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id="toc-Early_life_and_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Boston" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boston"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Boston </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boston-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Move_to_Philadelphia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Move_to_Philadelphia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Move to Philadelphia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Move_to_Philadelphia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Junto_and_library" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Junto_and_library"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Junto and library </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Junto_and_library-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Newspaperman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Newspaperman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Newspaperman </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Newspaperman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freemasonry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freemasonry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Freemasonry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freemasonry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Common-law_marriage_to_Deborah_Read" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common-law_marriage_to_Deborah_Read"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Common-law marriage to Deborah Read </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common-law_marriage_to_Deborah_Read-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-William_Franklin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#William_Franklin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 William Franklin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-William_Franklin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Success_as_an_author" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Success_as_an_author"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Success as an author </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Success_as_an_author-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Public life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Public_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Public life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Public_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_steps_in_Pennsylvania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_steps_in_Pennsylvania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Early steps in Pennsylvania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_steps_in_Pennsylvania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postmaster" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postmaster"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Postmaster </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postmaster-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decades_in_London" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decades_in_London"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Decades in London </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decades_in_London-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Political work </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Scientific work </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Travels_around_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Travels_around_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Travels around Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Travels_around_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defending_the_American_cause" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defending_the_American_cause"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Defending the American cause </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defending_the_American_cause-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agent_for_British_and_Hellfire_Club_membership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agent_for_British_and_Hellfire_Club_membership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Agent for British and Hellfire Club membership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agent_for_British_and_Hellfire_Club_membership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coming_of_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coming_of_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Coming of revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coming_of_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Declaration_of_Independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Declaration_of_Independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Declaration of Independence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Declaration_of_Independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ambassador_to_France_(1776–1785)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ambassador_to_France_(1776–1785)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Ambassador to France (1776–1785) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ambassador_to_France_(1776–1785)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Return_to_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Return_to_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 Return to America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Return_to_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-President_of_Pennsylvania_and_Delegate_to_the_Constitutional_convention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#President_of_Pennsylvania_and_Delegate_to_the_Constitutional_convention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10.1 President of Pennsylvania and Delegate to the Constitutional convention </div> </a> <ul id="toc-President_of_Pennsylvania_and_Delegate_to_the_Constitutional_convention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inventions_and_scientific_inquiries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inventions_and_scientific_inquiries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Inventions and scientific inquiries </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Inventions_and_scientific_inquiries-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Inventions and scientific inquiries subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Inventions_and_scientific_inquiries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Electricity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kite_experiment_and_lightning_rod" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kite_experiment_and_lightning_rod"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Kite experiment and lightning rod </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kite_experiment_and_lightning_rod-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Population studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceanography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceanography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Oceanography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceanography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories_and_experiments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_and_experiments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Theories and experiments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories_and_experiments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decision-making" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decision-making"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Decision-making </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decision-making-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_on_religion,_morality,_and_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_religion,_morality,_and_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Views on religion, morality, and slavery </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Views_on_religion,_morality,_and_slavery-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Views on religion, morality, and slavery subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Views_on_religion,_morality,_and_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thirteen_Virtues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thirteen_Virtues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Thirteen Virtues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thirteen_Virtues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vegetarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vegetarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Vegetarianism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vegetarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-View_on_inoculation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#View_on_inoculation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 View on inoculation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-View_on_inoculation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interests_and_activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interests_and_activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Interests and activities </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interests_and_activities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Interests and activities subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Interests_and_activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Musical_endeavors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Musical_endeavors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Musical endeavors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Musical_endeavors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chess" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chess"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Chess </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chess-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bequest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bequest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Bequest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bequest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Likeness_and_image" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Likeness_and_image"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Likeness and image </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Likeness_and_image-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bibliography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Bibliography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biographies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biographies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Biographies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biographies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholarly_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarly_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Scholarly studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholarly_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.4 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-For_young_readers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#For_young_readers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.5 For young readers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-For_young_readers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biographical_and_guides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biographical_and_guides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Biographical and guides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biographical_and_guides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Online_writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Online writings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autobiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autobiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 Autobiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autobiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.4 In the arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Benjamin Franklin</h1> <div 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Available in 134 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-134" aria-hidden="true" > 134 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A4%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%83%E1%88%9A%E1%8A%95_%E1%8D%8D%E1%88%AB%E1%8A%95%E1%8A%AD%E1%88%8A%E1%8A%95" title="ቤንጃሚን ፍራንክሊን – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቤንጃሚን ፍራንክሊን" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%9F%D1%8C%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Франклин, Бенџьамин – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Франклин, Бенџьамин" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86" title="بنجامين فرانكلين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بنجامين فرانكلين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%B3%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%96%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%B6" title="Պենճամին Ֆրանքլին – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Պենճամին Ֆրանքլին" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8" title="বেঞ্জামিন ফ্ৰেংকলিন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বেঞ্জামিন ফ্ৰেংকলিন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bencamin_Franklin" title="Bencamin Franklin – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bencamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بنجامین فرانکلین – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بنجامین فرانکلین" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8" title="বেঞ্জামিন ফ্রাঙ্কলিন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বেঞ্জামিন ফ্রাঙ্কলিন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Бенджамин Франклин – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Бенджамин Франклин" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Бенджамін Франклін – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бенджамін Франклін" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Бэнджамін Франклін – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Бэнджамін Франклін" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Бенджамин Франклин – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бенджамин Франклин" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Франклин Бенджамин – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Франклин Бенджамин" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%BD_%CE%A6%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Βενιαμίν Φραγκλίνος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βενιαμίν Φραγκλίνος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بنجامین فرانکلین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بنجامین فرانکلین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guw mw-list-item"><a href="https://guw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Gun" lang="guw" hreflang="guw" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Gungbe" data-language-local-name="Gun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gungbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A4%EC%A0%80%EB%AF%BC_%ED%94%84%EB%9E%AD%ED%81%B4%EB%A6%B0" title="벤저민 프랭클린 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="벤저민 프랭클린" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%96%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AF%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%B6" title="Բենջամին Ֆրանկլին – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բենջամին Ֆրանկլին" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="बेंजामिन फ्रैंकलिन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बेंजामिन फ्रैंकलिन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%92%27%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9F" title="בנג'מין פרנקלין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בנג'מין פרנקלין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಬೆಂಜಮಿನ್ ಫ್ರ್ಯಾಂಕ್ಲಿನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬೆಂಜಮಿನ್ ಫ್ರ್ಯಾಂಕ್ಲಿನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ბენჯამინ ფრანკლინი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბენჯამინ ფრანკლინი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Бенджамин Франклин – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бенджамин Франклин" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Бенжамин Франклин – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Бенжамин Франклин" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beniaminus_Franklinius" title="Beniaminus Franklinius – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Beniaminus Franklinius" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bend%C5%BEamins_Franklins" title="Bendžamins Franklins – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bendžamins Franklins" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Бенџамин Френклин – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Бенџамин Френклин" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%9E%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB" title="ബെഞ്ചമിൻ ഫ്രാങ്ക്ലിൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബെഞ്ചമിൻ ഫ്രാങ്ക്ലിൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="बेंजामिन फ्रँकलिन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बेंजामिन फ्रँकलिन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ბენჯამინ ფრანკლინი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბენჯამინ ფრანკლინი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86" title="بينچامين فرانكلين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بينچامين فرانكلين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بنجامین فرانکلین – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="بنجامین فرانکلین" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Бенжамин Франклин – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бенжамин Франклин" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="बेन्जामिन फ्र्याङ्कलिन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="बेन्जामिन फ्र्याङ्कलिन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%83%9F%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%95%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AA%E3%83%B3" title="ベンジャミン・フランクリン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベンジャミン・フランクリン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A8" title="ਬੈਂਜਾਮਿਨ ਫ਼ਰੈਂਕਲਿਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੈਂਜਾਮਿਨ ਫ਼ਰੈਂਕਲਿਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%86" title="بنجمن فرینکلن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بنجمن فرینکلن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86" title="بنجامين فرانکلين – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بنجامين فرانکلين" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Франклин, Бенджамин – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Франклин, Бенджамин" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D" title="बेञ्जामिन् फ्रॅङ्कलिन् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="बेञ्जामिन् फ्रॅङ्कलिन्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A2%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%86%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%91%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A" title="බෙන්ජමින් ෆ්‍රෑන්ක්ලින් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බෙන්ජමින් ෆ්‍රෑන්ක්ලින්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8E%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بێنجامین فرانکلین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بێنجامین فرانکلین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Бенџамин Френклин – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Бенџамин Френклин" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="பெஞ்சமின் பிராங்கிளின் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பெஞ்சமின் பிராங்கிளின்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bnyamin_Frankliyn" title="Bnyamin Frankliyn – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Bnyamin Frankliyn" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Бенджамин Франклин – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Бенджамин Франклин" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="బెంజమిన్ ఫ్రాంక్లిన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బెంజమిన్ ఫ్రాంక్లిన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99_%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99" title="เบนจามิน แฟรงคลิน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เบนจามิน แฟรงคลิน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D2%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Бенҷамин Франклин – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бенҷамин Франклин" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Бенджамін Франклін – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бенджамін Франклін" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%86" title="بنجمن فرینکلن – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بنجمن فرینکلن" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklini_Benjamin" title="Franklini Benjamin – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Franklini Benjamin" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E6%9D%B0%E6%98%8E%C2%B7%E6%B3%95%E5%85%B0%E5%85%8B%E6%9E%97" title="本杰明·法兰克林 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="本杰明·法兰克林" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%96%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9F" title="בענדזשאמין פרענקלין – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="בענדזשאמין פרענקלין" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%8C%E8%98%AD%E5%85%8B%E6%9E%97" title="富蘭克林 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="富蘭克林" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Benjamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E5%82%91%E6%98%8E%C2%B7%E5%AF%8C%E8%98%AD%E5%85%8B%E6%9E%97" title="本傑明·富蘭克林 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="本傑明·富蘭克林" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%C4%8Damin_Franklin" title="Benčamin Franklin – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Benčamin Franklin" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q34969#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American polymath and statesman (1706–1790)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Ben Franklin" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Benjamin Franklin (disambiguation)">Benjamin Franklin (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Canadian politician, see <a href="/wiki/Ben_Franklin_(Canadian_politician)" title="Ben Franklin (Canadian politician)">Ben Franklin (Canadian politician)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Benjamin Franklin</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts">FRSA</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh">FRSE</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6396" data-file-height="7801" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Duplessis" title="Joseph Duplessis">Joseph Duplessis</a>, 1778</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">6th <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Executive_Council_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Pennsylvania#Presidents" title="Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania">President of Pennsylvania</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office October 18, 1785 – November 5, 1788</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Vice President</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Biddle" title="Charles Biddle">Charles Biddle</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Muhlenberg" title="Peter Muhlenberg">Peter Muhlenberg</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/David_Redick" title="David Redick">David Redick</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minister_to_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Minister to Sweden">United States Minister to Sweden</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office September 28, 1782 – April 3, 1783</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Appointed by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Position established</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Russell" title="Jonathan Russell">Jonathan Russell</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minister_to_France" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Minister to France">United States Minister to France</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office March 23, 1779 – May 17, 1785</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Appointed by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Position established</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">1st <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">United States Postmaster General</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office July 26, 1775 – November 7, 1776</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Position established</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bache" title="Richard Bache">Richard Bache</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Delegate from <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office May 1775 – October 1776</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Postmaster_General_of_British_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmaster General of British America">Postmaster General of British America</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office August 10, 1753 – January 31, 1774</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Position established</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">vacant</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Pennsylvania_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly">Speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office May 1764 – October 1764</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Norris_(statesman)" title="Isaac Norris (statesman)">Isaac Norris</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Isaac Norris</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">1st <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_University_of_Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the University of Pennsylvania">President of the University of Pennsylvania</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1749–1754</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(Episcopal_priest)" title="William Smith (Episcopal priest)">William Smith</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">January 17, 1706 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> January 6, 1705]<a href="#cite_note-birthdate-1">[Note 1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">Massachusetts Bay</a>, English America</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">April 17, 1790(1790-04-17) (aged 84) <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, Pennsylvania, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Christ_Church_Burial_Ground" title="Christ Church Burial Ground">Christ Church Burial Ground</a>, Philadelphia</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Independent_politician" title="Independent politician">Independent</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Read" title="Deborah Read">Deborah Read</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>1730; died 1774)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Franklin" title="William Franklin">William</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Folger_Franklin" title="Francis Folger Franklin">Francis</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Franklin_Bache" title="Sarah Franklin Bache">Sarah</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Parents</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Franklin" title="Josiah Franklin">Josiah Franklin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abiah_Folger" title="Abiah Folger">Abiah Folger</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Boston_Latin_School" title="Boston Latin School">Boston Latin School</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_Signature.