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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aramean_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aramean_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Aramean states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aramean_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Under_Neo-Assyrian_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Under_Neo-Assyrian_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Under Neo-Assyrian rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Under_Neo-Assyrian_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-Babylonian_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-Babylonian_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Neo-Babylonian Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-Babylonian_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Under_Achaemenid_and_Hellenistic_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Under_Achaemenid_and_Hellenistic_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Under Achaemenid and Hellenistic rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Under_Achaemenid_and_Hellenistic_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Christianity_and_Arab_conquest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Christianity_and_Arab_conquest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Early Christianity and Arab conquest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Christianity_and_Arab_conquest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Arameans</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86" title="آراميون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="آراميون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramil%C9%99r" title="Aramilər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Aramilər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%96" title="Арамеі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Арамеі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramejci" title="Aramejci – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Aramejci" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C3%A6ere" title="Aramæere – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Aramæere" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C3%A4er_(Volk)" title="Aramäer (Volk) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aramäer (Volk)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B9" title="Αραμαίοι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αραμαίοι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameos" title="Arameos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Arameos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7" title="آرامی‌ها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آرامی‌ها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C3%A9ens_(Antiquit%C3%A9)" title="Araméens (Antiquité) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Araméens (Antiquité)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameos" title="Arameos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Arameos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EB%9E%8C%EC%9D%B8" title="아람인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아람인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Արամեացիներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արամեացիներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Aram" title="Orang Aram – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Orang Aram" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramei" title="Aramei – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Aramei" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9D" title="ארמים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ארמים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Арамейлер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Арамейлер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waaramu" title="Waaramu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Waaramu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Арамейлер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Арамейлер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramie%C5%A1i" title="Aramieši – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aramieši" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C4%97jai" title="Aramėjai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Aramėjai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar%C3%A1miak" title="Arámiak – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Arámiak" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameana" title="Arameana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Arameana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86" title="اراميين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="اراميين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A9%E3%83%A0%E4%BA%BA" title="アラム人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アラム人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%88" title="Ӏарамийш – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ӏарамийш" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameere" title="Arameere – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Arameere" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramearar" title="Aramearar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Aramearar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oromiylar" title="Oromiylar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Oromiylar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramejczycy" title="Aramejczycy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Aramejczycy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B8" title="Арамеи – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Арамеи" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramejci" title="Aramejci – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Aramejci" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ئارامیەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئارامیەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramealaiset" title="Aramealaiset – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Aramealaiset" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C3%A9er" title="Araméer – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Araméer" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="அரமேயர்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அரமேயர்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99" title="ชาวแอราเมียน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ชาวแอราเมียน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramiler" title="Aramiler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Aramiler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%97" title="Арамеї – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Арамеї" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="آرامی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="آرامی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q28151255#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Arameans" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient Semitic people in the Near East</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the ancient Arameans. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Aramean_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Aramean (disambiguation)">Aramean (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aromanians" title="Aromanians">Aromanians</a>.</div> <p> The <b>Arameans</b>, or <b>Aramaeans</b> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Aramaic language">Old Aramaic</a>: <span lang="oar" dir="rtl">𐤀𐤓𐤌𐤉𐤀</span>, <span title="Classical Syriac-language romanization"><i lang="syc-Latn"><i>Aramayya</i></i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">אֲרַמִּים</span>; <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Ἀραμαῖοι</span>; <a href="/wiki/Classical_Syriac_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a>: <span lang="syc" dir="rtl">ܐܪ̈ܡܝܐ</span>, <span title="Classical Syriac-language romanization"><i lang="syc-Latn"><i>Aramaye</i></i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Syriac_language#Phonology" title="Syriac language">Syriac pronunciation</a>:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="syc-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[ʔɑːrɑːˈmɑːje]</a></span>), were a <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribal</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_people" title="Semitic people">Semitic people</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the ancient <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Near East</a>, first documented in historical sources from the late 12th century BC. Their homeland, often referred to as the land of <a href="/wiki/Aram_(region)" title="Aram (region)">Aram</a>, originally covered central regions of modern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Arameans were not a single nation or group; rather, Aram was a region with local centers of power spread throughout the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. That makes it almost impossible to establish a coherent ethnic category of "Aramean" based on extra-linguistic identity markers such as material culture, lifestyle or religion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoak202051_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoak202051-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella201723_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella201723-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The people of Aram were called “Arameans” in <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> texts<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the terms “Aramean” and “Aram” were never used by later <a href="/wiki/List_of_Aramean_kings" title="List of Aramean kings">Aramean dynasts</a> to refer to themselves or their country, with the exception of the king of Aram-Damascus since his kingdom was also called Aram.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESader201415_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESader201415-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Arameans" is merely an appellation of the geographical term <a href="/wiki/Aram_(region)" title="Aram (region)">Aram</a> given to 1st-millennium BC inhabitants of Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlejung2014339_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlejung2014339-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESader201416_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESader201416-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE, several Aramean-ruled <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a> were established throughout the ancient <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Near East</a>. The most notable was <a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a> which reached its height in the second half of the 9th century BCE during the reign of King <a href="/wiki/Hazael" title="Hazael">Hazael</a>. During the 8th century BC, local Aramaean city-states were gradually conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>. The policy of population displacement and relocation that was applied throughout Assyrian domains also affected Arameans, many of whom were resettled by Assyrian authorities. That caused a wider dispersion of Aramean communities throughout various regions of the Near East, and the range of <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> also widened. It gained significance and eventually became the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">common language</a> of public life and administration, particularly during the periods of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (612–539 BCE) and the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> (539–330 BCE). </p><p>Before <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, Aramaic-speaking communities had undergone considerable <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">Romanization</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHealey2019443_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey2019443-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, their integration into the Greek-speaking world had begun a long time before Christianity became established.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHealey2019444_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey2019444-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars suggest that Arameans who accepted Christianity were referred to as Syrians by the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitakowski198776_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitakowski198776-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a> in the 7th century were followed by the <a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a> and the gradual <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> of Aramaic-speaking communities throughout the Near East. That ultimately resulted in their fragmentation and <a href="/wiki/Acculturation" title="Acculturation">acculturation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffith199711–31_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith199711–31-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, their cultural and linguistic heritage continues to be recognized by some <a href="/wiki/Terms_for_Syriac_Christians" title="Terms for Syriac Christians">Syriac-Christian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Neo-Aramaic speaking</a> groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Maronites" title="Maronites">Maronites</a> and the Aramean inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Maaloula" title="Maaloula">Maaloula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jubb%E2%80%99adin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jubb’adin">Jubb’adin</a> near Damascus in Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Toponym" class="mw-redirect" title="Toponym">toponym</a> <i>A-ra-mu</i> appears in an inscription at the <a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East Semitic</a>-speaking kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a> listing geographical names, and the term <i>Armi</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a> term for nearby <a href="/wiki/Idlib" title="Idlib">Idlib</a>, occurs frequently in the <a href="/wiki/Ebla_tablets" title="Ebla tablets">Ebla tablets</a> (c. 2300 BCE). One of the annals of <a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin of Akkad</a> (c. 2250 BCE) mentions that he captured "Dubul, the <a href="/wiki/Ens%C3%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensí">ensí</a> of <i>A-ra-me</i>" (<i>Arame</i> is seemingly a <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a> form), in the course of a campaign against <a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a> in the northern mountains.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński200026-40_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200026-40-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other early references to a place or people of "Aram" have appeared at the archives of <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> (c. 1900 BCE) and at <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> (c. 1300 BCE). There is no consensus on the origin and meaning of the word "Aram", one of the most accepted suggestions being that it is derived from a Semitic root <i>rwm</i>, "to be high". Newer suggestions interprets it as a <a href="/wiki/Broken_plural" title="Broken plural">broken plural</a> meaning "white antelopes" or "white bulls".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESader2010277_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESader2010277-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there are no historical, archaeological or linguistic evidences that those early uses of the terms <i>Aramu</i>, <i>Armi</i> or <i>Arame</i> were actually referring to the Arameans; thus, it is believed to originally be a toponym without any ethnic connotations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlejung2014339_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlejung2014339-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest undisputed historical attestation of Arameans as a people appears much later, in the inscriptions of <a href="/wiki/Tiglath_Pileser_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiglath Pileser I">Tiglath Pileser I</a> (c. 1100 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński200025–27_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200025–27-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella201556_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella201556-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger201635-108_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounger201635-108-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:373px;max-width:373px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aramean_funeral_stele_Louvre_AO3026.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Aramean_funeral_stele_Louvre_AO3026.jpg/150px-Aramean_funeral_stele_Louvre_AO3026.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Aramean_funeral_stele_Louvre_AO3026.jpg/225px-Aramean_funeral_stele_Louvre_AO3026.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Aramean_funeral_stele_Louvre_AO3026.jpg/300px-Aramean_funeral_stele_Louvre_AO3026.jpg 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="1290" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Sin zir Ibni inscription</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:217px;max-width:217px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F1317_Louvre_Stele_Si_Gabbor_AO3027_rwk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/F1317_Louvre_Stele_Si_Gabbor_AO3027_rwk.jpg/215px-F1317_Louvre_Stele_Si_Gabbor_AO3027_rwk.jpg" decoding="async" width="215" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/F1317_Louvre_Stele_Si_Gabbor_AO3027_rwk.jpg/323px-F1317_Louvre_Stele_Si_Gabbor_AO3027_rwk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/F1317_Louvre_Stele_Si_Gabbor_AO3027_rwk.jpg/430px-F1317_Louvre_Stele_Si_Gabbor_AO3027_rwk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3234" data-file-height="5000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Si Gabbor stele</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Neirab_steles" title="Neirab steles">Neirab steles</a>, a pair of 7th century BCE <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_and_Aramaic_inscriptions" title="Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions">Aramaic inscriptions</a> found in 1891 in <a href="/wiki/Al-Nayrab" title="Al-Nayrab">Al-Nayrab</a> near <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>.