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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Publication history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publication_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Main_ideas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Main_ideas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Main ideas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Main_ideas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Treatise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Treatise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span><i>First Treatise</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Treatise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Treatise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Treatise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span><i>Second Treatise</i></span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Second_Treatise-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle <i>Second Treatise</i> subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Second_Treatise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-State_of_Nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_of_Nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>State of Nature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_of_Nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_and_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_and_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Conquest and slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_and_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Property" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Property"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Property</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Property-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Representative_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Representative_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Representative government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Representative_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Right_of_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Right_of_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Right of revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Right_of_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_and_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_and_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Reception and influence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reception_and_influence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reception and influence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reception_and_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversies_regarding_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversies_regarding_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Controversies regarding interpretation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversies_regarding_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.1</span> <span>Information</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Two Treatises of Government</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%8A" title="رسالتان في الحكم المدني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رسالتان في الحكم المدني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Два трактата за управлението – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Два трактата за управлението" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dos_tractats_sobre_el_govern_civil" title="Dos tractats sobre el govern civil – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dos tractats sobre el govern civil" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwei_Abhandlungen_%C3%BCber_die_Regierung" title="Zwei Abhandlungen über die Regierung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zwei Abhandlungen über die Regierung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dos_tratados_sobre_el_gobierno_civil" title="Dos tratados sobre el gobierno civil – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dos tratados sobre el gobierno civil" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Two Treatises of Government" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88_%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%AD%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%85%D8%AA" title="دو رساله درباره حکومت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دو رساله درباره حکومت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_du_gouvernement_civil" title="Traité du gouvernement civil – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Traité du gouvernement civil" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%B5%EC%B9%98%EB%A1%A0" title="통치론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="통치론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvije_rasprave_o_vladi" title="Dvije rasprave o vladi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dvije rasprave o vladi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du_traktati_pri_civila_guvernerio" title="Du traktati pri civila guvernerio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Du traktati pri civila guvernerio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dua_Tulisan_tentang_Pemerintahan" title="Dua Tulisan tentang Pemerintahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dua Tulisan tentang Pemerintahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritger%C3%B0_um_r%C3%ADkisvald" title="Ritgerð um ríkisvald – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ritgerð um ríkisvald" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Due_trattati_sul_governo" title="Due trattati sul governo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Due trattati sul governo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%AA%D7%99_%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%9C_%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99" title="שתי מסכתות על ממשל מדיני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שתי מסכתות על ממשל מדיני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Two Treatises of Government" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B5%B1%E6%B2%BB%E4%BA%8C%E8%AB%96" title="統治二論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="統治二論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwa_traktaty_o_rz%C4%85dzie" title="Dwa traktaty o rządzie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dwa traktaty o rządzie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dois_Tratados_sobre_o_Governo" title="Dois Tratados sobre o Governo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dois Tratados sobre o Governo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Два трактата о правлении – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Два трактата о правлении" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Two Treatises of Government" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Два трактати про правління – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Два трактати про правління" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hai_kh%E1%BA%A3o_lu%E1%BA%ADn_v%E1%BB%81_Ch%C3%ADnh_quy%E1%BB%81n" title="Hai khảo luận về Chính quyền – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hai khảo luận về Chính quyền" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E8%AB%96" title="政府論 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="政府論" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q231949#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title" style="font-size:125%; font-style:italic; padding-bottom:0.2em;">Two Treatises of Government <span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+Treatises+of+Government&rft.author=%5B%5BJohn+Locke%5D%5D&rft.date=1689%3Cbr+%2F%3E%28dated+1690%29&rft.pub=%5B%5BAwnsham+Churchill%5D%5D&rft.place=%5B%5BEngland%5D%5D&rft.series=None"></span></caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Locke_treatises_of_government_page.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Locke_treatises_of_government_page.jpg/220px-Locke_treatises_of_government_page.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Locke_treatises_of_government_page.jpg/330px-Locke_treatises_of_government_page.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Locke_treatises_of_government_page.jpg/440px-Locke_treatises_of_government_page.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="981" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Title page from the first edition</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Author</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Language</th><td class="infobox-data">English</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Series</th><td class="infobox-data">None</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subject</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publisher</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Awnsham_Churchill" title="Awnsham Churchill">Awnsham Churchill</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Publication date</div></th><td class="infobox-data">1689<br />(dated 1690)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publication place</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Media type</th><td class="infobox-data">Print</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Text</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" class="extiw" title="s:Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="width:18.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Locke.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait of John Locke by Sir Godfrey Kneller (1697)"><img alt="Portrait of John Locke by Sir Godfrey Kneller (1697)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/John_Locke.jpg/100px-John_Locke.