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Benjamin Franklin's signature"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Benjamin_Franklin_Signature.svg/128px-Benjamin_Franklin_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Benjamin_Franklin_Signature.svg/192px-Benjamin_Franklin_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Benjamin_Franklin_Signature.svg/256px-Benjamin_Franklin_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="234" data-file-height="119" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> January 6, 1705]<a href="#cite_note-birthdate-1">[Note 1]</a> – April 17, 1790) was an American <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a>: a leading writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosopher</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-2">[1]</a> Among the most influential intellectuals of his time, Franklin was one of the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a>; a <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">drafter</a> and signer of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>; and the first <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">postmaster general</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Morris1973-3">[2]</a> Franklin became a successful <a href="/wiki/Early_American_publishers_and_printers" title="Early American publishers and printers">newspaper editor and printer</a> in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Gazette" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania Gazette">Pennsylvania Gazette</a> at age 23.<a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a> He became wealthy publishing this and <a href="/wiki/Poor_Richard%27s_Almanack" title="Poor Richard's Almanack">Poor Richard's Almanack</a>, which he wrote under the pseudonym "Richard Saunders".<a href="#cite_note-Goodrich1829-5">[4]</a> After 1767, he was associated with the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Chronicle" title="Pennsylvania Chronicle">Pennsylvania Chronicle</a>, a newspaper known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the policies of the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">British Parliament</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the Crown</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian+Constitutional_Post-6">[5]</a> He pioneered and was the first president of the <a href="/wiki/Academy_and_College_of_Philadelphia" title="Academy and College of Philadelphia">Academy and College of Philadelphia</a>, which opened in 1751 and later became the University of Pennsylvania. He organized and was the first secretary of the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> and was elected its president in 1769. He was appointed deputy postmaster-general for the British colonies in 1753,<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a> which enabled him to set up the first national communications network. He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, as well as national and international affairs. Franklin became a hero in America when, as an agent in London for several colonies, he spearheaded the repeal of the unpopular <a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_1765" title="Stamp Act 1765">Stamp Act</a> by the British Parliament. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired as the first <a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_France" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to France">U.S. ambassador to France</a> and was a major figure in the development of positive <a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="France–United States relations">Franco–American relations</a>. His efforts proved vital in securing French aid for the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>. From 1785 to 1788, he served as <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Executive_Council_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Pennsylvania#Presidents" title="Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania">President of Pennsylvania</a>. At some points in his life, he owned slaves and ran "for sale" ads for slaves in his newspaper, but by the late 1750s, he began arguing against <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a>, became an active <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionist</a>, and promoted the education and <a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">integration</a> of African Americans into U.S. society.<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> As a scientist, his studies of electricity made him a major figure in the <a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">history of physics</a>. He also charted and named the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a> current. His numerous important inventions include the <a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">lightning rod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bifocals" title="Bifocals">bifocals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glass_harmonica" title="Glass harmonica">glass harmonica</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_stove" title="Franklin stove">Franklin stove</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a> He founded many <a href="/wiki/Civic_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Civic organization">civic organizations</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Library_Company_of_Philadelphia" title="Library Company of Philadelphia">Library Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>'s first <a href="/wiki/Union_Fire_Company" title="Union Fire Company">fire department</a>,<a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto-11">[10]</a> Franklin earned the title of "The First American" for his early and indefatigable campaigning for <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">colonial unity</a>. He was the only person to sign the Declaration of Independence, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a>, peace with Britain and the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States"> Constitution</a>. Foundational in defining the American ethos, Franklin has been called "the most accomplished American of his age and the most influential in inventing the type of society America would become".<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> His life and legacy of scientific and political achievement, and his status as one of America's most influential Founding Fathers, have seen Franklin honored for more than two centuries after his death on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_one-hundred-dollar_bill" title="United States one-hundred-dollar bill">$100 bill</a> and in the names of <a href="/wiki/USS_Franklin" title="USS Franklin">warships</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_places_named_for_Benjamin_Franklin" title="List of places named for Benjamin Franklin">many towns and counties, educational institutions and corporations</a>, as well as in numerous <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_in_popular_culture" title="Benjamin Franklin in popular culture">cultural references</a> and a portrait in the <a href="/wiki/Oval_Office" title="Oval Office">Oval Office</a>. His more than 30,000 letters and documents have been collected in <a href="/wiki/The_Papers_of_Benjamin_Franklin" title="The Papers of Benjamin Franklin">The Papers of Benjamin Franklin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Anne Robert Jacques Turgot</a> said of him: "Eripuit fulmen cœlo, mox sceptra tyrannis" ("He snatched lightning from the sky and the scepter from tyrants").<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancestry">Ancestry</h2></div> Benjamin Franklin's father, <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Franklin" title="Josiah Franklin">Josiah Franklin</a>, was a <a href="/wiki/Tallow" title="Tallow">tallow</a> <a href="/wiki/Chandlery" title="Chandlery">chandler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soaper" title="Soaper">soaper</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Candle" title="Candle">candlemaker</a>. Josiah Franklin was born at <a href="/wiki/Ecton,_Northamptonshire" title="Ecton, Northamptonshire">Ecton, Northamptonshire</a>, England, on December 23, 1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith and farmer, and his wife, Jane White. Benjamin's father and all four of his grandparents were born in England.<a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a> Josiah Franklin had a total of seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> in 1683; they had three children before emigration and four after. Following her death, Josiah married <a href="/wiki/Abiah_Folger" title="Abiah Folger">Abiah Folger</a> on July 9, 1689, in the <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Meeting_House" title="Old South Meeting House">Old South Meeting House</a> by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Willard" title="Samuel Willard">Reverend Samuel Willard</a>, and had ten children with her. Benjamin, their eighth child, was Josiah Franklin's fifteenth child overall, and his tenth and final son.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Benjamin Franklin's mother, Abiah, was born in <a href="/wiki/Nantucket" title="Nantucket">Nantucket</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a>, on August 15, 1667, to <a href="/wiki/Peter_Folger_(Nantucket_settler)" title="Peter Folger (Nantucket settler)">Peter Folger</a>, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Morrell_Folger" title="Mary Morrell Folger">Mary Morrell Folger</a>, a former <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servant</a>. Mary Folger came from a Puritan family that was among the first <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim">Pilgrims</a> to flee to Massachusetts for <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">religious freedom</a>, sailing for <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> in 1635 after King <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I of England</a> had begun persecuting Puritans. Her father Peter was "the sort of rebel destined to transform colonial America."<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> As <a href="/wiki/Court_clerk" title="Court clerk">clerk of the court</a>, he was arrested on February 10, 1676, and jailed on February 19 for his inability to pay bail. He spent over a year and a half in jail.<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boston">Boston</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace_2.JPG/200px-Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace_2.JPG/300px-Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace_2.JPG/400px-Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="554" data-file-height="672" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">An 1881 illustration of Franklin's birthplace on <a href="/wiki/Milk_Street,_Boston" title="Milk Street, Boston">Milk Street</a> in <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace.jpg/200px-Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace.jpg/300px-Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace.jpg/400px-Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="2304" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">A May 2008 photograph of Franklin's birthplace in Boston, commemorated with a <a href="/wiki/Bust_(sculpture)" title="Bust (sculpture)">bust</a> of Franklin atop the building's second-floor façade</div></div></div></div></div> Franklin was born on <a href="/wiki/Milk_Street,_Boston" title="Milk Street, Boston">Milk Street</a> in <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">Province of Massachusetts Bay</a> on January 17, 1706,<a href="#cite_note-birthdate-1">[Note 1]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infant_baptism" title="Infant baptism">baptized</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Meeting_House" title="Old South Meeting House">Old South Meeting House</a> in Boston. As a child growing up along the <a href="/wiki/Charles_River" title="Charles River">Charles River</a>, Franklin recalled that he was "generally the leader among the boys."<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> Franklin's father wanted him to attend school with the clergy but only had enough money to send him to school for two years. He attended <a href="/wiki/Boston_Latin_School" title="Boston Latin School">Boston Latin School</a> but did not graduate; he continued his education through voracious reading. Although "his parents talked of the church as a career"<a href="#cite_note-autobio-20">[19]</a> for Franklin, his schooling ended when he was ten. He worked for his father for a time, and at 12 he became an <a href="/wiki/Apprenticeship" title="Apprenticeship">apprentice</a> to his brother James, a printer, who taught him the printing trade. When Benjamin was 15, James founded <a href="/wiki/The_New-England_Courant" title="The New-England Courant">The New-England Courant</a>, which was the third newspaper founded in Boston.<a href="#cite_note-Bernhard_2007_p._11-21">[20]</a> When denied the chance to write a letter to the paper for publication, Franklin adopted the pseudonym of "<a href="/wiki/Silence_Dogood" title="Silence Dogood">Silence Dogood</a>," a middle-aged widow. Mrs. Dogood's letters were published and became a subject of conversation around town. Neither James nor the Courant's readers were aware of the ruse, and James was unhappy with Benjamin when he discovered the popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin was an advocate of free speech from an early age. When his brother was jailed for three weeks in 1722 for publishing material unflattering to <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Shute" title="Samuel Shute">the governor</a>, young Franklin took over the newspaper and had Mrs. Dogood proclaim, quoting <a href="/wiki/Cato%27s_Letters" title="Cato's Letters">Cato's Letters</a>, "Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech."<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> Franklin left his apprenticeship without his brother's permission, and in so doing became a fugitive.<a href="#cite_note-Seelye_Selby_2018_p._394-23">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Move_to_Philadelphia">Move to Philadelphia</h3></div> At age 17, Franklin ran away to <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, seeking a new start in a new city. When he first arrived, he worked in several printing shops there, but he was not satisfied by the immediate prospects in any of these jobs. After a few months, while working in one printing house, Pennsylvania governor <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Keith,_4th_Baronet" title="Sir William Keith, 4th Baronet">Sir William Keith</a> convinced him to go to London, ostensibly to acquire the equipment necessary for establishing another newspaper in Philadelphia. Discovering that Keith's promises of backing a newspaper were empty, he worked as a <a href="/wiki/Typesetting" title="Typesetting">typesetter</a> in a printer's shop in what is the present-day <a href="/wiki/St_Bartholomew-the-Great" title="St Bartholomew-the-Great">Church of St Bartholomew-the-Great</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Smithfield,_London" title="Smithfield, London">Smithfield</a> area of London. Following this, he returned to Philadelphia in 1726 with the help of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Denham" title="Thomas Denham">Thomas Denham</a>, a merchant who employed him as a clerk, shopkeeper, and bookkeeper in his business.<a href="#cite_note-vandoren-24">[23]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Junto_and_library">Junto and library</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_-_ita,_1825_-_766672_R_(cropped).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Franklin_-_ita%2C_1825_-_766672_R_%28cropped%29.jpeg/220px-Franklin_-_ita%2C_1825_-_766672_R_%28cropped%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Franklin_-_ita%2C_1825_-_766672_R_%28cropped%29.jpeg 1.5x" data-file-width="313" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>La scuola della economia e della morale, an 1825 sketch of Franklin</figcaption></figure> In 1727, at age 21, Franklin formed the <a href="/wiki/Junto_(club)" title="Junto (club)">Junto</a>, a group of "like minded aspiring artisans and tradesmen who hoped to improve themselves while they improved their community." The Junto was a discussion group for issues of the day; it subsequently gave rise to many organizations in Philadelphia.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> The Junto was modeled after English coffeehouses that Franklin knew well and which had become the center of the spread of Enlightenment ideas in Britain.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> Reading was a great pastime of the Junto, but books were rare and expensive. The members created a library, initially assembled from their own books, after Franklin wrote: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">A proposition was made by me that since our books were often referr'd to in our disquisitions upon the inquiries, it might be convenient for us to have them altogether where we met, that upon occasion they might be consulted; and by thus clubbing our books to a common library, we should, while we lik'd to keep them together, have each of us the advantage of using the books of all the other members, which would be nearly as beneficial as if each owned the whole.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a></blockquote> This did not suffice, however. Franklin conceived the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Subscription_library" title="Subscription library">subscription library</a>, which would pool the funds of the members to buy books for all to read. This was the birth of the <a href="/wiki/Library_Company_of_Philadelphia" title="Library Company of Philadelphia">Library Company of Philadelphia</a>, whose charter he composed in 1731.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Newspaperman">Newspaperman</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Early_American_publishers_and_printers" title="Early American publishers and printers">Early American publishers and printers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_the_printer2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Franklin_the_printer2.jpg/220px-Franklin_the_printer2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Franklin_the_printer2.jpg/330px-Franklin_the_printer2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Franklin_the_printer2.jpg/440px-Franklin_the_printer2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3836" data-file-height="2204" /></a><figcaption>Franklin (center) at work on a <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> in a painting published by the <a href="/wiki/Detroit_Publishing_Company" title="Detroit Publishing Company">Detroit Publishing Company</a> in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1914</figcaption></figure> Upon Denham's death, Franklin returned to his former trade. In 1728, he set up a printing house in partnership with <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Meredith" title="Hugh Meredith">Hugh Meredith</a>; the following year he became the publisher of <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Gazette" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania Gazette">The Pennsylvania Gazette</a>, a newspaper in Philadelphia. The Gazette gave Franklin a forum for agitation about a variety of local reforms and initiatives through printed essays and observations. Over time, his commentary, and his adroit cultivation of a positive image as an industrious and intellectual young man, earned him a great deal of social respect. But even after he achieved fame as a scientist and statesman, he habitually signed his letters with the unpretentious 'B. Franklin, Printer.'<a href="#cite_note-vandoren-24">[23]</a> In 1732, he published the first German-language newspaper in America – Die Philadelphische Zeitung – although it failed after only one year because four other newly founded German papers quickly dominated the newspaper market.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> Franklin also printed <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravian</a> religious books in German. He often visited <a href="/wiki/Bethlehem,_Pennsylvania" title="Bethlehem, Pennsylvania">Bethlehem, Pennsylvania</a>, staying at the <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Sun_Inn" title="Moravian Sun Inn">Moravian Sun Inn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> In a 1751 pamphlet on demographic growth and its implications for the Thirteen Colonies, he called the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch" title="Pennsylvania Dutch">Pennsylvania Germans</a> "Palatine Boors" who could never acquire the "Complexion" of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Americans" title="Anglo-Americans">Anglo-American</a> settlers and referred to "Blacks and Tawneys" as weakening the social structure of the colonies. Although he apparently reconsidered shortly thereafter, and the phrases were omitted from all later printings of the pamphlet, his views may have played a role in his political defeat in 1764.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> According to Ralph Frasca, Franklin promoted the printing press as a device to instruct colonial Americans in moral virtue. Frasca argues he saw this as a service to God, because he understood moral virtue in terms of actions, thus, doing good provides a service to God. Despite his own moral lapses, Franklin saw himself as uniquely qualified to instruct Americans in morality. He tried to influence American moral life through the construction of a printing network based on a chain of partnerships from the Carolinas to New England. He thereby invented the first newspaper chain.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It was more than a business venture, for like many publishers he believed that the press had a public-service duty.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> When he established himself in Philadelphia, shortly before 1730, the town boasted two "wretched little" news sheets, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bradford" title="Andrew Bradford">Andrew Bradford</a>'s The American Weekly Mercury and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Keimer" title="Samuel Keimer">Samuel Keimer</a>'s Universal Instructor in all Arts and Sciences, and Pennsylvania Gazette.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> This instruction in all arts and sciences consisted of weekly extracts from Chambers's Universal Dictionary. Franklin quickly did away with all of this when he took over the Instructor and made it The Pennsylvania Gazette. The Gazette soon became his characteristic organ, which he freely used for satire, for the play of his wit, even for sheer excess of mischief or of fun. From the first, he had a way of adapting his models to his own uses. The series of essays called "<a href="/wiki/The_Busy-Body_(pen_name)" title="The Busy-Body (pen name)">The Busy-Body</a>," which he wrote for Bradford's American Mercury in 1729, followed the general <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addisonian</a> form, already modified to suit homelier conditions. The thrifty Patience, in her busy little shop, complaining of the useless visitors who waste her valuable time, is related to the women who address Mr. Spectator. The Busy-Body himself is a true Censor Morum, as <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bickerstaff" title="Isaac Bickerstaff">Isaac Bickerstaff</a> had been in the Tatler. And a number of the fictitious characters, Ridentius, Eugenius, Cato, and Cretico, represent traditional 18th-century classicism. Even this Franklin could use for contemporary satire, since Cretico, the "sowre Philosopher," is evidently a portrait of his rival, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Keimer" title="Samuel Keimer">Samuel Keimer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Franklin had mixed success in his plan to establish an inter-colonial network of newspapers that would produce a profit for him and disseminate virtue. Over the years he sponsored two dozen printers in Pennsylvania, South Carolina, New York, Connecticut, and even the Caribbean. By 1753, eight of the fifteen English language newspapers in the colonies were published by him or his partners.