well-Being, which he never published in his lifetime, thinking it would enrage the theologians, synods, and city magistrates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023456-89">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018225-90">[87]</a> The Short Treatise, a long-forgotten text that only survived in Dutch translation, was first published by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_van_Vloten" title="Johannes van Vloten">Johannes van Vloten</a> in 1862.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023330-84">[81]</a> While lodging with Herman Homan in Rijnsburg, Spinoza produced lenses and instruments to support himself and out of scientific interest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018215–16-91">[88]</a> He began working on his Ethics and Descartes' Principles of Philosophy, which he completed in two weeks, communicating and interpreting Descartes' arguments and testing the water for his metaphysical and ethical ideas. Spinoza's explanations of essential elements of the Cartesian system helped many interested people study the system, enhancing his philosophical reputation. This work was published in 1663 and was one of the two works published in his lifetime under his name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018243–45-92">[89]</a> Spinoza led a modest and frugal lifestyle, earning income by polishing lenses and crafting telescopes and microscopes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018215-93">[90]</a> He also relied on the generous contributions of his friends to support himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018305-94">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Voorburg">Voorburg</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Voorburg">edit</a>]</div> In 1663, Spinoza moved to <a href="/wiki/Voorburg" title="Voorburg">Voorburg</a> for an unknown reason. He continued working on Ethics and corresponded with scientists and philosophers throughout Europe. In 1665,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018264-95">[92]</a> he began writing the Theological-Political Treatise, which addresses theological and political issues such as the interpretation of scripture, the origins of the state, and the bounds of political and religious authority while arguing for a secular, democratic state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018290-96">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018332-22">[20]</a> Before the publication of the Theological-Political Treatise, Spinoza's friend <a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Adriaan Koerbagh</a> published a book that criticized organized religion, denied the divine authorship of the Bible, and asserted that miracles were impossible—ideas similar to those of Spinoza.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018309–11-97">[94]</a> His work attracted the attention of the authorities, leading to his imprisonment and eventual death in prison. Anticipating the reaction to his ideas, Spinoza published his treatise in 1670 under a false publisher and a fictitious place of publication.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018314-98">[95]</a> The work did not remain anonymous for long.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018339-99">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Maresius" title="Samuel Maresius">Samuel Maresius</a> attacked Spinoza personally, while <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bredenburg" title="Johannes Bredenburg">Johannes Bredenburg</a> criticized his conception of God and saw the book as dangerous and subversive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018343-100">[97]</a> Spinoza's work was safer than Koerbagh's because it was written in Latin, a language not widely understood by the general public, and Spinoza explicitly forbade its translation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018346-101">[98]</a> The secular authorities varied enforcing the Reformed Church in Amsterdam's orders to ban the distribution of the blasphemous book.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018344-102">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Hague">The Hague</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Hague">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza_House,_The_Hague_(2016)_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Spinoza_House%2C_The_Hague_%282016%29_01.png/220px-Spinoza_House%2C_The_Hague_%282016%29_01.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Spinoza_House%2C_The_Hague_%282016%29_01.png/330px-Spinoza_House%2C_The_Hague_%282016%29_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Spinoza_House%2C_The_Hague_%282016%29_01.png/440px-Spinoza_House%2C_The_Hague_%282016%29_01.png 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="1275" /></a><figcaption>Spinoza's house in The Hague, where he died</figcaption></figure> In 1670, Spinoza moved to <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> to have easier access to the city's intellectual life and to be closer to his friends and followers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018334-103">[100]</a> As he became more famous, Spinoza spent time receiving visitors and responding to letters. He returned to the manuscript of Ethics, reworking part Three into parts Four and Five, and composed a Hebrew grammar for proper interpretation of scripture and for clearing up confusion and problems when studying the Bible, with part One presenting etymology, the alphabet, and principles governing nouns, verbs, and more. Part Two, unfinished before he died, would have presented syntax rules.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018375–79-104">[101]</a> Another unfinished work from 1676 was <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Politicus" title="Tractatus Politicus">Tractatus Politicus</a>, which concerns how states can function well and intended to show that democratic states are best.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018399-105">[102]</a> Spinoza refused an offer to be the chair of philosophy at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Heidelberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Heidelberg">University of Heidelberg</a>, perhaps because of the possibility that it might curb his <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">freedom of thought</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018363-106">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Correspondence">Correspondence</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Correspondence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Epistolae_(Spinoza)" title="Epistolae (Spinoza)">Epistolae (Spinoza)</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Epistolae_(Letters)_of_Spinoza" title="List of Epistolae (Letters) of Spinoza">List of Epistolae (Letters) of Spinoza</a></div> Few of Spinoza's letters are extant, and none before 1661.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018xiii-107">[104]</a> Nearly all the contents are philosophical and technical because the original editors of Opera Posthuma—a collection of his works published posthumously—Lodewijk Meyer, Georg Hermann Schuller, and Johannes Bouwmeester, excluded personal matters and letters due to the political and ecclesiastical persecution of the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirley2002755-108">[105]</a> Spinoza corresponded with <a href="/wiki/Peter_Serrarius" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Serrarius">Peter Serrarius</a>, a radical Protestant and <a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">millenarian</a> merchant, who was a patron of Spinoza after his expulsion from the Jewish community. He acted as an intermediary for Spinoza's correspondence, sending and receiving letters of the philosopher to and from third parties. They maintained their relationship until Serrarius died in 1669.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopkin1999381-109">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018296-110">[107]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza_Letter_to_Leibniz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Spinoza_Letter_to_Leibniz.jpg/220px-Spinoza_Letter_to_Leibniz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Spinoza_Letter_to_Leibniz.jpg/330px-Spinoza_Letter_to_Leibniz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Spinoza_Letter_to_Leibniz.jpg/440px-Spinoza_Letter_to_Leibniz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>Letter from Spinoza to Leibniz, with his BdS seal</figcaption></figure> Through his pursuits in lens grinding, mathematics, optics, and philosophy, Spinoza forged connections with prominent figures such as scientist <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>, mathematician <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Hudde" title="Johannes Hudde">Johannes Hudde</a>, and Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/British_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="British Royal Society">British Royal Society</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Oldenburg" title="Henry Oldenburg">Henry Oldenburg</a>. Huygens and others notably praised the quality of Spinoza's lenses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018259–61-111">[108]</a> Spinoza engaged in correspondence with <a href="/wiki/Willem_van_Blijenbergh" title="Willem van Blijenbergh">Willem van Blijenbergh</a>, an amateur <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinist</a> theologian, who sought Spinoza's view on the nature of evil and sin. Whereas Blijenbergh deferred to the authority of scripture for theology and philosophy, Spinoza told him not solely to look at scripture for truth or anthropomorphize God. Also, Spinoza told him their views were incommensurable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018252–54-112">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> outwardly described Spinoza's work negatively but privately wrote letters to him and desired to examine the manuscript of the Ethics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200611–12-113">[110]</a> In 1676, Leibniz traveled to The Hague to meet Spinoza, remaining with him for three days to converse about current events and philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200614–15-114">[111]</a> Leibniz's work bears some striking resemblances to parts of Spinoza's philosophy, like in <a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a>. Leibniz was concerned when his name was not redacted in a letter printed in the Opera Posthuma.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuruma2024166–67-115">[112]</a> In 1675, Albert Burgh, a friend and possibly former pupil of Spinoza, wrote to him repudiating his teachings and announcing his conversion to the Catholic Church. Burgh attacked Spinoza's views as expressed in the Theological-Political Treatise and tried to persuade Spinoza to embrace Catholicism. In response, Spinoza, at the request of Burgh's family, who hoped to restore his reason, wrote an angry letter mocking the Catholic Church and condemning all religious superstition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018390–93-116">[113]</a> Spinoza published little in his lifetime, and most formal writings were in Latin, reaching few readers. Apart from Descartes' Principles of Philosophy and the Theologico-Political Treatise, his works appeared in print after his death. Because the reaction to his anonymously published work, Theologico-Political Treatise, was unfavorable, Spinoza told supporters not to translate his works and abstained from publishing further.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018346-101">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2006106-117">[114]</a> Following his death, his supporters published his works posthumously in Latin and Dutch. His posthumous works–Opera Posthuma–were edited by his friends in secrecy to prevent the confiscation and destruction of manuscripts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael202322-118">[115]</a> He wore a <a href="/wiki/Signet_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Signet ring">signet ring</a> to mark his letters, engraved with the Latin word Caute, meaning "Caution", and the image of a thorny rose.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2006106-117">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Death_and_rescue_of_unpublished_writings">Death and rescue of unpublished writings</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Death and rescue of unpublished writings">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Den_Haag_-_Nieuwe_Kerk_-_Burial_Monument_to_Benedictus_de_Spinoza_-_Baruch_de_Spinoza_-_Benedict_de_Spinoza_-_Benedito_de_Espinosa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Den_Haag_-_Nieuwe_Kerk_-_Burial_Monument_to_Benedictus_de_Spinoza_-_Baruch_de_Spinoza_-_Benedict_de_Spinoza_-_Benedito_de_Espinosa.jpg/220px-Den_Haag_-_Nieuwe_Kerk_-_Burial_Monument_to_Benedictus_de_Spinoza_-_Baruch_de_Spinoza_-_Benedict_de_Spinoza_-_Benedito_de_Espinosa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Den_Haag_-_Nieuwe_Kerk_-_Burial_Monument_to_Benedictus_de_Spinoza_-_Baruch_de_Spinoza_-_Benedict_de_Spinoza_-_Benedito_de_Espinosa.jpg/330px-Den_Haag_-_Nieuwe_Kerk_-_Burial_Monument_to_Benedictus_de_Spinoza_-_Baruch_de_Spinoza_-_Benedict_de_Spinoza_-_Benedito_de_Espinosa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Den_Haag_-_Nieuwe_Kerk_-_Burial_Monument_to_Benedictus_de_Spinoza_-_Baruch_de_Spinoza_-_Benedict_de_Spinoza_-_Benedito_de_Espinosa.jpg/440px-Den_Haag_-_Nieuwe_Kerk_-_Burial_Monument_to_Benedictus_de_Spinoza_-_Baruch_de_Spinoza_-_Benedict_de_Spinoza_-_Benedito_de_Espinosa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3976" data-file-height="2652" /></a><figcaption>Spinoza's memorial plaque in the churchyard of the <a href="/wiki/Nieuwe_Kerk_(The_Hague)" title="Nieuwe Kerk (The Hague)">Nieuwe Kerk</a>. When he was buried, no tombstone or plaque was prepared. His vault was close to <a href="/wiki/Johan_de_Witt" title="Johan de Witt">Johan de Witt</a>'s remains.</figcaption></figure> Spinoza's health began to fail in 1676, and he died in The Hague on 21 February 1677 at age 44, attended by a physician friend, Georg Herman Schuller. Spinoza had been ill with some form of lung affliction, probably <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> and possibly complicated by <a href="/wiki/Silicosis" title="Silicosis">silicosis</a> brought on by grinding glass lenses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGullan-Whur1998317–18-119">[116]</a> Although Spinoza had been becoming sicker for weeks, his death was sudden, and he died without leaving a will.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael20231150–1151-120">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018406-121">[118]</a> Reports circulated that he repented his philosophical stances on his deathbed, but these tales petered out in the 18th century. Lutheran preacher Johannes Colerus wrote the first biography of Spinoza for the original reason of researching his final days.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael20231155-122">[119]</a> By the time of his death, he had never married and had no children.<a href="#cite_note-x962-123">[120]</a> Spinoza was buried inside the <a href="/wiki/Nieuwe_Kerk_(The_Hague)" title="Nieuwe Kerk (The Hague)">Nieuwe Kerk</a> four days after his death, with six others in the same vault. At the time, there was no memorial plaque for Spinoza. In the 18th century, the vault was emptied, and the remnants scattered over the earth of the churchyard. The memorial plaque is outside the church, where some of his remains are part of the churchyard's soil.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael20231158-124">[121]</a> Spinoza's friends rescued his personal belongings, papers, and unpublished manuscripts. His supporters took them away for safekeeping from seizure by those wishing to suppress his writings, and they do not appear in the inventory of his possessions at death. Within a year of his death, his supporters translated his Latin manuscripts into Dutch and other languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018409-125">[122]</a> Secular authorities and later the Roman Catholic Church banned his works.