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/John_Locke.jpg/150px-John_Locke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/John_Locke.jpg/200px-John_Locke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="1020" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image" style="background:#ccccff;padding:0.4em 0.25em 0;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:John_Locke" title="Category:John Locke">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;padding-top:0 0.25em 0.5em;font-size:175%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property#John_Locke_and_the_American_and_French_revolutions" title="Right to property">Right to property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lockean_proviso" title="Lockean proviso">Lockean proviso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Argument from consciousness</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Works<br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(listed chronologically)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.8em;;font-style:italic;"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Constitutions_of_Carolina" title="Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina">Fundamental Constitutions<br />of Carolina</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Letter_Concerning_Toleration" title="A Letter Concerning Toleration">A Letter Concerning Toleration</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Two Treatises of Government</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding">An Essay Concerning<br />Human Understanding</a></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Some_Thoughts_Concerning_Education" title="Some Thoughts Concerning Education">Some Thoughts<br />Concerning Education</a></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Of_the_Conduct_of_the_Understanding" title="Of the Conduct of the Understanding">Of the Conduct of<br />the Understanding</a></div></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> People</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Robert Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley_Cooper,_1st_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury">1st Earl of Shaftesbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Brethren" title="Polish Brethren">Polish Brethren</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:John_Locke" title="Template:John Locke"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:John_Locke" title="Template talk:John Locke"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:John_Locke" title="Special:EditPage/Template:John Locke"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Two Treatises of Government</b></i> (full title: <i><b>Two Treatises of Government: In the Former, The False Principles, and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer, and His Followers, Are Detected and Overthrown. The Latter Is an Essay Concerning The True Original, Extent, and End of Civil Government</b></i>) is a work of <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> published anonymously in 1689 by <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>. The <i>First Treatise</i> attacks <a href="/wiki/Patriarchalism" title="Patriarchalism">patriarchalism</a> in the form of sentence-by-sentence refutation of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Robert Filmer</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Patriarcha" title="Patriarcha">Patriarcha</a></i>, while the <i>Second Treatise</i> outlines Locke's ideas for a more civilized society based on <a href="/wiki/Natural_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural rights">natural rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">contract theory</a>. The book is a key foundational text in the theory of <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>. </p><p>This publication contrasts with former political works by Locke himself. In <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Tracts_on_Government" title="Two Tracts on Government">Two Tracts on Government</a></i>, written in 1660, Locke defends a very conservative position; however, Locke never published it.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1669, Locke co-authored the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Constitutions_of_Carolina" title="Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina">Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina</a>, which endorses aristocracy, slavery and <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some dispute the extent to which the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina portray Locke's own philosophy, vs. that of the Lord proprietors of the colony; the document was a legal document written for and signed and sealed by the eight Lord proprietors to whom <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II of England</a> had granted the colony. In this context, Locke was only a paid secretary, writing it much as a lawyer writes a will. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_context">Historical context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>King <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James II of England</a> (VII of Scotland) was overthrown in 1688 by a union of Parliamentarians and the <a href="/wiki/Stadtholder" title="Stadtholder">stadtholder</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> William III of Oranje-Nassau (William of Orange), who as a result ascended the English throne as <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William III of England</a>. He ruled jointly with <a href="/wiki/Mary_II_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary II of England">Mary II</a>, as Protestants. Mary was the daughter of James II, and had a strong claim to the English Throne. </p><p>This is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>, also called the Revolution of 1688. Locke claims in the "Preface" to the <i>Two Treatises</i> that its purpose is to justify William III's ascension to the throne, though <a href="/wiki/Peter_Laslett" title="Peter Laslett">Peter Laslett</a> suggests that the bulk of the writing was instead completed between 1679–1680 (and subsequently revised until Locke was driven into exile in 1683).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Laslett, Locke was writing his <i>Two Treatises</i> during the <a href="/wiki/Exclusion_Crisis" title="Exclusion Crisis">Exclusion Crisis</a>, which attempted to prevent James II from ever taking the throne in the first place. <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_1st_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury">Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury</a>, Locke's mentor, patron and friend, introduced the bill, but it was ultimately unsuccessful. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Ashcraft" title="Richard Ashcraft">Richard Ashcraft</a>, following in Laslett's suggestion that the <i>Two Treatises</i> were written before the Revolution, objected that Shaftesbury's party did not advocate revolution during the Exclusion Crisis. He suggests that they are instead better associated with the revolutionary conspiracies that swirled around what would come to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Rye_House_Plot" title="Rye House Plot">Rye House Plot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Locke, Shaftesbury and many others were forced into exile; some, such as Sidney, were even executed for treason. Locke knew his work was dangerous—he never acknowledged his authorship within his lifetime. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publication_history">Publication history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Publication history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LockeTreatiseAmerica.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2d/LockeTreatiseAmerica.png/200px-LockeTreatiseAmerica.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2d/LockeTreatiseAmerica.png/300px-LockeTreatiseAmerica.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2d/LockeTreatiseAmerica.png/400px-LockeTreatiseAmerica.png 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="725" /></a><figcaption>The only edition of the <i>Treatises</i> published in America during the 18th century (1773)</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Two Treatises</i> was first published anonymously in December 1689 (following printing conventions of the time, its title page was marked 1690). Locke was dissatisfied with the numerous errors and complained to the publisher. For the rest of his life, he was intent on republishing the <i>Two Treatises</i> in a form that better reflected its intended meaning. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Laslett" title="Peter Laslett">Peter Laslett</a>, one of the foremost Locke scholars, has suggested that Locke held the printers to a higher "standard of perfection" than the technology of the time would permit.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Be that as it may, the first edition was indeed replete with errors. The second edition was even worse, in addition to being printed on cheap paper and sold to the poor. The third edition was much improved, but still deemed unsatisfactory by Locke.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He manually corrected the third edition by hand and entrusted the publication of the fourth to his friends, as he died before it could be brought out.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Two Treatises</i> is prefaced with Locke announcing what he aims to achieve, also mentioning that more than half of his original draft, occupying a space between the <i>First</i> and <i>Second Treatises</i>, has been irretrievably lost.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peter Laslett maintains that, while Locke may have added or altered some portions in 1689, he did not make any revisions to accommodate for the missing section; he argues, for example, that the end of the <i>First Treatise</i> breaks off in mid-sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1691 <i>Two Treatises</i> was translated into French by David Mazzel, a French <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenot</a> living in the Netherlands. This translation left out Locke's "Preface," all of the <i>First Treatise</i>, and the first chapter of the <i>Second Treatise</i> (which summarised Locke's conclusions in the <i>First Treatise</i>). It was in this form that Locke's work was reprinted during the 18th century in France and in this form that <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a> were exposed to it.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only American edition from the 18th century was printed in 1773 in Boston; it, too, left out all of these sections. There were no other American editions until the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_ideas">Main ideas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Main ideas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Two Treatises</i> is divided into the <i>First Treatise</i> and the <i>Second Treatise</i>. typically shortened to "Book I" and "Book II" respectively. Before publication, however, Locke gave it greater prominence by (hastily) inserting a separate title page: "An Essay Concerning the True Original, Extent and End of Civil Government."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>First Treatise</i> is focused on the refutation of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Sir Robert Filmer</a>, in particular his <i>Patriarcha</i>, which argued that civil society was founded on divinely sanctioned <a href="/wiki/Patriarchalism" title="Patriarchalism">patriarchalism</a>. Locke proceeds through Filmer's arguments, contesting his proofs from <a href="/wiki/Scripture" class="mw-redirect" title="Scripture">Scripture</a> and ridiculing them as senseless, until concluding that no government can be justified by an appeal to the <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine right of kings</a>. </p><p>The <i>Second Treatise</i> outlines a theory of civil society. Locke begins by describing the <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a>, and appeals to god's creative intent in his case for human equality in this primordial context. From this, he goes on to explain the hypothetical rise of property and civilization, in the process explaining that the only legitimate governments are those that have the <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the people</a>. Therefore, any government that rules without the consent of the people can, in theory, be overthrown, i.e. revolutions can be just. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_Treatise"><i>First Treatise</i></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: First Treatise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Patriarcha;_or_the_Natural_Power_of_Kings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Patriarcha%3B_or_the_Natural_Power_of_Kings.jpg/200px-Patriarcha%3B_or_the_Natural_Power_of_Kings.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="352" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Patriarcha%3B_or_the_Natural_Power_of_Kings.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="264" data-file-height="465" /></a><figcaption>Title page from <a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer's</a> <i>Patriarcha</i> (1680)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>First Treatise</i> is an extended attack on <a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_Filmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Robert Filmer">Sir Robert Filmer</a>'s <i>Patriarcha</i>. Locke's argument proceeds along two lines: first, he undercuts the Scriptural support that Filmer had offered for his thesis, and second he argues that the acceptance of Filmer's thesis can lead only to slavery (and absurdity). Locke chose Filmer as his target, he says, because of his reputation and because he "carried this Argument [<i>jure divino</i>] farthest, and is supposed to have brought it to perfection" (1st Tr., § 5). </p><p>Filmer's text presented an argument for a <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divinely ordained</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">hereditary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute</a> monarchy. According to Filmer, <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">the Biblical Adam</a> in his role as father possessed unlimited power over his children and this authority passed down through the generations. Locke attacks this on several grounds. Accepting that fatherhood grants authority, he argues, it would do so only by the act of begetting, and so cannot be transmitted to one's children because only God can create life. Nor is the power of a father over his children absolute, as Filmer would have it; Locke points to the joint power parents share over their children referred to in the Bible. In the <i>Second Treatise</i> Locke returns to a discussion of parental power. (Both of these discussions have drawn the interest of modern <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Carole_Pateman" title="Carole Pateman">Carole Pateman</a>.) </p><p>Filmer also suggested that Adam's absolute authority came from his <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">ownership</a> over all the world. To this, Locke responds that the world was originally held in common (a theme that will return in the <i>Second Treatise</i>). But, even if it were not, he argues, God's grant to Adam covered only the land and brute animals, not human beings. Nor could Adam, or his heir, leverage this grant to enslave mankind, for the <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">law of nature</a> forbids reducing one's fellows to a state of desperation, if one possesses a sufficient surplus to maintain oneself securely. And even if this charity were not commanded by reason, Locke continues, such a strategy for gaining dominion would prove only that the foundation of government lies in consent. </p><p>Locke intimates in the <i>First Treatise</i> that the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine right of kings</a> (<i>jure divino</i>) will eventually be the downfall of all governments. In his final chapter he asks, "Who heir?" If Filmer is correct, there should be only one rightful king in all the world—the heir of Adam. But since it is impossible to discover the true heir of Adam, no government, under Filmer's principles, can require that its members obey its rulers. Filmer must therefore say that men are duty-bound to obey their present rulers. Locke writes: </p> <blockquote> <p>I think he is the first Politician, who, pretending to settle Government upon its true Basis, and to establish the Thrones of lawful Princes, ever told the World, That he was <i>properly a King, whose Manner of Government was by Supreme Power, by what Means soever he obtained it</i>; which in plain <i>English</i> is to say, that Regal and Supreme Power is properly and truly his, who can by any Means seize upon it; and if this be, to be <i>properly a King</i>, I wonder how he came to think of, or where he will find, an <i>Usurper</i>. (1st Tr., § 79) </p> </blockquote> <p>Locke ends the <i>First Treatise</i> by examining the history told in the Bible and the history of the world since then; he concludes that there is no evidence to support Filmer's hypothesis. According to Locke, no king has ever claimed that his authority rested upon his being the heir of Adam. It is <a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a>, Locke alleges, who is the innovator in politics, not those who assert the natural equality and freedom of man. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_Treatise"><i>Second Treatise</i></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Second Treatise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <i>Second Treatise,</i> Locke develops a number of notable themes. It begins with a depiction of the <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a>, wherein individuals are under no obligation to obey one another but are each themselves judge of what the <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">law of nature</a> requires. It also covers conquest and slavery, property, representative government, and the right of revolution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_of_Nature">State of Nature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: State of Nature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Locke defines the state of nature thus: </p> <blockquote> <p>To properly understand political power and trace its origins, we must consider the state that all people are in naturally. That is a state of perfect freedom of acting and disposing of their own possessions and persons as they think fit within the bounds of the law of nature. People in this state do not have to ask permission to act or depend on the will of others to arrange matters on their behalf. The natural state is also one of equality in which all power and jurisdiction is reciprocal and no one has more than another. It is evident that all human beings—as creatures belonging to the same species and rank and born indiscriminately with all the same natural advantages and faculties—are equal amongst themselves. They have no relationship of subordination or subjection unless God (the lord and master of them all) had clearly set one person above another and conferred on him an undoubted right to dominion and sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern Britain">17th-century England</a>, the work of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> popularized theories based upon a <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a>, even as most of those who employed such arguments were deeply troubled by his absolutist conclusions. Locke's state of nature can be seen in light of this tradition. There is not and never has been any divinely ordained monarch over the entire world, Locke argues. However, the fact that the natural state of humanity is without an institutionalized government does not mean it is lawless. Human beings are still subject to the laws of God and nature. In contrast to Hobbes, who posited the state of nature as a hypothetical possibility, Locke takes great pains to show that such a state did indeed exist. Actually, it still exists in the area of international relations where there is not and is never likely to be any legitimate overarching government (i.e., one directly chosen by all the people subject to it). Whereas Hobbes stresses the disadvantages of the state of nature, Locke points to its good points. It is free, if full of continual dangers (2nd Tr., § 123). Finally, the proper alternative to the natural state is not political dictatorship/tyranny but a government that has been established with consent of the people and the effective protection of basic human rights to life, liberty, and property under the rule of law. </p><p>Nobody in the natural state has the political power to tell others what to do. However, everybody has the right to authoritatively pronounce justice and administer punishment for breaches of the natural law. Thus, men are not free to do whatever they please. "The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges every one: and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind, who will but consult it, that... no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions" (2nd Tr., § 6). The specifics of this law are unwritten, however, and so each is likely to misapply it in his own case. Lacking any commonly recognised, impartial judge, there is no way to correct these misapplications or to effectively restrain those who violate the law of nature. </p><p>The law of nature is therefore ill enforced in the state of nature. </p> <blockquote><p>IF man in the state of nature be so free, as has been said; if he be absolute lord of his own person and possessions, equal to the greatest, and subject to no body, why will he part with his freedom? Why will he give up this empire, and subject himself to the dominion and control of any other power? To which it is obvious to answer, that though in the state of nature he hath such a right, yet the enjoyment of it is very uncertain, and constantly exposed to the invasion of others: for all being kings as much as he, every man his equal, and the greater part no strict observers of equity and justice, the enjoyment of the property he has in this state is very unsafe, very unsecure. This makes him willing to quit a condition, which, however free, is full of fears and continual dangers: and it is not without reason, that he seeks out, and is willing to join in society with others, who are already united, or have a mind to unite, for the mutual preservation of their lives, liberties and estates, which I call by the general name, property. (2nd Tr., § 123)</p></blockquote> <p>It is to avoid the state of war that often occurs in the state of nature, and to protect their <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a> that men enter into civil or political society, i.e., state of society. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_and_slavery">Conquest and slavery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Conquest and slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ch. 4 ("Of Slavery") and Ch. 16 ("Of Conquest") are sources of some confusion: the former provides a justification for <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> that can nonetheless never be met, and thus constitutes an argument against the institution, the latter concerns the <a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">rights of conquerors</a>, which Locke seeks to challenge. </p><p>In the rhetoric of 17th-century England, those who opposed the increasing power of the kings claimed that the country was headed for a condition of slavery. Locke therefore asks, facetiously, under what conditions such slavery might be justified. He notes that slavery cannot come about as a matter of contract (which became the basis of Locke's political system). To be a slave is to be subject to the absolute, arbitrary power of another; as men do not have this power even over themselves, they cannot sell or otherwise grant it to another. One that is deserving of death, i.e., who has violated the <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">law of nature</a>, may be enslaved. This is, however, but the state of war continued (2nd Tr., § 24), and even one justly a slave therefore has no obligation to obedience. </p><p>In providing a justification for slavery, he has rendered all forms of slavery as it actually exists invalid. Moreover, as one may not submit to slavery, there is a moral injunction to attempt to throw off and escape it whenever it looms. Most scholars take this to be Locke's point regarding slavery: submission to <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> is a violation of the law of nature, for one does not have the right to enslave oneself. </p><p>The legitimacy of an <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs" title="List of English monarchs">English king</a> depended on (somehow) demonstrating descent from <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="William I of England">William the Conqueror</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">right of conquest</a> was therefore a topic rife with constitutional connotations. Locke does not say that all subsequent English monarchs have been illegitimate, but he does make their rightful authority dependent solely upon their having acquired the people's approbation. </p><p>Locke first argues that, clearly, aggressors in an unjust war can claim no right of conquest: everything they despoil may be retaken as soon as the dispossessed have the strength to do so. Their children retain this right, so an ancient usurpation does not become lawful with time. The rest of the chapter then considers what rights a just conqueror might have. </p><p>The argument proceeds negatively: Locke proposes one power a conqueror could gain, and then demonstrates how in point of fact that power cannot be claimed. He gains no authority over those that conquered with him, for they did not wage war unjustly: thus, whatever other right William may have had in England, he could not claim kingship over his fellow <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a> by right of conquest. The subdued are under the conqueror's despotical authority, but only those who actually took part in the fighting. Those who were governed by the defeated aggressor do not become subject to the authority of the victorious aggressor. They lacked the power to do an unjust thing, and so could not have granted that power to their governors: the aggressor therefore was not acting as their representative, and they cannot be punished for his actions. And while the conqueror may seize the person of the vanquished aggressor in an unjust war, he cannot seize the latter's property: he may not drive the innocent wife and children of a villain into poverty for another's unjust acts. While the property is technically that of the defeated, his innocent dependents have a claim that the just conqueror must honour. He cannot seize more than the vanquished could forfeit, and the latter had no right to ruin his dependents. (He may, however, demand and take reparations for the damages suffered in the war, so long as these leave enough in the possession of the aggressor's dependants for their survival). </p><p>In so arguing, Locke accomplishes two objectives. First, he neutralises the claims of those who see all authority flowing from William I by the latter's right of conquest. In the absence of any other claims to authority (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a> from <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine</a> <a href="/wiki/Anointing" title="Anointing">anointment</a>, etc.), all kings would have to found their authority on the <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a>. Second, he removes much of the incentive for conquest in the first place, for even in a just war the spoils are limited to the persons of the defeated and reparations sufficient only to cover the costs of the war, and even then only when the aggressor's territory can easily sustain such costs (i.e., it can never be a profitable endeavour). Needless to say, the bare claim that one's spoils are the just compensation for a just war does not suffice to make it so, in Locke's view. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Property">Property</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Property"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <i>Second Treatise</i>, Locke claims that <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society</a> was created for the protection of <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In saying this, he relies on the etymological root of "property," <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>proprius</i>, or what is one's own, including oneself (cf. French <i>propre</i>). Thus, by "property" he means "life, liberty, and estate."<sup id="cite_ref-Locke-Laslett1988_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke-Laslett1988-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/A_Letter_Concerning_Toleration" title="A Letter Concerning Toleration">A Letter Concerning Toleration</a></i>, he wrote that the magistrate's power was limited to preserving a person's "civil interest", which he described as "life, liberty, health, and indolency of body; and the possession of outward things".<sup id="cite_ref-Locke-Tully1983_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke-Tully1983-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By saying that political society was established for the better protection of property, he claims that it serves the private (and non-political) interests of its constituent members: it does not promote some good that can be realised only in community with others (e.g. virtue). </p><p>For this account to work, individuals must possess some property outside of society, i.e., in the <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a>: the state cannot be the sole origin of property, declaring what belongs to whom. If the purpose of government is the protection of property, the latter must exist independently of the former. <a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_Filmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Robert Filmer">Filmer</a> had said that, if there even were a state of nature (which he denied), everything would be held in common: there could be no private property, and hence no justice or injustice (injustice being understood as treating someone else's goods, liberty, or life as if it were one's own). <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> had argued the same thing. Locke therefore provides an account of how material property could arise in the absence of government. </p><p>He begins by asserting that each individual, at a minimum, "owns" himself, although, properly speaking, God created man and we are God's property;<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this is a corollary of each individual's being free and equal in the state of nature. As a result, each must also own his own labour: to deny him his labour would be to make him a slave. One can therefore take items from the common store of goods by mixing one's labour with them: an apple on the tree is of no use to anyone—it must be picked to be eaten—and the picking of that apple makes it one's own. In an alternate argument, Locke claims that we must allow it to become private property lest all mankind have starved, despite the bounty of the world. A man must be allowed to eat, and thus have what he has eaten be his own (such that he could deny others a right to use it). The apple is surely his when he swallows it, when he chews it, when he bites into it, when he brings it to his mouth, etc.: it became his as soon as he mixed his labour with it (by picking it from the tree). </p><p>This does not yet say <i>why</i> an individual is allowed to take from the common store of nature. There is a necessity to do so to eat, but this does not yet establish why others must respect one's property, especially as they labour under the like necessity. Locke assures his readers that the <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a> is a state of plenty: one may take from communal store if one leaves a) enough and b) as good for others, and since nature is bountiful, one can take all that one can use without taking anything <i>from</i> someone else. Moreover, one can take only so much as one can use before it spoils. There are then two provisos regarding what one can take, the "enough and as good" condition and "spoilage." </p><p>Gold does not rot. Neither does silver, or any other precious metal or gem. They are, moreover, useless, their aesthetic value not entering into the equation. One can heap up as much of them as one wishes, or take them in trade for food. By the tacit consent of mankind, they become a form of money (one accepts gold in exchange for apples with the understanding that someone else will accept that gold in exchange for wheat). One can therefore avoid the spoilage limitation by selling all that one has amassed before it rots; the limits on acquisition thus disappear. </p><p>In this way, Locke argues that a full economic system could, in principle, exist within the <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a>. Property could therefore predate the existence of government, and thus society can be dedicated to the protection of property. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Representative_government">Representative government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Representative government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Locke did not demand a republic. Rather, Locke felt that a legitimate contract could easily exist between citizens and a monarchy, an oligarchy or some mixed form (<i>2nd Tr.