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> He began in <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a>, in 1731. After his second editor died, the widow, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Timothy" title="Elizabeth Timothy">Elizabeth Timothy</a>, took over and made it a success. She was one of the colonial era's first woman printers.<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> For three decades Franklin maintained a close business relationship with her and her son <a href="/wiki/Peter_Timothy" title="Peter Timothy">Peter Timothy</a>, who took over the <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Gazette" title="South Carolina Gazette">South Carolina Gazette</a> in 1746.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> The Gazette was impartial in political debates, while creating the opportunity for public debate, which encouraged others to challenge authority. Timothy avoided blandness and crude bias and, after 1765, increasingly took a patriotic stand in the growing crisis with Great Britain.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a> Franklin's Connecticut Gazette (1755–68), however, proved unsuccessful.<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> As the Revolution approached, political strife slowly tore his network apart.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</h3></div> In 1730 or 1731, Franklin was initiated into the local <a href="/wiki/Masonic_lodge" title="Masonic lodge">Masonic lodge</a>. He became a <a href="/wiki/Grand_Master_(Freemasonry)" title="Grand Master (Freemasonry)">grand master</a> in 1734, indicating his rapid rise to prominence in Pennsylvania.<a href="#cite_note-HC-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-freemasonry-44">[43]</a> The same year, he edited and published the first Masonic book in the Americas, a reprint of <a href="/wiki/James_Anderson_(Freemason)" title="James Anderson (Freemason)">James Anderson</a>'s Constitutions of the Free-Masons.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> He was the <a href="/wiki/Masonic_lodge_officers#Secretary" class="mw-redirect" title="Masonic lodge officers">secretary</a> of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Lodge_of_Pennsylvania" title="Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania">St. John's Lodge</a> in Philadelphia from 1735 to 1738.<a href="#cite_note-freemasonry-44">[43]</a> In January 1738, "Franklin appeared as a witness" in a manslaughter trial against two men who killed "a simple-minded apprentice" named Daniel Rees in a fake Masonic initiation gone wrong. One of the men "threw, or accidentally spilled, the burning spirits, and Daniel Rees died of his burns two days later." While Franklin did not directly participate in the <a href="/wiki/List_of_hazing_deaths_in_the_United_States" title="List of hazing deaths in the United States">hazing that led to Rees' death</a>, he knew of the hazing before it turned fatal, and did nothing to stop it. He was criticized for his inaction in The American Weekly Mercury, by his publishing rival <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bradford" title="Andrew Bradford">Andrew Bradford</a>. Ultimately, "Franklin replied in his own defense in the Gazette."<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> Franklin remained a Freemason for the rest of his life.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common-law_marriage_to_Deborah_Read">Common-law marriage to Deborah Read</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:328px;max-width:328px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Deborah_Read_Franklin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Deborah_Read_Franklin.jpg/160px-Deborah_Read_Franklin.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Deborah_Read_Franklin.jpg/240px-Deborah_Read_Franklin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Deborah_Read_Franklin.jpg/320px-Deborah_Read_Franklin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="729" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Read" title="Deborah Read">Deborah Read Franklin</a>, Franklin's common-law wife, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1759</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarah_Franklin_Bache1793.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Sarah_Franklin_Bache1793.jpg/160px-Sarah_Franklin_Bache1793.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Sarah_Franklin_Bache1793.jpg/240px-Sarah_Franklin_Bache1793.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Sarah_Franklin_Bache1793.jpg/320px-Sarah_Franklin_Bache1793.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1586" data-file-height="1923" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Franklin_Bache" title="Sarah Franklin Bache">Sarah Franklin Bache</a> (1743–1808), the daughter of Franklin and <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Read" title="Deborah Read">Deborah Read</a></div></div></div></div></div> At age 17 in 1723, Franklin proposed to 15-year-old <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Read" title="Deborah Read">Deborah Read</a> while a boarder in the Read home. At that time, Deborah's mother was wary of allowing her young daughter to marry Franklin, who was on his way to London at Governor Keith's request, and also because of his financial instability. Her own husband had recently died, and she declined Franklin's request to marry her daughter.<a href="#cite_note-vandoren-24">[23]</a> Franklin travelled to London, and after he failed to communicate as expected with Deborah and her family, they interpreted his long silence as a breaking of his promises. At the urging of her mother, Deborah married a potter named John Rogers on August 5, 1725. John soon fled to <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> with her <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a> in order to avoid debts and prosecution. Since Rogers' fate was unknown, <a href="/wiki/Bigamy" title="Bigamy">bigamy</a> laws prevented Deborah from remarrying.<a href="#cite_note-Chylinska_2015-50">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Constitutional_Law_Reporter_2018_w571-51">[50]</a> Franklin returned in 1726 and resumed his courtship of Deborah.<a href="#cite_note-Chylinska_2015-50">[49]</a> They established a <a href="/wiki/Common-law_marriage_in_the_United_States" title="Common-law marriage in the United States">common-law marriage</a> on September 1, 1730. They took in his recently acknowledged illegitimate young son and raised him in their household. They had two children together. Their son, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Folger_Franklin" title="Francis Folger Franklin">Francis Folger Franklin</a>, was born in October 1732 and died of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> in 1736. Their daughter, <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Franklin_Bache" title="Sarah Franklin Bache">Sarah "Sally" Franklin</a>, was born in 1743 and eventually married <a href="/wiki/Richard_Bache" title="Richard Bache">Richard Bache</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Scott-57">[Note 2]</a> Deborah's fear of the sea meant that she never accompanied Franklin on any of his extended trips to Europe; another possible reason why they spent much time apart is that he may have blamed her for possibly preventing their son Francis from being <a href="/wiki/Variolation" title="Variolation">inoculated</a> against the disease that subsequently killed him.<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> Deborah wrote to him in November 1769, saying she was ill due to "dissatisfied distress" from his prolonged absence, but he did not return until his business was done.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> Deborah Read Franklin died of a stroke on December 14, 1774, while Franklin was on an extended mission to Great Britain; he returned in 1775.<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="William_Franklin">William Franklin</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/William_Franklin" title="William Franklin">William Franklin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Franklin_painting_attributed_to_Mather_Brown.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/William_Franklin_painting_attributed_to_Mather_Brown.jpg/220px-William_Franklin_painting_attributed_to_Mather_Brown.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/William_Franklin_painting_attributed_to_Mather_Brown.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="299" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Franklin" title="William Franklin">William Franklin</a> (1730–1813), Franklin's son, whose mother was unknown, was born out of wedlock on February 22, 1730</figcaption></figure> In 1730, 24-year-old Franklin publicly acknowledged his illegitimate son <a href="/wiki/William_Franklin" title="William Franklin">William</a> and raised him in his household. William was born on February 22, 1730, but his mother's identity is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> He was educated in Philadelphia and beginning at about age 30 studied law in London in the early 1760s. William himself fathered an illegitimate son, <a href="/wiki/William_Temple_Franklin" title="William Temple Franklin">William Temple Franklin</a>, born on the same day and month: February 22, 1760.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> The boy's mother was never identified, and he was placed in foster care. In 1762, the elder William Franklin married Elizabeth Downes, daughter of a <a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">planter</a> from <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>, in London. In 1763, he was appointed as the last <a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_New_Jersey" title="List of colonial governors of New Jersey">royal governor</a> of New Jersey. A <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalist</a> to the king, William Franklin saw his relations with father Benjamin eventually break down over their differences about the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>, as Benjamin Franklin could never accept William's position. Deposed in 1776 by the revolutionary government of New Jersey, William was placed under house arrest at <a href="/wiki/Proprietary_House" title="Proprietary House">his home</a> in <a href="/wiki/Perth_Amboy,_New_Jersey" title="Perth Amboy, New Jersey">Perth Amboy</a> for six months. After the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, he was formally taken into custody by order of the <a href="/wiki/Provincial_Congress_of_New_Jersey" title="Provincial Congress of New Jersey">Provincial Congress of New Jersey</a>, an entity which he refused to recognize, regarding it as an "illegal assembly."<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> He was incarcerated in Connecticut for two years, in <a href="/wiki/Wallingford,_Connecticut" title="Wallingford, Connecticut">Wallingford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middletown,_Connecticut" title="Middletown, Connecticut">Middletown</a>, and, after being caught surreptitiously engaging Americans into supporting the Loyalist cause, was held in solitary confinement at <a href="/wiki/Litchfield,_Connecticut" title="Litchfield, Connecticut">Litchfield</a> for eight months. When finally released in a prisoner exchange in 1778, he moved to New York City, which was occupied by the British at the time.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> While in New York City, he became leader of the Board of Associated Loyalists, a quasi-military organization chartered by King <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a> and headquartered in New York City. They initiated guerrilla forays into New Jersey, southern Connecticut, and New York counties north of the city.<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> When British troops evacuated from New York, William Franklin left with them and sailed to England. He settled in London, never to return to North America. In the preliminary peace talks in 1782 with Britain, "... Benjamin Franklin insisted that loyalists who had borne arms against the United States would be excluded from this plea (that they be given a general pardon). He was undoubtedly thinking of William Franklin."<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. 1, the writer cannot know what Franklin was thinking; 2, the source is a children's book which may take liberties with history (November 2021)">unreliable source?</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Success_as_an_author">Success as an author</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_General_Magazine_and_Historical_Chronicle_Vol_1,_January,_1741.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_General_Magazine_and_Historical_Chronicle_Vol_1%2C_January%2C_1741.jpg/220px-The_General_Magazine_and_Historical_Chronicle_Vol_1%2C_January%2C_1741.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="387" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_General_Magazine_and_Historical_Chronicle_Vol_1%2C_January%2C_1741.jpg/330px-The_General_Magazine_and_Historical_Chronicle_Vol_1%2C_January%2C_1741.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_General_Magazine_and_Historical_Chronicle_Vol_1%2C_January%2C_1741.jpg/440px-The_General_Magazine_and_Historical_Chronicle_Vol_1%2C_January%2C_1741.jpg 2x" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="1692" /></a><figcaption>The January 1741 edition of The General Magazine and Historical Chronicle, Franklin's magazine</figcaption></figure> In 1732, Franklin began to publish the noted Poor Richard's Almanack (with content both original and borrowed) under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, on which much of his popular reputation is based. He frequently wrote under pseudonyms. The first issue published was for the upcoming year, 1733.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> He had developed a distinct, signature style that was plain, pragmatic and had a sly, soft but self-deprecating tone with declarative sentences.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> Although it was no secret that he was the author, his Richard Saunders character repeatedly denied it. "Poor Richard's Proverbs," adages from this almanac, such as "A penny saved is twopence dear" (often misquoted as "A penny saved is a penny earned") and "Fish and visitors stink in three days," remain common quotations in the modern world. Wisdom in folk society meant the ability to provide an apt adage for any occasion, and his readers became well prepared. He sold about ten thousand copies per year—it became an institution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Doren1938109-69">[67]</a> In 1741, Franklin began publishing The General Magazine and Historical Chronicle for all the British Plantations in America. He used the <a href="/wiki/Heraldic_badge" title="Heraldic badge">heraldic badge</a> of the Prince of Wales as the cover illustration. Franklin wrote a letter, "<a href="/wiki/Advice_to_a_Friend_on_Choosing_a_Mistress" title="Advice to a Friend on Choosing a Mistress">Advice to a Friend on Choosing a Mistress</a>," dated June 25, 1745, in which he gives advice to a young man about channeling sexual urges. Due to its licentious nature, it was not published in collections of his papers during the 19th century. <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Federal court</a> rulings from the mid-to-late 20th century cited the document as a reason for overturning obscenity laws and against censorship.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_life">Public life</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Anti-monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption" title="Anti-corruption">Anti-corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">Civic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty#Republican_liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty as non-domination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">Mixed government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_representation" title="Political representation">Political representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation_(decision_making)" title="Public participation (decision making)">Public participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">Res publica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">Self-governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_republicanism" title="Modern republicanism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republicanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal republicanism">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism#Neo-republicanism" title="Republicanism">Neo-republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_republic" title="Autonomous republic">Autonomous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_republic" title="Capitalist republic">Capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_republic" title="Christian republic">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_republic" title="Democratic republic">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_parliamentary_republic" title="Federal parliamentary republic">Federal parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_republic" title="People's republic">People's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_republic" title="Revolutionary republic">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular republic">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_republic" title="Sister republic">Sister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_republic" title="Soviet republic">Soviet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Baggini" title="Julian Baggini">Baggini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Bello" title="Andrés Bello">Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Cattaneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophie_Grace_Chappell" title="Sophie Grace Chappell">Chappell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Crick" title="Bernard Crick">Crick</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Honderich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Sandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Sunstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Warburton" title="Nigel Warburton">Warburton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerry_Adams" title="Gerry Adams">Adams (Gerry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a" title="Manuel Azaña">Azaña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bartley" title="Jonathan Bartley">Bartley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Benn" title="Tony Benn">Benn (Tony)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalie_Bennett" title="Natalie Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mhairi_Black" title="Mhairi Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Burgon" title="Richard Burgon">Burgon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Campbell" title="Ronnie Campbell">Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maggie_Chapman" title="Maggie Chapman">Chapman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katy_Clark" title="Katy Clark">Clark (Katy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Clarke_(Irish_republican)" title="Tom Clarke (Irish republican)">Clarke (Tom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Cromwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Davidson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Ian Davidson (Scottish politician)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Drakeford" title="Mark Drakeford">Drakeford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Etherington" title="Bill Etherington">Etherington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Fabiani" title="Linda Fabiani">Fabiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ferguson_(politician)" title="Mark Ferguson (politician)">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Flynn_(politician)" title="Paul Flynn (politician)">Flynn (Paul)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Flynn" title="Stephen Flynn">Flynn (Stephen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Galloway" title="George Galloway">Galloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Gambetta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Garibaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Greer" title="Ross Greer">Greer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Gr%C3%A9vy" title="Jules Grévy">Grévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nia_Griffith" title="Nia Griffith">Griffith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Griffiths_(Welsh_politician)" title="John Griffiths (Welsh politician)">Griffiths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Harvie" title="Patrick Harvie">Harvie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Hatton" title="Derek Hatton">Hatton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_Hopkins" title="Kelvin Hopkins">Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huppert" title="Julian Huppert">Huppert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhun_ap_Iorwerth" title="Rhun ap Iorwerth">Iorwerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenda_Jackson" title="Glenda Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">Jay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elin_Jones" title="Elin Jones">Jones (Elin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynne_Jones" title="Lynne Jones">Jones (Lynne)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosie_Kane" title="Rosie Kane">Kane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_La_Malfa" title="Ugo La Malfa">La Malfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Lewis_(politician)" title="Clive Lewis (politician)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Lucas" title="Caroline Lucas">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillian_Mackay" title="Gillian Mackay">Mackay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie" title="William Lyon Mackenzie">Mackenzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magid_Magid" title="Magid Magid">Magid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_McKechin" title="Ann McKechin">McKechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Mullin_(politician)" title="Chris Mullin (politician)">Mullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Naysmith" title="Doug Naysmith">Naysmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Mannin" title="Ethel Mannin">Mannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDonnell" title="John McDonnell">McDonnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Nandy" title="Lisa Nandy">Nandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pound" title="Stephen Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Prescott" title="John Prescott">Prescott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Ritchie" title="Ken Ritchie">Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethan_Sayed" title="Bethan Sayed">Sayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Skates" title="Ken Skates">Skates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Skinner" title="Dennis Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorna_Slater" title="Lorna Slater">Slater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Slaughter" title="Andy Slaughter">Slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_Smith" title="Cat Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Spadolini" title="Giovanni Spadolini">Spadolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Taverne" title="Dick Taverne">Taverne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Wilson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Bill Wilson (Scottish politician)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leanne_Wood" title="Leanne Wood">Wood</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> (c. 375 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a> (54–51 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourses_on_Livy" title="Discourses on Livy">Discourses on Livy</a> (1531)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Tenure_of_Kings_and_Magistrates" title="The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates">The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates</a> (1649)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Commonwealth_of_Oceana" title="The Commonwealth of Oceana">The Commonwealth of Oceana</a> (1656)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourses_Concerning_Government" title="Discourses Concerning Government">Discourses Concerning Government</a> (1698)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a> (1755)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a> (1787–1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a> (1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Revolution" title="On Revolution">On Revolution</a> (1963)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ga%E1%B9%87asa%E1%B9%85gha" title="Gaṇasaṅgha">Gaṇasaṅgha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Classical Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5_October_1910_revolution" title="5 October 1910 revolution">5 October 1910 revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Chinese Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1921" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1921">Mongolian Revolution of 1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11_September_1922_Revolution" title="11 September 1922 Revolution">11 September 1922 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_Greek_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1935 Greek coup d'état attempt">1935 Greek coup d'état attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">1946 Italian institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Zanzibar Revolution">Zanzibar Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1969 Libyan coup d'état">1969 Libyan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Cambodian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1970 Cambodian coup d'état">1970 Cambodian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Fijian_coups_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Fijian coups d'état">1987 Fijian coups d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Civil_War" title="Nepalese Civil War">Nepalese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbadian Republic Proclamation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Republicanism in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Australia" title="Republicanism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Bahamas" title="Republicanism in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Canada" title="Republicanism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Jamaica" title="Republicanism in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-monarchism_in_Japan" title="Anti-monarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Morocco" title="Republicanism in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Republicanism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_New_Zealand" title="Republicanism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Norway" title="Republicanism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Spain" title="Republicanism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Sweden" title="Republicanism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_republicanism" title="Scottish republicanism">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Clothes" title="The Emperor's New Clothes">The Emperor's New Clothes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_republics" title="List of republics">List of republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_republic" title="Peasant republic">Peasant republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primus_inter_pares" title="Primus inter pares">Primus inter pares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_without_republicans" title="Republic without republicans">Republic without republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Republican empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Republican Party (disambiguation)">Republican Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Template:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_steps_in_Pennsylvania">Early steps in Pennsylvania</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Feke_-_Benjamin_Franklin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Feke_-_Benjamin_Franklin.png/220px-Feke_-_Benjamin_Franklin.