</div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3></div> <p>Nomadic pastoralists have long played a prominent role in the history and economy of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, but their numbers seem to vary according to climatic conditions and the force of neighbouring states inducing permanent settlement. The <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Bronze Age">Late Bronze Age</a> seems to coincide with increasing aridity, which weakened neighbouring states and induced <a href="/wiki/Transhumance" title="Transhumance">transhumance</a> pastoralists to spend longer and longer periods with their flocks. Urban settlements (hitherto largely inhabited by <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaaite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarite</a> peoples) in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> diminished in size until fully-nomadic pastoralist lifestyles came to dominate much of the region. The highly mobile competitive tribesmen, with their sudden raids, continually threatened long-distance trade and interfered with the collection of taxes and tribute. </p><p>The people who had long been the prominent population in what is now Syria (called the <i>Land of the Amurru</i> during their tenure) were the Amorites, a <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic</a>-speaking people who had appeared during the 25th century BCE, destroyed the hitherto dominant state of Ebla, founded the powerful state of <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> in the Levant and during the 19th century BCE also <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, in southern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. However, they seem to have been displaced or wholly absorbed by the appearance of a people called the <a href="/wiki/Ahlamu" title="Ahlamu">Ahlamu</a> by the 13th century BCE and disappear from history. Ahlamû appears to be a generic term for <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples" title="Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples">Semitic wanderers and nomads of varying origins</a> who appeared during the 13th century BCE across the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. </p><p>The Arameans would appear to be one part of the larger generic Ahlamû group rather than synonymous with the Ahlamu.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of the Ahlamû is attested during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a> (1365–1020 BCE), which already ruled many of the lands in which the Ahlamû arose in the Babylonian city of <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a> and even at <a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a>. <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_I" title="Shalmaneser I">Shalmaneser I</a> (1274–1245 BCE) is recorded as having defeated <a href="/wiki/Shattuara" title="Shattuara">Shattuara</a>, King of the <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a> and Ahlamû mercenaries. In the next century, the Ahlamû cut the road from <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> to <a href="/wiki/Hattusas" class="mw-redirect" title="Hattusas">Hattusas</a>. Also, <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_I" title="Tukulti-Ninurta I">Tukulti-Ninurta I</a> (1244–1208 BCE) conquered <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hanigalbat" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanigalbat">Hanigalbat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rapiqum" title="Rapiqum">Rapiqum</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> and "the mountain of the Ahlamû", apparently the region of <a href="/wiki/Jebel_Bishri" title="Jebel Bishri">Jebel Bishri</a> in northern Syria. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aramean_states">Aramean states</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Estats_neohitites_i_arameus_a_S%C3%ADria_al_segle_VIII_aC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Estats_neohitites_i_arameus_a_S%C3%ADria_al_segle_VIII_aC.png/250px-Estats_neohitites_i_arameus_a_S%C3%ADria_al_segle_VIII_aC.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Estats_neohitites_i_arameus_a_S%C3%ADria_al_segle_VIII_aC.png/375px-Estats_neohitites_i_arameus_a_S%C3%ADria_al_segle_VIII_aC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Estats_neohitites_i_arameus_a_S%C3%ADria_al_segle_VIII_aC.png/500px-Estats_neohitites_i_arameus_a_S%C3%ADria_al_segle_VIII_aC.png 2x" data-file-width="1053" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Various <a href="/wiki/Luwians" title="Luwians">Luwian</a> and Aramean (orange shades) states in the 8th century BCE</figcaption></figure> <p>The emergence of the Arameans occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Bronze Age collapse</a> (1200–900 BCE), which saw great upheavals and mass movements of peoples across the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/East_Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="East Mediterranean">East Mediterranean</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Iran">Ancient Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> and led to the genesis of new peoples and polities across those regions. The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a> (1365–1050 BCE), which had dominated the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> since the first half of the 14th century BCE, began to shrink rapidly after the death of <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-kala" title="Ashur-bel-kala">Ashur-bel-kala</a>, its last great ruler in 1056 BCE. The Assyrian withdrawal allowed the Arameans and others to gain independence and take firm control of <a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Eber-Nari</a> in the late 11th century BCE. </p><p>Some of the major Aramean-speaking city states included <a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000347_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000347-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger2016549-654_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounger2016549-654-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hamath" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamath">Hamath</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000249_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000249-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger2016425-500_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounger2016425-500-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bet-Adini" class="mw-redirect" title="Bet-Adini">Bet-Adini</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000163_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000163-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger2016307-372_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounger2016307-372-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bet-Bagyan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bet-Bagyan">Bet-Bagyan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000119_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000119-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bit-Hadipe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bit-Hadipe (page does not exist)">Bit-Hadipe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aram_Rehob" title="Aram Rehob">Aram-Bet Rehob</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000319_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000319-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aram-Zobah" class="mw-redirect" title="Aram-Zobah">Aram-Zobah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bet-Zamani" class="mw-redirect" title="Bet-Zamani">Bet-Zamani</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000135_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000135-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bet-Halupe" class="mw-redirect" title="Bet-Halupe">Bet-Halupe</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński200078_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200078-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Maacah" title="Maacah">Aram-Ma'akah</a>, as well as the Aramean tribal polities of the <a href="/wiki/Gambulu" title="Gambulu">Gambulu</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Litau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Litau (page does not exist)">Litau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puqudu" title="Puqudu">Puqudu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger2016_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounger2016-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Akkermans" title="Peter Akkermans">Akkermans</a> and Schwartz note that in assessing <a href="/wiki/Luwians" title="Luwians">Luwian</a> and Aramean states in ancient Syria, the existing information on the ethnic composition of the regional states in ancient Syria primarily concerns the rulers and so the ethnolingustic situation of the majority of the population of the states is unclear. Furthermore, they mean that the material culture shows no distinctions between states dominated by the Luwians or the Arameans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAkkerman_&_Schwartz2003367_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkkerman_&_Schwartz2003367-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aramean tribal groups were identified by family names that often began with the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> prefix <i>Bit</i>, meaning "house of", such as "Bit Adini". This naming convention was influenced by the writing system used by the coastal <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a>. Each tribe's name signified the house or ancestral lineage to which it belonged.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "Aram" sometimes referred only to a part and other times to the whole of the <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syrian region</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>. The expressions “All Aram” and “Upper and Lower Aram” in <a href="/wiki/Sefire_treaty_inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefire treaty inscriptions">Sefire treaty inscriptions</a> have been variously interpreted but can suggest a degree of political and cultural unity among some of the polities in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESader201415-16_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESader201415-16-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biblical sources tell that <a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a>, <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> (late 11th to 10th centuries BC) fought against the small Aramean states ranged across the northern frontier of Israel: <a href="/wiki/Zobah" title="Zobah">Aram-Sôvah</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Beqaa_Valley" title="Beqaa Valley">Beqaa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aram_Rehob" title="Aram Rehob">Aram-Bêt-Rehob</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rehov" title="Rehov">Rehov</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Maacah" title="Maacah">Aram-Ma'akah</a> around <a href="/wiki/Mount_Hermon" title="Mount Hermon">Mount Hermon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geshur" title="Geshur">Geshur</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a>, and Aram-Damascus. An Aramean king's account dating at least two centuries later, the <a href="/wiki/Tel_Dan_stele" title="Tel Dan stele">Tel Dan stele</a>, was discovered in northern Israel and is famous for being perhaps the earliest non-Israelite extra-biblical historical reference to the Israelite royal dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Davidic_line" title="Davidic line">House of David</a>. In the early 11th century BCE, much of Israel came under foreign rule for eight years according to the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Judges" title="Book of Judges">Book of Judges</a> until <a href="/wiki/Othniel" title="Othniel">Othniel</a> defeated the forces led by <a href="/wiki/Cushan-Rishathaim" class="mw-redirect" title="Cushan-Rishathaim">Cushan-Rishathaim</a>, who was titled in the Bible as ruler of <a href="/wiki/Aram-Naharaim" title="Aram-Naharaim">Aram-Naharaim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillington2005117–132_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillington2005117–132-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further north, the Arameans gained possession of post-Hittite <a href="/wiki/Hamath" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamath">Hamath</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Orontes_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Orontes river">Orontes</a> River and became strong enough to dissociate with the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Post-Hittite_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Hittite states">post-Hittite states</a>. The Arameans, together with the <a href="/wiki/Edomites" class="mw-redirect" title="Edomites">Edomites</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Ammonites</a>, attacked Israel in the early 11th century BCE but were defeated. Meanwhile, Arameans moved to the east of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> and into Babylonia, where an Aramean usurper was crowned king of Babylon under the name Adad-apal-iddin.<sup id="cite_ref-brit_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brit-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 11th and the 10th centuries BCE, the Arameans conquered Sam'al and renamed it <a href="/wiki/Bit_Agusi" title="Bit Agusi">Bît-Agushi</a>,.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger2016501-548_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounger2016501-548-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also conquered <a href="/wiki/Til_Barsip" title="Til Barsip">Til Barsip</a>, which became the chief town of <a href="/wiki/Bit_Adini" title="Bit Adini">Bît-Adini</a>, also known as Beth Eden. North of Sam'al was the Aramean state of Bit Gabbari, which was sandwiched between the post-Hittite states of <a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gurgum" title="Gurgum">Gurgum</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Khattina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khattina (page does not exist)">Khattina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Unqi">Unqi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian people">Georgian</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> state of <a href="/wiki/Tabal_(state)" title="Tabal (state)">Tabal</a>. One of their earliest semi-independent kingdoms in northern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> was Bît-Bahiâni (<a href="/wiki/Tell_Halaf" title="Tell Halaf">Tell Halaf</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Under_Neo-Assyrian_rule">Under Neo-Assyrian rule</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Aram" title="Assyrian conquest of Aram">Assyrian conquest of Aram</a></div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_Hazael_dark.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/King_Hazael_dark.jpeg/250px-King_Hazael_dark.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/King_Hazael_dark.jpeg/375px-King_Hazael_dark.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/King_Hazael_dark.jpeg/500px-King_Hazael_dark.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Aramean king <a href="/wiki/Hazael" title="Hazael">Hazael</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:092.The_Israelites_Slaughter_the_Syrians.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/092.The_Israelites_Slaughter_the_Syrians.jpg/250px-092.The_Israelites_Slaughter_the_Syrians.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/092.The_Israelites_Slaughter_the_Syrians.jpg/375px-092.The_Israelites_Slaughter_the_Syrians.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/092.The_Israelites_Slaughter_the_Syrians.jpg/500px-092.The_Israelites_Slaughter_the_Syrians.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2627" data-file-height="2115" /></a><figcaption>Illustration by <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9" title="Gustave Doré">Gustave Doré</a> from the 1866 <i>La Sainte Bible</i> depicting an Israelite victory over the army of <a href="/wiki/Ben-Hadad_I" title="Ben-Hadad I">Ben-Hadad</a>, described in 1 Kings 20:26–34</figcaption></figure> <p>The first certain reference to the Arameans appears in an <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Assyrian</a> inscription of Tiglath-Pileser I, which refers to subjugating the "Ahlamû-Arameans" (<i>Ahlame Armaia</i>). Shortly afterward, the Ahlamû disappear from Assyrian annals and are replaced by the Arameans (<i>Aramu, Arimi</i>). That indicates that the Arameans had risen to dominance amongst the nomads. Among scholars, the relationship between the Akhlame and the Arameans is a matter of conjecture.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late 12th century BCE, the Arameans had been firmly established in Syria; however, they were conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a>. </p><p>Assyrian annals from the end of the Middle Assyrian Empire c. 1050 BCE and the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 911 BCE contain numerous descriptions of battles between Arameans and the Assyrian army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger2016_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounger2016-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Assyrians launched repeated raids into Aramean lands, Babylonia, Ancient Iran, Elam, Asia Minor, and even as far as the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> to keep its trade routes open. The Aramean city-states, like much of the Near East and Asia Minor, were subjugated by the Neo Assyrian Empire from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a> in 911 BCE, who cleared Arameans and other tribal peoples from the borders of Assyria and began to expand in all directions. The process was continued by <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a>, who destroyed many of the small Aramean tribes and conquered Aramean lands for the Assyrians. </p><p>In 732 BCE, Aram-Damascus fell and was conquered by Assyrian King <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser III</a>. The Assyrians named their Aramean colonies Eber Nari but still used the term "Aramean" to describe many of its peoples. The Assyrians conducted forced deportations of hundreds of thousands of Arameans to both Assyria and Babylonia, where a migrant population already existed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWunsch2013247–260_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWunsch2013247–260-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, the Aramaic language was adopted as the <i>lingua franca</i> of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 8th century BCE, and the native Assyrians and Babylonians began to make a gradual language shift towards Aramaic as the most common language of public life and administration. </p><p>The Neo Assyrian Empire descended into a series of brutal internal wars from 626 BCE that weakened it greatly. That allowed a coalition of many its former subject peoples (<a href="/wiki/Babylonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonians">Babylonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chaldeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Chaldeans">Chaldeans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sagartians" title="Sagartians">Sagartians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a>) to attack Assyria in 616 BCE, sack <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> in 612 BCE and finally defeat it between 605 and 599 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaggs1984290_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaggs1984290-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the war against Assyria, hordes of horse-borne Scythian and Cimmerian marauders ravaged through the