</i>, sec. 132). Locke uses the term Common-wealth to mean "not a democracy, or any form of government, but any independent community" (sec. 133) and "whatever form the Common-wealth is under, the Ruling Power ought to govern by declared and received laws, and not by extemporary dictates and undetermined resolutions." (sec 137) </p><p>Locke does, however, make a distinction between an executive (e.g. a monarchy), a "Power always in being" (sec 144) that must perpetually execute the law, and the legislative that is the "supreme power of the Common-wealth" (sec 134) and does not have to be always in being. (sec 153) Furthermore, governments are charged by the consent of the individual, "i.e. the consent of the majority, giving it either by themselves, or their representatives chosen by them." (sec 140) </p><p>His notions of people's rights and the role of civil government provided strong support for the intellectual movements of both the American and French Revolutions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Right_of_revolution">Right of revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Right of revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of the right of revolution was also taken up by John Locke in <i>Two Treatises of Government</i> as part of his <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> theory. Locke declared that under <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>, all <a href="/wiki/People" title="People">people</a> have the right to <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">estate</a>; under the social contract, the people could instigate a <a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">revolution</a> against the government when it acted against the interests of <a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizens</a>, to replace the government with one that served the interests of citizens. In some cases, Locke deemed revolution an obligation. The right of revolution thus essentially acted as a safeguard against <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyranny</a>. </p><p>Locke affirmed an explicit right to revolution in <i>Two Treatises of Government</i>: “<i>whenever the Legislators endeavor to take away, and destroy the Property of the People</i>, or to reduce them to Slavery under Arbitrary Power, they put themselves into a state of War with the People, who are thereupon absolved from any farther Obedience, and are left to the common Refuge, which God hath provided for all Men, against Force and Violence. Whensoever therefore the <i>Legislative</i> shall transgress this fundamental Rule of Society; and either by Ambition, Fear, Folly or Corruption, <i>endeavor to grasp</i> themselves, <i>or put into the hands of any other an Absolute Power</i> over the Lives, Liberties, and Estates of the People; By this breach of Trust <i>they forfeit the Power</i>, the People had put into their hands, for quite contrary ends, and it devolves to the People, who have a Right to resume their original Liberty". (sec. 222) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception_and_influence">Reception and influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Reception and influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain">Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the <i>Two Treatises</i> would become well known in the second half of the 18th century, they were somewhat neglected when published. Between 1689 and 1694, around 200 tracts and treatises were published concerning the legitimacy of the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>. Three of these mention Locke, two of which were written by friends of Locke.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> published the <i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> in 1651, by contrast, dozens of texts were immediately written in response to it. As <a href="/wiki/Mark_Goldie" title="Mark Goldie">Mark Goldie</a> explains: "<i>Leviathan</i> was a monolithic and unavoidable presence for political writers in Restoration England in a way that in the first half of the eighteenth the <i>Two Treatises</i> was not."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the <i>Two Treatises</i> did not become popular until the 1760s, ideas from them did start to become important earlier in the century. According to Goldie, "the crucial moment was 1701" and "the occasion was the <a href="/wiki/Kentish_petition" class="mw-redirect" title="Kentish petition">Kentish petition</a>." The pamphlet war that ensued was one of the first times Locke's ideas were invoked in a public debate, most notably by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Defoe" title="Daniel Defoe">Daniel Defoe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Locke's ideas did not go unchallenged and the periodical <i>The Rehearsal</i>, for example, launched a "sustained and sophisticated assault" against the <i>Two Treatises</i> and endorsed the ideology of patriarchalism.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not only did patriarchalism continue to be a legitimate political theory in the 18th century, but as J. G. A. Pocock and others have gone to great lengths to demonstrate, so was <a href="/wiki/Civic_humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Civic humanism">civic humanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">classical republicanism</a>. Pocock has argued that Locke's <i>Two Treatises</i> had very little effect on British political theory; he maintains that there was no contractarian revolution. Rather, he sees these other long-standing traditions as far more important for 18th-century British politics.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the middle of the 18th century, Locke's position as a political philosopher suddenly rose in prominence. For example, he was invoked by those arguing on behalf of the American colonies during the <a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Stamp Act">Stamp Act</a> debates of 1765–66.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marginalized groups such as women, <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">Dissenters</a> and those campaigning to abolish the <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slave trade</a> all invoked Lockean ideals. But at the same time, as Goldie describes it, "a wind of doubt about Locke's credentials gathered into a storm. The sense that Locke's philosophy had been misappropriated increasingly turned to a conviction that it was erroneous".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1790s Locke was associated with <a href="/wiki/Rousseau" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseau">Rousseau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and being blamed for the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolutions</a> as well as for the perceived secularisation of society.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1815, Locke's portrait was taken down from <a href="/wiki/Christ_Church,_Oxford" title="Christ Church, Oxford">Christ Church</a>, his alma mater (it was later restored to a position of prominence, and currently hangs in the dining hall of the college). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Locke's influence during the American Revolutionary period is disputed. While it is easy to point to specific instances of Locke's <i>Two Treatises</i> being invoked, the extent of the acceptance of Locke's ideals and the role they played in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> are far from clear. The <i>Two Treatises</i> are echoed in phrases in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> and writings by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a> that attempted to gain support for the rebellion. Of Locke's influence <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> wrote: "<a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical & Moral sciences".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The colonists frequently cited <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Laws_of_England" title="Commentaries on the Laws of England">Commentaries on the Laws of England</a></i>, which synthesised Lockean political philosophy with the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> tradition. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Hartz" title="Louis Hartz">Louis Hartz</a>, writing at the beginning of the 20th century, took it for granted that Locke was the political philosopher of the revolution. </p><p>This view was challenged by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bailyn" title="Bernard Bailyn">Bernard Bailyn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood" title="Gordon S. Wood">Gordon S. Wood</a>, who argued that the revolution was not a struggle over property, taxation, and rights, but rather "a Machiavellian effort to preserve the young republic's 'virtue' from the corrupt and corrupting forces of English politics."<sup id="cite_ref-GoldieIntroduction_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GoldieIntroduction-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Garry_Wills" title="Garry Wills">Garry Wills</a>, on the other hand, maintains that it was neither the Lockean tradition nor the classical republican tradition that drove the revolution, but instead Scottish moral philosophy, a political philosophy that based its conception of society on friendship, <a href="/wiki/Sensibility" title="Sensibility">sensibility</a> and the controlled passions.<sup id="cite_ref-GoldieIntroduction_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GoldieIntroduction-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pangle" title="Thomas Pangle">Thomas Pangle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Zuckert" title="Michael Zuckert">Michael Zuckert</a> have countered, demonstrating numerous elements in the thought of more influential founders that have a Lockean pedigree.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They argue that there is no conflict between Lockean thought and classical Republicanism.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Huyler_1995_loc=chpt._4,5_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huyler_1995_loc=chpt._4,5-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Locke's ideas have not been without criticism with <a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Howard Zinn</a> arguing that the treatise "ignored the existing inequalities in property. And how could people truly have equal rights, with stark differences in wealth"?<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and others <a href="/wiki/Labour_theory_of_property#Criticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour theory of property">taking issue with his Labour theory of property</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversies_regarding_interpretation">Controversies regarding interpretation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Controversies regarding interpretation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Locke's political philosophy is often compared and contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>’ <i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i>. The motivation in both cases is self-preservation with Hobbes arguing the need of an absolute monarch to prevent the war of "all against all" inherent in anarchy while Locke argues that the protection of life, liberty, and property can be achieved by a parliamentary process that protects, not violates, one's rights. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Leo Strauss</a> and <a href="/wiki/C._B._Macpherson" title="C. B. Macpherson">C. B. Macpherson</a> stress the continuity of thought. In their view Locke and Hobbes describe an atomistic man largely driven by a hedonistic materialistic acquisitiveness. Strauss' Locke is little more than Hobbes in "sheep’s clothing".<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> C. B. Macpherson argued in his <i>Political Theory of Possessive Individualism</i> that Locke sets the stage for unlimited acquisition and appropriation of property by the powerful creating gross inequality. Government is the protector of interests of capitalists while the "labouring class [are] not considered to have an interest".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike Macpherson, <a href="/wiki/James_Tully_(philosopher)" title="James Tully (philosopher)">James Tully</a> finds no evidence that Locke specifically advocates capitalism. In his <i>A Discourse on Property</i>, Tully describes Locke's view of man as a social dependent, with Christian sensibilities, and a God-given duty to care for others. Property, in Tully's explanation of Locke, belong to the community as the public commons but becomes "private" so long as the property owner, or more correctly the "custodian", serves the community.