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael19963-126">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETotaro2015321–22-127">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Philosophy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Guide for the Perplexed"><img alt="Guide for the Perplexed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg/175px-Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg/263px-Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg/350px-Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="768" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Positions: <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasmoneans" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmoneans">Hasmonean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisee</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Boethusians" title="Boethusians">Boethusian</a></li></ul></div></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">People: <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_of_Alexandria" title="Aristobulus of Alexandria">Aristobulus of Alexandria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in the Middle Ages">Medieval</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Influenced by: <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Brethren of Purity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajjah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajjah">Ibn Bajjah (Avempace)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ismailism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ismailism">Ismaili philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Kalam" title="Jewish Kalam">Jewish Kalam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Spanish and European: <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasdai_ibn_Shaprut" title="Hasdai ibn Shaprut">Hasdai ibn Shaprut</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Ibn Gabirol</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_bar_Hiyya" title="Abraham bar Hiyya">Abraham bar Hiyya</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bahya_ibn_Paquda" title="Bahya ibn Paquda">Bahya ibn Paquda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud" title="Abraham ibn Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_ibn_Tzaddik" title="Joseph ibn Tzaddik">Joseph ibn Tzaddik</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra" title="Abraham ibn Ezra">Abraham ibn Ezra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nachmanides" title="Nachmanides">Nachmanides</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_ibn_Tibbon" title="Samuel ibn Tibbon">Samuel ibn Tibbon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_ben_Judah_of_Ceuta" title="Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta">Joseph ben Judah</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shem-Tov_ibn_Falaquera" title="Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera">Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Moses_ben_Joshua" title="Moses ben Joshua">Moses of Narbonne</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_ben_Sheshet" title="Isaac ben Sheshet">Isaac ben Sheshet</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Albo" title="Joseph Albo">Joseph Albo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Elia_del_Medigo" title="Elia del Medigo">Elia del Medigo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Minz" title="Judah Minz">Judah Minz</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Abarbanel" title="Isaac Abarbanel">Isaac Abarbanel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Leon_Abravanel" title="Judah Leon Abravanel">Judah Leon Abravanel</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Yemenite: <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natan%27el_al-Fayyumi" title="Natan'el al-Fayyumi">Natan'el al-Fayyumi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hoter_ben_Shlomo" title="Hoter ben Shlomo">Mansur ibn Sulayman al-Ghamari</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Other: <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/David_ibn_Merwan_al-Mukkamas" title="David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas">al-Mukkamas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hibat_Allah_Abu%27l-Barakat_al-Baghdaadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi">Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kammuna" title="Ibn Kammuna">Ibn Kammuna</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Positions: <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides#Influence" title="Maimonides">Maimonidean / Anti-Maimonidean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabbalists">Kabbalist</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Karaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaism">Karaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Talmudists" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmudists">Talmudic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tosafists" class="mw-redirect" title="Tosafists">Tosafist</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish denominations">Modern</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Positions: <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_philosophy" title="Orthodox Jewish philosophy">Orthodox</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic Judaism">Sephardic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chabad_philosophy" title="Chabad philosophy">Chabad</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_philosophy" title="Hasidic philosophy">Chassidic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_existentialism" title="Jewish existentialism">Existentialist</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidism" title="Neo-Hasidism">Neo-Hasidic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mussar_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mussar movement">Mussar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Dor_Daim" title="Dor Daim">Rambamist</a></li></ul></div></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">People: <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Sanches" title="Francisco Sanches">Francisco Sanches</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Uriel_da_Costa" title="Uriel da Costa">Uriel da Costa</a></li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Baruch Spinoza</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Salomon_Maimon" title="Salomon Maimon">Salomon Maimon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Solomon_Delmedigo" title="Joseph Solomon Delmedigo">Joseph Solomon Delmedigo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Ba%27al_Shem_of_Chelm" class="mw-redirect" title="Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm">Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Elijah_Ashkenazi" title="Eliezer ben Elijah Ashkenazi">Eliezer ben Elijah Ashkenazi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tzvi_Ashkenazi" title="Tzvi Ashkenazi">Tzvi Ashkenazi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Emden" title="Jacob Emden">Jacob Emden</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hirsch" title="Samuel Hirsch">Samuel Hirsch</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shneur_Zalman_of_Liadi" title="Shneur Zalman of Liadi">Shneur Zalman of Liadi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Simcha_Bunim_of_Peshischa" title="Simcha Bunim of Peshischa">Simcha Bunim of Peshischa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Samson_Raphael_Hirsch" title="Samson Raphael Hirsch">Samson Raphael Hirsch</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Abendana" title="Jacob Abendana">Jacob Abendana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Cardoso" title="Isaac Cardoso">Isaac Cardoso</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/David_Nieto" title="David Nieto">David Nieto</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Orobio_de_Castro" title="Isaac Orobio de Castro">Isaac Orobio de Castro</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_David_Luzzatto" title="Samuel David Luzzatto">Samuel David Luzzatto</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Benamozegh" title="Elijah Benamozegh">Elijah Benamozegh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Hess" title="Moses Hess">Moses Hess</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Berkovits" title="Eliezer Berkovits">Eliezer Berkovits</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eliyahu_Eliezer_Dessler" title="Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler">Eliyahu Dessler</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Monsieur_Chouchani" title="Monsieur Chouchani">Monsieur Chouchani</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Emmanuel Levinas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gershom_Scholem" title="Gershom Scholem">Gershom Scholem</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Isaac_Kook" title="Abraham Isaac Kook">Abraham Isaac Kook</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Soloveitchik" title="Joseph B. Soloveitchik">Joseph Soloveitchik</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson" title="Menachem Mendel Schneerson">Menachem Mendel Schneerson</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anger_in_Judaism" title="Anger in Judaism">Anger</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosen people</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Eschatology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Faith</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_in_Judaism" title="Happiness in Judaism">Happiness</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_in_Judaism" title="Holiness in Judaism">Holiness</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Microcosm%E2%80%93macrocosm_analogy_in_Jewish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcosm–macrocosm analogy in Jewish philosophy">Microcosm–macrocosm</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tzadik" title="Tzadik">Righteousness</a></li></ul></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_philosophy" title="Template:Jewish philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_philosophy" title="Template talk:Jewish philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus_(TTP)">Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (TTP)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (TTP)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg/220px-Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg/330px-Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Spinoza_Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="437" data-file-height="644" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus" title="Tractatus Theologico-Politicus">Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></div> Despite being published in Latin rather than a vernacular language, this 1670 treatise published in Spinoza's lifetime caused a huge reaction described as "one of the most significant events in European intellectual history."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2011xi–xii-21">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023776-128">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimkins2014-129">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ethics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza book)</a></div> The Ethics has been associated with that of <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> school of thought,<a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a> which includes the assumption that ideas correspond to reality perfectly, in the same way that mathematics is supposed to be an exact representation of the world. The Ethics, a "superbly cryptic masterwork", contains many unresolved obscurities and is written with a forbidding mathematical structure modeled on Euclid's geometry. The writings of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> have been described as "Spinoza's starting point".<a href="#cite_note-tws9912-131">[128]</a> Spinoza's first publication was his 1663 geometric exposition of proofs using <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>'s model with definitions and axioms of Descartes' <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy" title="Principles of Philosophy">Principles of Philosophy</a>. Following Descartes, Spinoza aimed to understand truth through logical deductions from 'clear and distinct ideas', a process which always begins from the 'self-evident truths' of <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScruton200231–32-132">[129]</a> However, his actual project does not end there: from his first work to his last one, there runs a thread of "attending to the highest good" (which also is the highest truth) and thereby achieving a state of peace and harmony, either metaphysically or politically. In this light, the Principles of Philosophy might be viewed as an "exercise in geometric method and philosophy", paving the way for numerous concepts and conclusions that would define his philosophy (see Cogitata Metaphysica).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirley2002109-133">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Metaphysics">edit</a>]</div> Spinoza's <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> consists of one thing, substance, and its modifications (modes). Early in The Ethics Spinoza argues that only one substance is absolutely <a href="/wiki/Infinity" title="Infinity">infinite</a>, self-caused, and eternal. He calls this substance "<a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>", or "<a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a>". He takes these two terms to be <a href="/wiki/Synonymous" class="mw-redirect" title="Synonymous">synonymous</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> the phrase he uses is "Deus sive Natura"). For Spinoza, the whole of the <a href="/wiki/Natural" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural">natural</a> <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> consists of one substance, God, or, what is the same, Nature, and its modifications (modes). <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">It cannot be overemphasized how the rest of Spinoza's philosophy—his philosophy of mind, his epistemology, his psychology, his moral philosophy, his political philosophy, and his philosophy of religion—flows more or less directly from the metaphysical underpinnings in Part I of the Ethics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDella_Rocca200833-134">[131]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Substance,_attributes,_and_modes">Substance, attributes, and modes</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Substance, attributes, and modes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Spinoza sets forth a vision of Being, illuminated by his awareness of God. They may seem strange at first sight. To the question "What is?" he replies: "Substance, its attributes, and modes".<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaspers19749-135">[132]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Following <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, Spinoza defined <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a> as "that which is in itself and is conceived through itself", meaning that it can be understood without any reference to anything external.<a href="#cite_note-Scruton41-136">[133]</a> Being conceptually independent also means that the same thing is <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontologically</a> independent, depending on nothing else for its existence and being the 'cause of itself' (causa sui).<a href="#cite_note-Scruton41-136">[133]</a> A mode is something which cannot exist independently but rather must do so as part of something else on which it depends, including properties (for example color), relations (such as size) and individual things.<a href="#cite_note-Scruton42-137">[134]</a> Modes can be further divided into 'finite' and 'infinite' ones, with the latter being evident in every finite mode (he gives examples of "motion" and "rest").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScruton200243-138">[135]</a> The traditional understanding of an <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">attribute</a> in philosophy is similar to Spinoza's modes, though he uses that word differently.<a href="#cite_note-Scruton42-137">[134]</a> To him, an attribute is "that which the intellect perceives as constituting the essence of substance", and there are possibly an infinite number of them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScruton200244-139">[136]</a> It is the essential nature that is "attributed" to reality by intellect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScruton200245-140">[137]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_a_man,_thought_to_be_Baruch_de_Spinoza,_attributed_to_Barend_Graat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Portrait_of_a_man%2C_thought_to_be_Baruch_de_Spinoza%2C_attributed_to_Barend_Graat.jpg/180px-Portrait_of_a_man%2C_thought_to_be_Baruch_de_Spinoza%2C_attributed_to_Barend_Graat.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Portrait_of_a_man%2C_thought_to_be_Baruch_de_Spinoza%2C_attributed_to_Barend_Graat.jpg/270px-Portrait_of_a_man%2C_thought_to_be_Baruch_de_Spinoza%2C_attributed_to_Barend_Graat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Portrait_of_a_man%2C_thought_to_be_Baruch_de_Spinoza%2C_attributed_to_Barend_Graat.jpg/360px-Portrait_of_a_man%2C_thought_to_be_Baruch_de_Spinoza%2C_attributed_to_Barend_Graat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1508" /></a><figcaption>Probable portrait of Spinoza, by <a href="/wiki/Barend_Graat" title="Barend Graat">Barend Graat</a>, 1666</figcaption></figure> Spinoza defined <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> as "a substance consisting of infinite attributes, each of which expresses eternal and infinite essence", and since "no cause or reason" can prevent such a being from existing, it must exist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScruton200245-140">[137]</a> This is a form of the <a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">ontological argument</a>, which is claimed to prove the existence of God, but Spinoza went further in stating that it showed that only God exists.<a href="#cite_note-Scruton38-141">[138]</a> Accordingly, he stated that "Whatever is, is in God, and nothing can exist or be conceived without God".