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Feke_-_Benjamin_Franklin.png/330px-Feke_-_Benjamin_Franklin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Feke_-_Benjamin_Franklin.png/440px-Feke_-_Benjamin_Franklin.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="952" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of Franklin c. 1746–1750,<a href="#cite_note-71">[Note 3]</a> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Feke" title="Robert Feke">Robert Feke</a> widely believed to be the earliest known painting of Franklin<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_-_Join_or_Die.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Benjamin_Franklin_-_Join_or_Die.jpg/220px-Benjamin_Franklin_-_Join_or_Die.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Benjamin_Franklin_-_Join_or_Die.jpg/330px-Benjamin_Franklin_-_Join_or_Die.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Benjamin_Franklin_-_Join_or_Die.jpg/440px-Benjamin_Franklin_-_Join_or_Die.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3740" data-file-height="2696" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Join,_or_Die" title="Join, or Die">Join, or Die</a>, a 1754 political cartoon by Franklin, urged the colonies to join the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> in the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a>; the cartoon was later resurrected, serving as an iconic symbol in support of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolution</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PennsylvaniaHospitalWilliamStrickland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/PennsylvaniaHospitalWilliamStrickland.jpg/220px-PennsylvaniaHospitalWilliamStrickland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/PennsylvaniaHospitalWilliamStrickland.jpg/330px-PennsylvaniaHospitalWilliamStrickland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/PennsylvaniaHospitalWilliamStrickland.jpg/440px-PennsylvaniaHospitalWilliamStrickland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>In 1751, Franklin co-founded <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Hospital" title="Pennsylvania Hospital">Pennsylvania Hospital</a> in Philadelphia, one of the first hospitals in the United States, depicted in this 1755 engraving by <a href="/wiki/William_Strickland_(architect)" title="William Strickland (architect)">William Strickland</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1757_UPenn_Seal.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/1757_UPenn_Seal.png/220px-1757_UPenn_Seal.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/1757_UPenn_Seal.png/330px-1757_UPenn_Seal.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/1757_UPenn_Seal.png/440px-1757_UPenn_Seal.png 2x" data-file-width="1025" data-file-height="1038" /></a><figcaption>Seal of the College of Philadelphia, a college founded by Franklin that is now the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sketch_of_Tun_Tavern_in_the_Revolutionary_War.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Sketch_of_Tun_Tavern_in_the_Revolutionary_War.jpg/220px-Sketch_of_Tun_Tavern_in_the_Revolutionary_War.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Sketch_of_Tun_Tavern_in_the_Revolutionary_War.jpg/330px-Sketch_of_Tun_Tavern_in_the_Revolutionary_War.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Sketch_of_Tun_Tavern_in_the_Revolutionary_War.jpg/440px-Sketch_of_Tun_Tavern_in_the_Revolutionary_War.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1466" data-file-height="1043" /></a><figcaption>Sketch of the original <a href="/wiki/Tun_Tavern" title="Tun Tavern">Tun Tavern</a></figcaption></figure> In 1736, Franklin created the <a href="/wiki/Union_Fire_Company" title="Union Fire Company">Union Fire Company</a>, one of the first <a href="/wiki/Volunteer_fire_department" title="Volunteer fire department">volunteer firefighting companies</a> in America. In the same year, he printed a new currency for New Jersey based on innovative anti-<a href="/wiki/Counterfeit" title="Counterfeit">counterfeiting</a> techniques he had devised. Throughout his career, he was an advocate for <a href="/wiki/Banknote" title="Banknote">paper money</a>, publishing A Modest Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency in 1729, and his printer printed money. He was influential in the more restrained and thus successful monetary experiments in the Middle Colonies, which stopped <a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">deflation</a> without causing excessive inflation. In 1766, he made a case for paper money to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">British House of Commons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a> As he matured, Franklin began to concern himself more with public affairs. In 1743, he first devised a scheme for the <a href="/wiki/Academy_and_College_of_Philadelphia" title="Academy and College of Philadelphia">Academy, Charity School, and College of Philadelphia</a>; however, the person he had in mind to run the academy, Rev. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Peters_(priest)" title="Richard Peters (priest)">Richard Peters</a>, refused and Franklin put his ideas away until 1749 when he printed his own pamphlet, Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania.<a href="#cite_note-MontgomeryHistory-75">[72]</a>: 30  He was appointed president of the Academy on November 13, 1749; the academy and the charity school opened in 1751.<a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a> In 1743, he founded the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> to help scientific men discuss their discoveries and theories. He began the electrical research that, along with other scientific inquiries, would occupy him for the rest of his life, in between bouts of politics and moneymaking.<a href="#cite_note-vandoren-24">[23]</a> During <a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a>, Franklin raised a militia called the Association for General Defense because the legislators of the city had decided to take no action to defend Philadelphia "either by erecting fortifications or building Ships of War." He raised money to create earthwork defenses and buy artillery. The largest of these was the "Association Battery" or "Grand Battery" of 50 guns.<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kyria1-78">[75]</a> In 1747, Franklin (already a very wealthy man) retired from printing and went into other businesses.<a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a> He formed a partnership with his foreman, <a href="/wiki/David_Hall_(printer)" title="David Hall (printer)">David Hall</a>, which provided Franklin with half of the shop's profits for 18 years. This lucrative business arrangement provided leisure time for study, and in a few years he had made many new discoveries. Franklin became involved in Philadelphia politics and rapidly progressed. In October 1748, he was selected as a councilman; in June 1749, he became a <a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">justice of the peace</a> for Philadelphia; and in 1751, he was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly. On August 10, 1753, he was appointed deputy postmaster-general of <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a>. His service in domestic politics included reforming the postal system, with mail sent out every week.<a href="#cite_note-vandoren-24">[23]</a> In 1751, Franklin and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bond_(American_physician)" title="Thomas Bond (American physician)">Thomas Bond</a> obtained a charter from the Pennsylvania legislature to establish a hospital. <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Hospital" title="Pennsylvania Hospital">Pennsylvania Hospital</a> was the first hospital in the colonies.<a href="#cite_note-80">[77]</a> In 1752, Franklin organized the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Contributionship" title="Philadelphia Contributionship">Philadelphia Contributionship</a>, the Colonies' first <a href="/wiki/Home_insurance" title="Home insurance">homeowner's insurance</a> company.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a> Between 1750 and 1753, the "educational triumvirate"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsen2013174-83">[80]</a> of Franklin, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson_(American_educator)" title="Samuel Johnson (American educator)">Samuel Johnson</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stratford,_Connecticut" title="Stratford, Connecticut">Stratford, Connecticut</a>, and schoolteacher <a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(Episcopal_priest)" title="William Smith (Episcopal priest)">William Smith</a> built on Franklin's initial scheme and created what <a href="/wiki/James_Madison_(bishop)" title="James Madison (bishop)">Bishop James Madison</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_William_%26_Mary" title="College of William & Mary">College of William & Mary</a>, called a "new-model"<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a> plan or style of American college. Franklin solicited, printed in 1752, and promoted an American textbook of <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">moral philosophy</a> by Samuel Johnson, titled Elementa Philosophica,<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a> to be taught in the new colleges. In June 1753, Johnson, Franklin, and Smith met in Stratford.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsen2013163–274-86">[83]</a> They decided the new-model college would focus on the professions, with classes taught in English instead of Latin, have subject matter experts as professors instead of one tutor leading a class for four years, and there would be no religious test for admission.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsen2013163-87">[84]</a> Johnson went on to found King's College (now <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>) in New York City in 1754, while Franklin hired Smith as provost of the College of Philadelphia, which opened in 1755. At its first commencement, on May 17, 1757, seven men graduated; six with a Bachelor of Arts and one with a Master of Arts. It was later merged with the <a href="/wiki/University_of_the_State_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of the State of Pennsylvania">University of the State of Pennsylvania</a> to become the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>. The college was to become influential in guiding the founding documents of the United States: in the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a>, for example, over one-third of the college-affiliated men who contributed to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> between September 4, 1774, and July 4, 1776, were affiliated with the college.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsen2013308-88">[85]</a> In 1754, he headed the Pennsylvania delegation to the <a href="/wiki/Albany_Congress" title="Albany Congress">Albany Congress</a>. This meeting of several colonies had been requested by the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Trade" title="Board of Trade">Board of Trade</a> in England to improve relations with the Indians and defense against the French. Franklin proposed a broad <a href="/wiki/Albany_Plan" title="Albany Plan">Plan of Union</a> for the colonies. While the plan was not adopted, elements of it found their way into the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a> In 1753, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yale" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale">Yale</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a> awarded him honorary master of arts degrees.<a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a> In 1756, he was awarded an honorary <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">Master of Arts</a> degree from the <a href="/wiki/College_of_William_%26_Mary" title="College of William & Mary">College of William & Mary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> Later in 1756, Franklin organized the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Army_National_Guard" title="Pennsylvania Army National Guard">Pennsylvania Militia</a>. He used <a href="/wiki/Tun_Tavern" title="Tun Tavern">Tun Tavern</a> as a gathering place to recruit a regiment of soldiers to go into battle against the Native American uprisings that beset the American colonies.<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postmaster">Postmaster</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_SC1_1847.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Franklin_SC1_1847.jpg/220px-Franklin_SC1_1847.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Franklin_SC1_1847.jpg/330px-Franklin_SC1_1847.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Franklin_SC1_1847.jpg 2x" data-file-width="411" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>The first <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service" title="United States Postal Service">U.S. postage</a> stamp, issued in 1847 in honor of Franklin</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_signed_pass_for_Goddard3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Franklin_signed_pass_for_Goddard3.jpg/220px-Franklin_signed_pass_for_Goddard3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Franklin_signed_pass_for_Goddard3.jpg/330px-Franklin_signed_pass_for_Goddard3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Franklin_signed_pass_for_Goddard3.jpg/440px-Franklin_signed_pass_for_Goddard3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="706" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption>A Pass, signed by Postmaster General Benjamin Franklin, gave <a href="/wiki/William_Goddard_(publisher)" title="William Goddard (publisher)">William Goddard</a> the authority to travel as needed to investigate and inspect postal routes and protect the mail.<a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-95">[92]</a></figcaption></figure> Well known as a printer and publisher, Franklin was appointed postmaster of Philadelphia in 1737, holding the office until 1753, when he and publisher William Hunter were named deputy postmasters–general of British North America, the first to hold the office. (<a href="/wiki/Postmaster_General_of_the_United_Kingdom#Two_Postmasters_General,_1691–1823" title="Postmaster General of the United Kingdom">Joint appointments</a> were standard at the time, for political reasons.) He was responsible for the British colonies from Pennsylvania north and east, as far as the <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">island of Newfoundland</a>. A post office for local and outgoing mail had been established in <a href="/wiki/Halifax,_Nova_Scotia" title="Halifax, Nova Scotia">Halifax, Nova Scotia</a>, by local stationer Benjamin Leigh, on April 23, 1754, but service was irregular. Franklin opened the first post office to offer regular, monthly mail in Halifax on December 9, 1755. Meantime, Hunter became postal administrator in <a href="/wiki/Williamsburg,_Virginia" title="Williamsburg, Virginia">Williamsburg, Virginia</a>, and oversaw areas south of <a href="/wiki/Annapolis,_Maryland" title="Annapolis, Maryland">Annapolis, Maryland</a>. Franklin reorganized the service's accounting system and improved speed of delivery between Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. By 1761, efficiencies led to the first profits for the colonial post office.<a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a> When the lands of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> were ceded to the British under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1763)" title="Treaty of Paris (1763)">Treaty of Paris</a> in 1763, the British <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Quebec_(1763%E2%80%931791)" title="Province of Quebec (1763–1791)">province of Quebec</a> was created among them, and Franklin saw mail service expanded between <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res" title="Trois-Rivières">Trois-Rivières</a>, Quebec City, and New York. For the greater part of his appointment, he lived in England (from 1757 to 1762, and again from 1764 to 1774)—about three-quarters of his term.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a> Eventually, his sympathies for the rebel cause in the American Revolution led to his dismissal on January 31, 1774.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> On July 26, 1775, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> established the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Post_Office_Department#Foundations" title="United States Post Office Department">United States Post Office</a> and named Franklin as the first <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">United States postmaster general</a>. He had been a postmaster for decades and was a natural choice for the position.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> He had just returned from England and was appointed chairman of a Committee of Investigation to establish a postal system. The report of the committee, providing for the appointment of a postmaster general for the 13 American colonies, was considered by the Continental Congress on July 25 and 26. On July 26, 1775, Franklin was appointed postmaster general, the first appointed under the Continental Congress. His apprentice, <a href="/wiki/William_Goddard_(publisher)" title="William Goddard (publisher)">William Goddard</a>, felt that his ideas were mostly responsible for shaping the postal system and that the appointment should have gone to him, but he graciously conceded it to Franklin, 36 years his senior.<a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-95">[92]</a> Franklin, however, appointed Goddard as Surveyor of the Posts, issued him a signed pass, and directed him to investigate and inspect the various post offices and mail routes as he saw fit.<a href="#cite_note-RI_Journalism-100">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Library_of_Congress-101">[98]</a> The newly established postal system became the United States Post Office, a system that continues to operate today.<a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decades_in_London">Decades in London</h3></div> From the mid-1750s to the mid-1770s, Franklin spent much of his time in London.<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_work">Political work</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US-Colonial_(PA-115)-Pennsylvania-18_Jun_1764.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/US-Colonial_%28PA-115%29-Pennsylvania-18_Jun_1764.jpg/220px-US-Colonial_%28PA-115%29-Pennsylvania-18_Jun_1764.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/US-Colonial_%28PA-115%29-Pennsylvania-18_Jun_1764.jpg/330px-US-Colonial_%28PA-115%29-Pennsylvania-18_Jun_1764.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/US-Colonial_%28PA-115%29-Pennsylvania-18_Jun_1764.jpg/440px-US-Colonial_%28PA-115%29-Pennsylvania-18_Jun_1764.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3924" data-file-height="2219" /></a><figcaption>Pennsylvania colonial currency printed by Franklin and <a href="/wiki/David_Hall_(publisher)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Hall (publisher)">David Hall</a> in 1764</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_1767.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Benjamin_Franklin_1767.jpg/220px-Benjamin_Franklin_1767.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Benjamin_Franklin_1767.jpg/330px-Benjamin_Franklin_1767.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Benjamin_Franklin_1767.jpg/440px-Benjamin_Franklin_1767.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2386" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Franklin in London in 1767, wearing a blue suit with elaborate gold braid and buttons, a far cry from the simple dress he affected at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_court" title="Royal court">French court</a> in later years, depicted in a portrait by <a href="/wiki/David_Martin_(artist)" title="David Martin (artist)">David Martin</a> that is now on display in the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a></figcaption></figure> In 1757, he was sent to England by the Pennsylvania Assembly as a colonial agent to protest against the political influence of the <a href="/wiki/William_Penn" title="William Penn">Penn family</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Proprietary_colony" title="Proprietary colony">proprietors of the colony</a>. He remained there for five years, striving to end the proprietors' prerogative to overturn legislation from the elected Assembly and their exemption from paying taxes on their land. His lack of influential allies in <a href="/wiki/Whitehall" title="Whitehall">Whitehall</a> led to the failure of this mission.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] At this time, many members of the Pennsylvania Assembly were feuding with William Penn's heirs, who controlled the colony as proprietors. After his return to the colony, Franklin led the "anti-proprietary party" in the struggle against the Penn family and was elected <a href="/wiki/List_of_speakers_of_the_Pennsylvania_House_of_Representatives" title="List of speakers of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives">Speaker of the Pennsylvania House</a> in May 1764. His call for a change from proprietary to royal government was a rare political miscalculation, however: Pennsylvanians worried that such a move would endanger their political and religious freedoms. Because of these fears and because of political attacks on his character, Franklin lost his seat in the October 1764 Assembly elections. The anti-proprietary party dispatched him to England again to continue the struggle against the Penn family proprietorship. During this trip, events drastically changed the nature of his mission.<a href="#cite_note-ANB2-104">[101]</a> In London, Franklin opposed the <a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_1765" title="Stamp Act 1765">1765 Stamp Act</a>. Unable to prevent its passage, he made another political miscalculation and recommended a friend to the post of stamp distributor for Pennsylvania. Pennsylvanians were outraged, believing that he had supported the measure all along, and threatened to destroy his home in Philadelphia. Franklin soon learned of the extent of colonial resistance to the Stamp Act, and he testified during the House of Commons proceedings that led to its repeal.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a> With this, Franklin suddenly emerged as the leading spokesman for American interests in England. He wrote popular essays on behalf of the colonies. <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> also appointed him as their agent to the Crown.