Levant and all the way into Egypt. </p><p>As a result of migratory processes, various Aramean groups were settled throughout the ancient Near East, and their presence is recorded in the regions of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Assyria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Assyria">Assyria</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENissinen2014273-296_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENissinen2014273-296-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Babylonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Babylonia">Babylonia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreck2014297-318_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreck2014297-318-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Classical_Anatolia" title="Classical Anatolia">Anatolia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemaire2014319-328_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemaire2014319-328-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Phoenicia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiehr2014b329-338_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENiehr2014b329-338-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Palestine">Palestine</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlejung2014339-365_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlejung2014339-365-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBotta2014366-377_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotta2014366-377-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Arabia">Northern Arabia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiehr2014c378-390_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENiehr2014c378-390-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Population transfers, conducted during the Neo-Assyrian Empire and followed by the gradual linguistic <i>Aramization</i> of non-Aramean populations, created a specific situation in the regions of <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> proper among <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Assyrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Assyrians">ancient Assyrians</a>, who originally spoke the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Assyrian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Assyrian language">ancient Assyrian language</a>, a dialect of Akkadian, but later accepted Aramaic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillard1983106-107_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillard1983106-107-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neo-Babylonian_Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</h3></div> <p>Eber-Nari was then ruled by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian Empire, which was initially headed by a short-lived Chaldean dynasty. The Aramean regions became a battleground between the Babylonians and the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">26th Dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, which had been installed by the Assyrians as vassals after they had defeated and ejected the previous <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubian</a>-ruled <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">25th Dynasty</a>. The Egyptians, having entered the region in a belated attempt to aid their former Assyrian masters, fought the Babylonians, initially with the help of remnants of the Assyrian army, in the region for decades before they were finally vanquished. </p><p>The Babylonians remained masters of the Aramean lands only until 539 BCE, when the Persian <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> overthrew <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a>, the Assyrian-born last king of Babylon, who had himself overthrown the Chaldean dynasty in 556 BCE. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Under_Achaemenid_and_Hellenistic_rule">Under Achaemenid and Hellenistic rule</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eber_Nari" class="mw-redirect" title="Eber Nari">Eber Nari</a></div> <p>The Arameans were later conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> (539–332 BCE). However, little changed from the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian times, as the Persians, seeing themselves as successors of previous empires, maintained <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Aramaic language">Imperial Aramaic</a> as the main language of public life and administration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2015_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2015-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Provincial administrative structures also remained the same, and the name Eber Nari still applied to the region. </p><p>The conquests of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> marked the beginning of a new era in the history of the entire Near East, including the regions inhabited by Arameans. By the late 4th century BCE, two newly created Hellenistic states emerged as main pretenders for regional supremacy: the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> (305–64 BCE) and the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Empire">Ptolemaic Empire</a> (305–30 BCE). Since earlier times, ancient Greeks commonly used "Syrian" labels as designations for Arameans and heir lands, but it was during the Hellenistic (Seleucid-Ptolemaic) period that the term "Syria" was finally defined to designate the regions west of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, as opposed to the term "<a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>", which designated the regions further east.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1992281–285_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1992281–285-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeinrichs1993106-107_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeinrichs1993106-107-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 3rd century BCE, various narratives related to the history of earlier Aramean states became accessible to wider audiences after the translation of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a>. Known as <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>, the translation was created in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, the capital of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a> that was the most important city of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic world">Hellenistic world</a> and was one of the main centres of <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenization</a>. Influenced by Greek terminology,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoosten201053–72_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoosten201053–72-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> translators decided to adopt ancient Greek custom of using "Syrian" <a href="/wiki/Labels" class="mw-redirect" title="Labels">labels</a> as designations for Arameans and their lands and thus abandon the <a href="/wiki/Endonymic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endonymic">endonymic</a> (native) terms that were used in the Hebrew Bible. In Septuagint, the region of Aram was commonly labelled as "Syria", and the Arameans were labelled as "Syrians".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWevers2001237-251_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWevers2001237-251-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When reflecting on traditional influences of Greek terminology on English translations of the Septuagint, American orientalist Robert W. Rogers noted in 1921 that it was unfortunate that the change also affected later English versions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers1921139_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers1921139-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Greek sources, two writers spoke particularly clearly on the Arameans. <a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a>, born in <a href="/wiki/Apamea,_Syria" title="Apamea, Syria">Apamea</a>, as quoted by <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, writes: "Those people whom we Greeks call Syrioi, call themselves Aramaioi".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrenschkowski2019468_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrenschkowski2019468-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, who was born in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, defines the regions of "Aram's sons" as the Tranchonitis, Damascus "midway between Palestine and Coelo-Syria", Armenia, Bactria, and the Mesene around Spasini Charax.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrenschkowski2019468_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrenschkowski2019468-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Christianity_and_Arab_conquest">Early Christianity and Arab conquest</h3></div> <p>The ancient Arameans lived in a close relationship with other distinct societies in the region. Throughout much of their history, they were heavily influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> culture of Mesopotamia and the surrounding areas. Bilingual texts in <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> and the Assyrian dialect of <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> are among the earliest examples of Aramaic writing. In the western regions, Aramean states had close contact with Israel, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>, and northern <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>. The Phoenician god Baʿalšamem was even incorporated into the Aramean tradition. Identifying distinct elements of the Aramean heritage in later times is challenging because of the diverse influences on their culture. For example, the earliest Syriac legal documents contain legal formulae that could be considered Aramean, but they could also be interpreted as <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Assyrian">Neo-Assyrian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Babylonian">Neo-Babylonian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHealey2014391-392_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey2014391-392-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a> in the 1st century BCE, Aramean lands became the frontier region between two empires, Roman and <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a>, and later between their successor states, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sasanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanid Empire">Sasanid</a> Empires. Several minor states also existed in frontier regions, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Osroene" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Osroene">Kingdom of Osroene</a>, centred in the city of <a href="/wiki/Edessa,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Edessa, Mesopotamia">Edessa</a>, known in Aramaic as Urhay.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrak1992209–214_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrak1992209–214-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is not easy in either pre-Christian or Christian periods to trace purely-Aramean elements in Edessan culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHealey2014395_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey2014395-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, the Ancient Greek custom of using <i>Syrian</i> labels for Arameans and their language started to gain acceptance among an Aramaic-speaking literary and ecclesiastical elites. The practice of using <i>Syrian</i> labels as designations for Aramaic-speakers and their language was very common among ancient Greeks, and under their influence, the practice also became common among the Romans and Byzantines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinov2020256-257_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinov2020256-257-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> process was initiated after the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Arab conquest</a> in the 7th century. In the religious sphere of life, Aramaic-speaking Christians (such as <a href="/wiki/Melkites" class="mw-redirect" title="Melkites">Melkites</a> in Palestine) were exposed to <a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a>, which created a base for gradual acceptance of the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a> not only as the dominant language of Islamic prayer and worship but also as a common language of public and domestic life. The acceptance of Arabic language became the main vessel of the gradual Arabization of Aramean communities throughout the Near East and ultimately resulted in their fragmentation and <a href="/wiki/Acculturation" title="Acculturation">acculturation</a>. Those processes affected not only Islamized Aramaic-speakers but also some of those who remained Christians, which created local communities of Arabic-speaking Christians of Syriac Christian origin who spoke Arabic in their public and domestic life but continued to belong to churches that used the liturgical Aramaic/Syriac language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin1998149-162_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin1998149-162-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBcheiry2010455-475_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBcheiry2010455-475-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 10th century, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> gradually reconquered much of northern Syria and upper Mesopotamia, including the cities of <a href="/wiki/Melitene" class="mw-redirect" title="Melitene">Melitene</a> (934) and <a href="/wiki/Antioch_on_the_Orontes" class="mw-redirect" title="Antioch on the Orontes">Antioch</a> (969) and thus liberated local Aramaic-speaking Christian communities from the Muslim rule. Byzantines favoured Eastern Orthodoxy, but the leadership of the Antiochian Oriental Orthodox Patriarchate succeeded in reaching agreement with the Byzantine authorities and thus secured religious tolerance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDebié2009110-111_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDebié2009110-111-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Byzantines extended their rule up to <a href="/wiki/Edessa,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Edessa, Mesopotamia">Edessa</a> (1031) but were forced into a general retreat from Syria during the course of the 11th century and were pushed back by the newly-arrived <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Turks" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuk Turks">Seljuk Turks</a>, who took Antioch (1084). The later establishment of <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">Crusader</a> states (1098), the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a> and the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">County of Edessa</a>, created new challenges for local Aramaic-speaking Christians, both Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeltecke200695-124_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeltecke200695-124-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> culture of Syria is a topic of interest among scholars but is never referred to simply as "Aramean". Scholars have difficulty in identifying and isolating characteristic Aramean elements in the culture. Even in North Syria, where more substantial evidence is available, scholars still find it difficult to identify what is genuinely Aramean from what is borrowed from other cultures. Widespread scholarly opinion still maintains that since several ethnic groups, such as <a href="/wiki/Luwians" title="Luwians">Luwians</a> and Aramaeans, interacted in the region, one material culture with "mixed" elements resulted. The material culture appears to be so homogeneous that it "shows no clear distinctions between states dominated by Luwians or Aramaeans".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESader2010286-288_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESader2010286-288-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Orpheus_Taming_Wild_Animals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Roman_Orpheus_Taming_Wild_Animals.jpg/200px-Roman_Orpheus_Taming_Wild_Animals.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Roman_Orpheus_Taming_Wild_Animals.jpg/300px-Roman_Orpheus_Taming_Wild_Animals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Roman_Orpheus_Taming_Wild_Animals.jpg/400px-Roman_Orpheus_Taming_Wild_Animals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="558" /></a><figcaption>Ancient mosaic from <a href="/wiki/Edessa,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Edessa, Mesopotamia">Edessa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a> (2nd century AD) with inscriptions in early <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Edessan Aramaic</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrisch.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Syrisch.svg/200px-Syrisch.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Syrisch.svg/300px-Syrisch.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Syrisch.svg/400px-Syrisch.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption>Initial area of the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic language</a> in the 1st century, and its gradual decline</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Aramaic language">Old Aramaic language</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic language</a></div> <p>Arameans were mostly defined by their use of the West Semitic <a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Aramaic language">Old Aramaic language</a> (1100 BCE – 200 CE), which was first written using the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a> but over time modified to a specifically-<a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic alphabet</a>. Aramaic first appeared in history during the opening centuries of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, when several newly-emerging chiefdoms decided to use it as a <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written language</a>. The process coincided with a change from syllabic <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> to alphabetic scribal culture and the rise of a novel style of public <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphy</a>, which was formerly unattested in Syria-Palestine. The language is considered a sister branch of the idiom used in the <a href="/wiki/Bronze-Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze-Age">Bronze-Age</a> city-state of <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a>, on the one hand, and <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanite language">Canaanite</a>, which comprises languages further south in the speech area such as <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite</a>, on the other hand. All three branches can be subsumed under the more general rubric <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwest Semitic">Northwest Semitic</a> and thus share a common origin. