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vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argentina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Argentina</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argentina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labor_and_safety_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_and_safety_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Labor and safety issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_and_safety_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meat-packing_companies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meat-packing_companies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Meat-packing companies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Meat-packing_companies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Meat-packing companies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Meat-packing_companies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Big_Four"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Big_Four""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>"Big Four"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Big_Four"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Big_Three"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Big_Three""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>"Big Three"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Big_Three"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Today" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Today"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Today</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Today-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-World" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>World</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A6%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%85" title="صناعة تعبئة اللحوم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صناعة تعبئة اللحوم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Мясная прамысловасць – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мясная прамысловасць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Produkce_masa" title="Produkce masa – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Produkce masa" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B8dproduktion" title="Kødproduktion – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kødproduktion" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleischproduktion" title="Fleischproduktion – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Fleischproduktion" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lihat%C3%B6%C3%B6stus" title="Lihatööstus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Lihatööstus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industria_de_procesamiento_de_la_carne" title="Industria de procesamiento de la carne – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Industria de procesamiento de la carne" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viandindustrio" title="Viandindustrio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Viandindustrio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haragia_prozesatzeko_industria" title="Haragia prozesatzeko industria – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Haragia prozesatzeko industria" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%B9%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C_%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AA" title="صنعت بسته‌بندی گوشت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="صنعت بسته‌بندی گوشت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9D%EC%9C%A1%EC%A0%9C%EA%B4%80%EC%97%85" title="식육제관업 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="식육제관업" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%BD%D5%AB_%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մսի արդյունաբերություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մսի արդյունաբերություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ga%C4%BCas_p%C4%81rstr%C4%81de" title="Gaļas pārstrāde – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Gaļas pārstrāde" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%88%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Мясная промышленность – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мясная промышленность" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesnoprera%C4%91iva%C4%8Dka_industrija" title="Mesnoprerađivačka industrija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mesnoprerađivačka industrija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ttproduktion" title="Köttproduktion – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Köttproduktion" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%27%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="М'ясна промисловість – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="М'ясна промисловість" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4ng_nghi%E1%BB%87p_ch%E1%BA%BF_bi%E1%BA%BFn_th%E1%BB%8Bt" title="Công nghiệp chế biến thịt – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Công nghiệp chế biến thịt" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%82%89%E7%B1%BB%E5%8A%A0%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A" title="肉类加工业 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="肉类加工业" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Industrial production of food and by-products from animals</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DaviesPenofHogs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/DaviesPenofHogs.jpg/200px-DaviesPenofHogs.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/DaviesPenofHogs.jpg/300px-DaviesPenofHogs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/DaviesPenofHogs.jpg/400px-DaviesPenofHogs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/William_Davies_Company" title="William Davies Company">William Davies Company</a> facilities in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, circa 1920. This facility was then the third largest hog-packing plant in North America.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>meat-packing industry</b> (also spelled <b>meatpacking industry</b> or <b>meat packing industry</b>) handles the <a href="/wiki/Slaughter_(livestock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Slaughter (livestock)">slaughtering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Packaging" title="Packaging">packaging</a>, and distribution of <a href="/wiki/Meat" title="Meat">meat</a> from animals such as <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pigs" class="mw-redirect" title="Pigs">pigs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sheep" title="Sheep">sheep</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a>. <a href="/wiki/Poultry" title="Poultry">Poultry</a> is generally not included. This greater part of the entire <a href="/wiki/Meat_industry" title="Meat industry">meat industry</a> is primarily focused on producing meat for <a href="/wiki/Meat_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat consumption">human consumption</a>, but it also yields a variety of <a href="/wiki/By-product" title="By-product">by-products</a> including <a href="/wiki/Hide_(skin)" title="Hide (skin)">hides</a>, dried blood, <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> meals such as <a href="/wiki/Meat_%26_bone_meal" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat & bone meal">meat & bone meal</a>, and, through the process of <a href="/wiki/Rendering_(industrial)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rendering (industrial)">rendering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fats</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Tallow" title="Tallow">tallow</a>). </p><p>In the United States and some other countries, the facility where the meat packing is done is called a <i><a href="/wiki/Slaughterhouse" title="Slaughterhouse">slaughterhouse</a></i>, <i>packinghouse</i> or a <i>meat-packing plant</i>; in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, where most of the products are exported, it is called a <i>freezing works</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <a href="/wiki/Abattoir" class="mw-redirect" title="Abattoir">abattoir</a> is a place where animals are slaughtered for food. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pork_packing_in_Cincinnati_1873.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Pork_packing_in_Cincinnati_1873.jpg/220px-Pork_packing_in_Cincinnati_1873.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Pork_packing_in_Cincinnati_1873.jpg/330px-Pork_packing_in_Cincinnati_1873.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Pork_packing_in_Cincinnati_1873.jpg/440px-Pork_packing_in_Cincinnati_1873.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7497" data-file-height="5076" /></a><figcaption>Pork packing in Cincinnati, 1873</figcaption></figure> <p>The meat-packing industry grew with the construction of railroads and methods of <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a> for <a href="/wiki/Meat_preservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat preservation">meat preservation</a>. Railroads made possible the transport of stock to central points for processing, and the transport of products. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pork_Dressing_(20107657).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Pork_Dressing_%2820107657%29.jpg/220px-Pork_Dressing_%2820107657%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Pork_Dressing_%2820107657%29.jpg/330px-Pork_Dressing_%2820107657%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Pork_Dressing_%2820107657%29.jpg/440px-Pork_Dressing_%2820107657%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2300" data-file-height="1516" /></a><figcaption>Postcard of pork dressing in Texas, undated</figcaption></figure> <p>Before the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Meat_industry" title="Meat industry">meat industry</a> was localized, with farmers providing beef and hogs for nearby butchers to serve the local market. Large Army contracts during the Civil War attracted entrepreneurs with a vision for building much larger markets.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1865–1873 era provided five factors that expanded the industry to a national scale: </p> <ul><li>The rapid growth of cities provided a lucrative new market for fresh meat.</li> <li>The emergence of large-scale ranching, the role of the railroads, refrigeration, and entrepreneurial skills.</li> <li>Cattle ranching on a large-scale moved to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a>, from Texas northward.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cattle_drives_in_the_United_States" title="Cattle drives in the United States">Overland cattle drives</a> moved large herds to the railheads in Kansas, where cattle cars brought live animals eastward.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abilene,_Kansas" title="Abilene, Kansas">Abilene, Kansas</a>, became the chief railhead, shipping 35,000 cattle a year, mostly to <a href="/wiki/Kansas_City,_Missouri" title="Kansas City, Missouri">Kansas City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milwaukee" title="Milwaukee">Milwaukee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>.</li></ul> <p>In Milwaukee, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Armour" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Armour">Philip Armour</a>, an ambitious entrepreneur from New York who made his fortune in Army contracts during the war, partnered with Jacob Plankinton to build a highly efficient stockyard that serviced the upper Midwest. Chicago built the famous Union Stockyards in 1865 on 345 swampy acres to the south of downtown. Armour opened the Chicago plant, as did <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Morris" title="Nelson Morris">Nelson Morris</a>, another wartime contractor. <a href="/wiki/Cincinnati" title="Cincinnati">Cincinnati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo</a>, both with good water and rail service, also opened stockyards. Perhaps the most energetic entrepreneur was <a href="/wiki/Gustavus_Franklin_Swift" title="Gustavus Franklin Swift">Gustavus Franklin Swift</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yankee" title="Yankee">Yankee</a> who operated out of <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> and moved to Chicago in 1875, specializing in long distance refrigerated meat shipments to eastern cities.