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Zuckert" title="Michael Zuckert">Zuckert</a> believes Tully is reading into Locke rights and duties that just aren’t there.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Huyler finds that Locke explicitly condemned government privileges for rich, contrary to Macpherson's pro-capitalism critique, but also rejected subsidies to aid the poor, in contrast to Tully's social justice apologetics.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_School_(intellectual_history)" title="Cambridge School (intellectual history)">Cambridge School</a> of political thought, led principally by <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Skinner" title="Quentin Skinner">Quentin Skinner</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._G._A._Pocock" title="J. G. A. Pocock">J. G. A. Pocock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Ashcraft" title="Richard Ashcraft">Richard Ashcraft</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Laslett" title="Peter Laslett">Peter Laslett</a>, uses a historical methodology to situate Locke in the <i>political</i> context of his times. But they also restrict his importance to those times.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ashcraft's Locke takes the side of the burgeoning merchant class against the aristocracy.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Neal_Wood" title="Neal Wood">Neal Wood</a> puts Locke on the side of the agrarian interests, not the manufacturing bourgeoisie.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jerome Huyler and Michael P. Zuckert approach Locke in the broader context of his oeuvre and historical influence. Locke is situated within changing religious, philosophical, scientific, and political dimensions of 17th century England. Objecting to the use of the contemporary concept of <a href="/wiki/Economic_man" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic man">economic man</a> to describe Locke's view of human nature, Huyler emphases the "virtue of industriousness" of Locke's Protestant England. Productive work is man's earthly function or calling, ordained by God and required by self-preservation. The government's protection of property rights insures that the results of industry, i.e. "fruits of one’s labor", are secure. Locke's prohibition of ill-gotten gains, whether for well-connected gentry or the profligate, is not a lack of Locke's foresight to the problems in the latter stages of liberalism but an application of equal protection of the law to every individual.<sup id="cite_ref-Huyler_1995_loc=chpt._4,5_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huyler_1995_loc=chpt._4,5-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Pipes" title="Richard Pipes">Richard Pipes</a> argues that Locke holds a <a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_value" title="Labor theory of value">labor theory of value</a> that leads to the socialist critique that those not engaging in physical labor exploit wage earners.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Huyler, relying on Locke's <i>Essays on the Law of Nature</i> shows that reason is the most fundamental virtue, underwrites all productive virtue, and leads to human <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">flourishing</a> or happiness in an <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelean</a> sense.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_constitutional_law" title="United Kingdom constitutional law">United Kingdom constitutional law</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Information">Information</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Information"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Locke#ref1023494">"John Locke – Biography, Treatises, Works, & Facts"</a>. <i>britannica.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170719015622/https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Locke#ref1023494">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=britannica.com&rft.atitle=John+Locke+%E2%80%93+Biography%2C+Treatises%2C+Works%2C+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FJohn-Locke%23ref1023494&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Armitage, David <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/armitage/files/armitage-locke.pdf">Armitage, D. (2004). John Locke, Carolina, and the two treatises of government. Political Theory, 32(5), 602–27.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150725071421/http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/armitage/files/armitage-locke.pdf">Archived</a> 25 July 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.davidwalbert.com/pdf/learnnc/a-little-kingdom-in-carolina-p1665.pdf">"Walbert, D. (2008). A little kingdom in Carolina"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>davidwalbert.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829082620/http://www.davidwalbert.com/pdf/learnnc/a-little-kingdom-in-carolina-p1665.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 29 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=davidwalbert.com&rft.atitle=Walbert%2C+D.+%282008%29.+A+little+kingdom+in+Carolina.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.davidwalbert.com%2Fpdf%2Flearnnc%2Fa-little-kingdom-in-carolina-p1665.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laslett, "Introduction", 59–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashcraft, <i>Revolutionary Politics</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laslett, Peter. "Introduction." <i>Two Treatises of Government</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1988), 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7kwUAAAAQAAJ&q=editions%3Aq2cKQ3eYrMIC&pg=PP7"><i>Two Treatises of Government: In The Former the False Principles and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer and His Followers, are Detected and Overthrown. The Latter is An Essay Concerning the True Original Extent and End of Civil Government</i></a> (3 ed.). London: Awnsham and John Churchill. 1698<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+Treatises+of+Government%3A+In+The+Former+the+False+Principles+and+Foundation+of+Sir+Robert+Filmer+and+His+Followers%2C+are+Detected+and+Overthrown.+The+Latter+is+An+Essay+Concerning+the+True+Original+Extent+and+End+of+Civil+Government&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Awnsham+and+John+Churchill&rft.date=1698&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7kwUAAAAQAAJ%26q%3Deditions%253Aq2cKQ3eYrMIC%26pg%3DPP7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span> via Google Books</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laslett, "Introduction," 8–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Locke, John. <i>Two Treatises of Government</i>. Ed. Peter Laslett. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1988), 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laslett, "English Revolution," 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laslett, "Introduction," 12–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laslett, "Introduction," 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laslett, 266.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Two Treatises on Government: A Translation into Modern English</i>, ISR/Google Books, 2009, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLocke2013" class="citation book cs1">Locke, John (15 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d_4BGe7-pFIC&q=%22To+properly+understand+political+power+and+trace+its+origins%2C+we+must+consider+the+state+that+all+people+are+in+naturally.+That+is+a+state+of+perfect+freedom+of+acting+and+disposing+of+their+own+possessions+and+persons+as+they+think+fit+within+the+bounds&pg=PA106"><i>Two Treatises on Government: A Translation into Modern English</i></a>. Industrial Systems Research. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-906321-69-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-906321-69-0"><bdi>978-0-906321-69-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161220193727/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_4BGe7-pFIC&pg=PA106&lpg=PA106&dq=%22To+properly+understand+political+power+and+trace+its+origins,+we+must+consider+the+state+that+all+people+are+in+naturally.+That+is+a+state+of+perfect+freedom+of+acting+and+disposing+of+their+own+possessions+and+persons+as+they+think+fit+within+the+bounds&source=bl&ots=XBknIlI2v2&sig=E1ATOrww4ECFdDHuTaXUG-UQWPs&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj21K-K8-7QAhXqAMAKHaJPD5MQ6AEIKzAC#v=onepage&q=%22To+properly+understand+political+power+and+trace+its+origins,+we+must+consider+the+state+that+all+people+are+in+naturally.+That+is+a+state+of+perfect+freedom+of+acting+and+disposing+of+their+own+possessions+and+persons+as+they+think+fit+within+the+bounds&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2016 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+Treatises+on+Government%3A+A+Translation+into+Modern+English&rft.pub=Industrial+Systems+Research&rft.date=2013-08-15&rft.isbn=978-0-906321-69-0&rft.aulast=Locke&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd_4BGe7-pFIC%26q%3D%2522To%2Bproperly%2Bunderstand%2Bpolitical%2Bpower%2Band%2Btrace%2Bits%2Borigins%252C%2Bwe%2Bmust%2Bconsider%2Bthe%2Bstate%2Bthat%2Ball%2Bpeople%2Bare%2Bin%2Bnaturally.%2BThat%2Bis%2Ba%2Bstate%2Bof%2Bperfect%2Bfreedom%2Bof%2Bacting%2Band%2Bdisposing%2Bof%2Btheir%2Bown%2Bpossessions%2Band%2Bpersons%2Bas%2Bthey%2Bthink%2Bfit%2Bwithin%2Bthe%2Bbounds%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Second Treatise, Sec. 85</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Locke-Laslett1988-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Locke-Laslett1988_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLocke1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke, John</a> (1988) [1689]. Laslett, Peter (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twotreatisesofgo00john/page/"><i>Two Treatises of Government</i></a>. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twotreatisesofgo00john/page/">Sec. 87, 123, 209, 222</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/052135448X" title="Special:BookSources/052135448X"><bdi>052135448X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+Treatises+of+Government&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+NY&rft.pages=Sec.+87%2C+123%2C+209%2C+222&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=052135448X&rft.aulast=Locke&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftwotreatisesofgo00john%2Fpage%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Locke-Tully1983-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Locke-Tully1983_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLocke1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke, John</a> (1983) [1689]. Tully, James H. (ed.). <i>A Letter Concerning Toleration</i>. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/091514560X" title="Special:BookSources/091514560X"><bdi>091514560X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Letter+Concerning+Toleration&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+IN&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=091514560X&rft.aulast=Locke&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Second Treatise</i>, II, Section 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldie, Mark. "Introduction". <i>The Reception of Locke's Politics</i>. 