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella201471_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella201471-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest direct witnesses of Aramaic, which were composed between the 10th and 8th centuries BC, are unanimously subsumed under the term "<a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a>". The early writings exhibit variation and anticipate the enormous linguistic diversity within the Aramaic language group. Despite the variation, they are connected by common literary forms and formulaic expressions. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella201472_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella201472-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As early as the 8th century BCE, Aramaic competed with the East Semitic <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian language</a> and script in <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> and then spread throughout the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> in various dialects. By around 800 BCE, Aramaic had become the <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>, which continued during the Achaemenid period as <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a>. Although it was marginalized by Greek during the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, Aramaic in its varying dialects remained unchallenged as the common language of all <a href="/wiki/Semitic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Semitic peoples">Semitic peoples</a> of the region until the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>' <a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Mesopotamia">Islamic conquest of Mesopotamia</a> in the 7th century AD, when the language became gradually superseded by <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>. </p><p>The vernacular dialects of Eastern Old Aramaic, spoken during the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Babylonian">Neo-Babylonian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Persian</a> empires, developed into various <a href="/wiki/Aramaic#Eastern_Middle_Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Eastern Middle Aramaic</a> dialects. Among these were the Aramaic dialects of the ancient region of <a href="/wiki/Osrhoene" class="mw-redirect" title="Osrhoene">Osrhoene</a>, one of which later became the <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac Christianity</a>. In the first centuries AD, the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Bible">Christian Bible</a> was <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Aramaic" title="Bible translations into Aramaic">translated</a> into Aramaic and by the 4th century, the local Aramaic dialect of <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>: <i>Urhay</i>) had evolved into a <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary language</a> known as Edessan Aramaic (Syriac: <i>Urhaya</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrock1992a16_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrock1992a16-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrock1992b226_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrock1992b226-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since Edessan Aramaic (<i>Urhaya</i>) was the primary liturgical language of Aramaic Christianity,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAufrecht2001149_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAufrecht2001149-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuispel200880_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuispel200880-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHealey2019433–446_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey2019433–446-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it also became known as <i>Edessan Syriac</i> and was later defined by Western scholars as <i>Classical Syriac</i>. This laid the foundation for the term <i>Syriac Christianity</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffith20025–20_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith20025–20-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHealey2007115–127_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey2007115–127-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHealey2014391–402_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey2014391–402-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> patriarchates were dominated by Greek episcopate and Greek linguistic and cultural traditions. The use of the Aramaic language in liturgical and literary life among <a href="/wiki/Melkite" title="Melkite">Melkites</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> descent persisted throughout the Middle Ages<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffith199711–31_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith199711–31-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until the 14th century,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrock201196–97_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrock201196–97-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as exemplified in the use of a specific regional dialect known as <a href="/wiki/Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Christian Palestinian Aramaic">Christian Palestinian Aramaic</a> or <i>Palestinian Syriac</i> in the <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine region</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2015317-326_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2015317-326-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Descendant <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Neo-Aramaic languages</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern Aramaic</a> branch continue to serve as the spoken and written languages of the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandeans">Mandeans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi Jews</a>. These languages are primarily found in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, northwestern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, southeastern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and northeastern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, and to a lesser extent, in migrant communities in <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, Georgia, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, Jordan and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Assyrian%E2%80%93Chaldean%E2%80%93Syriac_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora">Assyrian diaspora</a> communities in the West, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Neo-Aramaic</a>, the only surviving modern variety of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western</a> branch, is now spoken by Muslims and Christians solely in <a href="/wiki/Maaloula" title="Maaloula">Maaloula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jubb%27adin" title="Jubb'adin">Jubb'adin</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Qalamoun_Mountains" title="Qalamoun Mountains">Qalamoun mountains</a> of southwestern Syria. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, the study of the Aramaic language, both ancient and modern, was initiated among Western scholars. This led to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_studies" title="Aramaic studies">Aramaic studies</a> as a broader multidisciplinary field, encompassing the study of the cultural and historical heritage of Aramaic. The linguistic and historical aspects of Aramaic studies have been further expanded since the 19th century through archaeological excavations of ancient sites in the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurnett2005421-436_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2005421-436-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiehr20141-9_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENiehr20141-9-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella20153-16_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella20153-16-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian religion</a></div> <p>What is known of the religion of the Aramean groups is derived from excavated objects and temples and by Aramaic literary sources, as well as the names they had. Their religion did not feature any particular deity that could be called an Aramean god or goddess.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoak202057_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoak202057-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It appears from their inscriptions and their names that the Arameans worshipped <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> gods such as <a href="/wiki/Hadad" title="Hadad">Hadad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sin_(mythology)" title="Sin (mythology)">Sin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishtar">Ishtar</a> (whom they called <a href="/wiki/Astarte" title="Astarte">Astarte</a>), <a href="/wiki/Shamash" title="Shamash">Shamash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tammuz_(deity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tammuz (deity)">Tammuz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bel_(mythology)" title="Bel (mythology)">Bel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nergal" title="Nergal">Nergal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaaite</a>-<a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenecian</a> deities such as the storm-god, <a href="/wiki/El_(deity)" title="El (deity)">El</a>, the supreme deity of Canaan, in addition to <a href="/wiki/Anat" title="Anat">Anat</a> (‘Atta) and others.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Arameans who lived outside their homelands apparently followed the traditions of the countries in which they settled. The King of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, for instance, employed Phoenician sculptors and ivory-carvers. In Tell Halaf-Guzana, the palace of <a href="/wiki/Kapara" title="Kapara">Kapara</a>, an Aramean ruler (9th century BCE) was decorated with orthostates and with statues that display a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian">Mesopotamian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hurrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurrian">Hurrian</a> influences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_studies" title="Aramaic studies">Aramaic studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Neo-Aramaic languages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Terms_for_Syriac_Christians#Aramean_identity" title="Terms for Syriac Christians">Terms for Syriac Christians § Aramean identity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limestone_relief;_stele._This_unusual_stele_depicts_an_unidentified_Aramaean_king_holding_a_tulip_in_one_hand_while_grasping_a_staff_or_a_spear_in_the_other_hand._From_Tell_e-esSalihiyeh,_Damascus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Limestone_relief%3B_stele._This_unusual_stele_depicts_an_unidentified_Aramaean_king_holding_a_tulip_in_one_hand_while_grasping_a_staff_or_a_spear_in_the_other_hand._From_Tell_e-esSalihiyeh%2C_Damascus.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Limestone_relief%3B_stele._This_unusual_stele_depicts_an_unidentified_Aramaean_king_holding_a_tulip_in_one_hand_while_grasping_a_staff_or_a_spear_in_the_other_hand._From_Tell_e-esSalihiyeh%2C_Damascus.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Limestone_relief%3B_stele._This_unusual_stele_depicts_an_unidentified_Aramaean_king_holding_a_tulip_in_one_hand_while_grasping_a_staff_or_a_spear_in_the_other_hand._From_Tell_e-esSalihiyeh%2C_Damascus.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3935" data-file-height="5210" /></a><figcaption>Limestone relief; stele. This unusual stele depicts an unidentified Aramaean king holding a tulip in one hand while grasping a staff or a spear in the other hand. 11th century BCE. From Tell es-Salihiyeh, Damascus</figcaption></figure> <p>The legacy of ancient Arameans became of particular interest for scholars during the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a> and resulted in the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_studies" title="Aramaic studies">Aramaic studies</a> as a distinctive field, dedicated to the study of the Aramaic language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurnett2005421-436_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnett2005421-436-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 19th century, the <i>Aramean question</i> was formulated, and several scholarly theses were proposed regarding the development of the language and the history of the Arameans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENöldeke1871113-131_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENöldeke1871113-131-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern times, Aramean identity is held mainly by a number of <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Syriac Christians">Syriac Christians</a>, from southeastern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Aramean_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramean diaspora">diaspora</a>, especially in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoźniak201273–83_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoźniak201273–83-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoźniak2015483–496_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoźniak2015483–496-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2014, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> officially <a href="/wiki/Arameans_in_Israel_and_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Arameans in Israel and Palestine">recognised Arameans</a> as a distinctive minority.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Questions related to the <a href="/wiki/Minority_rights" title="Minority rights">minority rights</a> of Arameans in some other countries were also brought to international attention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeule201247-56_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeule201247-56-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESommer2012157-170_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESommer2012157-170-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramean_kings" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramean kings">Aramean kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans_in_Israel" title="Arameans in Israel">Arameans in Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israelite-Aramean_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Israelite-Aramean War">Israelite-Aramean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian-Aramean_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Luwian-Aramean states">Luwian-Aramean states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maronites" title="Maronites">Maronites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mhallami" title="Mhallami">Mhallami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddan_Aram" title="Paddan Aram">Paddan Aram</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity</i>. p. 234. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192562463" title="Special:BookSources/9780192562463"><bdi>9780192562463</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.pages=234&rft.isbn=9780192562463&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Sargon II, King of Assyria</i>. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780884142232" title="Special:BookSources/9780884142232"><bdi>9780884142232</bdi></a>. <q>The origin of the Aramean tribal groups in this area still remains unclear, in spite of the several hypotheses proposed.? Aramean tribal groups are attested at least from the eleventh century as new occupants of strategic areas in the Jezirah, northern Mesopotamia, and the Syrian steppe.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sargon+II%2C+King+of+Assyria&rft.pages=179&rft.isbn=9780884142232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Ancient Assyrians</i>. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472848079" title="Special:BookSources/9781472848079"><bdi>9781472848079</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Assyrians&rft.pages=13&rft.isbn=9781472848079&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Ancient Egypt and the Near East</i>. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780761499572" title="Special:BookSources/9780761499572"><bdi>9780761499572</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egypt+and+the+Near+East&rft.pages=140&rft.isbn=9780761499572&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Studies in the Aramaic Legal Papyri from Elephantine</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004294233" title="Special:BookSources/9789004294233"><bdi>9789004294233</bdi></a>. <q>The spread of the Aramaic language from its Syrian homeland resulted in large part from Aramean migration and expansion, and was abetted by the Neo-Assyrian policy of deportation operative during the gth to the 7th cen turies. These factors led to the so-called Aramaization of Assyria and Babylonia, a process that gained momentum in the latter days of the Assyrian Empire.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+the+Aramaic+Legal+Papyri+from+Elephantine&rft.isbn=9789004294233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoak202051-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoak202051_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDoak2020">Doak 2020</a>, p. 51:However, we must be clear at the outset: the Arameans were never, in fact, a single nation or group; rather, Aram was a region with local centers of power spread throughout contemporary Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon, at major cities such as Damascus and Hamath.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella201723-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella201723_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2017">Gzella 2017</a>, p. 23:It is nonetheless difficult if not impossible to establish a coherent ethnic category "Aramean" on the basis of extra-linguistic identity markers such as material culture, lifestyle (including cuisine), or religion and other cultural core traditions.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJan_DušekJana_Mynářová" class="citation book cs1">Jan Dušek; Jana Mynářová. <i>Aramaean Borders</i>. Brill. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004398535" title="Special:BookSources/9789004398535"><bdi>9789004398535</bdi></a>. <q>Tiglath-pileser III stated: 13 [From] those [Ara]means whom I deported, [I distribut]ed (and) settled [...thousand to the province of] the turtanu, 10,000 (to) the province of the palace herald, [...] thousand (to) the province of the chief cupbearer, ...thousand (to) the province of the land] Barha(l)zi, (and) 5,000 (to) the province of the land Mazamua.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aramaean+Borders&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Brill&rft.isbn=9789004398535&rft.au=Jan+Du%C5%A1ek&rft.au=Jana+Myn%C3%A1%C5%99ov%C3%A1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_V_Brisco" class="citation book cs1">Thomas V Brisco. <i>Holman Bible Atlas</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781433670312" title="Special:BookSources/9781433670312"><bdi>9781433670312</bdi></a>. <q>The cultural identity of Syria varied historically; but from at least the beginning of the Iron Age (ca. 1200 B.C.), the Arameans increasingly dominated the region. Aramean kingdoms like Aram-Damascus, Aram-zobah, and Hamath appear repeatedly in the biblical record.