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A practical <a href="/wiki/Refrigerator_car" title="Refrigerator car">refrigerated (ice-cooled) rail car</a> was introduced in 1881. This made it possible to ship cattle and hog carcasses, which weighed only 40% as much as live animals; the entire national market, served by the railroads, was opened up, as well as transatlantic markets using <a href="/wiki/Reefer_ship" title="Reefer ship">refrigerated ships</a>. Swift developed an integrated network of cattle procurement, slaughtering, meat-packing, and shipping meat to market. Up to that time, cattle were driven great distances to railroad shipping points, causing the cattle to lose considerable weight. Swift developed a large business, which grew in size with the entry of several competitors.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Corporations" title="Bureau of Corporations">Bureau of Corporations</a>, predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a> investigated the country's meatpackers for anti-competitive practices in the first decade of the 1900s.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Pure_Food_and_Drug_Act_of_1906" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906">Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906</a> was the first of a series of legislation that led to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). Another such act passed the same year was the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Meat_Inspection_Act" title="Federal Meat Inspection Act">Federal Meat Inspection Act</a>. The new laws helped the large packers, and hurt small operations that lacked economy of scale or quality controls.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/William_Cronon" title="William Cronon">William Cronon</a> concludes: </p> <dl><dd>Because of the Chicago packers, ranchers in Wyoming and feedlot farmers in Iowa regularly found a reliable market for their animals, and on average received better prices for the animals they sold there. At the same time and for the same reason, Americans of all classes found a greater variety of more and better meats on their tables, purchased on average at lower prices than ever before. Seen in this light, the Packers' "rigid system of economy" seemed a very good thing indeed.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Changing_geography">Changing geography</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Changing geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The industry after 1945 closed its stockyards in big cities like Chicago and moved operations to small towns close to cattle ranches, especially in Iowa, Nebraska and Colorado. Historically, besides Cincinnati, Chicago and Omaha, the other major meat-packing cities had been <a href="/wiki/South_St._Paul,_Minnesota" title="South St. Paul, Minnesota">South St. Paul, Minnesota</a>; <a href="/wiki/East_St._Louis,_Illinois" title="East St. Louis, Illinois">East St. Louis, Illinois</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dubuque,_Iowa" title="Dubuque, Iowa">Dubuque, Iowa</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kansas_City,_Missouri" title="Kansas City, Missouri">Kansas City, Missouri</a>; <a href="/wiki/Austin,_Minnesota" title="Austin, Minnesota">Austin, Minnesota</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Falls,_South_Dakota" title="Sioux Falls, South Dakota">Sioux Falls, South Dakota</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Sioux_City,_Iowa" title="Sioux City, Iowa">Sioux City, Iowa</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rail_to_truck">Rail to truck</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rail to truck"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mid-century restructuring by the industry of the stockyards, slaughterhouses and meat-packing plants led to relocating facilities closer to cattle feedlots and swine production facilities, to more rural areas, as transportation shifted from rail to truck. It has been difficult for labor to organize in such locations. In addition, the number of jobs fell sharply due to technology and other changes. Wages fell during the latter part of the 20th century, and eventually, both Chicago (in 1971) and Omaha (in 1999) closed their stockyards. The workforce increasingly relied on recent migrants from Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saladero_11_de_Setiembre_-_Barrio_Refiner%C3%ADa,_Rosario.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Saladero_11_de_Setiembre_-_Barrio_Refiner%C3%ADa%2C_Rosario.jpg/246px-Saladero_11_de_Setiembre_-_Barrio_Refiner%C3%ADa%2C_Rosario.jpg" decoding="async" width="246" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Saladero_11_de_Setiembre_-_Barrio_Refiner%C3%ADa%2C_Rosario.jpg/369px-Saladero_11_de_Setiembre_-_Barrio_Refiner%C3%ADa%2C_Rosario.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Saladero_11_de_Setiembre_-_Barrio_Refiner%C3%ADa%2C_Rosario.jpg/492px-Saladero_11_de_Setiembre_-_Barrio_Refiner%C3%ADa%2C_Rosario.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="807" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Saladero" title="Saladero">saladero</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rosario" title="Rosario">Rosario</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, 1860s</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Argentina">Argentina</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Argentina"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Argentina had the natural resources and human talent to build a world-class meat-packing industry. However, its success in reaching European markets was limited by the poor quality control in the production of its meat and the general inferiority of frozen meat to the chilled meat exported by the United States and Australia. By 1900, the Argentine government encouraged investment in the industry to improve quality. The British dominated the world shipping industry and began fitting their ships for cold air containers, and built new refrigerated steamers. When the Argentine industry finally secured a large slice of the British market, <a href="/wiki/Foot-and-mouth_disease" title="Foot-and-mouth disease">Pateros</a> and trade restrictions limited its penetration of the Continent.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meat in China moved from a minor specialty commodity to a major factor in the food supply in the late 20th century thanks to the rapid emergence of a middle class with upscale tastes and plenty of money. It was a transition from a country able to provide a small ration of meat for urban citizens only to the world's largest meat producer; it was a movement from a handful of processing facilities in major cities to thousands of modern meat-packing and processing plants throughout the country, alongside the rapid growth of a middle-class with spending money.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Labor_and_safety_issues">Labor and safety issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Labor and safety issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 20th century, meatpacking companies employed new immigrants as strikebreakers during labor actions initiated by existing workers, who were often earlier immigrants themselves or the immediate descendants of immigrants. The publication of the <a href="/wiki/Upton_Sinclair" title="Upton Sinclair">Upton Sinclair</a> novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jungle" title="The Jungle">The Jungle</a></i> in the U.S. in 1906 <a href="/wiki/The_Jungle#Federal_response" title="The Jungle">shocked the public</a> with the poor working conditions and unsanitary practices in the meat-packing plants in the United States, specifically <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>. </p><p>Meat-packing plants, like many industries in the early 20th century, overworked their employees, failed to maintain adequate safety measures, and actively fought unionization. Meat-packing workers were exposed to dangerous chemicals and sharp machinery, and routinely suffered horrible injuries. Public pressure of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congress">U.S. Congress</a> led to the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Meat_Inspection_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat Inspection Act">Meat Inspection Act</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pure_Food_and_Drug_Act" title="Pure Food and Drug Act">Pure Food and Drug Act</a> (both passed in 1906 on the same day) to ensure better regulations of the meat-packing industry. </p><p>In the 1920s and early 1930s, workers achieved unionization under the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" title="Congress of Industrial Organizations">CIO</a>'s <a href="/wiki/United_Packinghouse_Workers_of_America" title="United Packinghouse Workers of America">United Packinghouse Workers of America</a> (UPWA). An interracial committee led the organizing in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, where the majority of workers in the industry were black, and other major cities, such as <a href="/wiki/Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a>, where they were an important minority in the industry. UPWA workers made important gains in wages, hours and benefits. In 1957, the stockyards and meat-packing plants employed half the workers of Omaha. The union supported a progressive agenda, including the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> of the 1960s. While the work was still difficult, for a few decades workers achieved <a href="/wiki/Blue-collar" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue-collar">blue-collar</a>, middle-class lives from it. </p><p>Though the meat-packing industry has made many improvements since the early 1900s, extensive changes in the industry since the late 20th century have caused new labor issues to arise. Today, the rate of injury in the meat-packing industry is three times that of the private industry overall, and meat-packing was noted by <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a> as being "the most dangerous factory job in America". The meatpacking industry continues to employ many immigrant laborers, including some who are <a href="/wiki/Undocumented_worker" class="mw-redirect" title="Undocumented worker">undocumented workers</a>. In the early 20th century the workers were immigrants from eastern and southern Europe and black migrants from the South. Today, many meatpacking workers are Hispanics hailing from Mexico, Central and South America. A notable amount of workers are from Peru, leading to the formation of a large Peruvian community in the industry. The isolated areas in which many plants are located put these workers at greater risk due to their limited ability to organize and seek redress for work-related injuries.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American slaughterhouse workers are three times more likely to suffer serious injury than the average American worker.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a> reports that pig and cattle slaughterhouse workers are nearly seven times more likely to suffer repetitive strain injuries than average.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a> reports that on average there are two amputations a week involving slaughterhouse workers in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On average, one employee of <a href="/wiki/Tyson_Foods" title="Tyson Foods">Tyson Foods</a>, the largest meat producer in America, is injured and amputates a finger or limb per month.