<a href="#cite_note-Scruton38-141">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELin2007273-142">[139]</a> This means that God is identical with the universe, an idea which he encapsulated in the phrase "Deus sive Natura" ('God or Nature'), which some have interpreted as <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScruton200251-143">[140]</a> Though there are many more of them, God can be known by humans either through the attribute of extension or the attribute of thought.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScruton200257-144">[141]</a> Thought and extension represent giving complete accounts of the world in mental or physical terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScruton200259-145">[142]</a> To this end, he says that "the mind and the body are one and the same thing, which is conceived now under the attribute of thought, now under the attribute of extension".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScruton200260-146">[143]</a> After stating his proof for God's existence, Spinoza addresses who "God" is. Spinoza believed that God is "the sum of the natural and physical laws of the universe and certainly not an individual entity or creator".<a href="#cite_note-147">[144]</a> Spinoza attempts to prove that God is just the substance of the universe by first stating that substances do not share attributes or essences and then demonstrating that God is a "substance" with an infinite number of attributes, thus the attributes possessed by any other substances must also be possessed by God. Therefore, God is just the sum of all the substances of the universe. God is the only substance in the universe, and everything is a part of God. This view was described by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a> as <a href="/wiki/Classical_Pantheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Pantheism">Classical Pantheism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto4-148">[145]</a> Spinoza argues that "things could not have been produced by God in any other way or in any other order than is the case".<a href="#cite_note-149">[146]</a> Therefore, concepts such as 'freedom' and 'chance' have little meaning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScruton200251-143">[140]</a> This picture of Spinoza's determinism is illuminated in Ethics: "the infant believes that it is by free will that it seeks the breast; the angry boy believes that by free will he wishes vengeance; the timid man thinks it is with free will he seeks flight; the drunkard believes that by a free command of his mind he speaks the things which when sober he wishes he had left unsaid. … All believe that they speak by a free command of the mind, whilst, in truth, they have no power to restrain the impulse which they have to speak."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurley199673-150">[147]</a> In his letter to G. H. Schuller (Letter 58), he wrote: "men are conscious of their desire and unaware of the causes by which [their desires] are determined."<a href="#cite_note-151">[148]</a> He also held that knowledge of true causes of passive emotion can transform it into an active emotion, thus anticipating one of the key ideas of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScruton200286-152">[149]</a> According to Eric Schliesser, Spinoza was skeptical regarding the possibility of knowledge of nature and as a consequence at odds with scientists such as Galileo and Huygens.<a href="#cite_note-153">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Causality">Causality</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Causality">edit</a>]</div> Although the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason" title="Principle of sufficient reason">principle of sufficient reason</a> is commonly associated with <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, Spinoza employs it in a more systematic manner. In Spinoza's philosophical framework, questions concerning why a particular phenomenon exists are always answerable, and these answers are provided in terms of the relevant cause. Spinoza's approach involves first providing an account of a phenomenon, such as goodness or consciousness, to explain it, and then further explaining the phenomenon in terms of itself. For instance, he might argue that consciousness is the degree of power of a mental state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDella_Rocca200830-154">[151]</a> Spinoza has also been described as an "<a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a> materialist",<a href="#cite_note-tws9912-131">[128]</a> specifically in reference to his opposition to Cartesian mind-body dualism. This view was held by Epicureans before him, as they believed that atoms with their probabilistic paths were the only substance that existed fundamentally.<a href="#cite_note-Konstan-155">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurley1996118-156">[153]</a> Spinoza, however, deviated significantly from Epicureans by adhering to strict determinism, much like the Stoics before him, in contrast to the Epicurean belief in the probabilistic path of atoms, which is more in line with contemporary thought on <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Konstan-155">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_emotions">The emotions</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The emotions">edit</a>]</div> One thing which seems, on the surface, to distinguish Spinoza's view of the emotions from both <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes'</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume's</a> pictures of them is that he takes the emotions to be <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a> in some important respect. <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bennett_(philosopher)" title="Jonathan Bennett (philosopher)">Jonathan Bennett</a> claims that "Spinoza mainly saw emotions as caused by cognitions. [However] he did not say this clearly enough and sometimes lost sight of it entirely."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett1984276-158">[155]</a> Spinoza provides several demonstrations which purport to show truths about how human emotions work. The picture presented is, according to Bennett, "unflattering, coloured as it is by universal <a href="/wiki/Egoism" title="Egoism">egoism</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett1984277-159">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ethical_philosophy">Ethical philosophy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Ethical philosophy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benedictus_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Benedictus_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg/220px-Benedictus_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Benedictus_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg/330px-Benedictus_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Benedictus_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg/440px-Benedictus_de_Spinoza_cover_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="488" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>Engraving of Spinoza, captioned in Latin, "A Jew and an atheist"; he vehemently denied being an atheist.</figcaption></figure> Spinoza's notion of blessedness figures centrally in his ethical philosophy. Spinoza writes that blessedness (or salvation or freedom), "consists, namely, in a constant and eternal love of God, or in God's love for men.<a href="#cite_note-160">[157]</a> Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bennett_(philosopher)" title="Jonathan Bennett (philosopher)">Jonathan Bennett</a> interprets this as Spinoza wanting "'blessedness' to stand for the most elevated and desirable state one could possibly be in."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett1984371-161">[158]</a> Understanding what is meant by "most elevated and desirable state" requires understanding Spinoza's notion of <a href="/wiki/Conatus" title="Conatus">conatus</a> (striving, but not necessarily with any <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleological</a> baggage)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and that "perfection" refers not to (moral) value, but to completeness. Given that individuals are identified as mere modifications of the infinite Substance, it follows that no individual can ever be fully complete, i.e., perfect, or blessed. Absolute perfection, is, in Spinoza's thought, reserved solely for Substance. Nevertheless, modes can attain a lesser form of blessedness, namely, that of pure understanding of oneself as one really is, i.e., as a definite modification of Substance in a certain set of relationships with everything else in the universe. That this is what Spinoza has in mind can be seen at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a>, in E5P24 and E5P25, where Spinoza makes two final key moves, unifying the metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical propositions he has developed over the course of the work. In E5P24, he links the understanding of particular things to the understanding of God, or Substance; in E5P25, the conatus of the mind is linked to the third kind of knowledge (Intuition). From here, it is a short step to the connection of Blessedness with the amor dei intellectualis ("intellectual love of God").[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tractatus_Politicus_(Political_Treatise)_(TP)">Tractatus Politicus (Political Treatise) (TP)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Tractatus Politicus (Political Treatise) (TP)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Politicus" title="Tractatus Politicus">Tractatus Politicus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza,_Tractatus_Politicus_Titlepage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Spinoza%2C_Tractatus_Politicus_Titlepage.jpg/220px-Spinoza%2C_Tractatus_Politicus_Titlepage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Spinoza%2C_Tractatus_Politicus_Titlepage.jpg/330px-Spinoza%2C_Tractatus_Politicus_Titlepage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Spinoza%2C_Tractatus_Politicus_Titlepage.jpg/440px-Spinoza%2C_Tractatus_Politicus_Titlepage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="898" /></a><figcaption>The title page of the Tractatus politicus in the Opera Posthuma.</figcaption></figure> This unfinished treatise in Latin expounds Spinoza's ideas about forms of government. As with the Ethics, this work was published posthumously by his circle of supporters in Latin and in Dutch. The subtitle is "In quo demonstratur, quomodo Societas, ubi Imperium Monarchicum locum habet, sicut et ea, ubi Optimi imperant, debet institui, ne in Tyrannidem labatur, et ut Pax, Libertasque civium inviolata maneat." ("In which it is demonstrated how a society, may it be a <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>, can be best governed, so as not to fall into <a href="/wiki/Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">tyranny</a>, and so that the peace and liberty of the citizens remain unviolated"). Although Spinoza's political and theological thought was radical on many ways, he held traditional views on the place of women. In the TP, he writes briefly on the last page of the TP that women were "naturally" subordinate to men, stating bluntly his women are "by nature" not by "institutional practice" subordinate to men. Both his major biographers in English remark on his view of women. Biographer <a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Steven Nadler</a> is clearly disappointed by Spinoza's only statement on women. "It is unfortunate that the very last words we have by him, at the end of the extant chapters of the Political Treatise, are a short digression … on the unsuitability of women to hold political power."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018495-162">[159]</a> Likewise <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_I._Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan I. Israel">Jonathan I. Israel</a> says that Spinoza's views are "hugely disappointing to the modern reader" and that most that can be said in his defense is that "in his age rampant tyrannizing over women was indeed universal." He goes on to say, "one may legitimately wonder why did Spinoza, if he was to be consistent, not apply his highly sceptical and innovative, for his time uniquely subversive, de-legtimizing general principle likewise to men's tyrannizing over women."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023895–96-163">[160]</a> One scholar has attempted to rationalize Spinoza's views excluding women from full citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-164">[161]</a> But the topic has not attracted major consideration in Spinoza studies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pantheism">Pantheism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Pantheism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pantheism_controversy" title="Pantheism controversy">Pantheism controversy</a></div> Spinoza was considered to be an atheist because he used the word "God" [Deus] to signify a concept that was different from that of traditional Judeo–Christian monotheism. "Spinoza expressly denies personality and consciousness to God; he has neither intelligence, feeling, nor will; he does not act according to purpose, but everything follows necessarily from his nature, according to law...."<a href="#cite_note-165">[162]</a> Thus, Spinoza's cool, indifferent God differs from the concept of an anthropomorphic, fatherly God who cares about humanity.<a href="#cite_note-166">[163]</a> In 1785, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Heinrich_Jacobi" title="Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi">Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi</a> published a condemnation of Spinoza's pantheism, after <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Gotthold Lessing</a> was thought to have confessed on his deathbed to being a "Spinozist", which was the equivalent in his time of being called an <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a>. Jacobi claimed that Spinoza's doctrine was pure materialism, because all Nature and God are said to be nothing but extended <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a>. This, for Jacobi, was the result of Enlightenment rationalism and it would finally end in absolute atheism. <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a> disagreed with Jacobi, saying that there is no actual difference between <a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">theism</a> and pantheism. The issue became a major intellectual and religious concern for European civilization at the time. <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> The attraction of Spinoza's philosophy to late 18th-century Europeans was that it provided an alternative to materialism, atheism, and deism. Three of Spinoza's ideas strongly appealed to them: <ul><li>the unity of all that exists;</li> <li>the regularity of all that happens;</li> <li>the identity of spirit and nature.<a href="#cite_note-167">[164]</a></li></ul> By 1879, Spinoza's pantheism was praised by many, but was considered by some to be alarming and dangerously inimical.<a href="#cite_note-168">[165]</a> Spinoza's "God or Nature" (Deus sive Natura) provided a living, natural God, in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s <a href="/wiki/First_cause_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="First cause argument">first cause argument</a> and the dead mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">Julien Offray de La Mettrie</a>'s (1709–1751) work, <a href="/wiki/Man_a_Machine" title="Man a Machine">Man a Machine</a> (L'homme machine). Coleridge and Shelley saw in Spinoza's philosophy a religion of nature.<a href="#cite_note-169">[166]</a> <a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a> called him the "God-intoxicated man".<a href="#cite_note-tws9912-131">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-tws9902-170">[167]</a> Spinoza inspired the poet Shelley to write his essay "<a href="/wiki/The_Necessity_of_Atheism" title="The Necessity of Atheism">The Necessity of Atheism</a>".<a href="#cite_note-tws9912-131">[128]</a> It is a widespread belief that Spinoza equated God with the material universe. He has therefore been called the "prophet"<a href="#cite_note-171">[168]</a> and "prince"<a href="#cite_note-172">[169]</a> and most eminent expounder of <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheism</a>. More specifically, in a letter to Henry Oldenburg he states, "as to the view of certain people that I identify God with Nature (taken as a kind of mass or corporeal matter), they are quite mistaken".<a href="#cite_note-173">[170]</a> For Spinoza, the universe (cosmos) is a mode under two attributes of Thought and <a href="/wiki/Extension_(metaphysics)" title="Extension (metaphysics)">Extension</a>. God has infinitely many other attributes which are not present in the world. According to German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a> (1883–1969), when Spinoza wrote Deus sive Natura (Latin for 'God or Nature'), Spinoza meant God was natura naturans (nature doing what nature does; literally, 'nature naturing'), not natura naturata (nature already created; literally, 'nature natured'). Jaspers believed that Spinoza, in his philosophical system, did not mean to say that God and Nature are interchangeable terms, but rather that God's transcendence was attested by his infinitely many attributes, and that two attributes known by humans, namely Thought and Extension, signified God's immanence.