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holman+Bible+Atlas&rft.isbn=9781433670312&rft.au=Thomas+V+Brisco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESader201415-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESader201415_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSader2014">Sader 2014</a>, p. 15"It is interesting to note in this context that later Aramaean dynasts never refer to themselves as Aramaeans or to their country as Aram, with the exception of the king of Aram-Damascus since his kingdom was also called Aram."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlejung2014339-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlejung2014339_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlejung2014339_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBerlejung2014">Berlejung 2014</a>, p. 339.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESader201416-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESader201416_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSader2014">Sader 2014</a>, p. 16"So Aram is a geographical term that refers at times to part and at others to all of the Syrian territory in the Iron Age, hence the appellation "Aramaeans" given to the 1st - millennium B.C. inhabitants of Syria"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey2019443-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHealey2019443_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHealey2019">Healey 2019</a>, p. 443.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey2019444-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHealey2019444_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHealey2019">Healey 2019</a>, p. 444.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitakowski198776-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitakowski198776_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitakowski1987">Witakowski 1987</a>, p. 76:Ever since the time of christianization those Arameans who embraced the new religion have been referred to as the Syrians, a name of Greek origin which they eventually accepted themselves.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffith199711–31-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffith199711–31_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffith199711–31_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGriffith1997">Griffith 1997</a>, p. 11–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World</i>. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107244566" title="Special:BookSources/9781107244566"><bdi>9781107244566</bdi></a>. <q>As Greek politai became a sub-category for a wider group of Syrians, the Greek peer polity network of Syria and, more broadly, the Roman imperial Syrian ethnos maintained cognitive and performative commonality, even if it did not always enjoy political solidarity or engage in unified mass action. Within it, both ethnic Greeks and ethnic Syrians, whether speaking Greek or Aramaic, deemed ancient (As)Syrians/Arameans among their ethnos civic founders (if not ethnic ancestors), but their historical narratives were often informed by Greek influences and categories. In this sense, Syrians of the Roman imperial era, and even Assyrians or Arameans beyond the frontier, posited links to various ancient Greek or Syrian "founders," with or without positing ethnic descent.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syrian+Identity+in+the+Greco-Roman+World&rft.pages=17&rft.isbn=9781107244566&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Maronites in history</i>. p. 177. <q>Lammens states that <a href="/wiki/Al-Baladhuri" title="Al-Baladhuri">al-Baladhuri</a> labeled these Maronites al-Anbat to indicate their Aramaic (Syriac) origin.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Maronites+in+history&rft.pages=177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute, Or Philosophical Society of Great Britain</i>. Victoria Institute. p. 51. <q>The only people that remain who might be considered lineal descendants of the Aramean race are the <a href="/wiki/Druzes" class="mw-redirect" title="Druzes">Droozes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maronites" title="Maronites">Maronites</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+of+the+Transactions+of+the+Victoria+Institute%2C+Or+Philosophical+Society+of+Great+Britain&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Victoria+Institute.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsher_Kaufman" class="citation book cs1">Asher Kaufman. <i>Reviving Phoenicia</i>. <q>The Syrians today, Zaydan continued, are divided by their origin into two groups: Muslims and Christians. Most of the Muslims are Arabs. As for the Christians, the majority are descendants of the Arameans, the Arabs and the Greeks. The Arameans were the original inhabitants of the land, then came the Greeks from the West, followed by the Arabs, the Ghasanis, who came from the Hauran in the hinterland. In short, Christian Syrians are not genealogically Arabs, even if there is some Arab blood flowing in their veins. Yet they are considered Arabs because they speak Arabic, they procreate in an Arab land and they live according to Arab morals. Thus, Syria became an Arab country after the Islamic occupation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reviving+Phoenicia&rft.au=Asher+Kaufman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200026-40-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński200026-40_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2000">Lipiński 2000</a>, p. 26-40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESader2010277-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESader2010277_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSader2010">Sader 2010</a>, p. 277.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200025–27-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński200025–27_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2000">Lipiński 2000</a>, p. 25–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella201556-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella201556_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2015">Gzella 2015</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounger201635-108-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger201635-108_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYounger2016">Younger 2016</a>, p. 35-108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarc_Van_De_Mieroop2009" class="citation book cs1">Marc Van De Mieroop (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E1iqUz-XD0UC&q=ahlamu&pg=PA63"><i>The Eastern Mediterranean in the Age of Ramesses II</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444332209" title="Special:BookSources/9781444332209"><bdi>9781444332209</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eastern+Mediterranean+in+the+Age+of+Ramesses+II&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781444332209&rft.au=Marc+Van+De+Mieroop&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE1iqUz-XD0UC%26q%3Dahlamu%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000347-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000347_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2000">Lipiński 2000</a>, p. 347.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounger2016549-654-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger2016549-654_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYounger2016">Younger 2016</a>, p. 549-654.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000249-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000249_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2000">Lipiński 2000</a>, p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounger2016425-500-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger2016425-500_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYounger2016">Younger 2016</a>, p. 425-500.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000163-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000163_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2000">Lipiński 2000</a>, p. 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounger2016307-372-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger2016307-372_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYounger2016">Younger 2016</a>, p. 307-372.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000119-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000119_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2000">Lipiński 2000</a>, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000319-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000319_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2000">Lipiński 2000</a>, p. 319.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000135-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000135_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2000">Lipiński 2000</a>, p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200078-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński200078_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2000">Lipiński 2000</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounger2016-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger2016_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger2016_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYounger2016">Younger 2016</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkkerman_&_Schwartz2003367-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAkkerman_&_Schwartz2003367_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAkkerman_&_Schwartz2003">Akkerman & Schwartz 2003</a>, p. 367.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Ancient Israel's Neighbors</i>. pp. 54–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190690618" title="Special:BookSources/9780190690618"><bdi>9780190690618</bdi></a>. <q>Groups of family members lived near one another, and the social structure was probably focused on the identity of a primarymale figure in the family ("patriarchal") and possibly even traced its roots to some local tribal ancestor, after which the group was named (e.g., Bit Adini, Bit-Agusi, Bit-Gabbari, Bit-Hazaili; the Semitic word "Bit" means "House of," followed by the name of a founding figure). Most scholars who study the Arameans speak of their origins in terms of "tribes" and tribal leaders who took advantage of political instability in the region during certain time periods to expand their territory.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Israel%27s+Neighbors&rft.pages=54-55&rft.isbn=9780190690618&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>A History of Syria in One Hundred Sites</i>. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781784913823" title="Special:BookSources/9781784913823"><bdi>9781784913823</bdi></a>. <q>Each Aramean tribal group was called by the family name, 'Bit' (house), following a coastal Phoenician writing system. The most important Aramaic kingdoms were established at Halaf (Kingdom of Guzana - the Kingdom of Bit-Bahiani), Ahmar (the Kingdom of Bit-Adini), Damascus (the Kingdom of Aram Damascus) and North of Aleppo (the Kingdom of Bit-Agushi).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Syria+in+One+Hundred+Sites&rft.pages=5&rft.isbn=9781784913823&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESader201415-16-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESader201415-16_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSader2014">Sader 2014</a>, p. 15-16In the 8th century B.C. Aramaic inscriptions of Sefire (KAI 222–224) expressions “All Aram” and “Upper and Lower Aram” were variously interpreted but it can be safely argued that “All Aram” refers to a geographical area that included the territories of the Aramaean and non-Aramaean kingdoms united in the coalition against Matiʾel of Arpad, and that roughly covers the boundaries of modern Syria, while “Upper and Lower Aram” may refer to North and South Syria, respectively.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteven_Grosby" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Grosby" title="Steven Grosby">Steven Grosby</a>. <i>Biblical Ideas of Nationality</i>. pp. 150–165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781575060651" title="Special:BookSources/9781575060651"><bdi>9781575060651</bdi></a>. <q>The qualifier "all" in "all Aram" is clearly of some sociological significance; it implies a certain kind of collective unity. One is immediately re-minded of the Deuteronomistic use of "all" in "all Israel (kol yisra'el) from Dan to Beersheba."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biblical+Ideas+of+Nationality&rft.pages=150-165&rft.isbn=9781575060651&rft.au=Steven+Grosby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Brian_Peckham" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Peckham" title="Brian Peckham">J. Brian Peckham</a>. <i>Phoenicia</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781646021222" title="Special:BookSources/9781646021222"><bdi>9781646021222</bdi></a>. <q>By mid-century, the Syrian chiefdoms, through a system of alliances, affirmed their Aramean identity as "All Aram", consisting of the states in "Upper and Lower Aram", and together defied the Assyrian Empire.70</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phoenicia&rft.isbn=9781646021222&rft.au=J.+Brian+Peckham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Nation and Empire as Two Trends of Political Organization in the Iron Age Levant</i>. Brill. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004685581" title="Special:BookSources/9789004685581"><bdi>9789004685581</bdi></a>. <q>What is certain is that no united, pan-Aramean national state ever existed, yet clearly "Aram" served as a common identity marker and (self-)designation, although possibly with different meanings (e.g. as a region, as a collective noun for the people; or another appellation of the Damascus-centered polity). The brief analysis of the lists of treaty partners as well as the geographical description in the Sefire Treaties, furthermore, appears to suggest that "all Aram" may indicate the highest level of identity among different Aramean polities, above the tribe, the city-state and the individual ruling families, even if not all Aramean speakers, all Aramean tribes or states were included in this "all Aram". 119 The phrase more likely refers to a group of polities that shared common Aramean cultural and social features, perhaps all with Aramean tribal structures internally in addition to the use of varieties of the Aramean language, who chose to pick Aram as a common denominator in this context. 120 How inclusive or exclusive this phrase is in reality cannot be judged. Finally, while the nature of the Aramean identity is largely cultural and perhaps ethnic, the presence of political elements is also likely. Although a united Aramean polity, as the one suggested by B. Mazar (1962), might not be fully tenable, the fact that "all Aram", with Arpad as its representative, can serve as a party in international treaties indicates that the Arameans as an cultural community may have engaged in joint political acts, at least conceptually.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nation+and+Empire+as+Two+Trends+of+Political+Organization+in+the+Iron+Age+Levant&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Brill&rft.isbn=9789004685581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillington2005117–132-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillington2005117–132_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBillington2005">Billington 2005</a>, p. 117–132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brit-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-brit_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aramaean">"Aramaean (people)"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYounger2016501-548-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYounger2016501-548_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYounger2016">Younger 2016</a>, p. 501-548.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005278/Akhlame">"Akhlame"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Akhlame&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9005278%2FAkhlame&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWunsch2013247–260-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWunsch2013247–260_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWunsch2013">Wunsch 2013</a>, p. 247–260.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaggs1984290-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaggs1984290_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSaggs1984">Saggs 1984</a>, p. 290: "The destruction of the Assyrian empire did not wipe out its population. They were predominantly peasant farmers, and since Assyria contains some of the best wheat land in the Near East, descendants of the Assyrian peasants would, as opportunity permitted, build new villages over the old cities and carry on with agricultural life, remembering traditions of the former cities. After seven or eight centuries and various vicissitudes, these people became Christians."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENissinen2014273-296-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENissinen2014273-296_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNissinen2014">Nissinen 2014</a>, p. 273-296.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreck2014297-318-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreck2014297-318_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStreck2014">Streck 2014</a>, p. 297-318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemaire2014319-328-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemaire2014319-328_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemaire2014">Lemaire 2014</a>, p. 319-328.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENiehr2014b329-338-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiehr2014b329-338_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNiehr2014b">Niehr 2014b</a>, p. 329-338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlejung2014339-365-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlejung2014339-365_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBerlejung2014">Berlejung 2014</a>, p. 339-365.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotta2014366-377-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBotta2014366-377_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBotta2014">Botta 2014</a>, p. 366-377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENiehr2014c378-390-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiehr2014c378-390_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNiehr2014c">Niehr 2014c</a>, p. 378-390.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillard1983106-107-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillard1983106-107_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillard1983">Millard 1983</a>, p. 106-107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2000">Lipiński 2000</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2015-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2015_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2015">Gzella 2015</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1992281–285-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1992281–285_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrye1992">Frye 1992</a>, p. 281–285.