<a href="#cite_note-ANB2-104">[101]</a> During his lengthy missions to London between 1757 and 1775, Franklin lodged in a house on Craven Street, just off <a href="/wiki/Strand,_London" title="Strand, London">the Strand</a> in <a href="/wiki/Central_London" title="Central London">central London</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a> During his stays there, he developed a close friendship with his landlady, Margaret Stevenson, and her circle of friends and relations, in particular, her daughter Mary, who was more often known as Polly. The house is now a museum known as the <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_House" title="Benjamin Franklin House">Benjamin Franklin House</a>. Whilst in London, Franklin became involved in <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radical</a> politics. He belonged to a <a href="/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_club" title="Gentlemen's club">gentlemen's club</a> (which he called "the honest <a href="/wiki/Radical_Whigs" title="Radical Whigs">Whigs</a>"), which held stated meetings, and included members such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Richard Price</a>, the minister of <a href="/wiki/Newington_Green_Unitarian_Church" title="Newington Green Unitarian Church">Newington Green Unitarian Church</a> who ignited the <a href="/wiki/Revolution_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolution controversy">Revolution controversy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Kippis" title="Andrew Kippis">Andrew Kippis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scientific_work">Scientific work</h4></div> In 1756, Franklin had become a member of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce (now the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Arts" title="Royal Society of Arts">Royal Society of Arts</a>), which had been founded in 1754. After his return to the United States in 1775, he became the Society's Corresponding Member, continuing a close connection. The Royal Society of Arts instituted a <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Medal_(Royal_Society_of_Arts)" title="Benjamin Franklin Medal (Royal Society of Arts)">Benjamin Franklin Medal</a> in 1956 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of his birth and the 200th anniversary of his membership of the RSA.<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a> The study of <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> (referred today as science in general) drew him into overlapping circles of acquaintance. Franklin was, for example, a corresponding member of the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Society_of_Birmingham" title="Lunar Society of Birmingham">Lunar Society of Birmingham</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> In 1759, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a> awarded him an honorary doctorate in recognition of his accomplishments.<a href="#cite_note-110">[107]</a> In October 1759, he was granted <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_City" title="Freedom of the City">Freedom of the Borough</a> of <a href="/wiki/St_Andrews" title="St Andrews">St Andrews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a> He was also awarded an honorary doctorate by <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a> in 1762. Because of these honors, he was often addressed as "<abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> Franklin."<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-2">[1]</a> While living in London in 1768, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin%27s_phonetic_alphabet" title="Benjamin Franklin's phonetic alphabet">he developed a phonetic alphabet</a> in A Scheme for a new Alphabet and a Reformed Mode of Spelling. This reformed alphabet discarded six letters he regarded as redundant (c, j, q, w, x, and y), and substituted six new letters for sounds he felt lacked letters of their own. This alphabet never caught on, and he eventually lost interest.<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Travels_around_Europe">Travels around Europe</h3></div> Franklin used London as a base to travel. In 1771, he made short journeys through different parts of England, staying with <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a> at <a href="/wiki/Leeds" title="Leeds">Leeds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Percival" title="Thomas Percival">Thomas Percival</a> at <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_Darwin" title="Erasmus Darwin">Erasmus Darwin</a> at <a href="/wiki/Lichfield" title="Lichfield">Lichfield</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sparks-113">[110]</a> In Scotland, he spent five days with <a href="/wiki/Henry_Home,_Lord_Kames" title="Henry Home, Lord Kames">Lord Kames</a> near <a href="/wiki/Stirling" title="Stirling">Stirling</a> and stayed for three weeks with <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> in Edinburgh. In 1759, he visited Edinburgh with his son and later reported that he considered his six weeks in Scotland "six weeks of the densest happiness I have met with in any part of my life."<a href="#cite_note-Buchan_2003_p._2-114">[111]</a> In Ireland, he stayed with <a href="/wiki/Wills_Hill,_1st_Marquess_of_Downshire" title="Wills Hill, 1st Marquess of Downshire">Lord Hillsborough</a>. Franklin noted of him that "all the plausible behaviour I have described is meant only, by patting and stroking the horse, to make him more patient, while the reins are drawn tighter, and the spurs set deeper into his sides."<a href="#cite_note-115">[112]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>, Franklin was invited to sit with the members of the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland" title="Parliament of Ireland">Irish Parliament</a> rather than in the gallery. He was the first American to receive this honor.<a href="#cite_note-sparks-113">[110]</a> While touring Ireland, he was deeply moved by the level of poverty he witnessed. The <a href="/wiki/Ireland#Economy" title="Ireland">economy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Kingdom of Ireland</a> was affected by the same trade regulations and laws that governed the Thirteen Colonies. He feared that the American colonies could eventually come to the same level of poverty if the regulations and laws continued to apply to them.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-116">[113]</a> Franklin spent two months in German lands in 1766, but his connections to the country stretched across a lifetime. He declared a debt of gratitude to German scientist <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Guericke" title="Otto von Guericke">Otto von Guericke</a> for his early studies of electricity. Franklin also co-authored the first <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amity_and_Commerce_(Prussia%E2%80%93United_States)" title="Treaty of Amity and Commerce (Prussia–United States)">treaty of friendship</a> between Prussia and America in 1785.<a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a> In September 1767, he visited Paris with his usual traveling partner, <a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Pringle,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir John Pringle, 1st Baronet">Sir John Pringle, 1st Baronet</a>. News of his electrical discoveries was widespread in France. His reputation meant that he was introduced to many influential scientists and politicians, and also to King <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV" title="Louis XV">Louis XV</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto-11">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defending_the_American_cause">Defending the American cause</h3></div> One line of argument in Parliament was that Americans should pay a share of the costs of the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a> and therefore taxes should be levied on them. Franklin became the American spokesman in highly publicized testimony in Parliament in 1766. He stated that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire. He said local governments had raised, outfitted and paid 25,000 soldiers to fight France—as many as Britain itself sent—and spent many millions from American treasuries doing so in the French and Indian War alone.<a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a> In 1772, Franklin <a href="/wiki/Hutchinson_letters_affair" title="Hutchinson letters affair">obtained private letters</a> of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hutchinson_(governor)" title="Thomas Hutchinson (governor)">Thomas Hutchinson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Oliver" title="Andrew Oliver">Andrew Oliver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Governor of Massachusetts">governor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts">lieutenant governor</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">Province of Massachusetts Bay</a>, proving that they had encouraged the Crown to crack down on Bostonians. Franklin sent them to America, where they escalated tensions. The letters were finally <a href="/wiki/News_leak" title="News leak">leaked</a> to the public in the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Gazette" title="Boston Gazette">Boston Gazette</a> in mid-June 1773,<a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a> causing a political firestorm in Massachusetts and raising significant questions in England.<a href="#cite_note-Penegar29-121">[118]</a> The British began to regard him as the fomenter of serious trouble. Hopes for a peaceful solution ended as he was systematically ridiculed and humiliated by <a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_England_and_Wales" title="Solicitor General for England and Wales">Solicitor-General</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Wedderburn,_1st_Earl_of_Rosslyn" title="Alexander Wedderburn, 1st Earl of Rosslyn">Alexander Wedderburn</a>, before the <a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Privy Council of the United Kingdom">Privy Council</a> on January 29, 1774. He returned to Philadelphia in March 1775, and abandoned his accommodationist stance.<a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a> In 1773, Franklin published two of his most celebrated pro-American satirical essays: <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Rules_By_Which_A_Great_Empire_May_Be_Reduced_To_A_Small_One" class="extiw" title="s:Rules By Which A Great Empire May Be Reduced To A Small One">"Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One,"</a> and "An Edict by the King of Prussia."<a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agent_for_British_and_Hellfire_Club_membership">Agent for British and Hellfire Club membership</h3></div> Franklin is known to have occasionally attended the <a href="/wiki/Hellfire_Club" title="Hellfire Club">Hellfire Club</a>'s meetings during 1758 as a non-member during his time in England. However, some authors and historians would argue he was in fact a British spy. As there are no records left (having been burned in 1774<a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a>), many of these members are just assumed or linked by letters sent to each other.<a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a> One early proponent that Franklin was a member of the Hellfire Club and a double agent is the historian <a href="/wiki/Donald_McCormick" title="Donald McCormick">Donald McCormick</a>,<a href="#cite_note-126">[123]</a> who has a history of making controversial claims.<a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coming_of_revolution">Coming of revolution</h3></div> In 1763, soon after Franklin returned to Pennsylvania from England for the first time, the western frontier was engulfed in a bitter war known as <a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontiac's Rebellion">Pontiac's Rebellion</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Paxton_Boys" title="Paxton Boys">Paxton Boys</a>, a group of settlers convinced that the Pennsylvania government was not doing enough to protect them from <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">American Indian</a> raids, murdered a group of peaceful <a href="/wiki/Susquehannock" title="Susquehannock">Susquehannock</a> Indians and marched on Philadelphia.<a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a> Franklin helped to organize a local militia to defend the capital against the mob. He met with the Paxton leaders and persuaded them to disperse. Franklin wrote a scathing attack against the <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racial prejudice</a> of the Paxton Boys. "If an Indian injures me," he asked, "does it follow that I may revenge that injury on all Indians?"<a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-:01scratch-130">[127]</a> He provided an early response to British surveillance through his own network of <a href="/wiki/Surveillance_art" title="Surveillance art">counter-surveillance and manipulation</a>. "He waged a public relations campaign, secured secret aid, played a role in privateering expeditions, and churned out effective and inflammatory propaganda."<a href="#cite_note-131">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Declaration_of_Independence">Declaration of Independence</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="About 50 men, most of them seated, are in a large meeting room. Most are focused on the five men standing in the center of the room. The tallest of the five is laying a document on a table." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/220px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/330px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/440px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1970" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Trumbull" title="John Trumbull">John Trumbull</a>'s portrait of the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Committee of Five</a> presenting their draft of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[129]</a></figcaption></figure> By the time Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on May 5, 1775, after his second mission to Great Britain, the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> had begun at the <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Lexington_and_Concord" title="Battles of Lexington and Concord">Battles of Lexington and Concord</a> the previous month, on April 19, 1775. The New England militia had forced the main British army to remain inside Boston.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-133">[130]</a> The Pennsylvania Assembly unanimously chose Franklin as their delegate to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In June 1776, he was appointed a member of the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Committee of Five</a> that drafted the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>. Although he was temporarily disabled by <a href="/wiki/Gout" title="Gout">gout</a> and unable to attend most meetings of the committee,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] he made several "small but important" changes to the draft sent to him by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a> At the signing, he is quoted as having replied to a comment by <a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a> that <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">they</a> must all hang together, saying, "Yes, we must, indeed, all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately."<a href="#cite_note-135">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ambassador_to_France_(1776–1785)">Ambassador to France (1776–1785)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin1877.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Franklin1877.jpg/220px-Franklin1877.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Franklin1877.jpg/330px-Franklin1877.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Franklin1877.jpg/440px-Franklin1877.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1733" data-file-height="1968" /></a><figcaption>Franklin, in his <a href="/wiki/Fur" title="Fur">fur</a> hat, charmed the <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a> with what they perceived as his rustic <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> <a href="/wiki/Genius" title="Genius">genius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-136">[Note 4]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Libertas_Americana_silver_medallion_1783.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Libertas_Americana_silver_medallion_1783.jpg/220px-Libertas_Americana_silver_medallion_1783.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Libertas_Americana_silver_medallion_1783.jpg/330px-Libertas_Americana_silver_medallion_1783.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Libertas_Americana_silver_medallion_1783.jpg/440px-Libertas_Americana_silver_medallion_1783.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>While in France, Franklin designed and commissioned <a href="/wiki/Augustin_Dupr%C3%A9" title="Augustin Dupré">Augustin Dupré</a> to engrave the medallion <a href="/wiki/Libertas_Americana" title="Libertas Americana">Libertas Americana</a>, which was minted in Paris in 1783.</figcaption></figure> On October 26, 1776, Franklin was dispatched to France as <a href="/wiki/Commissioner" title="Commissioner">commissioner</a> for the United States.<a href="#cite_note-137">[133]</a> He took with him as secretary his 16-year-old grandson, <a href="/wiki/William_Temple_Franklin" title="William Temple Franklin">William Temple Franklin</a>. They lived in a home in the Parisian suburb of <a href="/wiki/Passy" title="Passy">Passy</a>, donated by <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Donatien_Le_Ray_de_Chaumont" title="Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont">Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont</a>, who supported the United States. Franklin remained in France until 1785. He conducted the affairs of his country toward the French nation with great success, which included securing a critical military alliance in 1778 and signing the 1783 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[134]</a> Among his associates in France was <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau</a>—a <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolutionary</a> writer, orator and statesman who in 1791 was elected president of the <a href="/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">National Assembly</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[135]</a> In July 1784, Franklin met with Mirabeau and contributed anonymous materials that the Frenchman used in his first signed work: Considerations sur l'ordre de Cincinnatus.<a href="#cite_note-140">[136]</a> The publication was critical of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Cincinnati" title="Society of the Cincinnati">Society of the Cincinnati</a>, established in the United States. Franklin and Mirabeau thought of it as a "noble order," inconsistent with the <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarian</a> ideals of the new republic.<a href="#cite_note-141">[137]</a> During his stay in France, he was active as a Freemason, serving as venerable master of the lodge <a href="/wiki/Les_Neuf_S%C5%93urs" title="Les Neuf Sœurs">Les Neuf Sœurs</a> from 1779 until 1781. In 1784, when <a href="/wiki/Franz_Mesmer" title="Franz Mesmer">Franz Mesmer</a> began to publicize his theory of "<a href="/wiki/Animal_magnetism" title="Animal magnetism">animal magnetism</a>" which was considered offensive by many, <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a> appointed <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Animal_Magnetism" title="Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism">a commission</a> to investigate it. These included the chemist <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a>, the physician <a href="/wiki/Joseph-Ignace_Guillotin" title="Joseph-Ignace Guillotin">Joseph-Ignace Guillotin</a>, the astronomer <a href="/wiki/Jean_Sylvain_Bailly" title="Jean Sylvain Bailly">Jean Sylvain Bailly</a>, and Franklin.<a href="#cite_note-142">[138]</a> In doing so, the committee concluded, through <a href="/wiki/Blinded_experiment" title="Blinded experiment">blind trials</a> that mesmerism only seemed to work when the subjects expected it, which discredited mesmerism and became the first major demonstration of the <a href="/wiki/Placebo" title="Placebo">placebo</a> effect, which was described at that time as "imagination."<a href="#cite_note-143">[139]</a> In 1781, he was elected a fellow of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AAAS-144">[140]</a> Franklin's advocacy for <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">religious tolerance</a> in France contributed to arguments made by French philosophers and politicians that resulted in Louis XVI's signing of the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Versailles" title="Edict of Versailles">Edict of Versailles</a> in November 1787. This edict effectively nullified the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Fontainebleau" title="Edict of Fontainebleau">Edict of Fontainebleau</a>, which had denied non-Catholics civil status and the right to openly practice their faith.<a href="#cite_note-145">[141]</a> Franklin also served as American minister to Sweden, although he never visited that country.<a href="#cite_note-hist_Benj-146">[142]</a> He negotiated a <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amity_and_Commerce_(United_States%E2%80%93Sweden)" title="Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States–Sweden)">treaty</a> that was signed in April 1783. On August 27, 1783, in Paris, he witnessed the <a href="/wiki/Hot_air_balloon#First_manned_flight" title="Hot air balloon">world's first hydrogen balloon flight</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EcceF-147">[143]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_brothers#First_hydrogen_balloon" title="Robert brothers">Le Globe</a>, created by professor <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Charles" title="Jacques Charles">Jacques Charles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_brothers" title="Robert brothers">Les Frères Robert</a>, was watched by a vast crowd as it rose from the <a href="/wiki/Champ_de_Mars" title="Champ de Mars">Champ de Mars</a> (now the site of the <a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Tower" title="Eiffel Tower">Eiffel Tower</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Sci&Soc-148">[144]</a> Franklin became so enthusiastic that he subscribed financially to the next project to build a manned hydrogen balloon.<a href="#cite_note-Fid_Green-149">[145]</a> On December 1, 1783, Franklin was seated in the special enclosure for honored guests <a href="/wiki/Robert_brothers#First_manned_hydrogen_balloon_flight" title="Robert brothers">it took off</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Tuileries_Garden" title="Tuileries Garden">Jardin des Tuileries</a>, piloted by Charles and <a href="/wiki/Robert_brothers" title="Robert brothers">Nicolas-Louis Robert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EcceF-147">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-FAI-150">[146]</a> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Isaacson" title="Walter Isaacson">Walter Isaacson</a> describes a <a href="/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">chess</a> game between Franklin and the Duchess of Bourbon, "who made a move that inadvertently exposed her king. Ignoring the rules of the game, he promptly captured it. 'Ah,' said the duchess, 'we do not take Kings so.' Replied Franklin in a famous quip: 'We do in America.'"<a href="#cite_note-151">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Return_to_America">Return to America</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin%27s_return_to_Philadelphia_1785_cph.3g09906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Franklin%27s_return_to_Philadelphia_1785_cph.3g09906.jpg/220px-Franklin%27s_return_to_Philadelphia_1785_cph.3g09906.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Franklin%27s_return_to_Philadelphia_1785_cph.3g09906.jpg/330px-Franklin%27s_return_to_Philadelphia_1785_cph.3g09906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Franklin%27s_return_to_Philadelphia_1785_cph.3g09906.jpg/440px-Franklin%27s_return_to_Philadelphia_1785_cph.3g09906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3632" data-file-height="2600" /></a><figcaption>Franklin's return to Philadelphia, 1785, a portrait by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Leon_Gerome_Ferris" title="Jean Leon Gerome Ferris">Jean Leon Gerome Ferris</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foundation_of_the_American_Government_by_Henry_Hintermeister.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Foundation_of_the_American_Government_by_Henry_Hintermeister.jpg/220px-Foundation_of_the_American_Government_by_Henry_Hintermeister.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Foundation_of_the_American_Government_by_Henry_Hintermeister.jpg/330px-Foundation_of_the_American_Government_by_Henry_Hintermeister.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Foundation_of_the_American_Government_by_Henry_Hintermeister.jpg/440px-Foundation_of_the_American_Government_by_Henry_Hintermeister.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1312" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> witnesses <a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a> sign the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> with Franklin seen behind Morris, in <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Hintermeister" title="John Henry Hintermeister">John Henry Hintermeister</a>'s 1925 portrait, Foundation of the American Government<a href="#cite_note-152">[148]</a></figcaption></figure> When he returned home in 1785, Franklin occupied a position second only to that of <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> as the champion of American independence. He returned from France with an unexplained shortage of 100,000 pounds in Congressional funds. In response to a question from a member of Congress about this, Franklin, quoting the Bible, quipped, "Muzzle not the ox that treadeth out his master's grain." The missing funds were never again mentioned in Congress.