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bureau of Investigative Journalism reported that over a period of six years in the <a href="/wiki/UK" class="mw-redirect" title="UK">UK</a>, 78 slaughter workers lost fingers, parts of fingers or limbs, more than 800 workers had serious injuries, and at least 4,500 had to take more than three days off after accidents.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 2018 study in the Italian Journal of Food Safety, slaughterhouse workers are instructed to wear ear protectors to protect their hearing from the constant screams of animals being killed.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2004 study in the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine found that "excess risks were observed for mortality from all causes, all cancers, and lung cancer" in workers employed in the New Zealand meat processing industry.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The worst thing, worse than the physical danger, is the emotional toll. If you work in the stick pit [where hogs are killed] for any period of time—that lets [sic] you kill things but doesn't let you care. You may look a hog in the eye that's walking around in the blood pit with you and think, 'God, that really isn't a bad-looking animal.' You may want to pet it. Pigs down on the kill floor have come up to nuzzle me like a puppy. Two minutes later I had to kill them—beat them to death with a pipe. I can't care.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Gail A. Eisnitz, <sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The act of slaughtering animals or of raising or transporting animals for slaughter may engender psychological stress or trauma in the people involved.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2016 study in <i>Organization</i> indicates, "Regression analyses of data from 10,605 Danish workers across 44 occupations suggest that slaughterhouse workers consistently experience lower physical and psychological well-being along with increased incidences of negative coping behavior".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2009 study by criminologist Amy Fitzgerald indicates, "slaughterhouse employment increases total arrest rates, arrests for violent crimes, arrests for rape, and arrests for other sex offenses in comparison with other industries".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As authors from the PTSD Journal explain, "These employees are hired to kill animals, such as pigs and cows that are largely gentle creatures. Carrying out this action requires workers to disconnect from what they are doing and from the creature standing before them. This emotional dissonance can lead to consequences such as domestic violence, social withdrawal, anxiety, drug and alcohol abuse, and PTSD".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slaughterhouses in the United States commonly illegally employ and exploit underage workers and illegal immigrants.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2010, <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a> described slaughterhouse line work in the United States as a human rights crime.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a report by <a href="/wiki/Oxfam_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxfam America">Oxfam America</a>, slaughterhouse workers were observed not being allowed breaks, were often required to wear diapers, and were paid below minimum wage.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another problem in this context is that the pharmaceutical industry obtains basic materials for its products from the meat-packing industry; for example, tissue extracts from slaughterhouse waste. In the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">Covid-19 pandemic</a> in 2020, this led to the paradoxical situation that mass slaughterhouses were infection drivers due to the bad labor conditions and at the same time suppliers of important therapeutics such as <a href="/wiki/Heparin" title="Heparin">heparin</a>, which subsequently became a scarce commodity.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medical historian Benjamin Prinz has therefore pointed to the fragility of today's healthcare systems, which themselves participate in environmentally destructive and disease-causing production chains.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contemporary concerns about the meat industry within the American context have often been colored by the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States"> COVID-19 Pandemic</a> and the resulting supply chain issues. Beyond the consumer perspective, workers were expected to drastically increase the rate at which they process animals. For instance, workers were expected to process 175 birds per minute up from 140 birds per minute.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In part this was due to shortages of workers. Workers within the industry were often in the news for large outbreaks within factories.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By its nature meat processing requires close proximity to other workers and exposure to a slew of bacteria and viruses. Additionally, workers often have to yell over loud machinery which increases the amount of contaminated droplets in the air.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 50,000 meat packing workers contracted the disease and over 200 died.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disease is not evenly distributed throughout factories and all workers in a given factory are not at equal risk for exposure and negative health outcomes despite working the same job. In particular, the overlap of immigration status and workplace exposures can result in a variety of negative health outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Labor_rights_in_American_meatpacking_industry" title="Labor rights in American meatpacking industry">Labor rights in American meatpacking industry</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Meat-packing_companies">Meat-packing companies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Meat-packing companies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Big_Four""><span id=".22Big_Four.22"></span>"Big Four"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: "Big Four""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 1900, the dominant meat-packers were:<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armour_and_Company" title="Armour and Company">Armour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morris_%26_Company" title="Morris & Company">Morris</a> (acquired in 1923)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cudahy_Packing_Company" title="Cudahy Packing Company">Cudahy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_Packing_Plant" title="Wilson Packing Plant">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swift_Packing" class="mw-redirect" title="Swift Packing">Swift</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Big_Three""><span id=".22Big_Three.22"></span>"Big Three"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: "Big Three""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1990s, the dominant meat-packers were:<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_Beef_Processors" class="mw-redirect" title="Iowa Beef Processors">IBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ConAgra_Foods" class="mw-redirect" title="ConAgra Foods">ConAgra Foods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excel_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Excel Corporation">Excel Corporation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Today">Today</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Today"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Current significant meat-packers in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> include:<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beef Packers: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tyson_Foods" title="Tyson Foods">Tyson Foods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargill_Meat_Solutions" title="Cargill Meat Solutions">Cargill Meat Solutions</a> (<i>Excel</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/JBS_USA" title="JBS USA">JBS USA</a> (<i>Swift</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Beef_Packing_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="National Beef Packing Company">National Beef</a></li></ul> <p>Pork Packers: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smithfield_Foods" title="Smithfield Foods">Smithfield Foods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaboard_Corporation" title="Seaboard Corporation">Seaboard Corporation</a></li> <li>Tyson Foods</li> <li>JBS USA</li> <li>Cargill Meat Solutions</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Broiler_industry" title="Broiler industry">Broiler</a> Chickens: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JBS_USA" title="JBS USA">JBS USA</a> (<i>Pilgrim's Pride</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyson_Foods" title="Tyson Foods">Tyson Foods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdue_Farms" title="Perdue Farms">Perdue Farms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanderson_Farms" title="Sanderson Farms">Sanderson Farms</a></li></ul> <p>Outside the United States: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teys_Australia" title="Teys Australia">Teys Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JBS_S.A." title="JBS S.A.">JBS S.A.</a> (Brazil)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marfrig" title="Marfrig">Marfrig S.A.</a> (Brazil)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BRF_S.A." title="BRF S.A.">BRF S.A.</a> (Brazil)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charoen_Pokphand_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Charoen Pokphand Group">Charoen Pokphand Group</a> (Thailand)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Cold_Storage_and_Supply_Company" title="Imperial Cold Storage and Supply Company">Imperial Cold Storage and Supply Company</a> (South Africa)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maple_Leaf_Foods" title="Maple Leaf Foods">Maple Leaf Foods</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schneider_Foods" class="mw-redirect" title="Schneider Foods">Schneider Foods</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cargill_Proteins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cargill Proteins (page does not exist)">Cargill Proteins</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/AFFCO_Holdings" title="AFFCO Holdings">AFFCO Holdings</a> (New Zealand)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/32px-Foodlogo2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/48px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/64px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="106" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Food" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Animal–industrial complex">Animal–industrial complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_inspection" title="Continuous inspection">Continuous inspection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">Environmental impact of meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Triangle_of_Meat-packing" title="Golden Triangle of Meat-packing">Golden Triangle of Meat-packing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights_in_American_meatpacking_industry" title="Labor rights in American meatpacking industry">Labor rights in American meatpacking industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slaughterhouse" title="Slaughterhouse">Slaughterhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Stock_Yards" title="Union Stock Yards">Union Stock Yards</a>, Chicago</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers" title="Green Bay Packers">Green Bay Packers</a>, Named after industry</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNoted" class="citation web cs1">Noted. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190525044935/https://www.noted.co.nz/life/life-in-nz/abandoned-freezing-works-new-zealand-following-the-call/">"Following the call of New Zealand's abandoned freezing works"</a>. <i>Noted</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.noted.co.nz/life/life-in-nz/abandoned-freezing-works-new-zealand-following-the-call/">the original</a> on 2019-05-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-06-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Noted&rft.atitle=Following+the+call+of+New+Zealand%27s+abandoned+freezing+works&rft.au=Noted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.noted.co.nz%2Flife%2Flife-in-nz%2Fabandoned-freezing-works-new-zealand-following-the-call%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMeat-packing+industry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Allan Nevins, <i>The emergence of modern America, 1865-1878</i> (1927) pp 35-39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alfred D. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-07-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Civil+Eats&rft.atitle=Op-ed%3A+Speeding+Up+Poultry+Lines+in+a+Pandemic+Puts+Workers%27+Lives+in+Danger&rft.date=2020-07-17&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Shayla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcivileats.com%2F2020%2F07%2F17%2Fspeeding-up-poultry-lines-in-a-pandemic-puts-workers-lives-in-danger%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMeat-packing+industry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas2022" class="citation news cs1">Douglas, Leah (2022-01-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/business/nearly-90-big-us-meat-plants-had-covid-19-cases-pandemics-first-year-data-2022-01-14/">"Nearly 90% of big US meat plants had COVID-19 cases in pandemic's first year - data"</a>. <i>Reuters</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-07-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Nearly+90%25+of+big+US+meat+plants+had+COVID-19+cases+in+pandemic%27s+first+year+-+data&rft.date=2022-01-14&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=Leah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fbusiness%2Fnearly-90-big-us-meat-plants-had-covid-19-cases-pandemics-first-year-data-2022-01-14%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMeat-packing+industry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitehead2022" class="citation journal cs1">Whitehead, Dalton (September 1, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9478983">"The Impact of COVID-19 on the Meat Supply Chain in the USA: A Review"</a>. <i>Food Science of Animal Resources</i>. <b>42</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">762–</span>774. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5851%2Fkosfa.2022.e39">10.5851/kosfa.2022.e39</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9478983">9478983</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36133635">36133635</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Food+Science+of+Animal+Resources&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+COVID-19+on+the+Meat+Supply+Chain+in+the+USA%3A+A+Review&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E762-%3C%2Fspan%3E774&rft.date=2022-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9478983%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36133635&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5851%2Fkosfa.2022.e39&rft.aulast=Whitehead&rft.aufirst=Dalton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9478983&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMeat-packing+industry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlynn2018" class="citation journal cs1">Flynn, Micheal (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6503519">"Im/migration, Work, and Health: Anthropology and the Occupational Health of Labor Im/migrants"</a>. <i>Anthropology of Work Review</i>. <b>39</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">116–</span>123. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fawr.12151">10.1111/awr.12151</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6503519">6503519</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31080311">31080311</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anthropology+of+Work+Review&rft.atitle=Im%2Fmigration%2C+Work%2C+and+Health%3A+Anthropology+and+the+Occupational+Health+of+Labor+Im%2Fmigrants&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E116-%3C%2Fspan%3E123&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6503519%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31080311&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fawr.12151&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=Micheal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6503519&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMeat-packing+industry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren2009" class="citation book cs1">Warren, Wilson J. (November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f-CAclXhhCYC&pg=PA15"><i>Tied to the Great Packing Machine: The Midwest and Meatpacking</i></a>. University of Iowa Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58729-774-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58729-774-8"><bdi>978-1-58729-774-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tied+to+the+Great+Packing+Machine%3A+The+Midwest+and+Meatpacking&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=University+of+Iowa+Press&rft.date=2009-11&rft.isbn=978-1-58729-774-8&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=Wilson+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df-CAclXhhCYC%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMeat-packing+industry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPate2005" class="citation book cs1">Pate, J'Nell L. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ho8Te_Qf4NEC&pg=PA49"><i>America's Historic Stockyards: Livestock Hotels</i></a>. TCU Press. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87565-304-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87565-304-4"><bdi>978-0-87565-304-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+Historic+Stockyards%3A+Livestock+Hotels&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=TCU+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-87565-304-4&rft.aulast=Pate&rft.aufirst=J%27Nell+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dho8Te_Qf4NEC%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMeat-packing+industry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiseRakocy" class="citation web cs1">Wise, Timothy A.; Rakocy, Betsy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ase.tufts.edu/gdae/Pubs/rp/PB10-01HoggingGainsJan10.html">"Hogging the Gains from Trade: The Real Winners from U.S. Trade and Agricultural Policies"</a>. <i>Tufts University: Global Development And Environment Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-08-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tufts+University%3A+Global+Development+And+Environment+Institute&rft.atitle=Hogging+the+Gains+from+Trade%3A+The+Real+Winners+from+U.S.+Trade+and+Agricultural+Policies&rft.aulast=Wise&rft.aufirst=Timothy+A.&rft.au=Rakocy%2C+Betsy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ase.tufts.edu%2Fgdae%2FPubs%2Frp%2FPB10-01HoggingGainsJan10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMeat-packing+industry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Arnould, Richard J. "Changing patterns of concentration in American meat packing, 1880–1963." <i>Business History Review</i> 45.1 (1971): 18-34.</li> <li>Barrett, James R. <i>Work and Community in the Jungle: Chicago's Packinghouse Workers, 1894-1922</i> (U of Illinois Press, 1990).</li> <li>Cronon, William. <i>Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West</i> (1991), pp 207–59.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFields2003" class="citation journal cs1">Fields, Gary (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248584092">"Communications, innovation, and territory: the production network of Swift Meat Packing and the creation of a national US market"</a>. <i>Journal of Historical Geography</i>. <b>29</b> (4). Elsevier BV: <span class="nowrap">599–</span>617. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjhge.2002.0415">10.1006/jhge.2002.0415</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-7488">0305-7488</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154757208">154757208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Historical+Geography&rft.atitle=Communications%2C+innovation%2C+and+territory%3A+the+production+network+of+Swift+Meat+Packing+and+the+creation+of+a+national+US+market&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E599-%3C%2Fspan%3E617&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154757208%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0305-7488&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fjhge.2002.0415&rft.aulast=Fields&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F248584092&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMeat-packing+industry" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gordon, Steve C. "From Slaughterhouse to Soap-Boiler: Cincinnati's Meat Packing Industry, Changing Technologies, and the Rise of Mass Production, 1825-1870." <i>IA. The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology</i> (1990): 55-67.</li> <li>Gras, N.S.B. and Henrietta M. Larson. <i>Casebook in American business history</i> (1939) pp 623–43 on Armour company.</li> <li>Hill, Howard Copeland. "The development of Chicago as a center of the meat packing industry." <i>Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i> 10.3 (1923): 253-273. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1891601">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Horowitz, Roger. <i>Putting meat on the American table: Taste, technology, transformation</i> (Johns Hopkins UP, 2006).</li> <li>Horowitz, Roger. <i>Negro and White, Unite and Fight!: A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking, 1930-90</i> (U of Illinois Press, 1997).</li> <li>Kujovich, M. Yeager. "The Refrigerator Car and the Growth of the American Dressed Beef Industry," <i>Business History Review</i> 44 (1970) 460-482.</li> <li>Skaggs, Jimmy M. <i>Prime Cut: Livestock raising and meatpacking in the United States, 1607-1983</i> (Texas A & M UP, 1986).</li> <li>Wade, Louise Carroll. <i>Chicago's Pride: The Stockyards, Packingtown, and Environs in the Nineteenth Century</i> (U of Illinois Press, 1987).</li> <li>Walsh, Margaret. <i>The Rise of the Midwestern Meat Packing Industry</i> (1983), strong on pork'</li> <li>Walsh, Margaret. "Pork packing as a leading edge of Midwestern industry, 1835-1875." <i>Agricultural History</i> 51.4 (1977): 702-717. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3741757">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Walsh, Margaret. "The spatial evolution of the mid-western pork industry, 1835-1875" <i>Journal of Historical Geography</i> 4#1 (1978) 1-22.</li> <li>Warren, Wilson J. <i>Tied to the great packing machine: The Midwest and meatpacking</i> (U of Iowa Press, 2007).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeager1981" class="citation book cs1">Yeager, Mary (1981). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/competitionregul0004yeag"><i>Competition and Regulation: The Development of Oligopoly in the Meat Packing Industry</i></a></span>. Greenwich, Connecticut: Jai Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780892320585" title="Special:BookSources/9780892320585"><bdi>9780892320585</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7167708">7167708</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Competition+and+Regulation%3A+The+Development+of+Oligopoly+in+the+Meat+Packing+Industry&rft.place=Greenwich%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Jai+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7167708&rft.isbn=9780892320585&rft.aulast=Yeager&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompetitionregul0004yeag&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMeat-packing+industry" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World">World</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: World"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Barnes, Felicity, and David M. Higgins. "Brand image, cultural association, and marketing: 'New Zealand' butter and lamb exports to Britain, c. 1920–1938." <i>Business History</i> (2017): 1-28.