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeinrichs1993106-107-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeinrichs1993106-107_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeinrichs1993">Heinrichs 1993</a>, p. 106-107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoosten201053–72-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoosten201053–72_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJoosten2010">Joosten 2010</a>, p. 53–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWevers2001237-251-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWevers2001237-251_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWevers2001">Wevers 2001</a>, p. 237-251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers1921139-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers1921139_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogers1921">Rogers 1921</a>, p. 139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrenschkowski2019468-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a 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Leiden: Brill. pp. 339–365. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004229433" title="Special:BookSources/9789004229433"><bdi>9789004229433</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palestine&rft.btitle=The+Aramaeans+in+Ancient+Syria&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=339-365&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004229433&rft.aulast=Berlejung&rft.aufirst=Angelika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsW_AAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBettany1888" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Thomas_Bettany" title="George Thomas Bettany">Bettany, George T.</a> (1888). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2-P1Zq5a_BYC"><i>The World's Inhabitants</i></a>. 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Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783525535738" title="Special:BookSources/9783525535738"><bdi>9783525535738</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aramaic+Language%3A+Its+Distribution+and+Subdivisions&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9783525535738&rft.aulast=Beyer&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpZ53zpMQNLEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBillington2005" class="citation book cs1">Billington, Clyde E. 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Eugene: Wipf and Stock Publishers. pp. 117–132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781597520690" title="Special:BookSources/9781597520690"><bdi>9781597520690</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Othniel%2C+Cushan-Rishathaim%2C+and+the+Date+of+the+Exodus&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Jordan%3A+Studies+in+Honor+of+W.+Harold+Mare&rft.place=Eugene&rft.pages=117-132&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781597520690&rft.aulast=Billington&rft.aufirst=Clyde+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRklLAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonatz2014" class="citation book cs1">Bonatz, Dominik (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ">"Art"</a>. <i>The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria</i>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 205–253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004229433" title="Special:BookSources/9789004229433"><bdi>9789004229433</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Art&rft.btitle=The+Aramaeans+in+Ancient+Syria&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=205-253&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004229433&rft.aulast=Bonatz&rft.aufirst=Dominik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsW_AAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBotta2014" class="citation book cs1">Botta, Alejandro F. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ">"Egypt"</a>. <i>The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria</i>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 366–377. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004229433" title="Special:BookSources/9789004229433"><bdi>9789004229433</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Egypt&rft.btitle=The+Aramaeans+in+Ancient+Syria&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=366-377&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004229433&rft.aulast=Botta&rft.aufirst=Alejandro+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsW_AAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowman1948" class="citation journal cs1">Bowman, Raymond A. (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/542672">"Arameans, Aramaic, and the Bible"</a>. <i>Journal of Near Eastern Studies</i>. <b>7</b> (2): 65–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F370861">10.1086/370861</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/542672">542672</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162226854">162226854</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Arameans%2C+Aramaic%2C+and+the+Bible&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=65-90&rft.date=1948&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162226854%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F542672%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F370861&rft.aulast=Bowman&rft.aufirst=Raymond+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F542672&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrinkman1968" class="citation book cs1">Brinkman, John A. (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqS5LDtxrcYC"><i>A Political History of Post-Kassite Babylonia, 1158-722 B.C.</i></a> Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-7653-243-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-7653-243-6"><bdi>978-88-7653-243-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Political+History+of+Post-Kassite+Babylonia%2C+1158-722+B.C.&rft.place=Roma&rft.pub=Pontificium+Institutum+Biblicum&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-88-7653-243-6&rft.aulast=Brinkman&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZqS5LDtxrcYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrinkman1977" class="citation journal cs1">Brinkman, John A. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43074768">"Notes on Arameans and Chaldeans in Southern Babylonia in the Early Seventh Century B.C."</a> <i>Orientalia</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 304–325. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43074768">43074768</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Orientalia&rft.atitle=Notes+on+Arameans+and+Chaldeans+in+Southern+Babylonia+in+the+Early+Seventh+Century+B.C.&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=304-325&rft.date=1977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43074768%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Brinkman&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43074768&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrock1989" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sebastian_P._Brock" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebastian P. 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Kalamazoo: Cistercian Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780879075248" title="Special:BookSources/9780879075248"><bdi>9780879075248</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Luminous+Eye%3A+The+Spiritual+World+Vision+of+Saint+Ephrem&rft.place=Kalamazoo&rft.edition=2nd+revised&rft.pub=Cistercian+Publications&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780879075248&rft.aulast=Brock&rft.aufirst=Sebastian+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQQgLAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrock1992b" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sebastian_P._Brock" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebastian P. 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Brock">Brock, Sebastian P.</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol2/HV2N1Brock.pdf">"St. Ephrem in the Eyes of Later Syriac Liturgical Tradition"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 5–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31826%2Fhug-2010-020103">10.31826/hug-2010-020103</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:212688898">212688898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hugoye%3A+Journal+of+Syriac+Studies&rft.atitle=St.+Ephrem+in+the+Eyes+of+Later+Syriac+Liturgical+Tradition&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5-25&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31826%2Fhug-2010-020103&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A212688898%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Brock&rft.aufirst=Sebastian+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fraw.githubusercontent.com%2FBeth-Mardutho%2Fhugoye-data%2Fmaster%2Fpdf%2Fvol2%2FHV2N1Brock.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrock2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sebastian_P._Brock" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebastian P. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.syriacstudies.com/2018/11/29/christianity-in-edessa-and-the-syriac-speaking-world-mani-bar-daysan-and-ephraem-the-struggle-for-allegiance-on-the-aramean-frontier-by-sidney-griffith">the original</a> on 2018-12-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Canadian+Society+for+Syriac+Studies&rft.atitle=Christianity+in+Edessa+and+the+Syriac-Speaking+World%3A+Mani%2C+Bar+Daysan%2C+and+Ephraem%2C+the+Struggle+for+Allegiance+on+the+Aramean+Frontier&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=5-20&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31826%2Fjcsss-2009-020104&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A212688584%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Griffith&rft.aufirst=Sidney+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.syriacstudies.com%2F2018%2F11%2F29%2Fchristianity-in-edessa-and-the-syriac-speaking-world-mani-bar-daysan-and-ephraem-the-struggle-for-allegiance-on-the-aramean-frontier-by-sidney-griffith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffith2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sidney_H._Griffith" title="Sidney H. Griffith">Griffith, Sidney H.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31826/9781463233105-026">"St. Ephraem, Bar Daysān and the Clash of Madrāshê in Aram: Readings in St. Ephraem's Hymni contra Haereses"</a>. <i>The Harp: A Review of Syriac and Oriental Studies</i>. <b>21</b>: 447–472. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31826%2F9781463233105-026">10.31826/9781463233105-026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Harp%3A+A+Review+of+Syriac+and+Oriental+Studies&rft.atitle=St.+Ephraem%2C+Bar+Days%C4%81n+and+the+Clash+of+Madr%C4%81sh%C3%AA+in+Aram%3A+Readings+in+St.+Ephraem%27s+Hymni+contra+Haereses&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=447-472&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31826%2F9781463233105-026&rft.aulast=Griffith&rft.aufirst=Sidney+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.31826%2F9781463233105-026&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffith2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sidney_H._Griffith" title="Sidney H. Griffith">Griffith, Sidney H.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LKt8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109">"Christian Lore and the Arabic Qur'an: The Companions of the Cave in Surat al-Kahf and in Syriac Christian Tradition"</a>. <i>The Quran in its Historical Context</i>. London-New York: Routledge. pp. 109–137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134109456" title="Special:BookSources/9781134109456"><bdi>9781134109456</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Christian+Lore+and+the+Arabic+Qur%27an%3A+The+Companions+of+the+Cave+in+Surat+al-Kahf+and+in+Syriac+Christian+Tradition&rft.btitle=The+Quran+in+its+Historical+Context&rft.place=London-New+York&rft.pages=109-137&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781134109456&rft.aulast=Griffith&rft.aufirst=Sidney+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLKt8AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGzella2014" class="citation book cs1">Gzella, Holger (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ">"Language and Script"</a>. <i>The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria</i>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 71–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004229433" title="Special:BookSources/9789004229433"><bdi>9789004229433</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+and+Script&rft.btitle=The+Aramaeans+in+Ancient+Syria&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=71-107&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004229433&rft.aulast=Gzella&rft.aufirst=Holger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsW_AAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGzella2015" class="citation book cs1">Gzella, Holger (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y9UuBgAAQBAJ"><i>A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam</i></a>. Leiden-Boston: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004285101" title="Special:BookSources/9789004285101"><bdi>9789004285101</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+of+Aramaic%3A+From+the+Beginnings+to+the+Advent+of+Islam&rft.place=Leiden-Boston&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9789004285101&rft.aulast=Gzella&rft.aufirst=Holger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy9UuBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGzella2017" class="citation book cs1">Gzella, Holger (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/34042986">"New Light on Linguistic Diversity in Pre-Achaemenid Aramaic: Wandering Arameans or Language Spread?"</a>. <i>Wandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aramaic-dem.org/English/History/The%20Ancient%20Name%20Of%20Edessa%20Harrak.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2014-08-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Ancient+Name+of+Edessa&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=209-214&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F373553&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162190342%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Harrak&rft.aufirst=Amir&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aramaic-dem.org%2FEnglish%2FHistory%2FThe%2520Ancient%2520Name%2520Of%2520Edessa%2520Harrak.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrak1998" class="citation book cs1">Harrak, Amir (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8ndhAAAAMAAJ">"Arabisms in Part IV of the Syriac Chronicle of Zuqnin"</a>. <i>Symposium Syriacum VII</i>. Roma: Pontificio Istituto Orientale. pp. 469–498. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788872103197" title="Special:BookSources/9788872103197"><bdi>9788872103197</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arabisms+in+Part+IV+of+the+Syriac+Chronicle+of+Zuqnin&rft.btitle=Symposium+Syriacum+VII&rft.place=Roma&rft.pages=469-498&rft.pub=Pontificio+Istituto+Orientale&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9788872103197&rft.aulast=Harrak&rft.aufirst=Amir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8ndhAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrak1999" class="citation book cs1">Harrak, Amir, ed. 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Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780888442864" title="Special:BookSources/9780888442864"><bdi>9780888442864</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chronicle+of+Zuqn%C4%ABn%2C+Parts+III+and+IV%3A+A.D.+488-775&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=Pontifical+Institute+of+Mediaeval+Studies&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780888442864&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_ApnAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasegawa2012" class="citation book cs1">Hasegawa, Shuichi (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tpJQJOt0QA8C"><i>Aram and Israel during the Jehuite Dynasty</i></a>. 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New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 431–450. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-936904-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-936904-1"><bdi>978-0-19-936904-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Church+of+the+East+until+the+Eighth+Century&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Early+Christian+Archaeology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=431-450&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-19-936904-1&rft.aulast=Hauser&rft.aufirst=Stefan+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuWR7DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA431&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHausleiter2016" class="citation book cs1">Hausleiter, Arnulf (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/33424393">"The Middle Euphrates, Iraq: Assyrian-Babylonian interactions in an Aramaean territory in the early 1st millennium BC"</a>. <i>Parcours d'Orient: Recueil de textes offert à Christine Kepinski</i>. 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Leiden: Brill. pp. 391–402. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004229433" title="Special:BookSources/9789004229433"><bdi>9789004229433</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aramaean+Heritage&rft.btitle=The+Aramaeans+in+Ancient+Syria&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=391-402&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004229433&rft.aulast=Healey&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsW_AAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA391&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealey2019" class="citation book cs1">Healey, John F. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=39nPxgEACAAJ">"Arameans and Aramaic in Transition – Western Influences and the Roots of Aramean Christianity"</a>. <i>Research on Israel and Aram: Autonomy, Independence and Related Issues</i>. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 433–446. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783161577192" title="Special:BookSources/9783161577192"><bdi>9783161577192</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arameans+and+Aramaic+in+Transition+%E2%80%93+Western+Influences+and+the+Roots+of+Aramean+Christianity&rft.btitle=Research+on+Israel+and+Aram%3A+Autonomy%2C+Independence+and+Related+Issues&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pages=433-446&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9783161577192&rft.aulast=Healey&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D39nPxgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeinrichs1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, Wolfhart</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VMZiAAAAMAAJ">"The Modern Assyrians - Name and Nation"</a>. <i>Semitica: Serta philologica Constantino Tsereteli dicata</i>. Torino: Zamorani. pp. 99–114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788871580241" title="Special:BookSources/9788871580241"><bdi>9788871580241</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Modern+Assyrians+-+Name+and+Nation&rft.btitle=Semitica%3A+Serta+philologica+Constantino+Tsereteli+dicata&rft.place=Torino&rft.pages=99-114&rft.pub=Zamorani&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9788871580241&rft.aulast=Heinrichs&rft.aufirst=Wolfhart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVMZiAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJarjour2016" class="citation book cs1">Jarjour, Tala (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fCaPCwAAQBAJ">"Chant as the Articulation of Christian Aramean Spirithood"</a>. <i>The Oxford Handbook of Music and World Christianities</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 187–207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199859993" title="Special:BookSources/9780199859993"><bdi>9780199859993</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chant+as+the+Articulation+of+Christian+Aramean+Spirithood&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Music+and+World+Christianities&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=187-207&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780199859993&rft.aulast=Jarjour&rft.aufirst=Tala&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfCaPCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoosten2010" class="citation journal cs1">Joosten, Jan (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/33401126">"The Aramaic Background of the Seventy: Language, Culture and History"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies</i>. <b>43</b>: 53–72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+International+Organization+for+Septuagint+and+Cognate+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Aramaic+Background+of+the+Seventy%3A+Language%2C+Culture+and+History&rft.volume=43&rft.pages=53-72&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Joosten&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F33401126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Joseph_(historian)" title="John Joseph (historian)">Joseph, John B.</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200715002908/http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v11n2/JohnJoseph.pdf">"Assyria and Syria: Synonyms?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies</i>. <b>11</b> (2): 37–43. 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Leiden: Brill. pp. 37–70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004229433" title="Special:BookSources/9789004229433"><bdi>9789004229433</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Society%2C+Institutions%2C+Law%2C+and+Economy&rft.btitle=The+Aramaeans+in+Ancient+Syria&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=37-70&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004229433&rft.aulast=K%C3%BChn&rft.aufirst=Dagmar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsW_AAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevin2017" class="citation book cs1">Levin, Yigal (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/34080056">"My Father was a Wandering Aramean: Biblical Views of the Ancestral Relationship between Israel and Aram"</a>. <i>Wandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 39–52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=My+Father+was+a+Wandering+Aramean%3A+Biblical+Views+of+the+Ancestral+Relationship+between+Israel+and+Aram&rft.btitle=Wandering+Arameans%3A+Arameans+Outside+Syria%3A+Textual+and+Archaeological+Perspectives&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=39-52&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=Yigal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F34080056&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemaire2014" class="citation book cs1">Lemaire, André (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ">"Anatolia"</a>. <i>The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria</i>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 319–328. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004229433" title="Special:BookSources/9789004229433"><bdi>9789004229433</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anatolia&rft.btitle=The+Aramaeans+in+Ancient+Syria&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=319-328&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004229433&rft.aulast=Lemaire&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsW_AAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipiński2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Lipi%C5%84ski_(orientalist)" title="Edward Lipiński (orientalist)">Lipiński, Edward</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rrMKKtiBBI4C"><i>The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion</i></a>. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789042908598" title="Special:BookSources/9789042908598"><bdi>9789042908598</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aramaeans%3A+Their+Ancient+History%2C+Culture%2C+Religion&rft.place=Leuven&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9789042908598&rft.aulast=Lipi%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrrMKKtiBBI4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipiński2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Lipi%C5%84ski_(orientalist)" title="Edward Lipiński (orientalist)">Lipiński, Edward</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OuVQnwEACAAJ">"The Aramaeans in the West (13th–8th centuries)"</a>. <i>Arameans, Chaldeans, and Arabs in Babylonia and Palestine in the First Millennium B.C</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 123–147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447065443" title="Special:BookSources/9783447065443"><bdi>9783447065443</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Aramaeans+in+the+West+%2813th%E2%80%938th+centuries%29&rft.btitle=Arameans%2C+Chaldeans%2C+and+Arabs+in+Babylonia+and+Palestine+in+the+First+Millennium+B.C.&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=123-147&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9783447065443&rft.aulast=Lipi%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOuVQnwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazar1962" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mazar" title="Benjamin Mazar">Mazar, Benjamin</a> (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3210938">"The Aramean Empire and Its Relations with Israel"</a>. <i>The Biblical Archaeologist</i>. <b>25</b> (4): 97–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3210938">10.2307/3210938</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3210938">3210938</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165844359">165844359</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Biblical+Archaeologist&rft.atitle=The+Aramean+Empire+and+Its+Relations+with+Israel&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=97-120&rft.date=1962&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165844359%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3210938%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3210938&rft.aulast=Mazar&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3210938&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerlo2014" class="citation book cs1">Merlo, Paolo (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ">"Literature"</a>. <i>The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria</i>. 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Leiden-Boston: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004445512" title="Special:BookSources/9789004445512"><bdi>9789004445512</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memory+and+Identity+in+the+Syriac+Cave+of+Treasures%3A+Rewriting+the+Bible+in+Sasanian+Iran&rft.place=Leiden-Boston&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9789004445512&rft.aulast=Minov&rft.aufirst=Sergey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9AsOEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMutlu-NumansenOssewaarde2019" class="citation journal cs1">Mutlu-Numansen, Sofia; Ossewaarde, Marinus (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.utwente.nl/files/191702532/Mutlu_Numansen2019struggle.pdf">"A Struggle for Genocide Recognition: How the Aramean, Assyrian, and Chaldean Diasporas Link Past and Present"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Holocaust and Genocide Studies</i>. <b>33</b> (3): 412–428. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fhgs%2Fdcz045">10.1093/hgs/dcz045</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Holocaust+and+Genocide+Studies&rft.atitle=A+Struggle+for+Genocide+Recognition%3A+How+the+Aramean%2C+Assyrian%2C+and+Chaldean+Diasporas+Link+Past+and+Present&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=412-428&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fhgs%2Fdcz045&rft.aulast=Mutlu-Numansen&rft.aufirst=Sofia&rft.au=Ossewaarde%2C+Marinus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.utwente.nl%2Ffiles%2F191702532%2FMutlu_Numansen2019struggle.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiehr2014" class="citation book cs1">Niehr, Herbert (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ">"Introduction"</a>. <i>The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria</i>. 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Leiden: Brill. pp. 127–203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004229433" title="Special:BookSources/9789004229433"><bdi>9789004229433</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Religion&rft.btitle=The+Aramaeans+in+Ancient+Syria&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=127-203&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004229433&rft.aulast=Niehr&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsW_AAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiehr2014b" class="citation book cs1">Niehr, Herbert (2014b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ">"Phoenicia"</a>. <i>The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria</i>. 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Louvain: Peeters Publishers. pp. 269–285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789042907355" title="Special:BookSources/9789042907355"><bdi>9789042907355</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jacob+of+Edessa+and+the+Early+History+of+Edessa&rft.btitle=After+Bardaisan%3A+Studies+on+Continuity+and+Change+in+Syriac+Christianity&rft.place=Louvain&rft.pages=269-285&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9789042907355&rft.aulast=Rompay&rft.aufirst=Lucas+van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2b4ADqorY1oC%26pg%3DPA269&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRompay2000" class="citation journal cs1">Rompay, Lucas van (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol3/HV3N1VanRompay.pdf">"Past and Present Perceptions of Syriac Literary Tradition"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 71–103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31826%2Fhug-2010-030105">10.31826/hug-2010-030105</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:212688244">212688244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hugoye%3A+Journal+of+Syriac+Studies&rft.atitle=Past+and+Present+Perceptions+of+Syriac+Literary+Tradition&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-103&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31826%2Fhug-2010-030105&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A212688244%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rompay&rft.aufirst=Lucas+van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fraw.githubusercontent.com%2FBeth-Mardutho%2Fhugoye-data%2Fmaster%2Fpdf%2Fvol3%2FHV3N1VanRompay.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRompay2004" class="citation journal cs1">Rompay, Lucas van (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol7/HV7N1VanRompay.pdf">"Mallpânâ dilan Suryâyâ Ephrem in the Works of Philoxenus of Mabbog: Respect and Distance"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 83–105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31826%2Fhug-2011-070107">10.31826/hug-2011-070107</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:212688667">212688667</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hugoye%3A+Journal+of+Syriac+Studies&rft.atitle=Mallp%C3%A2n%C3%A2+dilan+Sury%C3%A2y%C3%A2+Ephrem+in+the+Works+of+Philoxenus+of+Mabbog%3A+Respect+and+Distance&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=83-105&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31826%2Fhug-2011-070107&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A212688667%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rompay&rft.aufirst=Lucas+van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fraw.githubusercontent.com%2FBeth-Mardutho%2Fhugoye-data%2Fmaster%2Fpdf%2Fvol7%2FHV7N1VanRompay.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin1998" class="citation book cs1">Rubin, Milka (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/22869462">"Arabization versus Islamization in the Palestinian Melkite Community during the Early Muslim Period"</a>. <i>Sharing the Sacred: Religious Contacts and Conflicts in the Holy Land: First-fifteenth Centuries CE</i>. 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Louvain: Peeters Press. pp. 61–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789042908789" title="Special:BookSources/9789042908789"><bdi>9789042908789</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Aramaean+Kingdoms+of+Syria%3A+Origin+and+Formation+Processes&rft.btitle=Essays+on+Syria+in+the+Iron+Age&rft.place=Louvain&rft.pages=61-76&rft.pub=Peeters+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9789042908789&rft.aulast=Sader&rft.aufirst=H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3hMLAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSader2010" class="citation book cs1">Sader, Hélène (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1SXbIFYu-ZAC">"The Aramaeans of Syria: Some Considerations on their Origin and Material Culture"</a>. <i>The Books of Kings: Sources, Composition, Historiography and Reception</i>. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 273–300. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004177291" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004177291"><bdi>978-9004177291</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Aramaeans+of+Syria%3A+Some+Considerations+on+their+Origin+and+Material+Culture&rft.btitle=The+Books+of+Kings%3A+Sources%2C+Composition%2C+Historiography+and+Reception&rft.place=Leiden-Boston&rft.pages=273-300&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-9004177291&rft.aulast=Sader&rft.aufirst=H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1SXbIFYu-ZAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSader2014" class="citation book cs1">Sader, Hélène (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11">"History"</a>. In Herbert Niehr (ed.). <i>The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria</i>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 11–36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004229433" title="Special:BookSources/9789004229433"><bdi>9789004229433</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=History&rft.btitle=The+Aramaeans+in+Ancient+Syria&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=11-36&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004229433&rft.aulast=Sader&rft.aufirst=H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsW_AAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSader2016" class="citation book cs1">Sader, Hélène (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tUtmjwEACAAJ">"The Formation and Decline of the Aramaean States in Iron Age Syria"</a>. <i>State Formation and State Decline in the Near and Middle East</i>. 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Uppsala-Stockholm: University of Uppsala. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789155419677" title="Special:BookSources/9789155419677"><bdi>9789155419677</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Syriac+Chronicle+of+Pseudo-Dionysius+of+Tel-Mahr%C4%93%3A+A+Study+in+the+History+of+Historiography&rft.place=Uppsala-Stockholm&rft.pub=University+of+Uppsala&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9789155419677&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUIoWAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoźniak2012" class="citation book cs1">Woźniak, Marta (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uXvnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73">"Far from Aram-Nahrin: The Suryoye Diaspora Experience"</a>. <i>Border Terrains: World Diasporas in the 21st Century</i>. 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Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. pp. 131–174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781575061436" title="Special:BookSources/9781575061436"><bdi>9781575061436</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Late+Bronze+Age%2FIron+Age+Transition+and+the+Origins+of+the+Arameans&rft.btitle=Ugarit+at+Seventy-Five&rft.place=Winona+Lake&rft.pages=131-174&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781575061436&rft.aulast=Younger&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Lawson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3xbHT7ZiAtUC%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYounger2014" class="citation book cs1">Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/9122190">"War and Peace in the Origins of the Arameans"</a>. <i>Krieg und Frieden im Alten Vorderasien</i>. Münster: Ugarit Verlag. pp. 861–874.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=War+and+Peace+in+the+Origins+of+the+Arameans&rft.btitle=Krieg+und+Frieden+im+Alten+Vorderasien&rft.place=M%C3%BCnster&rft.pages=861-874&rft.pub=Ugarit+Verlag&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Younger&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Lawson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F9122190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYounger2016" class="citation book cs1">Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vpgsDQAAQBAJ"><i>A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities</i></a>. Atlanta: SBL Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781628370843" title="Special:BookSources/9781628370843"><bdi>9781628370843</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Political+History+of+the+Arameans%3A+From+Their+Origins+to+the+End+of+Their+Polities&rft.place=Atlanta&rft.pub=SBL+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781628370843&rft.aulast=Younger&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Lawson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvpgsDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYounger2017" class="citation book cs1">Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/34382602">"Tiglath-Pileser I and the Initial Conflicts of the Assyrians with the Arameans"</a>. <i>Wandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 195–228.