<a href="#cite_note-ts64-174">[171]</a> Even God under the attributes of thought and extension cannot be identified strictly with our world. That world is of course "divisible"; it has parts. But Spinoza said, "no attribute of a substance can be truly conceived from which it follows that the substance can be divided", meaning that one cannot conceive an attribute in a way that leads to division of substance. He also said, "a substance which is absolutely infinite is indivisible" (Ethics, Part I, Propositions 12 and 13).<a href="#cite_note-ts65-175">[172]</a> Following this logic, our world should be considered as a mode under two attributes of thought and extension. Therefore, according to Jaspers, the pantheist formula "One and All" would apply to Spinoza only if the "One" preserves its transcendence and the "All" were not interpreted as the totality of finite things.<a href="#cite_note-ts64-174">[171]</a> <a href="/wiki/Martial_Gu%C3%A9roult" class="mw-redirect" title="Martial Guéroult">Martial Guéroult</a> (1891–1976) suggested the term <a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">panentheism</a>, rather than pantheism to describe Spinoza's view of the relation between God and the world. The world is not God, but in a strong sense, "in" God. Not only do finite things have God as their cause; they cannot be conceived without God.<a href="#cite_note-ts65-175">[172]</a> However, American panentheist philosopher <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a> (1897–2000) insisted on the term <a href="/wiki/Classical_Pantheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Pantheism">Classical Pantheism</a> to describe Spinoza's view.<a href="#cite_note-auto4-148">[145]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Spinoza's God is an "infinite intellect" (Ethics 2p11c) — all-knowing (2p3), and capable of loving both himself—and us, insofar as we are part of his perfection (5p35c). And if the mark of a personal being is that it is one towards which we can entertain personal attitudes, then we should note too that Spinoza recommends amor intellectualis dei (the intellectual love of God) as the supreme good for man (5p33). However, the matter is complex. Spinoza's God does not have free will (1p32c1), he does not have purposes or intentions (1 appendix), and Spinoza insists that "neither intellect nor will pertain to the nature of God" (1p17s1). Moreover, while we may love God, we need to remember that God is not a being who could ever love us back. "He who loves God cannot strive that God should love him in return", says Spinoza (5p19).<a href="#cite_note-176">[173]</a> <a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Steven Nadler</a> suggests that settling the question of Spinoza's atheism or pantheism depends on an analysis of attitudes. If pantheism is associated with religiosity, then Spinoza is not a pantheist, since Spinoza believes that the proper stance to take towards God is not one of reverence or religious awe, but instead one of objective study and reason, since taking the religious stance would leave one open to the possibility of error and superstition.<a href="#cite_note-SEPNadler-177">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_philosophical_connections">Other philosophical connections</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Other philosophical connections">edit</a>]</div> Many authors have discussed similarities between Spinoza's philosophy and Eastern philosophical traditions. Few decades after the philosopher's death, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a>, in his famous <a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_Historique_et_Critique" title="Dictionnaire Historique et Critique">Historical and Critical Dictionary</a> (1697) pointed out a link between Spinoza's alleged atheism with "the theology of a Chinese sect", supposedly called "Foe Kiao",<a href="#cite_note-178">[175]</a> of which had learned thanks to the testimonies of the Jesuit missions in Eastern Asia. A century later, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> also established a parallel between the philosophy of Spinoza and the thinking of <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> (a "monstrous system" in his words), grouping both under the name of pantheists, criticizing what he described as mystical tendencies in them.<a href="#cite_note-179">[176]</a> In 1863, <a href="/wiki/Elijah_Benamozegh" title="Elijah Benamozegh">Elijah Benamozegh</a> purported to establish that the main source of Spinoza's ontology is Kabbalah.<a href="#cite_note-180">[177]</a> The most recent research in the field seems to vindicate that claim.<a href="#cite_note-181">[178]</a> The 19th-century German Sanskritist <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Goldst%C3%BCcker" title="Theodor Goldstücker">Theodor Goldstücker</a> was one of the early figures to notice the similarities between Spinoza's religious conceptions and the <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> tradition of India, writing that Spinoza's thought was "... so exact a representation of the ideas of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected its founder to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus, did his biography not satisfy us that he was wholly unacquainted with their doctrines..."<a href="#cite_note-182">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Westminster_Review1862256–257-183">[180]</a> <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> also noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of Spinoza, equating the <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> in Vedanta to Spinoza's 'Substantia.'<a href="#cite_note-184">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:250ste_sterfdag_filosoof_Baruch_Spinoza_(1632-1677),_objectnr_PB_767.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/250ste_sterfdag_filosoof_Baruch_Spinoza_%281632-1677%29%2C_objectnr_PB_767.tif/lossy-page1-250px-250ste_sterfdag_filosoof_Baruch_Spinoza_%281632-1677%29%2C_objectnr_PB_767.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/250ste_sterfdag_filosoof_Baruch_Spinoza_%281632-1677%29%2C_objectnr_PB_767.tif/lossy-page1-375px-250ste_sterfdag_filosoof_Baruch_Spinoza_%281632-1677%29%2C_objectnr_PB_767.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/250ste_sterfdag_filosoof_Baruch_Spinoza_%281632-1677%29%2C_objectnr_PB_767.tif/lossy-page1-500px-250ste_sterfdag_filosoof_Baruch_Spinoza_%281632-1677%29%2C_objectnr_PB_767.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3336" data-file-height="1700" /></a><figcaption>A Dutch commemorative medal issued on the 250th <a href="/wiki/Death_anniversary" title="Death anniversary">death anniversary</a> of Spinoza, 1927</figcaption></figure> Spinoza's ideas have had a major impact on intellectual debates from the seventeenth century to the current era. How Spinoza is viewed has gone from the atheistic author of treatises that undermine Judaism and organized religion, to a cultural hero, the first secular Jew.<a href="#cite_note-185">[182]</a> One writer contends that what draws readers to Spinoza today and "makes him perhaps the most beloved philosopher since Socrates, is his confident equanimity". He is not a despairing <a href="/wiki/Nihilist" class="mw-redirect" title="Nihilist">nihilist</a>, but rather Spinoza says that "blessedness is nothing else but the contentment of spirit, which arises from the intuitive knowledge of God."<a href="#cite_note-186">[183]</a> One of his biographers, <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_I._Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan I. Israel">Jonathan I. Israel</a>, argues that "No leading figure of the post-1750 later Enlightenment, for example, or the nineteenth century, was engaged with the philosophy of Descartes, Hobbes, Bayle, Locke, or Leibniz, to the degree leading figures such as <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a>, Goethe, Kant, Hegel, Fichte, Schelling, Heine, <a href="/wiki/George_Eliot" title="George Eliot">George Eliot</a>, and Nietzsche, remained preoccupied throughout their creative lives with Spinoza."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael20231205-187">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a> (1770-1831) asserts that "The fact is that Spinoza is made a testing-point in modern philosophy, so that it may really be said: You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all."<a href="#cite_note-Hegel's_History_of_Philosophy-188">[185]</a> His expulsion from the Portuguese synagogue in 1656 has stirred debate over the years on whether he is the "first modern Jew". Spinoza influenced discussions of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Jewish_question" title="Jewish question">Jewish question</a>, the examination of the idea of Judaism and the modern, secular Jew. <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelsohn" class="mw-redirect" title="Moses Mendelsohn">Moses Mendelsohn</a>, Lessing, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Kant" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmanuel Kant">Kant</a>, as well as subsequent thinkers, including <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud</a> were influenced by Spinoza.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1997168-69-189">[186]</a> The changing conception of Spinoza as "the First Modern Jew" has been explicitly explored by various authors.<a href="#cite_note-190">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-192">[189]</a> His expulsion has been revisited in the 21st century, with Jewish writers such <a href="/wiki/Berthold_Auerbach" title="Berthold Auerbach">Berthold Auerbach</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Salomon_Rubin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Salomon Rubin (page does not exist)">Salomon Rubin</a>, who translated Spinoza's Ethics into Hebrew and saw Spinoza as a new Maimonides, penning "a new guide to the perplexed"; <a href="/wiki/Zionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Zionist">Zionist</a> <a href="/wiki/Yosef_Klausner" class="mw-redirect" title="Yosef Klausner">Yosef Klausner</a>, and fiction-writer <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">Isaac Bashevis Singer</a> shaping his image.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-192">[189]</a> In 1886, the young <a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a> published "The Ethical Doctrine of Spinoza", in The Harvard Monthly.<a href="#cite_note-193">[190]</a> Much later, he wrote an introduction to Spinoza's Ethics and "De Intellectus Emendatione".<a href="#cite_note-194">[191]</a> In 1932, Santayana was invited to present an essay (published as "Ultimate Religion")<a href="#cite_note-195">[192]</a> at a meeting at <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> celebrating the tricentennial of Spinoza's birth. In Santayana's autobiography, he characterized Spinoza as his "master and model" in understanding the naturalistic basis of morality.<a href="#cite_note-196">[193]</a> Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a> evoked Spinoza with the title (suggested to him by <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>) of the English translation of his first definitive philosophical work, <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a>, an allusion to Spinoza's <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus" title="Tractatus Theologico-Politicus">Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</a>. Elsewhere, Wittgenstein deliberately borrowed the expression <a href="/wiki/Sub_specie_aeternitatis" title="Sub specie aeternitatis">sub specie aeternitatis</a> from Spinoza (Notebooks, 1914–16, p. 83). The structure of his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus does have some structural affinities with Spinoza's Ethics (though, admittedly, not with the Spinoza's Tractatus) in erecting complex philosophical arguments upon basic logical propositions and principles. In propositions 6.4311 and 6.45 he alludes to a Spinozian understanding of eternity and interpretation of the religious concept of eternal life, contending, "If by eternity is understood not eternal temporal duration, but timelessness, then he lives eternally who lives in the present." (6.4311) "The contemplation of the world sub specie aeterni is its contemplation as a limited whole." (6.45) Spinoza's philosophy played an important role in the development of <a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">post-war French philosophy</a>. Many of these philosophers "used Spinoza to erect a bulwark against the nominally irrationalist tendencies of phenomenology", which was associated with the dominance of <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a> in France at that time.<a href="#cite_note-197">[194]</a> <a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Louis Althusser</a>, as well as his colleagues such as <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Balibar" title="Étienne Balibar">Étienne Balibar</a>, saw in Spinoza a philosophy which could lead Marxism out of what they considered to be flaws in its original formulation, particularly its reliance upon Hegel's conception of the <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>, as well as Spinoza's concept of immanent causality. <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Antonio Negri</a>, in exile in France for much of this period, also wrote a number of books on Spinoza, most notably The Savage Anomaly (1981) in his own reconfiguration of Italian <a href="/wiki/Autonomia_Operaia" title="Autonomia Operaia">Autonomia Operaia</a>. Other notable French scholars of Spinoza in this period included <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Matheron" title="Alexandre Matheron">Alexandre Matheron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martial_Gueroult" title="Martial Gueroult">Martial Gueroult</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Tosel" title="André Tosel">André Tosel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Macherey" title="Pierre Macherey">Pierre Macherey</a>, the last of whom published a widely read and influential five-volume commentary on Spinoza's Ethics, which has been described as "a monument of Spinoza commentary".<a href="#cite_note-198">[195]</a> His philosophical accomplishments and moral character prompted <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a> in his doctoral thesis (1968) to name him "the prince of philosophers".<a href="#cite_note-199">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[197]</a> Deleuze's interpretation of Spinoza's philosophy was highly influential among French philosophers, especially in restoring to prominence the political dimension of Spinoza's thought.<a href="#cite_note-:1-201">[198]</a> Deleuze published two books on Spinoza and gave numerous lectures on Spinoza in his capacity as a professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris_VIII" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Paris VIII">University of Paris VIII</a>. His own work was deeply influenced by Spinoza's philosophy, particularly the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Immanence" title="Immanence">immanence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Univocity_of_being" title="Univocity of being">univocity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Marilena_de_Souza_Chaui" title="Marilena de Souza Chaui">Marilena de Souza Chaui</a> described Deleuze's Expressionism in Philosophy (1968) as a "revolutionary work for its discovery of expression as a central concept in Spinoza's philosophy."<a href="#cite_note-:1-201">[198]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg/100px-Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg/150px-Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg/200px-Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2523" data-file-height="3313" /></a><figcaption>Einstein 1921</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> named Spinoza as the philosopher who exerted the most influence on his <a href="/wiki/World_view" class="mw-redirect" title="World view">world view</a> (Weltanschauung). Spinoza equated God (infinite substance) with Nature, consistent with Einstein's belief in an impersonal deity. In 1929, Einstein was asked in a telegram by <a href="/wiki/Herbert_S._Goldstein" title="Herbert S. Goldstein">Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein</a> whether he believed in God. Einstein responded by telegram: "I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with the fates and actions of human beings."<a href="#cite_note-202">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[200]</a> Einstein wrote the preface to a biography of Spinoza, published in 1946.<a href="#cite_note-204">[201]</a> <a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Leo Strauss</a> dedicated his first book, Spinoza's Critique of Religion, to an examination of his ideas. Strauss identified Spinoza as part of the tradition of Enlightenment rationalism that eventually produced Modernity. Moreover, he identifies Spinoza and his works as the beginning of Jewish Modernity.