</li> <li>Lopes, Maria-Aparecida. "Struggles over an 'Old, Nasty, and Inconvenient Monopoly': Municipal Slaughterhouses and the Meat Industry in Rio de Janeiro, 1880–1920s." <i>Journal of Latin American Studies</i> 47.2 (2015): 349-376.</li> <li>MacLachlan, Ian. <i>Kill and Chill: Restructuring Canada's Beef Commodity Chain</i> (U of Toronto Press, 2001).</li> <li>Nützenadel, Alexander. "A Green International? Food Markets and Transnational Politics, c. 1850-1914." <i>Food and globalization: consumption, markets, and politics in the modern world</i> (Berg, 2008) pp: 153-73.</li> <li>Perren, Richard. <i>Taste, trade, and technology: the development of the international meat industry since 1840</i> (Ashgate, 2006).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilver2008" class="citation journal cs1">Silver, Jim (2008-07-24). "The Origins of Winnipeg's Packinghouse Industry: Transitions from Trade to Manufacture". <i>Prairie Forum</i>. <b>19</b>: <span class="nowrap">15–</span>30. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10294%2F262">10294/262</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0317-6282">0317-6282</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Prairie+Forum&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Winnipeg%27s+Packinghouse+Industry%3A+Transitions+from+Trade+to+Manufacture&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.date=2008-07-24&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10294%2F262&rft.issn=0317-6282&rft.aulast=Silver&rft.aufirst=Jim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMeat-packing+industry" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Woods, Rebecca JH. "From Colonial Animal to Imperial Edible Building an Empire of Sheep in New Zealand, ca. 1880-1900." <i>Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East</i> 35.1 (2015): 117-136.</li> <li>Yeager, Mary. <i>Competition and Regulation: The Development of Oligopoly in the Meat Packing Industry</i> (1981)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meat-packing_industry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Meat_industry" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Meat industry">Meat industry</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 220px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IhO1FcjDMV4"><span class="plainlinks">Meatpacking: Last Week Tonight with John Oliver (HBO)</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/now/shows/250/meat-packing.html">NOW on PBS – <i>Meatpacking in the U.S.: Still a Jungle Out There?</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thetartan.org/2010/2/22/forum/meat">"Meat Packing Industry Has Responsibility to Reform"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kansascity.com/beef/">"Beef's Raw Edges"</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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title="Fungiculture">Fungiculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truffle" title="Truffle">Truffles</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aquatic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry" title="Fishing industry">Fishing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchovy#Fisheries" title="Anchovy">Anchovies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herring#Fisheries" title="Herring">Herring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardine#Fisheries" title="Sardine">Sardines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cod_fisheries" title="Cod fisheries">Cod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haddock#Fisheries" title="Haddock">Haddock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_pollock#Fisheries" title="Alaska pollock">Pollock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mackerel#Fisheries" title="Mackerel">Mackerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark#Fishery" title="Shark">Shark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swordfish#Fisheries" title="Swordfish">Swordfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuna#Fishing_industry" title="Tuna">Tuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crab_fisheries" title="Crab fisheries">Crabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobster_fishing" title="Lobster fishing">Lobsters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin#As_food" title="Sea urchin">Sea urchins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squid#Commercial_fishing" title="Squid">Squid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whaling" title="Whaling">Whaling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carp#Aquaculture" title="Carp">Carp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_catfish" title="Aquaculture of catfish">Catfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_tilapia" title="Aquaculture of tilapia">Tilapia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abalone#Farming" title="Abalone">Abalone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mussel#Aquaculture" title="Mussel">Mussels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_farming" title="Oyster farming">Oysters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_pearl" title="Cultured pearl">Pearls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_microalgae_in_hatcheries" title="Culture of microalgae in hatcheries">Microalgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaweed_farming" title="Seaweed farming">Seaweed</a></li></ul></li> <li>Both <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clam_digging" title="Clam digging">Clams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_cucumbers_as_food" title="Sea cucumbers as food">Sea cucumbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scallop#Seafood_industry" title="Scallop">Scallops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrimp#Human_uses" title="Shrimp">Shrimp</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuel industry">Fossil fuels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal industry">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_industry" title="Oil shale industry">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry" title="Petroleum industry">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_sands" title="Oil sands">Tar sands</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mining of ores <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium#Production_and_refinement" title="Aluminium">Aluminum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper#Production" title="Copper">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_ore#Production_and_consumption" title="Iron ore">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_mining" title="Silver mining">Silver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Palladium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platinum#Production" title="Platinum">Platinum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium#Production" title="Lithium">Lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element#Global_rare-earth_production" title="Rare-earth element">Rare-earth metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">Uranium</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other minerals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">Gemstones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus#Production" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potash#Production" title="Potash">Potash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt#Production" title="Salt">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur#Production" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravel_pit" title="Gravel pit">Gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalk_mining" title="Chalk mining">Chalk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_pit" title="Clay pit">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gypsum#Mining" title="Gypsum">Gypsum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limestone#Uses" title="Limestone">Limestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimension_stone#Production" title="Dimension stone">Dimension stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granite#Industry" title="Granite">Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marble#Production" title="Marble">Marble</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Industrial_sector631" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Secondary sector of the economy">Industrial sector</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manufacturing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light_industry" title="Light industry">Light industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_industry" title="Food industry">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feed_manufacturing" title="Feed manufacturing">Animal feed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baking#Commercial_baking" title="Baking">Baking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canning" title="Canning">Canning</a></li> <li>Dairy products</li> <li>Flour</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meat_industry" title="Meat industry">Meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convenience_food" title="Convenience food">Prepared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">Preserved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candy_making" title="Candy making">Sweets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_oil#Production" title="Vegetable oil">Vegetable oils</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drink_industry" title="Drink industry">Beverages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brewing_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Brewing industry">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottled_water" title="Bottled water">Bottled water</a></li> <li>Liquor</li> <li>Soft drinks</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry" title="Textile industry">Textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carding" title="Carding">Carding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyeing" title="Dyeing">Dyeing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_printing" title="Textile printing">Prints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)" title="Spinning (textiles)">Spinning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpet" title="Carpet">Carpets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lace" title="Lace">Lace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linens" title="Linens">Linens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_industry" title="Clothing industry">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_accessory" title="Fashion accessory">Accessories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dressmaker" title="Dressmaker">Dressmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_clothing" title="Fur clothing">Furs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatmaking" title="Hatmaking">Hatmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing" title="Sewing">Sewing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoemaking" title="Shoemaking">Shoemaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailor" title="Tailor">Tailoring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">Printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bookbinding" title="Bookbinding">Bookbinding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_embossing" title="Paper embossing">Embossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">Engraving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_printing" title="Security printing">Secure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typesetting" title="Typesetting">Typesetting</a></li></ul></li> <li>Media reproduction <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cassette_tape" title="Cassette tape">Cassette