<a href="#cite_note-153">[149]</a> Le Ray honored him with a commissioned portrait painted by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Duplessis" title="Joseph Duplessis">Joseph Duplessis</a>, which now hangs in the <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_(United_States)" title="National Portrait Gallery (United States)">National Portrait Gallery</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a> in Washington, D.C. After his return, Franklin became an <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolitionist</a> and freed his two slaves. He eventually became president of the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Abolition_Society" title="Pennsylvania Abolition Society">Pennsylvania Abolition Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-116">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="President_of_Pennsylvania_and_Delegate_to_the_Constitutional_convention">President of Pennsylvania and Delegate to the Constitutional convention</h4></div> Special balloting conducted October 18, 1785, unanimously elected him the sixth <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Pennsylvania" title="List of governors of Pennsylvania">president</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Executive_Council_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Pennsylvania" title="Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania">Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania</a>, replacing <a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a>. The office was practically that of the governor. He held that office for slightly over three years, longer than any other, and served the constitutional limit of three full terms. Shortly after his initial election, he was re-elected to a full term on October 29, 1785, and again in the fall of 1786 and on October 31, 1787. In that capacity, he served as host to the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Constitutional Convention of 1787</a> in Philadelphia.<a href="#cite_note-154">[150]</a> He also served as a delegate to the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Convention</a>. It was primarily an honorary position and he seldom engaged in debate. According to <a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a>, a Mrs. Powel asked Franklin what kind of government they had wrought. He replied: "A republic, madam, if you can keep it."<a href="#cite_note-155">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin%27s_grave_2010.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Benjamin_Franklin%27s_grave_2010.JPG/220px-Benjamin_Franklin%27s_grave_2010.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Benjamin_Franklin%27s_grave_2010.JPG/330px-Benjamin_Franklin%27s_grave_2010.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Benjamin_Franklin%27s_grave_2010.JPG/440px-Benjamin_Franklin%27s_grave_2010.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Franklin's gravesite at <a href="/wiki/Christ_Church_Burial_Ground" title="Christ Church Burial Ground">Christ Church Burial Ground</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></figcaption></figure> Franklin suffered from obesity throughout his middle age and elder years, which resulted in multiple health problems, particularly <a href="/wiki/Gout" title="Gout">gout</a>, which worsened as he aged. In poor health during the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">U.S. Constitution</a> in 1787, he was rarely seen in public from then until his death.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Franklin died from <a href="/wiki/Pleurisy" title="Pleurisy">pleuritic attack</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[152]</a> at his home in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> on April 17, 1790.<a href="#cite_note-157">[153]</a> He was aged 84 at the time of his death. His last words were reportedly, "a dying man can do nothing easy," to his daughter after she suggested that he change position in bed and lie on his side so he could breathe more easily.<a href="#cite_note-158">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[155]</a> Franklin's death is described in the book The Life of Benjamin Franklin, quoting from the account of <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Jones" title="John Paul Jones">John Paul Jones</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... when the pain and difficulty of breathing entirely left him, and his family were flattering themselves with the hopes of his recovery, when an imposthume, which had formed itself in his lungs, suddenly burst, and discharged a quantity of matter, which he continued to throw up while he had power; but, as that failed, the organs of respiration became gradually oppressed; a calm, lethargic state succeeded; and on the 17th instant (April 1790), about eleven o'clock at night, he quietly expired, closing a long and useful life of eighty-four years and three months.<a href="#cite_note-160">[156]</a> </blockquote> Approximately 20,000 people attended Franklin's funeral after which he was interred in <a href="/wiki/Christ_Church_Burial_Ground" title="Christ Church Burial Ground">Christ Church Burial Ground</a> in Philadelphia.<a href="#cite_note-161">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[158]</a> Upon learning of his death, the Constitutional Assembly in Revolutionary France entered into a state of mourning for a period of three days, and memorial services were conducted in honor of Franklin throughout the country.<a href="#cite_note-163">[159]</a> In 1728, aged 22, Franklin wrote what he hoped would be his own epitaph: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The Body of B. Franklin Printer; Like the Cover of an old Book, Its Contents torn out, And stript of its Lettering and Gilding, Lies here, Food for Worms. But the Work shall not be wholly lost: For it will, as he believ'd, appear once more, In a new & more perfect Edition, Corrected and Amended By the Author.<a href="#cite_note-164">[160]</a></blockquote> Franklin's actual grave, however, as he specified in his final will, simply reads "Benjamin and Deborah Franklin."<a href="#cite_note-165">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Inventions_and_scientific_inquiries">Inventions and scientific inquiries</h2></div> Franklin was a prodigious inventor. Among his many creations were the <a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">lightning rod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_stove" title="Franklin stove">Franklin stove</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bifocals" title="Bifocals">bifocal glasses</a> and the flexible <a href="/wiki/Urinary_catheterization" title="Urinary catheterization">urinary catheter</a>. He never patented his inventions; in his <a href="/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Benjamin_Franklin" title="The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin">autobiography</a> he wrote, "... as we enjoy great advantages from the inventions of others, we should be glad of an opportunity to serve others by any invention of ours; and this we should do freely and generously."<a href="#cite_note-166">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electricity">Electricity</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_West,_English_(born_America)_-_Benjamin_Franklin_Drawing_Electricity_from_the_Sky_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Benjamin_West%2C_English_%28born_America%29_-_Benjamin_Franklin_Drawing_Electricity_from_the_Sky_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Benjamin_West%2C_English_%28born_America%29_-_Benjamin_Franklin_Drawing_Electricity_from_the_Sky_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Benjamin_West%2C_English_%28born_America%29_-_Benjamin_Franklin_Drawing_Electricity_from_the_Sky_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Benjamin_West%2C_English_%28born_America%29_-_Benjamin_Franklin_Drawing_Electricity_from_the_Sky_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Benjamin_West%2C_English_%28born_America%29_-_Benjamin_Franklin_Drawing_Electricity_from_the_Sky_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Benjamin_West%2C_English_%28born_America%29_-_Benjamin_Franklin_Drawing_Electricity_from_the_Sky_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4039" data-file-height="5413" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Drawing_Electricity_from_the_Sky" title="Benjamin Franklin Drawing Electricity from the Sky">Benjamin Franklin Drawing Electricity from the Sky</a>, a <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1816 portrait by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_West" title="Benjamin West">Benjamin West</a> now on display at the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Museum_of_Art" title="Philadelphia Museum of Art">Philadelphia Museum of Art</a></figcaption></figure> Franklin started exploring the phenomenon of electricity in the 1740s, after he met the itinerant lecturer Archibald Spencer, who used <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a> in his demonstrations.<a href="#cite_note-167">[163]</a> He proposed that "vitreous" and "resinous" electricity were not different types of "<a href="/wiki/Fluid_theory_of_electricity" title="Fluid theory of electricity">electrical fluid</a>" (as electricity was called then), but the same "fluid" under different pressures. (The same proposal was made independently that same year by <a href="/wiki/William_Watson_(scientist)" title="William Watson (scientist)">William Watson</a>.) He was the first to label them as <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">positive and negative</a> respectively, which replaced the then current distinction made between 'vitreous' and 'resinous' electricity,<a href="#cite_note-168">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[166]</a> and he was the first to discover the principle of <a href="/wiki/Charge_conservation" title="Charge conservation">conservation of charge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-171">[167]</a> In 1748, he constructed a multiple plate <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitor</a>, that he called an "electrical battery" (not a true battery like <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Volta's</a> <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">pile</a>) by placing eleven panes of glass sandwiched between lead plates, suspended with silk cords and connected by wires.<a href="#cite_note-paper1749-172">[168]</a> In pursuit of more pragmatic uses for electricity, remarking in spring 1749 that he felt "chagrin'd a little" that his experiments had heretofore resulted in "Nothing in this Way of Use to Mankind," Franklin planned a practical demonstration. He proposed a dinner party where a turkey was to be killed via electric shock and roasted on an electrical spit.<a href="#cite_note-paper1749-172">[168]</a> After having prepared several turkeys this way, he noted that "the birds kill'd in this manner eat uncommonly tender."<a href="#cite_note-173">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[170]</a> Franklin recounted that in the process of one of these experiments, he was shocked by a pair of <a href="/wiki/Leyden_jar" title="Leyden jar">Leyden jars</a>, resulting in numbness in his arms that persisted for one evening, noting "I am Ashamed to have been Guilty of so Notorious a Blunder."<a href="#cite_note-175">[171]</a> Franklin briefly investigated <a href="/wiki/Electrotherapy" title="Electrotherapy">electrotherapy</a>, including the use of the <a href="/wiki/Electric_bath_(electrotherapy)" title="Electric bath (electrotherapy)">electric bath</a>. This work led to the field becoming widely known.<a href="#cite_note-176">[172]</a> In recognition of his work with electricity, he received the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> in 1753, and in 1756, he became one of the few 18th-century Americans elected a fellow of the Society. The <a href="/wiki/Centimetre%E2%80%93gram%E2%80%93second_system_of_units" title="Centimetre–gram–second system of units">CGS</a> unit of electric charge has been named after him: one franklin (Fr) is equal to one <a href="/wiki/Statcoulomb" title="Statcoulomb">statcoulomb</a>. Franklin advised Harvard University in its acquisition of new electrical laboratory apparatus after the complete loss of its original collection, in a fire that destroyed the original <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Hall" title="Harvard Hall">Harvard Hall</a> in 1764. The collection he assembled later became part of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Collection_of_Historical_Scientific_Instruments" title="Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments">Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments</a>, now on public display in its <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Science_Center" title="Harvard Science Center">Science Center</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tomase-177">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kite_experiment_and_lightning_rod">Kite experiment and lightning rod</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BEP-JONES-Franklin_and_Electricity.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/BEP-JONES-Franklin_and_Electricity.jpg/220px-BEP-JONES-Franklin_and_Electricity.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/BEP-JONES-Franklin_and_Electricity.jpg/330px-BEP-JONES-Franklin_and_Electricity.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/BEP-JONES-Franklin_and_Electricity.jpg/440px-BEP-JONES-Franklin_and_Electricity.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5959" data-file-height="7430" /></a><figcaption>Franklin and Electricity, a vignette <a href="/wiki/Art_and_engraving_on_United_States_banknotes" title="Art and engraving on United States banknotes">engraved</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Engraving_and_Printing" title="Bureau of Engraving and Printing">Bureau of Engraving and Printing</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1860</figcaption></figure> Franklin published a proposal for an experiment to prove that <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> is electricity by <a href="/wiki/Kite_experiment" title="Kite experiment">flying a kite in a storm</a>. On May 10, 1752, <a href="/wiki/Thomas-Fran%C3%A7ois_Dalibard" title="Thomas-François Dalibard">Thomas-François Dalibard</a> of France conducted Franklin's experiment using a 40-foot-tall (12 m) iron rod instead of a kite, and he extracted electrical sparks from a cloud. On June 15, 1752, Franklin may possibly have conducted his well-known kite experiment in Philadelphia, successfully extracting sparks from a cloud. He described the experiment in his newspaper, <a href="/wiki/The_Pennsylvania_Gazette" title="The Pennsylvania Gazette">The Pennsylvania Gazette</a>, on October 19, 1752,<a href="#cite_note-178">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[175]</a> without mentioning that he himself had performed it.<a href="#cite_note-180">[176]</a> This account was read to the Royal Society on December 21 and printed as such in the Philosophical Transactions.<a href="#cite_note-archives-181">[177]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a> published an account with additional details in his 1767 History and Present Status of Electricity. Franklin was careful to stand on an insulator, keeping dry under a roof to avoid the danger of <a href="/wiki/Electrical_injury" title="Electrical injury">electric shock</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Doren1938159-182">[178]</a> Others, such as <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Richmann" title="Georg Wilhelm Richmann">Georg Wilhelm Richmann</a> in Russia, were indeed electrocuted in performing lightning experiments during the months immediately following his experiment.<a href="#cite_note-183">[179]</a> In his writings, Franklin indicates that he was aware of the dangers and offered alternative ways to demonstrate that lightning was electrical, as shown by his use of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Ground_(electricity)" title="Ground (electricity)">electrical ground</a>. He did not perform this experiment in the way that is often pictured in popular literature, flying the kite and waiting to be struck by lightning, as it would have been dangerous.<a href="#cite_note-184">[180]</a> Instead he used the kite to collect some electric charge from a storm cloud, showing that lightning was electrical.<a href="#cite_note-Wolf-185">[181]</a> On October 19, 1752, in a letter to England with directions for repeating the experiment, he wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">When rain has wet the kite twine so that it can conduct the electric fire freely, you will find it streams out plentifully from the key at the approach of your knuckle, and with this key a phial, or Leyden jar, may be charged: and from electric fire thus obtained spirits may be kindled, and all other electric experiments [may be] performed which are usually done by the help of a rubber glass globe or tube; and therefore the sameness of the electrical matter with that of lightening [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>] completely demonstrated.<a href="#cite_note-Wolf-185">[181]</a></blockquote> Franklin's electrical experiments led to his invention of the lightning rod. He said that conductors with a sharp<a href="#cite_note-186">[182]</a> rather than a smooth point could discharge silently and at a far greater distance. He surmised that this could help protect buildings from lightning by attaching "upright Rods of Iron, made sharp as a Needle and gilt to prevent Rusting, and from the Foot of those Rods a Wire down the outside of the Building into the Ground; ... Would not these pointed Rods probably draw the Electrical Fire silently out of a Cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible Mischief!" Following a series of experiments on Franklin's own house, lightning rods were installed on the Academy of Philadelphia (later the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>) and the Pennsylvania State House (later <a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a>) in 1752.<a href="#cite_note-187">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_studies">Population studies</h3></div> Franklin had a major influence on the emerging science of <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a> or population studies.<a href="#cite_note-188">[184]</a> In the 1730s and 1740s, he began taking notes on population growth, finding that the American population had the fastest growth rate on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-189">[185]</a> Emphasizing that population growth depended on food supplies, he emphasized the abundance of food and available farmland in America. He calculated that America's population was doubling every 20 years and would surpass that of England in a century.<a href="#cite_note-190">[186]</a> In 1751, he drafted <a href="/wiki/Observations_Concerning_the_Increase_of_Mankind,_Peopling_of_Countries,_etc." title="Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc.">Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc.</a> Four years later, it was anonymously printed in Boston and was quickly reproduced in Britain, where it influenced the economist <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> and later the demographer <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a>, who credited Franklin for discovering a rule of population growth.<a href="#cite_note-191">[187]</a> Franklin's predictions on how British mercantilism was unsustainable alarmed British leaders who did not want to be surpassed by the colonies, so they became more willing to impose restrictions on the colonial economy.<a href="#cite_note-192">[188]</a> Kammen (1990) and Drake (2011) say Franklin's Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind (1755) stands alongside <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Stiles" title="Ezra Stiles">Ezra Stiles</a>' "Discourse on Christian Union" (1760) as the leading works of 18th-century Anglo-American demography; Drake credits Franklin's "wide readership and prophetic insight."<a href="#cite_note-193">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[190]</a> Franklin was also a pioneer in the study of slave demography, as shown in his 1755 essay.<a href="#cite_note-195">[191]</a> In his capacity as a farmer, he wrote at least one critique about the negative consequences of price controls, trade restrictions, and subsidy of the poor. This is succinctly preserved in his letter to the <a href="/wiki/London_Chronicle" title="London Chronicle">London Chronicle</a> published November 29, 1766, titled "On the Price of Corn, and Management of the poor."<a href="#cite_note-196">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceanography">Oceanography</h3></div> As deputy postmaster, Franklin became interested in <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">North Atlantic Ocean</a> circulation patterns. While in England in 1768, he heard a complaint from the Colonial Board of Customs. British packet ships carrying mail had taken several weeks longer to reach New York than it took an average merchant ship to reach <a href="/wiki/Newport,_Rhode_Island" title="Newport, Rhode Island">Newport, Rhode Island</a>. The merchantmen had a longer and more complex voyage because they left from London, while the packets left from <a href="/wiki/Falmouth,_Cornwall" title="Falmouth, Cornwall">Falmouth</a> in Cornwall.<a href="#cite_note-Tuchman_1988_p._221-222-197">[193]</a> Franklin put the question to his cousin Timothy Folger, a <a href="/wiki/Nantucket" title="Nantucket">Nantucket</a> whaler captain, who told him that merchant ships routinely avoided a strong eastbound mid-ocean current. The mail packet captains sailed dead into it, thus fighting an adverse current of 3 miles per hour (5 km/h). Franklin worked with Folger and other experienced ship captains, learning enough to chart the current and name it the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a>, by which it is still known today.<a href="#cite_note-198">[194]</a> Franklin published his Gulf Stream chart in 1770 in England, where it was ignored. Subsequent versions were printed in France in 1778 and the U.S. in 1786. The British original edition of the chart had been so thoroughly ignored that everyone assumed it was lost forever until Phil Richardson, a <a href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">Woods Hole oceanographer</a> and Gulf Stream expert, discovered it in the <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Bibliothèque Nationale</a> in Paris in 1980.<a href="#cite_note-199">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[196]</a> This find received front-page coverage in <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.<a href="#cite_note-201">[197]</a> It took many years for British sea captains to adopt Franklin's advice on navigating the current; once they did, they were able to trim two weeks from their sailing time.<a href="#cite_note-202">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[199]</a> In 1853, the oceanographer and cartographer <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Fontaine_Maury" title="Matthew Fontaine Maury">Matthew Fontaine Maury</a> noted that while Franklin charted and codified the Gulf Stream, he did not discover it: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Though it was Dr. Franklin and Captain Tim Folger, who first turned the Gulf Stream to nautical account, the discovery that there was a Gulf Stream cannot be said to belong to either of them, for its existence was known to <a href="/wiki/Peter_Martyr_d%27Anghiera" title="Peter Martyr d'Anghiera">Peter Martyr d'Anghiera</a>, and to <a href="/wiki/Sir_Humphrey_Gilbert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Humphrey Gilbert">Sir Humphrey Gilbert</a>, in the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-204">[200]</a></blockquote>An aging Franklin accumulated all his oceanographic findings in Maritime Observations, published by the Philosophical Society's transactions in 1786.<a href="#cite_note-205">[201]</a> It contained ideas for <a href="/wiki/Sea_anchor" title="Sea anchor">sea anchors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">catamaran</a> hulls, <a href="/wiki/Watertight_compartment" class="mw-redirect" title="Watertight compartment">watertight compartments</a>, shipboard lightning rods and a soup bowl designed to stay stable in stormy weather. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theories_and_experiments">Theories and experiments</h3></div> Franklin was, along with his contemporary <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a>, the only major scientist who supported <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Wave_theory_of_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave theory of light">wave theory of light</a>, which was basically ignored by the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a>. In the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Corpuscular_theory_of_light" title="Corpuscular theory of light">corpuscular theory</a> was held to be true; it took <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Thomas Young's</a> well-known <a href="/wiki/Double-slit_experiment" title="Double-slit experiment">slit experiment</a> in 1803 to persuade most scientists to believe Huygens's theory.<a href="#cite_note-206">[202]</a> On October 21, 1743, according to the popular myth, a storm moving from the southwest denied Franklin the opportunity of witnessing a <a href="/wiki/Lunar_eclipse" title="Lunar eclipse">lunar eclipse</a>. He was said to have noted that the <a href="/wiki/Prevailing_winds" title="Prevailing winds">prevailing winds</a> were actually from the northeast, contrary to what he had expected. In correspondence with his brother, he learned that the same storm had not reached Boston until after the eclipse, despite the fact that Boston is to the northeast of Philadelphia. He deduced that storms do not always travel in the direction of the prevailing wind, a concept that greatly influenced <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-207">[203]</a> After the Icelandic volcanic eruption of <a href="/wiki/Laki" title="Laki">Laki</a> in 1783, and the subsequent harsh European winter of 1784, Franklin made observations on the causal nature of these two seemingly separate events. He wrote about them in a lecture series.