<a href="#cite_note-tws9912-131">[128]</a> More recently <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Israel" title="Jonathan Israel">Jonathan Israel</a> argued that, from 1650 to 1750, Spinoza was "the chief challenger of the fundamentals of revealed religion, received ideas, tradition, morality, and what was everywhere regarded, in absolutist and non-absolutist states alike, as divinely constituted political authority."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001159-205">[202]</a> Spinoza is an important historical figure in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, where his portrait was featured prominently on the Dutch 1000-<a href="/wiki/Dutch_guilder" title="Dutch guilder">guilder</a> <a href="/wiki/Banknote" title="Banknote">banknote</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_tender" title="Legal tender">legal tender</a> until the euro was introduced in 2002. The highest and most prestigious scientific award of the Netherlands is named the <a href="/wiki/Spinoza_Prize" title="Spinoza Prize">Spinozaprijs (Spinoza prize)</a>. Spinoza was included in a 50 theme canon that attempts to summarise the history of the Netherlands.<a href="#cite_note-206">[203]</a> In 2014 a copy of Spinoza's Tractatus Theologico-Politicus was presented to the Chair of the Dutch Parliament, and shares a shelf with the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-207">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Modern era">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reconsideration_of_Spinoza's_expulsion">Reconsideration of Spinoza's expulsion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Reconsideration of Spinoza's expulsion">edit</a>]</div> There has been a renewed debate in modern times about Spinoza's excommunication among Israeli politicians, rabbis and Jewish press, with many calling for the cherem to be reversed.<a href="#cite_note-Rutledge_2020-208">[205]</a> A conference was organized at the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research in New York entitled "From Heretic to Hero: A Symposium on the Impact of Baruch Spinoza on the 350th Anniversary of His Excommunication, 1656–2006". Presenters included <a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Steven Nadler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_I._Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan I. Israel">Jonathan I. Israel</a>, Steven B. Smith, and Daniel B. Schwartz.<a href="#cite_note-209">[206]</a> There have been calls for Spinoza's cherem to be rescinded, but it can only be done by the congregation that issued it, and the chief rabbi of that community,<a href="#cite_note-210">[d]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hakham" title="Hakham">Haham</a> <a href="/wiki/Pinchas_Toledano" title="Pinchas Toledano">Pinchas Toledano</a>, declined to do so, citing Spinoza's "preposterous ideas, where he was tearing apart the very fundamentals of our religion",<a href="#cite_note-211">[207]</a> the Amsterdam Jewish community organised a symposium in December 2015 to discuss lifting the cherem, inviting scholars from around the world to form an advisory committee at the meeting. However, the rabbi of the congregation ruled that it should hold, on the basis that he had no greater wisdom than his predecessors, and that Spinoza's views had not become less problematic over time.<a href="#cite_note-Rutledge_2020-208">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memory_and_memorials">Memory and memorials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Memory and memorials">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza_Nicolas_Dings_Zwanenburgwal_Amsterdam.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Spinoza_Nicolas_Dings_Zwanenburgwal_Amsterdam.JPG/220px-Spinoza_Nicolas_Dings_Zwanenburgwal_Amsterdam.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Spinoza_Nicolas_Dings_Zwanenburgwal_Amsterdam.JPG/330px-Spinoza_Nicolas_Dings_Zwanenburgwal_Amsterdam.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Spinoza_Nicolas_Dings_Zwanenburgwal_Amsterdam.JPG/440px-Spinoza_Nicolas_Dings_Zwanenburgwal_Amsterdam.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1864" data-file-height="2144" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Spinoza by Nicolas Dings in <a href="/wiki/Zwanenburgwal" title="Zwanenburgwal">Zwanenburgwal</a>, Amsterdam with the inscription "The objective of the state is freedom" (quote from Tractatus Theologico-Politicus)</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Spinoza Lyceum, a high school in Amsterdam South was named after Spinoza. There is also a three-metre-tall marble statue of him on the grounds of the school carved by <a href="/wiki/Hildo_Krop" title="Hildo Krop">Hildo Krop</a>.<a href="#cite_note-212">[208]</a></li> <li>The Spinoza Havurah (a <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic Jewish</a> community) was named in Spinoza's honor.<a href="#cite_note-213">[209]</a></li> <li>The Spinoza Foundation Monument has a statute of Spinoza located in front of the Amsterdam City Hall (at Zwanenburgwal)<a href="#cite_note-214">[210]</a> It was created by Dutch sculptor Nicolas Dings and was erected in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-215">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[212]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Depictions_and_influence_in_literature">Depictions and influence in literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Depictions and influence in literature">edit</a>]</div> Spinoza's life and work have been the subject of interest for several writers. For example, this influence was considerably early in German literature, where <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a> makes a glowing mention of the philosopher in his memoirs, highlighting the positive influence of the Ethics in his personal life.<a href="#cite_note-217">[213]</a> The same thing happened in the case of his compatriot, the poet <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heine</a>, who is also lavish in praise for Spinoza on his <a href="/wiki/Zur_Geschichte_der_Religion_und_Philosophie_in_Deutschland" title="Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland">On the History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany</a> (1834).<a href="#cite_note-218">[214]</a> In the following century, the Argentinian <a href="/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Borges" title="Jorge Luis Borges">Jorge Luis Borges</a> famously wrote two sonnets in his honor ("Spinoza" in El otro, el mismo, 1964; and "Baruch Spinoza" in La moneda de hierro, 1976), and several direct references to Spinoza's philosophy can be found in this writer's work.<a href="#cite_note-219">[215]</a> Also in Argentina and previously to Borges, the Ukrainian-born Jewish intellectual <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Gerchunoff" title="Alberto Gerchunoff">Alberto Gerchunoff</a> wrote a novella about philosopher's early sentimental life, Los amores de Baruj [sic] Spinoza (lit. "The loves of Baruj Spinoza", 1932), recreating a supposed affair or romantic interest with Clara Maria van den Enden, daughter of his Latin teacher and philosophical preceptor, <a href="/wiki/Franciscus_van_den_Enden" title="Franciscus van den Enden">Franciscus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-220">[216]</a> That is not the only work of fiction where the philosopher appears as the main character. In 1837 the German writer <a href="/wiki/Berthold_Auerbach" title="Berthold Auerbach">Berthold Auerbach</a> dedicated to him the first novel in his series on Jewish history, translated into English in 1882 (Spinoza: a Novel).<a href="#cite_note-221">[217]</a> Some other novels of biographical nature have appeared more recently, such as The Spinoza Problem (2012; a parallel story between the philosopher's formative years, and the fascination that his work had on the Nazi leader <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a>) by psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/Irvin_D._Yalom" title="Irvin D. Yalom">Irvin D. Yalom</a>, or O Segredo de Espinosa (lit. "The Secret of Spinoza", 2023) by Portuguese journalist <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Rodrigues_dos_Santos" title="José Rodrigues dos Santos">José Rodrigues dos Santos</a>. Spinoza also appears in the first novel of the Argentinian activist <a href="/wiki/Andres_Spokoiny" title="Andres Spokoiny">Andres Spokoiny</a>, El impío (lit. "The Impious", 2021), about the <a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">marrano</a> physician and philosopher <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_de_Prado" class="extiw" title="es:Juan de Prado">Juan de Prado</a>, a key influence in Spinoza's biography.<a href="#cite_note-222">[218]</a> Spinoza's <a href="/wiki/Spinoza%27s_Ethics" title="Spinoza's Ethics">Ethics</a> play a central role in <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">Isaac Bashevis Singer</a>'s short story, The Spinoza of Market Street. The main character, Dr. Nahum Fischelson, studies the book religiously, and holds Spinoza in divine esteem. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Works">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Original_Editions">Original Editions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Original Editions">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1660. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/nl:Korte_Verhandeling_van_God,_de_mensch_en_deszelvs_welstand" class="extiw" title="s:nl:Korte Verhandeling van God, de mensch en deszelvs welstand">Korte Verhandeling van God, de mensch en deszelvs welstand</a> (unpublished until the 19th century; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spinozasshorttre00spinuoft">A Short Treatise on God, Man and His Well-Being</a>; translated by A. Wolf. London, Adam and Charles Black Eds., 1910).</li> <li>1662. <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_de_Intellectus_Emendatione" title="Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione">Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione</a> (On the Improvement of the Understanding) (unfinished).</li> <li>1663. <a href="/wiki/Principia_philosophiae_cartesianae" title="Principia philosophiae cartesianae">Principia philosophiae cartesianae</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k943625">The Principles of Cartesian Philosophy</a>, also contains Metaphysical Thoughts/Cogitata Metaphisica; translated by Samuel Shirley, with an Introduction and Notes by Steven Barbone and Lee Rice, Indianapolis, 1998).</li> <li>1670. <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus" title="Tractatus Theologico-Politicus">Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</a> (<a class="external text" href="https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Theologico-Political_Treatise_1862">A Theologico-Political Treatise</a>), TTP, published anonymously in his lifetime with a false place of publication.</li> <li>1675–76. <a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Politicus" title="Tractatus Politicus">Tractatus Politicus</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723220332/http://www.spinozacsack.net78.net/Political%20Treatise%2C%20Benedict%20de%20Spinoza.pdf">Political Treatise</a>), TP (unfinished at his death), published posthumously.</li> <li>1677. <a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata</a> (The Ethics, finished 1674, but published posthumously, title added posthumously).</li> <li>1677. Compendium grammatices linguae hebraeae (Hebrew Grammar, unfinished; translated with introduction by M. J. Bloom, London, 1963).<a href="#cite_note-223">[219]</a></li> <li>1677. <a href="/wiki/Epistolae_(Spinoza)" title="Epistolae (Spinoza)">Epistolae</a> (The Letters, translated by Samuel Shirley, with an Introduction and Notes by S. Barbone, L. Rice and J. Adler, Indianapolis, 1995).</li> <li>Last four were originally collected and published by Spinoza's friends briefly later his death, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BoTe8vhY5dkC">B. d. S. Opera Posthuma, Quorum series post Praefationem exhibetur</a>. (Amsterdam: Jan Rieuwertsz, 1677; both publisher and place were purposely omitted). Simultaneously, Rieuwertsz also published a Dutch translation by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hendriksz_Glazemaker" title="Jan Hendriksz Glazemaker">Jan Hendriksz Glazemaker</a> (who some years later translated the TTP): De Nagelate Schriften van B. d. S., without the Hebrew Grammar.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_Editions">Contemporary Editions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Contemporary Editions">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Shirley, Samuel (2002). Morgan, Michael L. (ed.). Spinoza Complete Works, with the Translations by Samuel Shirley. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-87220-620-5. OCLC 49775415.</li> <li>Edwin Curley (ed.), 1985, 2016. The Collected Works of Spinoza (two volumes), Princeton: Princeton University Press.(Excludes the Compendium grammatices linguae hebraeae).</li> <li>Spruit, Leen and Pina Totaro, 2011. The Vatican Manuscript of Spinoza's Ethica, Leiden: Brill. This is the only known surviving manuscript of Spinoza's Ethics, discovered in the Vatican archive and published in a bilingual Latin-English edition.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_works_about_Baruch_Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="List of works about Baruch Spinoza">List of works about Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">History of the Jews in the Netherlands</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Spinoza has also been interpreted as a defender of the <a href="/wiki/Coherence_theory_of_truth" title="Coherence theory of truth">coherence theory of truth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/bəˈruːk spɪˈnoʊzə/</a>;<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> Dutch: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Dutch" title="Help:IPA/Dutch">[baːˈrux spɪˈnoːzaː]</a>; Portuguese: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Portuguese" title="Help:IPA/Portuguese">[ðɨ ʃpiˈnɔzɐ]</a>; <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: ברוך שפינוזה. His boyhood and early adult business name was "Bento", and his synagogue name was "Baruch", the Hebrew translation of "Bento", which means "blessed".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler199942-14">[13]</a> As a correspondent, he primarily signed his name as "Benedictus".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2023353–54-15">[14]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Steven Nadler</a> speculates that Spinoza Latinized his name at Leiden because all instruction was in Latin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler2018193-80">[78]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> Portugees-Israëlietische Gemeente te Amsterdam (Portuguese-Israelite commune of Amsterdam) </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarber2015121-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarber2015121_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGarber2015">Garber 2015</a>, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENewlands201764-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENewlands201764_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNewlands2017">Newlands 2017</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFYoung2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Young, James O. 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"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/voices.uchicago.edu/dist/f/106/files/2013/02/Kant-The-end-of-all-things.pdf">The end of all things</a>", in: Religion and Rational Theology. Transl. and edited by Allen W. Wood and George Di Giovanni. Cambridge University Press, p.228 </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Elijah Benamozegh, 'Spinoza et la Kabbale', in L'Univers Israélite, Paris, 1863; eng. transl. Spinoza and Kabbalah, Puyméras: éditions localement transcendantes, 2024, ISBN 9782383660378 </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Miquel Beltran, The Influence of Abraham Cohen de Herrera's Kabbalah on Spinoza's Metaphysics, Brill, 2016, ISBN 9789004315679 </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Literary Remains of the Late Professor Theodore Goldstucker, W. H. 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New York: Philosophical Library 1946 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001159-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2001159_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIsrael2001">Israel 2001</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.entoen.nu/">"Entoen.nu"</a>. Entoen.nu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513033928/http://www.entoen.nu/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2011. 