6 vols. London: Pickering & Chatto (1999), xxii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldie, "Introduction," xxii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldie, "Introduction," xxxi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldie, "Introduction," xxiv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldie, "Introduction," xxviii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldie, "Introduction," xxxv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldie, "Introduction, xxxviii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldie, "Introduction," xxxviii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/P/tj3/writings/brf/jefl74.htm">"The Letters of Thomas Jefferson: 1743–1826 Bacon, Locke, and Newton"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20090615160740/http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/P/tj3/writings/brf/jefl74.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 July</span> 2009</span>. <q>Bacon, Locke and Newton, whose pictures I will trouble you to have copied for me: and as I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical & Moral sciences.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Letters+of+Thomas+Jefferson%3A+1743%E2%80%931826+Bacon%2C+Locke%2C+and+Newton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.let.rug.nl%2Fusa%2FP%2Ftj3%2Fwritings%2Fbrf%2Fjefl74.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://explorer.monticello.org/text/index.php?id=82&type=4">"Monticello Explorer: Portrait of John Locke"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121112020132/http://explorer.monticello.org/text/index.php?id=82&type=4">Archived</a> from the original on 12 November 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Monticello+Explorer%3A+Portrait+of+John+Locke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fexplorer.monticello.org%2Ftext%2Findex.php%3Fid%3D82%26type%3D4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span> Jefferson called Bacon, Newton, and Locke, who had so indelibly shaped his ideas, "my trinity of the three greatest men the world had ever produced"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GoldieIntroduction-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GoldieIntroduction_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoldieIntroduction_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldie, "Introduction," liii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pangle, <i>Spirit of Modern Republicanism</i>; Zuckert, <i>Launching Liberalism</i>, <i>Natural Rights Republic</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZuckert1994">Zuckert 1994</a>, chpt. 7–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huyler_1995_loc=chpt._4,5-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huyler_1995_loc=chpt._4,5_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huyler_1995_loc=chpt._4,5_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuyler1995">Huyler 1995</a>, chpt. 4,5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_P._Zuckert2005" class="citation book cs1">Michael P. Zuckert (2005). Ellen Frankel Paul; Fred D. Miller Jr.; Jeffrey Paul (eds.). <i>Natural Rights Liberalism from Locke to Nozick</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-61514-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-61514-3"><bdi>0-521-61514-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Rights+Liberalism+from+Locke+to+Nozick&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-521-61514-3&rft.au=Michael+P.+Zuckert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolly_Brewer2005" class="citation book cs1">Holly Brewer (2005). <i>By Birth Or Consent: Children, Law, and the Anglo-American Revolution in Authority</i>. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-2950-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-2950-1"><bdi>0-8078-2950-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=By+Birth+Or+Consent%3A+Children%2C+Law%2C+and+the+Anglo-American+Revolution+in+Authority&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8078-2950-1&rft.au=Holly+Brewer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZinn" class="citation book cs1">Zinn, Howard. <i>A People's History of the United States</i>. Harper Collins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People%27s+History+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.aulast=Zinn&rft.aufirst=Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuyler1995">Huyler 1995</a>, pp. 13, 130</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuyler1995">Huyler 1995</a>, pp. 102, 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacpherson1962">Macpherson 1962</a>, p. 228</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuyler1995">Huyler 1995</a>, pp. 130–35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZuckert1994">Zuckert 1994</a>, p. 367</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuyler1995">Huyler 1995</a>, pp. 162–71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuyler1995">Huyler 1995</a>, p. 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshcraft1986">Ashcraft 1986</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuyler1995">Huyler 1995</a>, pp. 104–05</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPipes1999" class="citation book cs1">Pipes, Richard (1999). <i>Property and Freedom</i>. Knopf. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-40498-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-40498-6"><bdi>978-0-375-40498-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Property+and+Freedom&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-375-40498-6&rft.aulast=Pipes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuyler1995">Huyler 1995</a>, chpt. 3</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshcraft1986" class="citation cs2">Ashcraft, Richard (1986), <i>Revolutionary Politics and Locke's "Two Treatises of Government"</i>, Princeton: Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-10205-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-10205-4"><bdi>978-0-691-10205-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Politics+and+Locke%27s+%22Two+Treatises+of+Government%22&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-691-10205-4&rft.aulast=Ashcraft&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshcraft1987" class="citation cs2">Ashcraft, Richard (1987), <i>Locke's Two Treatises of Government</i>, Boston: Unwin Hyman</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Locke%27s+Two+Treatises+of+Government&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Unwin+Hyman&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Ashcraft&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunn1969" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Dunn_(political_scientist)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Dunn (political scientist)">Dunn, John</a> (1969), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalthought0000dunn"><i>The Political Thought of John Locke:An Historical Account of the Argument of the 'Two Treatises of Government'<span></span></i></a></span>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-07408-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-07408-7"><bdi>978-0-521-07408-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Thought+of+John+Locke%3AAn+Historical+Account+of+the+Argument+of+the+%27Two+Treatises+of+Government%27&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-521-07408-7&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticalthought0000dunn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuyler1995" class="citation cs2">Huyler, Jerome (1995), <i>Locke in America: The Moral Philosophy of the Founding Era</i>, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1108-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1108-9"><bdi>978-0-7006-1108-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Locke+in+America%3A+The+Moral+Philosophy+of+the+Founding+Era&rft.place=Lawrence&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-1108-9&rft.aulast=Huyler&rft.aufirst=Jerome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaslett1956" class="citation journal cs1">Laslett, Peter (1956). "The English Revolution and Locke's 'Two Treatises of Government'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Cambridge Historical Journal</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 40–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1474691300000329">10.1017/S1474691300000329</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3021052">3021052</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+English+Revolution+and+Locke%27s+%27Two+Treatises+of+Government%27&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=40-55&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1474691300000329&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3021052%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Laslett&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaslett1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Laslett" title="Peter Laslett">Laslett, Peter</a> (1988), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twotreatisesofgo00john"><i>Locke: Two Treatises of Government</i></a>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35448-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35448-6"><bdi>978-0-521-35448-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Locke%3A+Two+Treatises+of+Government&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-35448-6&rft.aulast=Laslett&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftwotreatisesofgo00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacpherson1962" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/C._B._Macpherson" title="C. B. Macpherson">Macpherson, C. B.</a> (1962), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicaltheoryo00craw"><i>Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke</i></a>, Oxford: Clarendon Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-881084-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-881084-1"><bdi>978-0-19-881084-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Theory+of+Possessive+Individualism%3A+Hobbes+to+Locke&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-19-881084-1&rft.aulast=Macpherson&rft.aufirst=C.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticaltheoryo00craw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPangle1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pangle" title="Thomas Pangle">Pangle, Thomas L.</a> (1988), <i>The Spirit of Modern Republicanism</i>, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-64540-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-64540-7"><bdi>978-0-226-64540-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spirit+of+Modern+Republicanism&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-226-64540-7&rft.aulast=Pangle&rft.aufirst=Thomas+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrauss1953" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss, Leo</a> (1953), <i>Natural Right and History</i>, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-77694-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-77694-1"><bdi>978-0-226-77694-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Right+and+History&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=978-0-226-77694-1&rft.aulast=Strauss&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTully1980" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/James_Tully_(philosopher)" title="James Tully (philosopher)">Tully, James</a> (1980), <i>A Discourse on Property: John Locke and his Adversaries</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22830-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-22830-1"><bdi>0-521-22830-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Discourse+on+Property%3A+John+Locke+and+his+Adversaries&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-521-22830-1&rft.aulast=Tully&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ward, Lee. (2010), John Locke and Modern Life. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521192804" title="Special:BookSources/9780521192804">9780521192804</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldron2002" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Waldron" title="Jeremy Waldron">Waldron, Jeremy</a> (2002), <i>God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81001-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81001-2"><bdi>978-0-521-81001-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%2C+Locke%2C+and+Equality%3A+Christian+Foundations+in+Locke%27s+Political+Thought&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81001-2&rft.aulast=Waldron&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuckert1994" class="citation cs2">Zuckert, Michael. P. (1994), <i>Natural Rights and the New Republicanism</i>, Princeton: Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03463-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03463-8"><bdi>978-0-691-03463-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Rights+and+the+New+Republicanism&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-691-03463-8&rft.aulast=Zuckert&rft.aufirst=Michael.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuckert2002" class="citation cs2">Zuckert, Michael. P. (2002), <i>Launching Liberalism: On Lockean Political Philosophy</i>, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1173-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1173-7"><bdi>978-0-7006-1173-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Launching+Liberalism%3A+On+Lockean+Political+Philosophy&rft.place=Lawrence&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-1173-7&rft.aulast=Zuckert&rft.aufirst=Michael.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Locke&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Flocke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/locke-po">"John Locke: Political Philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Locke%3A+Political+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Flocke-po&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATwo+Treatises+of+Government" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.johnlocke.net/2022/07/two-treatises-of-government.html"><i>Two Treatises of Government</i> Book I and Book II</a></li></ul> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation gutenberg">John Locke. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/7370">Second Treatise of Government</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/search?title=Two+Treatises+of+Civil+Government&author=Locke&reader=&keywords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog_date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced"><i>Two Treatises of Civil Government</i></a> public domain audiobook at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/index.html">Extensive Locke bibliography</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091013051803/http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/index.html">Archived</a> 13 October 2009 at the Portuguese Web Archive</li> <li>John Locke, <i>The Two Treatises of Civil Government</i> (Hollis ed.) 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_ownership" title="Collective ownership">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_land" title="Communal land">Communal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_property" title="Community property">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_land" title="Crown land">Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">Customary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unowned_property" title="Unowned property">Unowned</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By nature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Croft_(land)" title="Croft (land)">Croft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">Estate (landed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_property" title="Intangible property">Intangible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">indigenous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangible_property" title="Tangible property">Tangible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">Common land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_commons_(economics)" title="Digital commons (economics)">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_commons" title="Information commons">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_commons" title="Knowledge commons">Knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundle_of_rights" title="Bundle of rights">Bundle of rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_commodities" title="Fictitious commodities">fictitious commodities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_(economics)" title="Common good (economics)">Common good (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excludability" title="Excludability">Excludability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_possession_theory_of_property" title="First possession theory of property">First possession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_appropriation" title="Original appropriation">appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">homestead principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-rider_problem" title="Free-rider problem">Free-rider problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_rent" title="Law of rent">Law of rent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_property_rights" title="Women's property rights">women's</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Right to property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">Rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons" title="Tragedy of the anticommons">anticommons</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia"><i>Acequia</i> (watercourse)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejido" title="Ejido"><i>Ejido</i> (agrarian land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_estate" title="Literary estate">literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Forest types</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">Huerta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">Inheritance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executor" title="Executor">executor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">Land tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_on_alienation" title="Restraint on alienation">restraint on alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">title</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_rights" title="Air rights">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Scheduled_Tribes_and_Other_Traditional_Forest_Dwellers_(Recognition_of_Forest_Rights)_Act,_2006" title="The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006">Forest-dwelling (India)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_to_roam" title="Freedom to roam">Freedom to roam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing_rights" title="Grazing rights">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannage" title="Pannage">pannage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law#Land_rights" title="Land law">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">squatting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_rights" title="Littoral rights">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">Mineral</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bergregal" title="Bergregal">Bergregal</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(transit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (transit)">Right of way (transit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(property_access)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (property access)">Right of way (property access)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior-appropriation_water_rights" title="Prior-appropriation water rights">prior-appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_water_rights" title="Riparian water rights">riparian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accumulation_by_dispossession" title="Accumulation by dispossession">Disposession</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth" title="Redistribution of income and wealth">redistribution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">Eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expropriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriation">Expropriation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Farhud" title="Farhud">Farhud</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">Illegal fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_taking" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory taking">Regulatory taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a></li> <li>spousal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband-selling" class="mw-redirect" title="Husband-selling">husband-selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_tax" title="Poll tax">poll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars<br /><span class="nobold">(<i>key work</i>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Law_(Bastiat_book)" title="The Law (Bastiat book)">The Law</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Family,_Private_Property_and_the_State" title="The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State">The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">Henry George</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Progress_and_Poverty" title="Progress and Poverty">Progress and Poverty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Hardin" title="Garrett Hardin">Garrett Hardin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Two Treatises of Government</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gift_(essay)" title="The Gift (essay)">The Gift</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Transformation_(book)" title="The Great Transformation (book)">The Great Transformation</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">What Is Property?</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray N. Rothbard</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Liberty" title="The Ethics of Liberty">The Ethics of Liberty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> Categories: <a href="/wiki/Category:Property" title="Category:Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law" title="Category:Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law_by_country" title="Category:Property law by country">by country</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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