<a href="#cite_note-208">[204]</a> Though Franklin is famously associated with kites from his lightning experiments, he has also been noted by many for using kites to pull humans and ships across waterways.<a href="#cite_note-209">[205]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Pocock_(inventor)" title="George Pocock (inventor)">George Pocock</a> in the book A Treatise on The Aeropleustic Art, or Navigation in the Air, by means of Kites, or Buoyant Sails<a href="#cite_note-210">[206]</a> noted being inspired by Benjamin Franklin's traction of his body by kite power across a waterway. Franklin noted a principle of <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a> by observing that on a very hot day, he stayed cooler in a wet shirt in a breeze than he did in a dry one. To understand this phenomenon more clearly, he conducted experiments. In 1758 on a warm day in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, England, he and fellow scientist <a href="/wiki/John_Hadley_(chemist)" title="John Hadley (chemist)">John Hadley</a> experimented by continually wetting the ball of a mercury <a href="/wiki/Thermometer" title="Thermometer">thermometer</a> with <a href="/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">ether</a> and using <a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a> to evaporate the ether.<a href="#cite_note-211">[207]</a> With each subsequent <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>, the thermometer read a lower temperature, eventually reaching 7 °F (−14 °C). Another thermometer showed that the room temperature was constant at 65 °F (18 °C). In his letter <a href="/wiki/Cooling_by_Evaporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooling by Evaporation">Cooling by Evaporation</a>, Franklin noted that, "One may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day."<a href="#cite_note-212">[208]</a> In 1761, Franklin wrote a letter to Mary Stevenson describing his experiments on the relationship between color and heat absorption.<a href="#cite_note-213">[209]</a> He found that darker color clothes got hotter when exposed to sunlight than lighter color clothes, an early demonstration of <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a> <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a>. One experiment he performed consisted of placing square pieces of cloth of various color out in the snow on a sunny day. He waited some time and then measured that the black pieces sank furthest into the snow of all the colors, indicating that they got the hottest and melted the most snow. According to <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>, Franklin's experiments on the non-conduction of ice are worth mentioning, although the law of the general effect of <a href="/wiki/Liquefaction" title="Liquefaction">liquefaction</a> on <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytes</a> is not attributed to Franklin.<a href="#cite_note-214">[210]</a> However, as reported in 1836 by Franklin's great-grandson <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dallas_Bache" title="Alexander Dallas Bache">Alexander Dallas Bache</a> of the University of Pennsylvania, the law of the effect of heat on the conduction of bodies otherwise non-conductors, for example, glass, could be attributed to Franklin. Franklin wrote, "... A certain quantity of heat will make some bodies good conductors, that will not otherwise conduct ..." and again, "... And water, though naturally a good conductor, will not conduct well when frozen into ice."<a href="#cite_note-215">[211]</a> While traveling on a ship, Franklin had observed that the wake of a ship <a href="/wiki/Storm_oil" title="Storm oil">was diminished</a> when the cooks scuttled their greasy water. He studied the effects on a large pond in <a href="/wiki/Clapham_Common" title="Clapham Common">Clapham Common</a>, London. "I fetched out a cruet of oil and dropt a little of it on the water ... though not more than a teaspoon full, produced an instant calm over a space of several yards square." He later used the trick to "calm the waters" by carrying "a little oil in the hollow joint of [his] cane."<a href="#cite_note-216">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decision-making">Decision-making</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BenFranklin_Waterspout_1806.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/BenFranklin_Waterspout_1806.jpg/220px-BenFranklin_Waterspout_1806.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/BenFranklin_Waterspout_1806.jpg/330px-BenFranklin_Waterspout_1806.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/BenFranklin_Waterspout_1806.jpg/440px-BenFranklin_Waterspout_1806.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1732" /></a><figcaption>An illustration that appears in Franklin's paper, "Water-spouts and Whirlwinds"</figcaption></figure> In a 1772 letter to <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a>, Franklin laid out the earliest known description of the Pro & Con list,<a href="#cite_note-decisions-217">[213]</a> a common <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> technique, now sometimes called a <a href="/wiki/Decisional_balance_sheet" title="Decisional balance sheet">decisional balance sheet</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... my Way is, to divide half a Sheet of Paper by a Line into two Columns, writing over the one Pro, and over the other Con. Then during three or four Days Consideration I put down under the different Heads short Hints of the different Motives that at different Times occur to me for or against the Measure. When I have thus got them all together in one View, I endeavour to estimate their respective Weights; and where I find two, one on each side, that seem equal, I strike them both out: If I find a Reason pro equal to some two Reasons con, I strike out the three. If I judge some two Reasons con equal to some three Reasons pro, I strike out the five; and thus proceeding I find at length where the Ballance lies; and if after a Day or two of farther Consideration nothing new that is of Importance occurs on either side, I come to a Determination accordingly.<a href="#cite_note-decisions-217">[213]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Views_on_religion,_morality,_and_slavery">Views on religion, morality, and slavery</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_(1706%E2%80%931790)_MET_DT2883.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Benjamin_Franklin_%281706%E2%80%931790%29_MET_DT2883.jpg/220px-Benjamin_Franklin_%281706%E2%80%931790%29_MET_DT2883.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Benjamin_Franklin_%281706%E2%80%931790%29_MET_DT2883.jpg/330px-Benjamin_Franklin_%281706%E2%80%931790%29_MET_DT2883.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Benjamin_Franklin_%281706%E2%80%931790%29_MET_DT2883.jpg/440px-Benjamin_Franklin_%281706%E2%80%931790%29_MET_DT2883.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1454" data-file-height="1861" /></a><figcaption>A bust of Franklin built by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Houdon" title="Jean-Antoine Houdon">Jean-Antoine Houdon</a> in 1778</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pedro_Am%C3%A9rico_-_Voltaire_aben%C3%A7oando_o_neto_de_Franklin_em_nome_de_Deus_e_da_Liberdade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Pedro_Am%C3%A9rico_-_Voltaire_aben%C3%A7oando_o_neto_de_Franklin_em_nome_de_Deus_e_da_Liberdade.jpg/220px-Pedro_Am%C3%A9rico_-_Voltaire_aben%C3%A7oando_o_neto_de_Franklin_em_nome_de_Deus_e_da_Liberdade.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Pedro_Am%C3%A9rico_-_Voltaire_aben%C3%A7oando_o_neto_de_Franklin_em_nome_de_Deus_e_da_Liberdade.jpg/330px-Pedro_Am%C3%A9rico_-_Voltaire_aben%C3%A7oando_o_neto_de_Franklin_em_nome_de_Deus_e_da_Liberdade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Pedro_Am%C3%A9rico_-_Voltaire_aben%C3%A7oando_o_neto_de_Franklin_em_nome_de_Deus_e_da_Liberdade.jpg/440px-Pedro_Am%C3%A9rico_-_Voltaire_aben%C3%A7oando_o_neto_de_Franklin_em_nome_de_Deus_e_da_Liberdade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>Voltaire blessing Franklin's grandson, in the name of God and Liberty, an 1890 portrait by <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Am%C3%A9rico" title="Pedro Américo">Pedro Américo</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_by_Hiram_Powers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Benjamin_Franklin_by_Hiram_Powers.jpg/220px-Benjamin_Franklin_by_Hiram_Powers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="440" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Benjamin_Franklin_by_Hiram_Powers.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="230" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>A statue of Franklin by <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Powers" title="Hiram Powers">Hiram Powers</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dr_Richard_Price,_DD,_FRS_-_Benjamin_West.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Dr_Richard_Price%2C_DD%2C_FRS_-_Benjamin_West.jpg/220px-Dr_Richard_Price%2C_DD%2C_FRS_-_Benjamin_West.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Dr_Richard_Price%2C_DD%2C_FRS_-_Benjamin_West.jpg/330px-Dr_Richard_Price%2C_DD%2C_FRS_-_Benjamin_West.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Dr_Richard_Price%2C_DD%2C_FRS_-_Benjamin_West.jpg/440px-Dr_Richard_Price%2C_DD%2C_FRS_-_Benjamin_West.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2268" data-file-height="2958" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Richard Price</a>, the radical minister of <a href="/wiki/Newington_Green_Unitarian_Church" title="Newington Green Unitarian Church">Newington Green Unitarian Church</a>, holding a letter from Franklin</figcaption></figure> Like the other advocates of <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">republicanism</a>, Franklin emphasized that the new republic could survive only if the people were virtuous. All his life, he explored the role of civic and personal virtue, as expressed in Poor Richard's <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphorisms</a>. He felt that organized religion was necessary to keep men good to their fellow men, but rarely attended religious services himself.<a href="#cite_note-218">[214]</a> When he met <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> in Paris and asked his fellow member of the Enlightenment vanguard to bless his grandson, Voltaire said in English, "God and Liberty," and added, "this is the only appropriate benediction for the grandson of Monsieur Franklin."<a href="#cite_note-219">[215]</a> Franklin's parents were both pious Puritans.<a href="#cite_note-220">[216]</a> The family attended the <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Church" title="Old South Church">Old South Church</a>, the most liberal Puritan congregation in Boston, where Benjamin Franklin was baptized in 1706.<a href="#cite_note-221">[217]</a> Franklin's father, a poor chandler, owned a copy of a book, Bonifacius: Essays to Do Good, by the Puritan preacher and family friend <a href="/wiki/Cotton_Mather" title="Cotton Mather">Cotton Mather</a>, which Franklin often cited as a key influence on his life. "If I have been," Franklin wrote to Cotton Mather's son seventy years later, "a useful citizen, the public owes the advantage of it to that book."<a href="#cite_note-222">[218]</a> His first pen name, Silence Dogood, paid homage both to the book and to a widely known sermon by Mather. The book preached the importance of forming <a href="/wiki/Voluntary_association" title="Voluntary association">voluntary associations</a> to benefit society. Franklin learned about forming do-good associations from Mather, but his organizational skills made him the most influential force in making <a href="/wiki/Volunteering" title="Volunteering">voluntarism</a> an enduring part of the American ethos.<a href="#cite_note-223">[219]</a> Franklin formulated a presentation of his beliefs and published it in 1728.<a href="#cite_note-224">[220]</a> He no longer accepted the key Puritan ideas regarding salvation, the <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">divinity of Jesus</a>, or indeed much religious dogma. He classified himself as a <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deist</a> in his 1771 autobiography,<a href="#cite_note-225">[221]</a> although he still considered himself a Christian.<a href="#cite_note-Christian-226">[222]</a> He retained a strong faith in a God as the wellspring of morality and goodness in man, and as a Providential actor in history responsible for American independence.<a href="#cite_note-227">[223]</a> At a critical impasse during the Constitutional Convention in June 1787, he attempted to introduce the practice of daily common prayer with these words: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... In the beginning of the contest with G. Britain, when we were sensible of danger we had daily prayer in this room for the Divine Protection. Our prayers, Sir, were heard, and they were graciously answered. All of us who were engaged in the struggle must have observed frequent instances of a Superintending providence in our favor. ... And have we now forgotten that powerful friend? or do we imagine that we no longer need His assistance. I have lived, Sir, a long time and the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth—that God governs in the affairs of men....I therefore beg leave to move—that henceforth prayers imploring the assistance of Heaven, and its blessings on our deliberations, be held in this Assembly every morning before we proceed to business, and that one or more of the Clergy of this City be requested to officiate in that service.<a href="#cite_note-228">[224]</a></blockquote> The motion gained almost no support and was never brought to a vote.<a href="#cite_note-229">[225]</a> Franklin was an enthusiastic admirer of the evangelical minister <a href="/wiki/George_Whitefield" title="George Whitefield">George Whitefield</a> during the <a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a>. He did not himself subscribe to Whitefield's theology, but he admired Whitefield for exhorting people to worship God through good works. He published all of Whitefield's sermons and journals, thereby earning a lot of money and boosting the Great Awakening.<a href="#cite_note-230">[226]</a> When he stopped attending church, Franklin wrote in his autobiography: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... Sunday being my studying day, I never was without some religious principles. I never doubted, for instance, the existence of the Deity; that He made the world, and governed it by His providence; that the most acceptable service of God was the doing good to man; that our souls are immortal; and that all crime will be punished, and virtue rewarded, either here or hereafter.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-231">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[228]</a> </blockquote> Franklin retained a lifelong commitment to the non-religious Puritan virtues and political values he had grown up with, and through his civic work and publishing, he succeeded in passing these values into the American culture permanently. He had a "passion for virtue."<a href="#cite_note-233">[229]</a> These Puritan values included his devotion to egalitarianism, education, industry, thrift, honesty, temperance, charity and community spirit.<a href="#cite_note-234">[230]</a> Thomas Kidd states, "As an adult, Franklin touted ethical responsibility, industriousness, and benevolence, even as he jettisoned Christian orthodoxy."<a href="#cite_note-235">[231]</a> The classical authors read in the Enlightenment period taught an abstract ideal of republican government based on hierarchical social orders of king, aristocracy and commoners. It was widely believed that English liberties relied on their balance of power, but also hierarchal deference to the privileged class.<a href="#cite_note-236">[232]</a> "Puritanism ... and the epidemic evangelism of the mid-eighteenth century, had created challenges to the traditional notions of social stratification"<a href="#cite_note-Bailyn303-237">[233]</a> by preaching that the Bible taught all men are equal, that the true value of a man lies in his moral behavior, not his class, and that all men can be saved.<a href="#cite_note-Bailyn303-237">[233]</a> Franklin, steeped in Puritanism and an enthusiastic supporter of the evangelical movement, rejected the salvation dogma but embraced the radical notion of egalitarian democracy.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Franklin's commitment to teach these values was itself something he gained from his Puritan upbringing, with its stress on "inculcating virtue and character in themselves and their communities."<a href="#cite_note-238">[234]</a> These Puritan values and the desire to pass them on, were one of his quintessentially American characteristics and helped shape the character of the nation. <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> considered Franklin's ethical writings a culmination of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant ethic</a>, which ethic created the social conditions necessary for the birth of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[235]</a> One of his characteristics was his respect, tolerance and promotion of all churches. Referring to his experience in Philadelphia, he wrote in his autobiography, "new Places of worship were continually wanted, and generally erected by voluntary Contribution, my Mite for such purpose, whatever might be the Sect, was never refused."<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-231">[227]</a> "He helped create a new type of nation that would draw strength from its religious <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">pluralism</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Isaacson_2004_p_93ff-240">[236]</a> The evangelical revivalists who were active mid-century, such as Whitefield, were the greatest advocates of religious freedom, "claiming liberty of conscience to be an 'inalienable right of every rational creature.'"<a href="#cite_note-241">[237]</a> Whitefield's supporters in Philadelphia, including Franklin, erected "a large, new hall, that ... could provide a pulpit to anyone of any belief."<a href="#cite_note-242">[238]</a> Franklin's rejection of dogma and doctrine and his stress on the God of ethics and morality and <a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">civic virtue</a> made him the "prophet of tolerance."<a href="#cite_note-Isaacson_2004_p_93ff-240">[236]</a> He composed "A Parable Against Persecution," an apocryphal 51st chapter of Genesis in which God teaches Abraham the duty of tolerance.<a href="#cite_note-243">[239]</a> While he was living in London in 1774, he was present at the birth of <a href="/wiki/General_Assembly_of_Unitarian_and_Free_Christian_Churches" title="General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches">British Unitarianism</a>, attending the inaugural session of the <a href="/wiki/Essex_Street_Chapel" title="Essex Street Chapel">Essex Street Chapel</a>, at which <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_Lindsey" title="Theophilus Lindsey">Theophilus Lindsey</a> drew together the first avowedly <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarian</a> congregation in England; this was somewhat politically risky and pushed <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">religious tolerance</a> to new boundaries, as a denial of the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> was illegal until <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_the_Trinity_Act_1813" title="Doctrine of the Trinity Act 1813">the 1813 Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-244">[240]</a> Although his parents had intended for him a career in the church,<a href="#cite_note-autobio-20">[19]</a> Franklin as a young man adopted the Enlightenment religious belief in deism, that God's truths can be found entirely through nature and reason,<a href="#cite_note-245">[241]</a> declaring, "I soon became a thorough Deist."<a href="#cite_note-246">[242]</a> He rejected Christian dogma in a 1725 pamphlet <a href="/wiki/A_Dissertation_on_Liberty_and_Necessity,_Pleasure_and_Pain" title="A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain">A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain</a>,<a href="#cite_note-247">[243]</a> which he later saw as an embarrassment,<a href="#cite_note-Isaacson45-248">[244]</a> while simultaneously asserting that God is "all wise, <a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">all good</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">all powerful</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Isaacson45-248">[244]</a> He defended his rejection of religious dogma with these words: "I think opinions should be judged by their influences and effects; and if a man holds none that tend to make him less virtuous or more vicious, it may be concluded that he holds none that are dangerous, which I hope is the case with me." After the disillusioning experience of seeing the decay in his own moral standards, and those of two friends in London whom he had converted to deism, Franklin decided that deism was true but it was not as useful in promoting personal morality as were the controls imposed by organized religion.<a href="#cite_note-249">[245]</a> Ralph Frasca contends that in his later life he can be considered a non-denominational Christian, although he did not believe Christ was divine.<a href="#cite_note-Faith-250">[246]</a> In a major scholarly study of his religion, Thomas Kidd argues that Franklin believed that true religiosity was a matter of personal morality and civic virtue. Kidd says Franklin maintained his lifelong resistance to orthodox Christianity while arriving finally at a "doctrineless, moralized Christianity."<a href="#cite_note-251">[247]</a> According to David Morgan,<a href="#cite_note-252">[248]</a> Franklin was a proponent of "generic religion." He prayed to "Powerful Goodness" and referred to God as "the infinite." <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> noted that he was a mirror in which people saw their own religion: "The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholics</a> thought him almost a Catholic. The <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> claimed him as one of them. The <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterians</a> thought him half a Presbyterian, and the <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Friends</a> believed him a wet Quaker." Adams himself decided that Franklin best fit among the "Atheists, Deists, and Libertines."<a href="#cite_note-253">[249]</a> Whatever else Franklin was, concludes Morgan, "he was a true champion of generic religion." In a letter to Richard Price, Franklin states that he believes religion should support itself without help from the government, claiming, "When a Religion is good, I conceive that it will support itself; and, when it cannot support itself, and God does not take care to support, so that its Professors are oblig'd to call for the help of the Civil Power, it is a sign, I apprehend, of its being a bad one."<a href="#cite_note-254">[250]</a> In 1790, just about a month before he died, Franklin wrote a letter to <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Stiles" title="Ezra Stiles">Ezra Stiles</a>, president of <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>, who had asked him his views on religion: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">As to <a href="/wiki/Jesus_of_Nazareth" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus of Nazareth">Jesus of Nazareth</a>, my Opinion of whom you particularly desire, I think the System of Morals and his Religion, as he left them to us, the best the world ever saw or is likely to see; but I apprehend it has received various corrupt changes, and I have, with most of the present <a href="/wiki/English_Dissenters" title="English Dissenters">Dissenters in England</a>, some Doubts as to his divinity; tho' it is a question I do not dogmatize upon, having never studied it, and I think it needless to busy myself with it now, when I expect soon an Opportunity of knowing the Truth with less Trouble. I see no harm, however, in its being believed, if that belief has the good consequence, as it probably has, of making his doctrines more respected and better observed; especially as I do not perceive that the Supreme takes it amiss, by distinguishing the unbelievers in his government of the world with any particular marks of his displeasure.<a href="#cite_note-vandoren-24">[23]</a></blockquote> On July 4, 1776, Congress appointed a three-member committee composed of Franklin, Jefferson, and Adams to design the <a href="/wiki/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States" title="Great Seal of the United States">Great Seal of the United States</a>. Franklin's proposal (which was not adopted) featured the motto: "Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God" and a scene from the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a> he took from the <a href="/wiki/Book_frontispiece" title="Book frontispiece">frontispiece</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Bible" title="Geneva Bible">Geneva Bible</a>,<a href="#cite_note-255">[251]</a> with <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pillar_of_Fire_(theophany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pillar of Fire (theophany)">pillar of fire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="George III of the United Kingdom">George III</a> depicted as <a href="/wiki/Pharaohs_in_the_Bible#Pharaoh_of_the_Exodus" title="Pharaohs in the Bible">pharaoh</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FirstCommitteeGreatSealReverseLossingDrawing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/FirstCommitteeGreatSealReverseLossingDrawing.jpg/220px-FirstCommitteeGreatSealReverseLossingDrawing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/FirstCommitteeGreatSealReverseLossingDrawing.jpg/330px-FirstCommitteeGreatSealReverseLossingDrawing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/FirstCommitteeGreatSealReverseLossingDrawing.jpg/440px-FirstCommitteeGreatSealReverseLossingDrawing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1480" data-file-height="1480" /></a><figcaption>Franklin's design for the First Great Seal of America, inspired by the Geneva Bible published in 1560 by <a href="/wiki/Rowland_Hill" title="Rowland Hill">Sir Rowland Hill</a> </figcaption></figure> The design that was produced was not acted upon by Congress, and the Great Seal's design was not finalized until a third committee was appointed in 1782.