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Retrieved 30 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Van+der+Ham+biedt+Verbeet+Spinoza+aan&rft.pub=RTL+Nieuws&rft.date=2012-07-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.trouw.nl%2Ftr%2Fnl%2F4500%2FPolitiek%2Farticle%2Fdetail%2F3282363%2F2012%2F07%2F05%2FVan-der-Ham-biedt-Verbeet-Spinoza-aan---voor-naast-Bijbel-en-Koran.dhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rutledge_2020-208">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rutledge_2020_208-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rutledge_2020_208-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutledge2020" class="citation web cs1">Rutledge, David (3 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-10-04/17th-century-jewish-philosopher-spinoza-cancel-culture-comeback/12722826">"The Jewish philosopher Spinoza was one of the great Enlightenment thinkers. So why was he 'cancelled'?"</a>. ABC News. <a href="/wiki/ABC_Radio_National" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC Radio National">ABC Radio National</a> (The Philosopher's Zone). <a href="/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">Australian Broadcasting Corporation</a>. Retrieved 7 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=The+Jewish+philosopher+Spinoza+was+one+of+the+great+Enlightenment+thinkers.+So+why+was+he+%27cancelled%27%3F&rft.date=2020-10-03&rft.aulast=Rutledge&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2020-10-04%2F17th-century-jewish-philosopher-spinoza-cancel-culture-comeback%2F12722826&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Schwartz. The First Modern Jew: Spinoza and the History of an Image. Princeton: Princeton University Press 2012, xi </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRocker2014" class="citation news cs1">Rocker, Simon (28 August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thejc.com/judaism/all/why-baruch-spinoza-is-still-excommunicated-1.56419">"Why Baruch Spinoza is still excommunicated"</a>. The Jewish Chronicle Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jewish+Chronicle+Online&rft.atitle=Why+Baruch+Spinoza+is+still+excommunicated&rft.date=2014-08-28&rft.aulast=Rocker&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thejc.com%2Fjudaism%2Fall%2Fwhy-baruch-spinoza-is-still-excommunicated-1.56419&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.timswings.nl/hildokrop/tag/spinoza/">"Mo 50 – Statue Spinoza – Amsterdam"</a> (in Dutch). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220122055240/https://www.timswings.nl/hildokrop/tag/spinoza/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mo+50+%E2%80%93+Statue+Spinoza+%E2%80%93+Amsterdam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.timswings.nl%2Fhildokrop%2Ftag%2Fspinoza%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spinozahavurah.org">SpinozaHavurah.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230101055509/https://spinozahavurah.wordpress.com/">Archived</a> 1 January 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Accessed Nov. 202, 2022) </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.simplyamsterdam.nl/Statue_of_Spinoza_unveiled_in_Amsterdam_centre.html">"Statute of Spinoza unveiled in Amsterdam centre" Simply Amsterdam (Nov. 25, 2008)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221121021113/http://www.simplyamsterdam.nl/Statue_of_Spinoza_unveiled_in_Amsterdam_centre.html">Archived</a> 21 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Accessed Nov. 20, 2022) </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uncloggedblog.com/2020/08/22/who-stands-proud-on-a-pedestal-in-amsterdam/">"Who stands proud on a pedestal in Amsterdam" Unclogged in Amsterdam : An American Expat plumbs Holland (Aug. 22, 2020)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221121021110/https://uncloggedblog.com/2020/08/22/who-stands-proud-on-a-pedestal-in-amsterdam/">Archived</a> 21 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Accessed Nov. 20, 2022) </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cityseeker.com/amsterdam/720148-spinoza-monument">"Spinoza Monument" CitySeeker.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221121021122/https://cityseeker.com/amsterdam/720148-spinoza-monument">Archived</a> 21 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Accessed Nov. 20, 2022) </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> Johan W. von Goethe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theworksofjohann02goet/page/n14/mode/1up">Autobiography</a>, vol. 2. Transl. by John Oxenford. The Anthological Society. London-Chicago, 1901, Chapters 14-16, p.178-248 </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> Heinrich Heine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EX4PAQAAIAAJ">On the History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany</a>. Edited by Paul L. Rose. James Cook University of North Queensland, 1982, p. 56-57 </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Marcelo Abadi: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.borges.pitt.edu/bsol/abadi.php">"Spinoza in Borges' looking-glass"</a>.  Borges Studies Online. J. L. Borges Center for Studies & Documentation. Internet: 14/04/01 </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> Diego Sztulwark: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elcohetealaluna.com/spinoza-y-la-cultura-judia-argentina/">"Spinoza y la cultura judía argentina"</a> (in Spanish). El Cohete a la Luna, 2/6/2022 </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> See <a class="external text" href="https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Spinoza:_A_novel">complete text</a> on Wikisource. </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.enlacejudio.com/2022/05/27/el-impio-de-andres-spokoiny/">El Impío de Andrés Spokoiny</a> (In Spanish). 05/27/2022. </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> See G. Licata, "Spinoza e la cognitio universalis dell'ebraico. Demistificazione e speculazione grammaticale nel Compendio di grammatica ebraica", Giornale di Metafisica, 3 (2009), pp. 625–61. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dd>Books</dd></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdler2014" class="citation book cs1">Adler, Jacob (2014). "Mortality of the soul from Alexander of Aphrodisias to Spinoza". In <a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Nadler, Steven</a> (ed.). Spinoza and Medieval Jewish Philosophy. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 13–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139795395.002">10.1017/CBO9781139795395.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-79539-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-79539-5"><bdi>978-1-139-79539-5</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Core" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Core">Cambridge Core</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mortality+of+the+soul+from+Alexander+of+Aphrodisias+to+Spinoza&rft.btitle=Spinoza+and+Medieval+Jewish+Philosophy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=13-35&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139795395.002&rft.isbn=978-1-139-79539-5&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAttar2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Samar_al-%27A%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%AD%C4%81r" title="Samar al-'Aṭṭār">Attar, Samar</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/the-vital-roots-of-european-enlightenment-ibn-tufayls-influence-on-modern-western-thought-2007">The vital roots of European enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's influence on modern Western thought</a>. Lanham: Lexington Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1989-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1989-1"><bdi>978-0-7391-1989-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+vital+roots+of+European+enlightenment%3A+Ibn+Tufayl%27s+influence+on+modern+Western+thought&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-1989-1&rft.aulast=Attar&rft.aufirst=Samar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthe-vital-roots-of-european-enlightenment-ibn-tufayls-influence-on-modern-western-thought-2007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennett1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bennett_(philosopher)" title="Jonathan Bennett (philosopher)">Bennett, Jonathan</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studyofspinozase00benn">A Study of Spinoza's Ethics</a>. Hackett Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-915145-83-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-915145-83-9"><bdi>0-915145-83-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1036958076">1036958076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Study+of+Spinoza%27s+Ethics&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1036958076&rft.isbn=0-915145-83-9&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstudyofspinozase00benn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuruma2024" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Buruma" title="Ian Buruma">Buruma, Ian</a> (2024). Spinoza: Freedom's Messiah. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-30-024892-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-30-024892-0"><bdi>978-0-30-024892-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza%3A+Freedom%27s+Messiah&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-0-30-024892-0&rft.aulast=Buruma&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlisle2021" class="citation book cs1">Carlisle, Clare (2021). Spinoza's Religion. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17659-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17659-8"><bdi>978-0-691-17659-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza%27s+Religion&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-691-17659-8&rft.aulast=Carlisle&rft.aufirst=Clare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurley1985" class="citation book cs1">Curley, Edwin, ed. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VRCnDwAAQBAJ">The Collected Works of Spinoza, Volume 1</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07222-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07222-7"><bdi>978-0-691-07222-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collected+Works+of+Spinoza%2C+Volume+1&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-691-07222-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVRCnDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurley1996" class="citation book cs1">Curley, Edwin, ed. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ethics0000spin_w3j0">Ethics</a>. Penguin classics (1st ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-043571-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-043571-9"><bdi>978-0-14-043571-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics&rft.place=London&rft.series=Penguin+classics&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-14-043571-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fethics0000spin_w3j0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDella_Rocca2008" class="citation book cs1">Della Rocca, Michael (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rocca-michael-della-spinoza">Spinoza</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-41-528330-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-41-528330-4"><bdi>978-0-41-528330-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-41-528330-4&rft.aulast=Della+Rocca&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frocca-michael-della-spinoza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoistinen2018" class="citation book cs1">Koistinen, Olli (2018). "Spinoza on Mind". In Della Rocca, Michael (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Spinoza. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 273–294. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780195335828.013.004">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195335828.013.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-195-33582-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-195-33582-8"><bdi>978-0-195-33582-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Spinoza+on+Mind&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Spinoza&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=273-294&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780195335828.013.004&rft.isbn=978-0-195-33582-8&rft.aulast=Koistinen&rft.aufirst=Olli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGullan-Whur1998" class="citation book cs1">Gullan-Whur, Margaret (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/withinreasonlife0000gull_q0h8">Within Reason: A Life of Spinoza</a>. Jonathan Cape. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-224-05046-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-224-05046-3"><bdi>978-0-224-05046-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Within+Reason%3A+A+Life+of+Spinoza&rft.pub=Jonathan+Cape&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-224-05046-3&rft.aulast=Gullan-Whur&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwithinreasonlife0000gull_q0h8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Israel" title="Jonathan Israel">Israel, Jonathan</a> (2023). Spinoza, Life and Legacy. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925456-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925456-9"><bdi>978-0-19-925456-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radical+Enlightenment%3A+Philosophy+and+the+Making+of+Modernity%2C+1650-1750&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-925456-9&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fradicalenlighten0000isra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Israel" title="Jonathan Israel">Israel, Jonathan</a> (1996). 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Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. 3–14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004103074" title="Special:BookSources/9004103074"><bdi>9004103074</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Banning+of+Spinoza%27s+Works+in+the+Dutch+Republic&rft.btitle=Disguised+and+Overt+Spinozism+Around+1700%3A+Papers+Presented+at+the+International+Colloquium+held+at+Rotterdam%2C+5-8+October+1994&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=3-14&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9004103074&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaspers1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Jaspers, Karl</a> (23 October 1974). Spinoza. Great Philosophers. Harvest Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-684730-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-684730-8"><bdi>978-0-15-684730-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza&rft.series=Great+Philosophers&rft.pub=Harvest+Books&rft.date=1974-10-23&rft.isbn=978-0-15-684730-8&rft.aulast=Jaspers&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKreines2015" class="citation book cs1">Kreines, James (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/james-kreines-reason-in-the-world-hegels-metaphysics-and-its-philosophical-appeal">Reason in the World: Hegel's Metaphysics and Its Philosophical Appeal</a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-020430-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-020430-3"><bdi>978-0-19-020430-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reason+in+the+World%3A+Hegel%27s+Metaphysics+and+Its+Philosophical+Appeal&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-020430-3&rft.aulast=Kreines&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjames-kreines-reason-in-the-world-hegels-metaphysics-and-its-philosophical-appeal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarber2015" class="citation book cs1">Garber, Daniel (2015). 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New York: <a href="/wiki/Schocken_Books" title="Schocken Books">Schocken Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-4209-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-4209-6"><bdi>978-0-8052-4209-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61859859">61859859</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Betraying+Spinoza%3A+The+Renegade+Jew+who+Gave+Us+Modernity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Schocken+Books&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F61859859&rft.isbn=978-0-8052-4209-6&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbetrayingspinoza00gold_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTotaro2015" class="citation book cs1">Totaro, Pina (2015). "The Young Spinoza and the Vatican Manuscript of Spinoza's Ethics". In <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Melamed" title="Yitzhak Melamed">Melamed, Yitzhak Y.</a> (ed.). The Young Spinoza: A Metaphysician in the Making. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 319–332. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199971657.003.0021">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199971657.003.0021</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997166-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997166-4"><bdi>978-0-19-997166-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/900634238">900634238</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Young+Spinoza+and+the+Vatican+Manuscript+of+Spinoza%27s+Ethics&rft.btitle=The+Young+Spinoza%3A+A+Metaphysician+in+the+Making&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=319-332&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F900634238&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199971657.003.0021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-997166-4&rft.aulast=Totaro&rft.aufirst=Pina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShirley2002" class="citation book cs1">Shirley, Samuel (2002). Morgan, Michael L. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xg8V-Q7Slh4C">Spinoza Complete Works, with the Translations by Samuel Shirley</a>. Indianapolis: <a href="/wiki/Hackett_Publishing_Company" title="Hackett Publishing Company">Hackett Publishing Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-620-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-620-5"><bdi>978-0-87220-620-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49775415">49775415</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza+Complete+Works%2C+with+the+Translations+by+Samuel+Shirley&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49775415&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-620-5&rft.aulast=Shirley&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXg8V-Q7Slh4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadler1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Nadler, Steven M.</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spinozalife00nadl_0">Spinoza: A Life</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55210-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55210-3"><bdi>978-0-521-55210-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185335604">185335604</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza%3A+A+Life&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F185335604&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55210-3&rft.aulast=Nadler&rft.aufirst=Steven+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspinozalife00nadl_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadler2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Nadler, Steven M.</a> (2018). 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New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926887-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926887-0"><bdi>978-0-19-926887-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza%27s+Heresy%3A+Immortality+and+the+Jewish+Mind&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926887-0&rft.aulast=Nadler&rft.aufirst=Steven+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbxCm-mzkW1UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadler2011" class="citation book cs1">Nadler, Steven (2011). A Book Forged in Hell: Spinoza's Scandalous Treatise and the Birth of the Secular Age. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13989-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13989-0"><bdi>978-0-691-13989-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Book+Forged+in+Hell%3A+Spinoza%27s+Scandalous+Treatise+and+the+Birth+of+the+Secular+Age&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13989-0&rft.aulast=Nadler&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewlands2017" class="citation book cs1">Newlands, Samuel (2017). "Spinoza on Universals". In Di Bella, Stefano; Schmaltz, Tad M. (eds.). The Problem of Universals in Early Modern Philosophy. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 62–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780190608040.001.0001">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190608040.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-060806-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-060806-4"><bdi>978-0-19-060806-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Spinoza+on+Universals&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+Universals+in+Early+Modern+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=62-86&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780190608040.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-060806-4&rft.aulast=Newlands&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopkin1999" class="citation book cs1">Popkin, Richard H. (1999). "Baruch de Spinoza". In <a href="/wiki/Richard_Popkin" title="Richard Popkin">Popkin, Richard H.</a> (ed.). The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. pp. 373–382. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-567-31347-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-567-31347-5"><bdi>978-1-567-31347-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44808176">44808176</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Baruch+de+Spinoza&rft.btitle=The+Columbia+History+of+Western+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=373-382&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44808176&rft.isbn=978-1-567-31347-5&rft.aulast=Popkin&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopkin2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Popkin" title="Richard Popkin">Popkin, Richard H.</a> (2004). Spinoza. <a href="/wiki/Oneworld_Publications" title="Oneworld Publications">Oneworld Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-339-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-339-0"><bdi>978-1-85168-339-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-85168-339-0&rft.aulast=Popkin&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScruton2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton, Roger</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mRf9C8H6SPUC">Spinoza: A Very Short Introduction</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280316-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280316-0"><bdi>978-0-19-280316-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280316-0&rft.aulast=Scruton&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmRf9C8H6SPUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_B._Smith_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Steven B. Smith (professor)">Smith, Steven B.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spinozasbookofli0000smit">Spinoza's Book of Life: Freedom and Redemption in the Ethics</a>. New Haven: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-10019-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-10019-1"><bdi>0-300-10019-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza%27s+Book+of+Life%3A+Freedom+and+Redemption+in+the+Ethics&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-300-10019-1&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Steven+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspinozasbookofli0000smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_B._Smith_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Steven B. Smith (professor)">Smith, Steven B.</a> (1997). Spinoza, Liberalism, and the Question of Jewish Identity. New Haven: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07665-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07665-3"><bdi>978-0-300-07665-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza%2C+Liberalism%2C+and+the+Question+of+Jewish+Identity&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-300-07665-3&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Steven+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTouber2018" class="citation book cs1">Touber, Jetze (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BWliDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45">Spinoza and Biblical Philology in the Dutch Republic, 1660–1710</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-880500-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-880500-7"><bdi>978-0-19-880500-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042074357">1042074357</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza+and+Biblical+Philology+in+the+Dutch+Republic%2C+1660%E2%80%931710&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1042074357&rft.isbn=978-0-19-880500-7&rft.aulast=Touber&rft.aufirst=Jetze&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBWliDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Stewart_(philosopher)" title="Matthew Stewart (philosopher)">Stewart, Matthew</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mKQ-dLe28z0C">The Courtier and the Heretic: Leibniz, Spinoza, and the Fate of God in the Modern World</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="W. W. Norton and Company">W. W. Norton and Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32917-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32917-9"><bdi>978-0-393-32917-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1064514238">1064514238</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Courtier+and+the+Heretic%3A+Leibniz%2C+Spinoza%2C+and+the+Fate+of+God+in+the+Modern+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+and+Company&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1064514238&rft.isbn=978-0-393-32917-9&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmKQ-dLe28z0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYovel1989a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yirmiyahu_Yovel" title="Yirmiyahu Yovel">Yovel, Yirmiyahu</a> (1989a). Spinoza and Other Heretics: The Marrano of Reason. Vol. 1. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-07344-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-07344-9"><bdi>0-691-07344-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24378397">24378397</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza+and+Other+Heretics%3A+The+Marrano+of+Reason&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24378397&rft.isbn=0-691-07344-9&rft.aulast=Yovel&rft.aufirst=Yirmiyahu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYovel1989b" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yirmiyahu_Yovel" title="Yirmiyahu Yovel">Yovel, Yirmiyahu</a> (1989b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spinozaotherhere00yirm">Spinoza and other heretics: The Adventures of Immanence</a>. Vol. 2. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-02079-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-02079-5"><bdi>0-691-02079-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1273001409">1273001409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza+and+other+heretics%3A+The+Adventures+of+Immanence&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1273001409&rft.isbn=0-691-02079-5&rft.aulast=Yovel&rft.aufirst=Yirmiyahu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspinozaotherhere00yirm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <dl><dd>Articles and online</dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLin2007" class="citation journal cs1">Lin, Martin (September 2007). "Spinoza's Arguments for the Existence of God". <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_Phenomenological_Research" title="Philosophy and Phenomenological Research">Philosophy and Phenomenological Research</a>. 75 (2): 269–297. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1933-1592.2007.00076.x">10.1111/j.1933-1592.2007.00076.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8205">0031-8205</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+and+Phenomenological+Research&rft.atitle=Spinoza%27s+Arguments+for+the+Existence+of+God&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=269-297&rft.date=2007-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1933-1592.2007.00076.x&rft.issn=0031-8205&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadler2001b" class="citation journal cs1">Nadler, Steven (2001b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42943396">"The Excommunication of Spinoza: Trouble and Toleration in the "Dutch Jerusalem""</a>. Shofar. 19 (4): 40–52. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0882-8539">0882-8539</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42943396">42943396</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Shofar&rft.atitle=The+Excommunication+of+Spinoza%3A+Trouble+and+Toleration+in+the+%22Dutch+Jerusalem%22&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=40-52&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42943396%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0882-8539&rft.aulast=Nadler&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42943396&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimkins2014" class="citation journal cs1">Simkins, James (Spring 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1036&context=imwjournal">"On the Development of Spinoza's Account of Human Religion"</a>. Intermountain West Journal of Religious Studies. 5 (1): 52–72. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2155-1723">2155-1723</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intermountain+West+Journal+of+Religious+Studies&rft.atitle=On+the+Development+of+Spinoza%27s+Account+of+Human+Religion&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=52-72&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=2155-1723&rft.aulast=Simkins&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.usu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1036%26context%3Dimwjournal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Westminster_Review1862" class="citation journal cs1">"The Religious Difficulties of India". <a href="/wiki/The_Westminster_Review" title="The Westminster Review">The Westminster Review</a>. 78 (American ed.). New York: Leonard Scott & Co.: 245–263 1862. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015013165819?urlappend=%3Bseq=264">2027/mdp.39015013165819</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Westminster+Review&rft.atitle=The+Religious+Difficulties+of+India&rft.volume=78&rft.pages=245-263&rft.date=1862&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fmdp.39015013165819%3Furlappend%3D%253Bseq%3D264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_works">Other works</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Other works">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 45em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Dam%C3%A1sio" class="mw-redirect" title="António Damásio">Damásio, António</a>, 2003. Looking for Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain, Harvest Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-602871-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-602871-4">978-0-15-602871-4</a></li> <li>Della Rocca, Michael. 1996. Representation and the Mind-Body Problem in Spinoza. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509562-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509562-3">978-0-19-509562-3</a></li> <li>Garrett, Don, ed., 1995. The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza. Cambridge Uni. Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze, Gilles</a>, 1968. Spinoza et le problème de l'expression. Trans. "Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza" Martin Joughin (New York: Zone Books).</li> <li>_____, 1970. Spinoza: Philosophie pratique. Transl. "<a href="/wiki/Spinoza:_Practical_Philosophy" title="Spinoza: Practical Philosophy">Spinoza: Practical Philosophy</a>".</li> <li>_____, 1990. Negotiations trans. Martin Joughin (New York: Columbia University Press).</li> <li>Gatens, Moira, and Lloyd, Genevieve, 1999. Collective imaginings: Spinoza, past and present. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16570-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16570-9">978-0-415-16570-9</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16571-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16571-6">978-0-415-16571-6</a></li> <li>Koistinen, Olli, (ed.). 2009. The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza's Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Goode, Francis, 2012. Life of Spinoza. Smashwords edition. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4661-3399-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4661-3399-0">978-1-4661-3399-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hampshire" title="Stuart Hampshire">Hampshire, Stuart</a>, 1951. Spinoza and Spinozism, OUP, 2005 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927954-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927954-8">978-0-19-927954-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Hardt, Michael</a>, trans., University of Minnesota Press. Preface, in French, by Gilles Deleuze, available here: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110611234714/http://multitudes.samizdat.net/article.php3?id_article=1355">"01. Préface à L'Anomalie sauvage de Negri"</a>. Multitudes.samizdat.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://multitudes.samizdat.net/article.php3?id_article=1355">the original</a> on 11 June 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=01.+Pr%C3%A9face+%C3%A0+L%27Anomalie+sauvage+de+Negri&rft.pub=Multitudes.samizdat.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmultitudes.samizdat.net%2Farticle.php3%3Fid_article%3D1355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li>_____, 2006. Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670–1752, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927922-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927922-7">978-0-19-927922-7</a>)</li> <li>_____. 2002. “Philosophy, Commerce and the Synagogue: Spinoza's Expulsion from the Amsterdam Portuguese Jewish Community in 1656.” In Dutch Jewry: Its History and Secular Culture (1500-2000). Edited by Jonathan Israel and Reinier Salverda, pp. 125–140. Leiden: Brill.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIves2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Ives" title="David Ives">Ives, David</a> (2009). <a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem_(play)" title="New Jerusalem (play)">New Jerusalem; The Interrogation of Baruch de Spinoza at Talmud Torah Congregation: Amsterdam, 27 July 1656</a>. New York: Dramatists Play Service. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8222-2385-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8222-2385-6"><bdi>978-0-8222-2385-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Jerusalem%3B+The+Interrogation+of+Baruch+de+Spinoza+at+Talmud+Torah+Congregation%3A+Amsterdam%2C+27+July+1656&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dramatists+Play+Service&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8222-2385-6&rft.aulast=Ives&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988">)</li> <li>Kayser, Rudolf, 1946, with an introduction by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>. Spinoza: Portrait of a Spiritual Hero. New York: The Philosophical Library.</li> <li>Kisner, Matthew J. 2011. Spinoza on human freedom: Reason, autonomy and the good life. New York: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genevieve_Lloyd" title="Genevieve Lloyd">Lloyd, Genevieve</a>. 1994. Part of Nature: Self-Knowledge in Spinoza's 'Ethics'. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.</li> <li>Lloyd, Genevieve. 2018. Reclaiming wonder. After the sublime. Edinburgh University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-3311-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-3311-2">978-1-4744-3311-2</a></li> <li>LeBuffe, Michael. 2010. Spinoza and Human Freedom. Oxford University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_O._Lovejoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur O. Lovejoy">Lovejoy, Arthur O.</a>, 1936. "Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza" in his The <a href="/wiki/Great_Chain_of_Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Chain of Being">Great Chain of Being</a>. Harvard University Press: 144–82 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36153-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36153-9">978-0-674-36153-9</a>). Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., ed., 1972. Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays. Anchor Books.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Macherey" title="Pierre Macherey">Macherey, Pierre</a>, 1977. Hegel ou Spinoza, Maspéro (2nd ed. La Découverte, 2004).</li> <li>_____, 1994–98. Introduction à l'Ethique de Spinoza. Paris: PUF.</li> <li>Magnusson 1990: Magnusson, M (ed.), Spinoza, Baruch, Chambers Biographical Dictionary, Chambers 1990, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-550-16041-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-550-16041-6">978-0-550-16041-6</a>.</li> <li>Matheron, Alexandre, 1969. Individu et communauté chez Spinoza, Paris: <a href="/wiki/Les_%C3%89ditions_de_Minuit" title="Les Éditions de Minuit">Minuit</a>.</li> <li>Millner, Simon L., The Face of Benedictus Spinoza (New York: Machmadim Art Editions, Inc., 1946).</li> <li>Montag, Warren, Bodies, Masses, Power: Spinoza and his Contemporaries. (London: Verso, 2002).</li> <li>Moreau, Pierre-François, 2003, Spinoza et le spinozisme, PUF (Presses Universitaires de France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Nadler" title="Steven Nadler">Nadler, Steven</a>, Think Least of Death: Spinoza on How to Live and How to Die, 2020 (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691183848" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691183848">978-0691183848</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri, Antonio</a>, 1991. The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza's Metaphysics and Politics.</li> <li>_____, 2004. Subversive Spinoza: (Un)Contemporary Variations.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raia_Prokhovnik" title="Raia Prokhovnik">Prokhovnik, Raia</a> (2004). Spinoza and republicanism. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333733905" title="Special:BookSources/978-0333733905"><bdi>978-0333733905</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spinoza+and+republicanism&rft.place=Houndmills%2C+Basingstoke%2C+Hampshire+New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0333733905&rft.aulast=Prokhovnik&rft.aufirst=Raia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABaruch+Spinoza" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Ratner, Joseph, 1927. The Philosophy of Spinoza (The Modern Library: Random House)</li> <li>Stolze, Ted and <a href="/wiki/Warren_Montag" title="Warren Montag">Warren Montag</a> (eds.), The New Spinoza, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997.</li> <li>Strauss, Leo. Persecution and the Art of Writing. Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1952. Reprint. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.</li> <li>_____ch. 5, "How to Study Spinoza's Tractus Theologico-Politicus;" reprinted in Strauss, Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, ed. Kenneth Hart Green (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1997), 181–233.</li> <li>____Spinoza's Critique of Religion. New York: Schocken Books, 1965. Reprint. University of Chicago Press, 1996.</li> <li>_____ "Preface to the English Translation" reprinted as "Preface to Spinoza's Critique of Religion", in Strauss, Liberalism Ancient and Modern (New York: Basic Books, 1968, 224–59; also in Strauss, Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, 137–77).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Valentiner" title="Wilhelm Valentiner">Valentiner, W.R.</a>, 1957. <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a> and Spinoza: A Study of the Spiritual Conflicts in Seventeenth-Century Holland, London: Phaidon Press.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121120221603/http://cral.ehess.fr/index.php?%2Fmembres%2Fdoctorants%2Fmembres-associes%2F964-vinciguerra">Vinciguerra, Lorenzo</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/78866030/Lorenzo-Vinciguerra-Spinoza-in-French-Philosophy-Today">Spinoza in French Philosophy Today</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/p62075/philosophy-today">Philosophy Today</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200807215145/https://www.questia.com/library/p62075/philosophy-today">Archived</a> 7 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/p62075/philosophy-today/i2482527/vol-53-no-4-winter">Vol. 53, No. 4, Winter 2009</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200807105128/https://www.questia.com/library/p62075/philosophy-today/i2482527/vol-53-no-4-winter">Archived</a> 7 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Van den Ven, Jeroen. Printing Spinoza: A Descriptive Bibliography of the Works Published in the Seventeenth Century. Leiden 2022.</li> <li>_____. Documenting Spinoza: A Biographical History of his Life and Time. (forthcoming)</li> <li>Williams, David Lay. 2010. "Spinoza and the General Will", <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Politics" title="The Journal of Politics">The Journal of Politics</a>, vol. 72 (April): 341–356.</li> <li>Wolfson, Henry A. "The Philosophy of Spinoza". 2 vols. Harvard University Press.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/1355">Works by Baruch Spinoza</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/authors/OL2946327A">Works by Baruch Spinoza</a> at <a href="/wiki/Open_Library" title="Open Library">Open Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070503180326/http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=1600-1699&author=Spinoza&text=A%20Theologico-Political%20Treatise">A Theologico-Political Treatise</a>– English Translation</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080218203218/http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost17/Spinoza/spi_eth0.html">Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata et in quinque partes distincta, in quibus agetur</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quodlibet.it/schedap.php?id=1790">Opera posthuma</a> – Amsterdam 1677. Complete photographic reproduction, ed. by F. Mignini (Quodlibet publishing house website)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200130001741/https://www.georgeeliotarchive.org/items/show/321">The Ethics of Benedict de Spinoza, translated by George Eliot, transcribed by Thomas Deegan</a></li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ethica.bc.edu/#/">Mapping Spinoza's Ethics</a>": visual representations of the connections between propositions in the Ethics.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://haifa-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/primo-explore/collectionDiscovery?vid=HAU&inst=972HAI_MAIN&collectionId=81168904190002791&lang=en_US">Spinoza Archive</a> on the Digital collections of <a href="/wiki/Younes_and_Soraya_Nazarian_Library" title="Younes and Soraya Nazarian Library">Younes and Soraya Nazarian Library</a>, University of Haifa</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://allenartcollection.oberlin.edu/objects/3443/het-naerder-veer-the-ferry-to-naarden-from-the-series-vie#">Leprozengracht with a view on the houses at Houtgracht by Reinier Nooms, 1657 - 1662</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Baruch_Spinoza_(Benedictus_de_Spinoza)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Baruch_Spinoza" title="Template:Baruch Spinoza"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Baruch_Spinoza" title="Template talk:Baruch Spinoza"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Baruch_Spinoza" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Baruch Spinoza"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Baruch_Spinoza_(Benedictus_de_Spinoza)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Baruch Spinoza (Benedictus de Spinoza)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Works_by_Baruch_Spinoza" title="Category:Works by Baruch Spinoza">Works by</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_de_Intellectus_Emendatione" title="Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione">Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione</a> (1662)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_philosophiae_cartesianae" title="Principia philosophiae cartesianae">Principia philosophiae cartesianae</a> (1663)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Theologico-Politicus" title="Tractatus Theologico-Politicus">Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</a> (1670)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Politicus" title="Tractatus Politicus">Tractatus Politicus</a> (1675–1676)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a> (1677)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Spinozism" title="Category:Spinozism">Concepts and interests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immanence" title="Immanence">Immanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conatus" title="Conatus">Conatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multitude_(philosophy)" title="Multitude (philosophy)">Multitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causa_sui" title="Causa sui">Causa sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_works_about_Baruch_Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="List of works about Baruch Spinoza">Works about</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cultural_depictions_of_Baruch_Spinoza" title="Category:Cultural depictions of Baruch Spinoza">Cultural depictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinoza:_Practical_Philosophy" title="Spinoza: Practical Philosophy">Spinoza: Practical Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem_(play)" title="New Jerusalem (play)">New Jerusalem</a> (2008 play)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinoza_Prize" title="Spinoza Prize">Spinoza Prize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Baruch_Spinoza" class="extiw" title="commons:Special:Search/Baruch Spinoza">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Baruch_Spinoza" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Baruch Spinoza">Wikiquote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikisource page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Author:Baruch_Spinoza" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Special:Search/Author:Baruch Spinoza">Wikisource texts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template talk:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism">Romanticism</a> →</div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Category:Age of Enlightenment">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Metaphysics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metaphysics" title="Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics" title="Template talk:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metaphysics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(philosophy)" title="Spiritualism (philosophy)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a> (c. 200 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a> (c. 80 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a> (c. 50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a> (c. 270)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a> (c. 1000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a> (1641)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a> (1677)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a> (1710)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a> (1714)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a> (1781)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a> (1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a> (1807)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a> (1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a> (1846)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a> (1981)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" 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title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_mind" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template talk:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_mind" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bain_(philosopher)" title="Alexander Bain (philosopher)">Alexander Bain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Ned Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyler_Burge" title="Tyler Burge">Tyler Burge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Clark" title="Andy Clark">Andy Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Cameron Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis (philosopher)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_No%C3%AB" title="Alva Noë">Alva Noë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Yablo" title="Stephen Yablo">Stephen Yablo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">Parallelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">Type physicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Representational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">Cognitive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">Language of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_event" title="Mental event">Mental event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_image" title="Mental image">Mental image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Mental_processes" title="Template:Mental processes">Mental process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">information</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">perception</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">self</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophy of mind">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy">Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Mind" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Mind">Task Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> (c. 375 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a> (51 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a> (c. 1274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a> (1313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a> (1532)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a> (1651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a> (1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a> (1992)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid 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href="https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:au:finaf:000077599">Finland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058521645206706">Catalonia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14363847">Belgium</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00217578?l=en">CiNii</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:baruch-de-spinoza.">zbMATH</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500341371">ULAN</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/d5587441-9bdd-410b-a8f8-2fa320b5fdae">MusicBrainz</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/54355304">Netherlands</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/29207451">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/981574">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118616242.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118616242">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/085696625">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6v129sq">SNAC</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&oldid=1259143688#Philosophy">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&oldid=1259143688#Philosophy</a>"</div></div> 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