tapes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_of_phonograph_records" title="Production of phonograph records">Phonographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_Disc_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Disc manufacturing">Optical discs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_fabrication" title="Metal fabrication">Metal fabrication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boilermaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Boilermaking">Boilermaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Builders_hardware" title="Builders hardware">Builders'</a> & <a href="/wiki/Household_hardware" class="mw-redirect" title="Household hardware">household hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutlery" title="Cutlery">Cutlery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunsmith" title="Gunsmith">Gunsmithing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locksmithing" title="Locksmithing">Locksmithing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_shop" title="Machine shop">Machining</a></li> <li>Other <a href="/wiki/Metalsmith" title="Metalsmith">smithing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_metallurgy" title="Powder metallurgy">Powder metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prefabrication" title="Prefabrication">Prefabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_finishing" title="Surface finishing">Surface finishing</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other fabrication <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blow_molding" title="Blow molding">Blow molding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drawing_(manufacturing)" title="Drawing (manufacturing)">Drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrusion" title="Extrusion">Extrusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">Glassblowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injection_moulding" title="Injection moulding">Injection moulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintering" title="Sintering">Sintering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry">Stonemasonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodworking" title="Woodworking">Woodworking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Furniture</li> <li>Other goods <ul><li>Baggage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle_industry" title="Bicycle industry">Bicycles</a></li> <li>Jewellery</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_device" title="Medical device">Medical supplies</a></li> <li>Musical instruments</li> <li>Office supplies</li> <li>Outdoors & sports equipment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">Personal protective equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy#Economics" title="Toy">Toys</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electrical <br /> & optical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry" title="Electronics industry">Electronics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">Components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board#Manufacturing" title="Printed circuit board">Circuit boards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry" title="Semiconductor industry">Semiconductors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer industry">Computers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_system_manufacturers" title="List of computer system manufacturers">Computer systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_hardware_manufacturers" title="List of computer hardware manufacturers">Parts & peripherals</a></li> <li>Blank <a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage#Storage_media" title="Computer data storage">storage media</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Communications equipment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone#Sales" title="Mobile phone">Mobile phones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_equipment_provider" title="Network equipment provider">Network infrastructure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_electronics#Products" title="Consumer electronics">Consumer electronics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Television_set#Major_manufacturers" title="Television set">Televisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_console#Market" title="Video game console">Video game consoles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation">Instrumentation</a> <ul><li>Clocks and watches</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation_device#Consumer_applications" title="Satellite navigation device">GPS devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_instrument#List_of_scientific_instruments_manufacturers" title="Scientific instrument">Scientific instruments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging#Industry" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_instrument" title="Optical instrument">Optical instruments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">Cameras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescopic_sight" title="Telescopic sight">Gun</a> & <a href="/wiki/Spotting_scope" title="Spotting scope">spotting scopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_construction" title="Laser construction">Laser construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_manufacturing_and_testing" title="Optical manufacturing and testing">Lens grinding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">Microscopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">Telescopes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_device" title="Electrical device">Electrical equipment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Batteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_cable" title="Electrical cable">Electrical</a> & <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">fiber optic</a> cables</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_light" title="Electric light">Electric lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">Electric motors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_appliance" title="Home appliance">Home appliances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">Chemicals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Coal & <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">Bitumen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">Coke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">Diesel fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">Fuel oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">Gasoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">Jet fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">Kerosene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_oil" title="Mineral oil">Mineral oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">Paraffin wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">Petrochemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_jelly" title="Petroleum jelly">Petroleum jelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">Propane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_oil" title="Synthetic oil">Synthetic oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tar" title="Tar">Tar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_chemicals" title="Commodity chemicals">Commodity chemicals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertilizer#Production" title="Fertilizer">Fertilizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_gas" title="Industrial gas">Industrial gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">Pigments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element#Allotropes" title="Chemical element">Pure elements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciality_chemicals" title="Speciality chemicals">Speciality chemicals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhesive" title="Adhesive">Adhesives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrochemical" title="Agrochemical">Agrochemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aroma_compound" title="Aroma compound">Aroma compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaning_agent" title="Cleaning agent">Cleaning products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosive" title="Explosive">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks" title="Fireworks">Fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paints</a> & <a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">inks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfume" title="Perfume">Perfumes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">Soap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toiletries" class="mw-redirect" title="Toiletries">Toiletries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine_chemical" title="Fine chemical">Fine chemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">Pharmaceuticals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Production_of_antibiotics" title="Production of antibiotics">Antibiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_product" title="Blood product">Blood products</a></li> <li>Chemical & hormonal <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">contraceptives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generic_drug" title="Generic drug">Generic drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade" title="Illegal drug trade">Illegal drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">Supplements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccines</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">Leather</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liming_(leather_processing)" title="Liming (leather processing)">Liming</a> & <a href="/wiki/Deliming" title="Deliming">deliming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">Tanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Currier" title="Currier">Currying</a> & <a href="/wiki/Oiling_(leather_processing)" title="Oiling (leather processing)">oiling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_industry" title="Wood industry">Wood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wood_drying" title="Wood drying">Drying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">Sawmilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineered_wood" title="Engineered wood">Engineered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood-plastic_composite" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood-plastic composite">Composite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry" title="Pulp and paper industry">Paper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sizing#Papermaking" title="Sizing">Sizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardboard" title="Cardboard">Cardboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_(paper)" title="Pulp (paper)">Pulp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_paper" title="Tissue paper">Tissue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_rubber" title="Synthetic rubber">Rubber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tire_manufacturing" title="Tire manufacturing">Tires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcanization" title="Vulcanization">Vulcanized rubber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastics_industry" title="Plastics industry">Plastics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_plastics" title="Commodity plastics">Commodity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_plastic" title="Engineering plastic">Engineered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_plastics" title="High-performance plastics">Specialty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelletizing" title="Pelletizing">Pellets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_fiber" title="Synthetic fiber">Synthetic fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">Thermoplastics</a> & <a href="/wiki/Thermosetting_polymer" title="Thermosetting polymer">thermosets</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">Glass</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">Borosilicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fused_quartz" title="Fused