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tiglath-Pileser+I+and+the+Initial+Conflicts+of+the+Assyrians+with+the+Arameans&rft.btitle=Wandering+Arameans%3A+Arameans+Outside+Syria%3A+Textual+and+Archaeological+Perspectives&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=195-228&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Younger&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Lawson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F34382602&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYounger2020" class="citation book cs1">Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0t9CzQEACAAJ">"Reflections on Hazael's Empire in Light of Recent Study in the Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts"</a>. <i>Writing and Rewriting History in Ancient Israel and Near Eastern Cultures</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 79–102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447113632" title="Special:BookSources/9783447113632"><bdi>9783447113632</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+Hazael%E2%80%99s+Empire+in+Light+of+Recent+Study+in+the+Biblical+and+Ancient+Near+Eastern+Texts&rft.btitle=Writing+and+Rewriting+History+in+Ancient+Israel+and+Near+Eastern+Cultures&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=79-102&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9783447113632&rft.aulast=Younger&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Lawson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0t9CzQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZadok2013" class="citation book cs1">Zadok, Ran (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OuVQnwEACAAJ">"The Onomastics of the Chaldean, Aramean, and Arabian Tribes in Babylonia during the First Millennium"</a>. <i>Arameans, Chaldeans, and Arabs in Babylonia and Palestine in the First Millennium B.C</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 261–336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447065443" title="Special:BookSources/9783447065443"><bdi>9783447065443</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Onomastics+of+the+Chaldean%2C+Aramean%2C+and+Arabian+Tribes+in+Babylonia+during+the+First+Millennium&rft.btitle=Arameans%2C+Chaldeans%2C+and+Arabs+in+Babylonia+and+Palestine+in+the+First+Millennium+B.C.&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=261-336&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9783447065443&rft.aulast=Zadok&rft.aufirst=Ran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOuVQnwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArameans" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" 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href="/wiki/Copper_Age_state_societies" title="Copper Age state societies">Copper Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Halaf" title="Tell Halaf">Tell Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagar_Bazar" title="Chagar Bazar">Chagar Bazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamoukar" title="Hamoukar">Hamoukar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_es-Sultan" title="Tell es-Sultan">Jericho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkesh" title="Urkesh">Urkesh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alashiya" title="Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite states</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alalakh" title="Alalakh">Alalakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amurru_kingdom" title="Amurru kingdom">Amurru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andarig" title="Andarig">Andarig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apum" title="Apum">Apum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">First Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla#Third_kingdom" title="Ebla">Third Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekallatum" title="Ekallatum">Ekallatum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emar" title="Emar">Emar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurda" title="Kurda">Kurda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria#The_third_kingdom" title="Mari, Syria">Third Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alalakh" title="Alalakh">Mukish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_eth-Thadeyn" title="Tell eth-Thadeyn">Shaddai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Taban" title="Tell Taban">Ṭābetu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Leilan#Shubat-Enlil" title="Tell Leilan">Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zahiran" title="Zahiran">Zahiran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amqu" title="Amqu">Amqu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram_(region)" title="Aram (region)">Aram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barga_(kingdom)" title="Barga (kingdom)">Barga</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanite city-states</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amalek" title="Amalek">Amalek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arqa" title="Arqa">Arqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arwad" title="Arwad">Arwad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascalon" title="Ascalon">Ascalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Ashtara" title="Tell Ashtara">Aštartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gaza#Bronze_Age" title="History of Gaza">Azzati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashan" title="Bashan">Bashan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beirut#History" title="Beirut">Beruta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Gebal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus#Late_Bronze" title="Damascus">Dimasqu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gezer" title="Gezer">Gezer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibeon_(ancient_city)" title="Gibeon (ancient city)">Gibeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Hazor" title="Tel Hazor">Hazor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_es-Sultan" title="Tell es-Sultan">Jericho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jerusalem" title="History of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenites" title="Kenites">Kenites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamid_el-Loz" title="Kamid el-Loz">Kumidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Lachish" title="Tel Lachish">Lakisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Megiddo" title="Tel Megiddo">Megiddo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midian" title="Midian">Midian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadesh_(Syria)" title="Kadesh (Syria)">Qadesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shechem#Bronze_Age" title="Shechem">Shechem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite Empire</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urshu" title="Urshu">Urshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuha%C5%A1%C5%A1e" title="Nuhašše">Nuhašše</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Hadidi" title="Tell Hadidi">Tell Hadidi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naziba" title="Naziba">Naziba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niya_Kingdom" title="Niya Kingdom">Niya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ib%27al" title="Ib'al">Ib'al Confederacy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Paleo-Syrian states</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armi_(Syria)" title="Armi (Syria)">Armi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Aleppo" title="Ancient Aleppo">Aleppo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armanum" title="Armanum">Armanum</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tall_Bazi" title="Tall Bazi">Tall Bazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emar" title="Emar">Emar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khana" title="Kingdom of Khana">Khana</a>/<a href="/wiki/Terqa" title="Terqa">Terqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Brak" title="Tell Brak">Nagar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuttul" title="Tuttul">Tuttul</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BFApiru" title="ʿApiru">ʿApiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahlamu" title="Ahlamu">Aḫlamū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suteans" title="Suteans">Suteans</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Amqu" title="Amqu">Amqu</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BFApiru" title="ʿApiru">ʿApiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shasu" title="Shasu">Shasu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shutu" title="Shutu">Shutu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Tadmor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunip" title="Tunip">Tunip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upu" title="Upu">Upu</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nuha%C5%A1%C5%A1e" title="Nuhašše">Nuhašše</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Niya_Kingdom" title="Niya Kingdom">Niya</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aramaean states</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram_Rehob" title="Aram Rehob">Aram Rehob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bit-Adini" class="mw-redirect" title="Bit-Adini">Bit-Adini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bit_Agusi" title="Bit Agusi">Bit Agusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bit_Bahiani" title="Bit Bahiani">Bit Bahiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshur" title="Geshur">Geshur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama,_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Hama, Syria">Hamath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam%27al" class="mw-redirect" title="Sam'al">Sam'al</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zobah" title="Zobah">Zobah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Ammon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edom" title="Edom">Edom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Israel (Samaria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">Israel (united)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_es-Sultan" title="Tell es-Sultan">Jericho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moab" title="Moab">Moab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philistia" title="Philistia">Philistia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashdod_(ancient_city)" title="Ashdod (ancient city)">Ashdod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascalon" title="Ascalon">Ascalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekron" title="Ekron">Ekron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gath_(city)" title="Gath (city)">Gath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amrit" title="Amrit">Amrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arwad" title="Arwad">Arwad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Gebal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartus" title="Tartus">Tartus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabs" title="History of the Arabs">Arabs</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Itureans" class="mw-redirect" title="Itureans">Itureans</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qedarites" title="Qedarites">Qedarites</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Luwian-Aramaean states</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kummuh" title="Kummuh">Kummuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luhuti" title="Luhuti">Luhuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palistin" title="Palistin">Palistin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattin" title="Pattin">Pattin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> - <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emesene_dynasty" title="Emesene dynasty">Emesene Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanid Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_kingdom" title="Herodian kingdom">Herodian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_Tetrarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodian Tetrarchy">Herodian Tetrarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iturea" title="Iturea">Iturea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabataean Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhid confederacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amarna_letters" title="Amarna letters">Amarna letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_and_Aramaic_inscriptions" title="Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions">Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arameans&oldid=1256123245">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arameans&oldid=1256123245</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arameans" title="Category:Arameans">Arameans</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_established_in_the_12th_century_BC" title="Category:States and territories established in the 12th century BC">States and territories established in the 12th century 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= 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrock1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrock2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurnett2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCourtois2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoyne1914\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD\u0026#039;Agostino2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDebié2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoak2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrijvers1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEti_Weissblei2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFales2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFales2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrame2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrenschkowski2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrye1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenfield1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffith1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffith2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffith2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffith2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGzella2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGzella2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGzella2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrak1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrak1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrak1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHasegawa2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHauser2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHausleiter2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealey2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealey2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeinrichs1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ._Brian_Peckham\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJan_DušekJana_Mynářová\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarjour2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoosten2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKühn2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemaire2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipiński2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipiński2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarc_Van_De_Mieroop2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMazar1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerlo2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillard1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillard1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinov2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMutlu-NumansenOssewaarde2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNiehr2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNiehr2014a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNiehr2014b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNiehr2014c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNissinen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNovák2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNöldeke1871\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPower1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuispel2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogers1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoller2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRompay1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRompay2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRompay2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSader1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSader2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSader2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSader2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSader2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaggs1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalvesen2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSato2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSergi2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSokoloff1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoldi2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSommer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpieckermann1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteven_Grosby\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStreck2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeule2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas_V_Brisco\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan-Lennep1875\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVittmann2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells1920\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeltecke2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeltecke2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWevers2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitakowski1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoźniak2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoźniak2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWunsch2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYounger2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYounger2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYounger2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYounger2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYounger2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZadok2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÖztemiz_den_Butter2017\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient states and regions of the Levant\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 98,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 32,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 1,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Arameans\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"IPA-syc\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 4,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Seealso\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 82,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","240","21.8"],["?","220","20.0"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","12.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","80","7.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","60","5.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","5.5"],["date","40","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","40","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","40","3.6"],["is_generic \u003CModule:Citation/CS1:1497\u003E","20","1.8"],["[others]","160","14.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7fc47fc68d-jtqpr","timestamp":"20241128193510","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script 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