quartz">Fused quartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">Soda-lime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Float_glass" title="Float glass">Float glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber" title="Glass fiber">Glass fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_wool" title="Glass wool">Glass wool</a> & <a href="/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">fiberglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_glass" title="Safety glass">Safety glass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">Ceramics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brickworks" title="Brickworks">Brick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthenware" title="Earthenware">Earthenware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porcelain#Other_uses" title="Porcelain">Porcelain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">Refractory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tile" title="Tile">Tile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cement#Cement_industry_in_the_world" title="Cement">Cement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">Mortar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">Plaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ready-mix_concrete" title="Ready-mix concrete">Ready-mix concrete</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other mineral <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrasive" title="Abrasive">Abrasives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_fibers" title="Carbon fibers">Carbon fibers</a> & <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_carbon" title="Allotropes of carbon">advanced materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_wool" title="Mineral wool">Mineral wool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_gem" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic gem">Synthetic gems</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">Metal refining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_smelting" title="Aluminium smelting">Aluminum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_extraction" title="Copper extraction">Copper</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">Alloys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_(metalworking)" title="Forming (metalworking)">Formed metal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking)" title="Rolling (metalworking)">Rolled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">Forged</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundry" title="Foundry">Cast metal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heavy_industry" title="Heavy industry">Heavy industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Machine_industry" title="Machine industry">Machinery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conveyor_system" title="Conveyor system">Conveyors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_equipment" title="Heavy equipment">Heavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_machinery" title="Hydraulic machinery">Hydraulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_tool_builder" title="Machine tool builder">Machine tools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbo_generator" title="Turbo generator">Power</a> & <a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">wind turbines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry" title="Automotive industry">Automobiles</a></li> <li>Other heavy <a href="/wiki/Vehicle" title="Vehicle">vehicles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerospace industry">Aerospace</a> & <a href="/wiki/Space_industry" title="Space industry">space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_stock" title="Rolling stock">Rail vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Ships</a> & <a href="/wiki/Oil_platform" title="Oil platform">offshore platforms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">Utilities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Power <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_industry" title="Electric power industry">Electric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas#Domestic_use" title="Natural gas">Gas distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_industry" title="Water industry">Water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">Sewage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_industry" title="Waste management industry">Waste management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waste_collection" title="Waste collection">Collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">Remediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_industry" title="Telecommunications industry">Telecom networks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone_operator" title="Mobile phone operator">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Telephone company">Telephone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">Buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_property" title="Commercial property">Commercial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_architecture" title="Industrial architecture">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_construction" title="Home construction">Residential</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridge building">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_track" title="Railway track">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadbuilding" class="mw-redirect" title="Roadbuilding">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel#Construction" title="Tunnel">Tunnels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal#Construction" title="Canal">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dredging#Major_dredging_companies" title="Dredging">Dredging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbor" title="Harbor">Harbors</a></li></ul></li> <li>Specialty trades <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinetry" title="Cabinetry">Cabinetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demolition" title="Demolition">Demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_wiring" title="Electrical wiring">Electrical wiring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elevator_mechanic" title="Elevator mechanic">Elevators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heating,_ventilation,_and_air_conditioning#HVAC_industry_and_standards" title="Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning">HVAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_painter_and_decorator" title="House painter and decorator">Painting and decorating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">Plumbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">Site preparation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Service_sector631" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Tertiary sector of the economy">Service sector</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sales" title="Sales">Sales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retail" title="Retail">Retail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Car_dealership" title="Car dealership">Car dealership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast-moving_consumer_goods" title="Fast-moving consumer goods">Consumer goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_store" title="General store">General store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grocery_store" title="Grocery store">Grocery store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_store" title="Department store">Department store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mail_order" title="Mail order">Mail order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_shopping" title="Online shopping">Online shopping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specialty_store" title="Specialty store">Specialty store</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wholesaling" title="Wholesaling">Wholesale</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auction" title="Auction">Auction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broker" title="Broker">Brokerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distribution_(marketing)" title="Distribution (marketing)">Distribution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">Transport</a> <br /> & Storage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo" title="Cargo">Cargo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_cargo" title="Air cargo">Air cargo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transport" title="Intermodal freight transport">Intermodal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mail" title="Mail">Mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moving_company" title="Moving company">Moving company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_freight_transport" title="Rail freight transport">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking" class="mw-redirect" title="Trucking">Trucking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passenger_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger transport">Passenger transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car_rental" title="Car rental">Car rentals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passenger_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger rail">Passenger rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridesharing_company" title="Ridesharing company">Ridesharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxi" title="Taxi">Taxis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warehouse" title="Warehouse">Warehousing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self_storage" title="Self storage">Self storage</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hospitality_industry" title="Hospitality industry">Hospitality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foodservice" title="Foodservice">Foodservice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_establishment" title="Drinking establishment">Drink service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffeehouse" title="Coffeehouse">Cafés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catering" title="Catering">Catering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_food" title="Fast food">Fast food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_delivery" title="Food delivery">Food delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restaurant" title="Restaurant">Restaurants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teahouse" title="Teahouse">Teahouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotel" title="Hotel">Hotels</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asset_management" title="Asset management">Asset management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Financial_services" title="Financial services">Financial services</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank" title="Bank">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credit" title="Credit">Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_adviser" title="Financial adviser">Financial advice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holding_company" title="Holding company">Holding company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_funds_transfer" title="Electronic funds transfer">Money transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payment_card_industry" title="Payment card industry">Payment cards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_(finance)" title="Security (finance)">Securities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">Insurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_insurance" title="Life insurance">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pension_fund" title="Pension fund">Pension funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_insurance" title="Property insurance">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinsurance" title="Reinsurance">Reinsurance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_economics" title="Real estate economics">Real estate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_agent" title="Real estate agent">Brokerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_management" title="Property management">Property management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Professional_services" title="Professional services">Professional</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accounting_network" title="Accounting network">Accounting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assurance_services" title="Assurance services">Assurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audit" title="Audit">Audit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookkeeping" title="Bookkeeping">Bookkeeping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_advisor" title="Tax advisor">Tax advice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_firm" title="Architectural firm">Architecture</a> & <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inspection" title="Inspection">Inspection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_test" title="Physical test">Physical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Product_testing" title="Product testing">product</a>, & <a href="/wiki/System_testing" title="System testing">system testing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">Design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_design" title="Fashion design">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interior_design" title="Interior design">Interior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_design" title="Industrial design">Product</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Legal services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consulting_firm" title="Consulting firm">Consulting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">Marketing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_industry" title="Advertising industry">Advertising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_industries" title="Creative industries">Creative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_industry" title="Language industry">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">Research and development</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Basic research</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_industry" title="Healthcare industry">Healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Medicine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dentist_office" class="mw-redirect" title="Dentist office">Dentist offices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing" title="Nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_care" title="Residential care">Residential care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Entertainment#Industry" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a><br /> & <a href="/wiki/Leisure_industry" title="Leisure industry">leisure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Audio-visual <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Film_industry" title="Film industry">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_industry" title="Music industry">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_industry" title="Video game industry">Video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/News_agency" title="News agency">News</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_industry" title="Radio industry">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television#Content" title="Television">Television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_industry" title="Sport industry">Sport</a></li> <li>Travel <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_travel" title="Business travel">Business travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruise_line" title="Cruise line">Cruise lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">Tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casino" title="Casino">Gambling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_gambling" title="Online gambling">Online</a></li></ul></li> <li>Venues <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amusement_arcade" title="Amusement arcade">Arcades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amusement_park" title="Amusement park">Amusement parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair" title="Fair">Fairgrounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightclub" title="Nightclub">Nightclubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabletop_game_industry" title="Tabletop game industry">Tabletop games</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">Publishing</a> <br /> & <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Written <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodical_literature" title="Periodical literature">Periodicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_industry" title="Software industry">Software</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Web_hosting_service" title="Web hosting service">Hosting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_networking_service" title="Social networking service">Social networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">Streaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Website" title="Website">Websites</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">Primary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">Secondary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">Tertiary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vocational_school" title="Vocational school">Vocational school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University" title="University">University</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">Testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutoring" title="Tutoring">Tutoring</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administrative <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customer_service" title="Customer service">Customer service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lease" title="Lease">Leasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renting" title="Renting">Renting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_agency" title="Employment agency">Staffing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_investigator" title="Private investigator">Private investigation</a> & <a href="/wiki/Security_company" title="Security company">security</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maintenance <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Janitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Janitor">Janitors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_maintenance" title="Landscape maintenance">Landscaping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maintenance_(technical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maintenance (technical)">Repairs</a></li> <li>Personal services <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_salon" title="Beauty salon">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cleaning" title="Dry cleaning">Dry cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Funeral industry">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maid_service" title="Maid service">Maid service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pet_industry" title="Pet industry">Pet care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_industry" title="Sex industry">Sex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_industry" title="Poverty industry">Poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related631" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Industry_classification" title="Industry classification">Classification <br /> standards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Production-based <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_and_New_Zealand_Standard_Industrial_Classification" title="Australian and New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification">ANZSIC</a></li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Industrial_Classification" title="International Standard Industrial Classification">ISIC</a></b></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_Classification_of_Economic_Activities_in_the_European_Community" title="Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community">NACE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Industry_Classification_System" title="North American Industry Classification System">NAICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Industrial_Classification" title="Standard Industrial Classification">SIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Standard_Industrial_Classification_of_Economic_Activities" title="United Kingdom Standard Industrial Classification of Economic Activities">UKSIC</a></li></ul></li> <li>Market-based <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Industry_Classification_Standard" title="Global Industry Classification Standard">GICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_Classification_Benchmark" title="Industry Classification Benchmark">ICB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Refinitiv_Business_Classification" title="The Refinitiv Business Classification">TRBC</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">Inputs</a> <br /> & <a href="/wiki/Output_(economics)" title="Output (economics)">outputs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externalities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">Well-being</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding" title="Funding">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goods" title="Goods">Goods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final_good" title="Final good">Final</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_good" title="Intermediate good">Intermediate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_material" title="Raw material">Raw material</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a></li> <li>Primary inputs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Work_(human_activity)" title="Work (human activity)">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_capital" title="Physical capital">Physical capital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">Organization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centralization" class="mw-redirect" title="Centralization">Centralization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartel" title="Cartel">Cartel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conglomerate_(company)" title="Conglomerate (company)">Conglomerate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_integration" title="Horizontal integration">Horizontal integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions" title="Mergers and acquisitions">Mergers and acquisitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopsony" title="Monopsony">Monopsony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_integration" title="Vertical integration">Vertical integration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Enforced breakup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freelancer" title="Freelancer">Freelancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homesteading" title="Homesteading">Homesteading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">Outsourcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putting-out_system" title="Putting-out system">Putting-out system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_spin-off" title="Corporate spin-off">Spinning-off</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_work" title="Temporary work">Temporary work</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint-stock_company" title="Joint-stock company">Joint-stock company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">Nonprofit organization</a></li> <li><a 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