<a href="#cite_note-256">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-257">[253]</a> Franklin strongly supported the right to <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">In those wretched countries where a man cannot call his tongue his own, he can scarce call anything his own. Whoever would overthrow the liberty of a nation must begin by subduing the freeness of speech ... Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom, and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech, which is the right of every man ...<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Silence_Dogood" title="Silence Dogood">Silence Dogood</a> no. 8, 1722<a href="#cite_note-258">[254]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thirteen_Virtues">Thirteen Virtues</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_bust_at_Columbia_University_IMG_0924.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Franklin_bust_at_Columbia_University_IMG_0924.JPG/220px-Franklin_bust_at_Columbia_University_IMG_0924.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Franklin_bust_at_Columbia_University_IMG_0924.JPG/330px-Franklin_bust_at_Columbia_University_IMG_0924.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Franklin_bust_at_Columbia_University_IMG_0924.JPG/440px-Franklin_bust_at_Columbia_University_IMG_0924.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>A bust of Franklin in the Archives Department at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> in New York City</figcaption></figure> Franklin sought to cultivate his character by a plan of 13 virtues, which he developed at age 20 (in 1726) and continued to practice in some form for the rest of his life. His autobiography lists his 13 virtues as:<a href="#cite_note-259">[255]</a> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a>. Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silence" title="Silence">Silence</a>. Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_(virtue)" title="Order (virtue)">Order</a>. Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Result" title="Result">Resolution</a>. Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you resolve.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frugality" title="Frugality">Frugality</a>. Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e., waste nothing.</li> <li>Industry. Lose no time; be always employ'd in something useful; cut off all unnecessary actions.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sincerity" title="Sincerity">Sincerity</a>. Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly, and, if you speak, speak accordingly.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a>. Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">Moderation</a>. Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanliness" title="Cleanliness">Cleanliness</a>. Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, clothes, or habitation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tranquility" class="mw-redirect" title="Tranquility">Tranquility</a>. Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chastity" title="Chastity">Chastity</a>. Rarely use <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">venery</a> but for health or offspring, never to dullness, weakness, or the injury of your own or another's peace or reputation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">Humility</a>. Imitate Jesus and <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>.</li></ol> Franklin did not try to work on them all at once. Instead, he worked on only one each week "leaving all others to their ordinary chance." While he did not adhere completely to the enumerated virtues, and by his own admission he fell short of them many times, he believed the attempt made him a better man, contributing greatly to his success and happiness, which is why in his autobiography, he devoted more pages to this plan than to any other single point and wrote, "I hope, therefore, that some of my descendants may follow the example and reap the benefit."<a href="#cite_note-260">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery">Slavery</h3></div> Franklin's views and practices concerning slavery evolved over the course of his life. In his early years, Franklin owned seven slaves, including two men who worked in his household and his shop, but in his later years became an adherent of abolition.<a href="#cite_note-261">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[258]</a> A revenue stream for his newspaper was paid ads for the sale of slaves and for the capture of runaway slaves and Franklin allowed the sale of slaves in his general store. He later became an outspoken critic of slavery. In 1758, he advocated the opening of a school for the education of black slaves in Philadelphia.<a href="#cite_note-263">[259]</a> He took two slaves to England with him, Peter and King. King escaped with a woman to live in the outskirts of London,<a href="#cite_note-264">[260]</a> and by 1758 he was working for a household in <a href="/wiki/Suffolk" title="Suffolk">Suffolk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-265">[261]</a> After returning from England in 1762, Franklin became more abolitionist in nature, attacking American slavery. In the wake of <a href="/wiki/Somerset_v_Stewart" title="Somerset v Stewart">Somerset v Stewart</a>, he voiced frustration at British abolitionists: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">O Pharisaical Britain! to pride thyself in setting free a single Slave that happens to land on thy coasts, while thy Merchants in all thy ports are encouraged by thy laws to continue a commerce whereby so many hundreds of thousands are dragged into a slavery that can scarce be said to end with their lives, since it is entailed on their posterity!<a href="#cite_note-266">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[263]</a></blockquote> Franklin refused to publicly debate the issue of slavery at the 1787 Constitutional Convention.<a href="#cite_note-268">[264]</a> At the time of the American founding, there were about half a million slaves in the United States, mostly in the five southernmost states, where they made up 40% of the population. Many of the leading American founders – such as Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, and <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> – owned slaves, but many others did not. Benjamin Franklin thought that slavery was "an atrocious debasement of human nature" and "a source of serious evils." In 1787, Franklin and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a> helped write a new constitution for the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Abolition_Society" title="Pennsylvania Abolition Society">Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery</a>,<a href="#cite_note-269">[265]</a> and that same year Franklin became president of the organization.<a href="#cite_note-270">[266]</a> In 1790, Quakers from New York and Pennsylvania presented their petition for abolition to Congress. Their argument against slavery was backed by the Pennsylvania Abolitionist Society.<a href="#cite_note-271">[267]</a> In his later years, as Congress was forced to deal with the issue of slavery, Franklin wrote several essays that stressed the importance of the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolition of slavery</a> and of the integration of African Americans into American society. These writings included: <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Address_to_the_Public" class="extiw" title="s:An Address to the Public">An Address to the Public</a> (1789)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Plan_for_Improving_the_Condition_of_the_Free_Blacks" class="extiw" title="s:A Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks">A Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks</a> (1789)</li> <li>Sidi Mehemet Ibrahim on the Slave Trade (1790)<a href="#cite_note-272">[268]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</h3></div> Franklin became a vegetarian when he was a teenager apprenticing at a print shop, after coming upon a book by the early vegetarian advocate <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Tryon" title="Thomas Tryon">Thomas Tryon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-273">[269]</a> In addition, he would have also been familiar with the moral arguments espoused by prominent vegetarian <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> in the colonial-era <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pennsylvania" title="Province of Pennsylvania">Province of Pennsylvania</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lay" title="Benjamin Lay">Benjamin Lay</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Woolman" title="John Woolman">John Woolman</a>. His reasons for vegetarianism were based on health, ethics, and economy: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">When about 16 years of age, I happen'd to meet with a book written by one Tryon, recommending a vegetable diet. I determined to go into it ... [By not eating meat] I presently found that I could save half what [my brother] paid me. This was an additional fund for buying books: but I had another advantage in it ... I made the greater progress from that greater clearness of head and quicker apprehension which usually attend temperance in eating and drinking.<a href="#cite_note-274">[270]</a></blockquote> Franklin also declared the consumption of meat to be "unprovoked murder."<a href="#cite_note-275">[271]</a> Despite his convictions, he <a href="/wiki/Pescetarianism" title="Pescetarianism">began to eat fish</a> after being tempted by fried cod on a boat sailing from Boston, justifying the eating of animals by observing that the fish's stomach contained other fish. Nonetheless, he recognized the faulty ethics in this argument<a href="#cite_note-276">[272]</a> and would continue to be a vegetarian on and off. He was "excited" by <a href="/wiki/Tofu" title="Tofu">tofu</a>, which he learned of from the writings of a Spanish missionary to Southeast Asia, <a href="/wiki/Domingo_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Navarrete" title="Domingo Fernández Navarrete">Domingo Fernández Navarrete</a>. Franklin sent a sample of <a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soybeans</a> to prominent American botanist <a href="/wiki/John_Bartram" title="John Bartram">John Bartram</a> and had previously written to British diplomat and Chinese trade expert <a href="/wiki/James_Flint_(merchant)" title="James Flint (merchant)">James Flint</a> inquiring as to how tofu was made,<a href="#cite_note-feast-277">[273]</a> with their correspondence believed to be the first documented use of the word "tofu" in the English language.<a href="#cite_note-278">[274]</a> Franklin's "Second Reply to Vindex Patriae," a 1766 letter advocating self-sufficiency and less dependence on England, lists various examples of the bounty of American agricultural products, and does not mention meat.<a href="#cite_note-feast-277">[273]</a> Detailing new American customs, he wrote that, "[t]hey resolved last spring to eat no more lamb; and not a joint of lamb has since been seen on any of their tables ... the sweet little creatures are all alive to this day, with the prettiest fleeces on their backs imaginable."<a href="#cite_note-279">[275]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="View_on_inoculation">View on inoculation</h3></div> The concept of preventing <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> by <a href="/wiki/Variolation" title="Variolation">variolation</a> was introduced to colonial America by an African slave named <a href="/wiki/Onesimus_(Bostonian)" title="Onesimus (Bostonian)">Onesimus</a> via his owner <a href="/wiki/Cotton_Mather" title="Cotton Mather">Cotton Mather</a> in the early eighteenth century, but the procedure was not immediately accepted. <a href="/wiki/James_Franklin_(printer)" title="James Franklin (printer)">James Franklin's</a> newspaper carried articles in 1721<a href="#cite_note-280">[276]</a> that vigorously denounced the concept.<a href="#cite_note-281">[277]</a> However, by 1736 Benjamin Franklin was known as a supporter of the procedure. Therefore, when four-year-old "Franky" died of smallpox, opponents of the procedure circulated rumors that the child had been inoculated, and that this was the cause of his subsequent death. When Franklin became aware of this gossip, he placed a notice in the Pennsylvania Gazette, stating: "I do hereby sincerely declare, that he was not inoculated, but receiv'd the Distemper in the common Way of Infection ... I intended to have my Child inoculated." The child had a bad case of flux <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, and his parents had waited for him to get well before having him inoculated. Franklin wrote in his Autobiography: "In 1736 I lost one of my sons, a fine boy of four years old, by the small-pox, taken in the common way. I long regretted bitterly, and still regret that I had not given it to him by inoculation. This I mention for the sake of parents who omit that operation, on the supposition that they should never forgive themselves if a child died under it; my example showing that the regret may be the same either way, and that, therefore, the safer should be chosen."<a href="#cite_note-282">[278]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interests_and_activities">Interests and activities</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Musical_endeavors">Musical endeavors</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glassharmonica.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Glassharmonica.png/220px-Glassharmonica.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Glassharmonica.png 1.5x" data-file-width="253" data-file-height="217" /></a><figcaption>While in London, Franklin developed an improved version of the <a href="/wiki/Glass_harmonica" title="Glass harmonica">glass harmonica</a></figcaption></figure> Franklin is known to have played the violin, the harp, and the guitar. He also composed music, which included a <a href="/wiki/String_quartet" title="String quartet">string quartet</a> in <a href="/wiki/Classical_period_(music)" title="Classical period (music)">early classical style</a>.<a href="#cite_note-283">[279]</a> While he was in London, he developed a much-improved version of the <a href="/wiki/Glass_harmonica" title="Glass harmonica">glass harmonica</a>, in which the glasses rotate on a shaft, with the player's fingers held steady, instead of the other way around. He worked with the London glassblower Charles James to create it, and instruments based on his mechanical version soon found their way to other parts of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-284">[280]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a>, a fan of Franklin's enlightened ideas, had a glass harmonica in his instrument collection.<a href="#cite_note-285">[281]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a> composed for Franklin's glass harmonica,<a href="#cite_note-Harvard-286">[282]</a> as did <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a>.<a href="#cite_note-287">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[284]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Donizetti" title="Gaetano Donizetti">Gaetano Donizetti</a> used the instrument in the accompaniment to Amelia's aria "Par che mi dica ancora" in the tragic opera <a href="/wiki/Il_castello_di_Kenilworth" title="Il castello di Kenilworth">Il castello di Kenilworth</a> (1821),<a href="#cite_note-Osborne1994-289">[285]</a> as did <a href="/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns" title="Camille Saint-Saëns">Camille Saint-Saëns</a> in his 1886 <a href="/wiki/The_Carnival_of_the_Animals" title="The Carnival of the Animals">The Carnival of the Animals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-290">[286]</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Richard Strauss</a> calls for the glass harmonica in his 1917 <a href="/wiki/Die_Frau_ohne_Schatten" title="Die Frau ohne Schatten">Die Frau ohne Schatten</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Harvard-286">[282]</a> and numerous other composers used Franklin's instrument as well.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chess">Chess</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_Chess_Club_-_DPLA_-_0aa95351d7bea2d85f77a6d1400e9820.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Franklin_Chess_Club_-_DPLA_-_0aa95351d7bea2d85f77a6d1400e9820.jpg/220px-Franklin_Chess_Club_-_DPLA_-_0aa95351d7bea2d85f77a6d1400e9820.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Franklin_Chess_Club_-_DPLA_-_0aa95351d7bea2d85f77a6d1400e9820.jpg/330px-Franklin_Chess_Club_-_DPLA_-_0aa95351d7bea2d85f77a6d1400e9820.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Franklin_Chess_Club_-_DPLA_-_0aa95351d7bea2d85f77a6d1400e9820.jpg/440px-Franklin_Chess_Club_-_DPLA_-_0aa95351d7bea2d85f77a6d1400e9820.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5731" data-file-height="4617" /></a><figcaption>The Franklin Mercantile Chess Club in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, named in Franklin's honor</figcaption></figure> Franklin was an avid <a href="/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">chess</a> player. He was playing chess by around 1733, making him the first chess player known by name in the American colonies.<a href="#cite_note-McCraryChessandFranklin-291">[287]</a> His essay on "<a href="/wiki/The_Morals_of_Chess" title="The Morals of Chess">The Morals of Chess</a>" in <a href="/wiki/Columbian_Magazine" title="Columbian Magazine">Columbian Magazine</a> in December 1786 is the second known writing on chess in America.<a href="#cite_note-McCraryChessandFranklin-291">[287]</a> This essay in praise of chess and prescribing a code of behavior for the game has been widely reprinted and translated.<a href="#cite_note-292">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[291]</a> He and a friend used chess as a means of learning the Italian language, which both were studying; the winner of each game between them had the right to assign a task, such as parts of the Italian grammar to be learned by heart, to be performed by the loser before their next meeting.<a href="#cite_note-296">[292]</a> Franklin was able to play chess more frequently against stronger opposition during his many years as a civil servant and diplomat in England, where the game was far better established than in America. He was able to improve his playing standard by facing more experienced players during this period. He regularly attended <a href="/wiki/Old_Slaughter%27s_Coffee_House" title="Old Slaughter's Coffee House">Old Slaughter's Coffee House</a> in London for chess and socializing, making many important personal contacts. While in Paris, both as a visitor and later as ambassador, he visited the famous <a href="/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_de_la_R%C3%A9gence" title="Café de la Régence">Café de la Régence</a>, which France's strongest players made their regular meeting place. No records of his games have survived, so it is not possible to ascertain his playing strength in modern terms.<a href="#cite_note-297">[293]</a> Franklin was inducted into the <a href="/wiki/World_Chess_Hall_of_Fame" title="World Chess Hall of Fame">U.S. Chess Hall of Fame</a> in 1999.<a href="#cite_note-McCraryChessandFranklin-291">[287]</a> The Franklin Mercantile Chess Club in Philadelphia, the second oldest chess club in the U.S., is named in his honor.<a href="#cite_note-298">[294]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Designations</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><div style="border:4px solid navy; line-height: 1.5; text-align: center;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Pennsylvania_state_historical_markers" title="List of Pennsylvania state historical markers">Pennsylvania Historical Marker</a></div></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official name</th><td class="infobox-data">Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data">City</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Criteria</th><td class="infobox-data">Government & Politics, Government & Politics 18th Century, Invention, Science & Medicine, Professions & Vocations, Publishing & Journalism, Writers</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Designated</th><td class="infobox-data">June 30, 1990<a href="#cite_note-299">[295]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chestnut_Street_(Philadelphia)" title="Chestnut Street (Philadelphia)">Chestnut St.</a> between 3rd & 4th Sts., at <a href="/wiki/National_Liberty_Museum" title="National Liberty Museum">Nat'l. Liberty Mus.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Benjamin_Franklin&params=39.94881_N_75.14683_W_">39°56′56″N 75°08′49″W / 39.94881°N 75.14683°W / 39.94881; -75.14683</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Marker Text</th><td class="infobox-data">Printer, author, inventor, diplomat, philanthropist, statesman, and scientist. The eighteenth century's most illustrious Pennsylvanian built a house in Franklin Court starting in 1763, and here he lived the last five years of his life.</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_places_named_for_Benjamin_Franklin" title="List of places named for Benjamin Franklin">List of places named for Benjamin Franklin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_in_popular_culture" title="Benjamin Franklin in popular culture">Benjamin Franklin in popular culture</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bequest">Bequest</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_National_Memorial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Benjamin_Franklin_National_Memorial.jpg/220px-Benjamin_Franklin_National_Memorial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Benjamin_Franklin_National_Memorial.jpg/330px-Benjamin_Franklin_National_Memorial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Benjamin_Franklin_National_Memorial.jpg/440px-Benjamin_Franklin_National_Memorial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A marble memorial statue of Franklin, the <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_National_Memorial" title="Benjamin Franklin National Memorial">Benjamin Franklin National Memorial</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></figcaption></figure> Franklin <a href="/wiki/Bequest" class="mw-redirect" title="Bequest">bequeathed</a> £1,000 (about $4,400 at the time, or about $125,000 in 2021 dollars<a href="#cite_note-300">[296]</a>) each to the cities of Boston and Philadelphia, in trust to gather interest for 200 years. The trust began in 1785 when the French mathematician <a href="/wiki/Charles-Joseph_Mathon_de_la_Cour" title="Charles-Joseph Mathon de la Cour">Charles-Joseph Mathon de la Cour</a>, who admired Franklin greatly, wrote a friendly parody of Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanack called Fortunate Richard. The main character leaves a smallish amount of money in his will, five lots of 100 <a href="/wiki/French_livre" title="French livre">livres</a>, to collect interest over one, two, three, four or five full centuries, with the resulting astronomical sums to be spent on impossibly elaborate utopian projects.<a href="#cite_note-301">[297]</a> Franklin, who was 79 years old at the time, wrote thanking him for a great idea and telling him that he had decided to leave a bequest of 1,000 pounds each to his native Boston and his adopted Philadelphia. By 1990, more than $2,000,000 (~$4.12 million in 2023) had accumulated in Franklin's Philadelphia trust, which had loaned the money to local residents. From 1940 to 1990, the money was used mostly for mortgage loans. When the trust came due, Philadelphia decided to spend it on scholarships for local high school students. Franklin's Boston trust fund accumulated almost $5,000,000 during that same time; at the end of its first 100 years a portion was allocated to help establish a <a href="/wiki/Vocational_school" title="Vocational school">trade school</a> that became the <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Institute_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology">Franklin Institute of Boston</a>, and the entire fund was later dedicated to supporting this institute.<a href="#cite_note-302">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[299]</a> In 1787, a group of prominent ministers in <a href="/wiki/Lancaster,_Pennsylvania" title="Lancaster, Pennsylvania">Lancaster, Pennsylvania</a>, proposed the foundation of a new college named in Franklin's honor. Franklin donated £200 towards the development of Franklin College (now called <a href="/wiki/Franklin_%26_Marshall_College" title="Franklin & Marshall College">Franklin & Marshall College</a>).<a href="#cite_note-304">[300]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Likeness_and_image">Likeness and image</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2012-07_ncc_04.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/2012-07_ncc_04.JPG/220px-2012-07_ncc_04.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/2012-07_ncc_04.JPG/330px-2012-07_ncc_04.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/2012-07_ncc_04.JPG/440px-2012-07_ncc_04.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>A life-size bronze statue of Franklin (seated with cane) in the <a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></figcaption></figure> As the only person to have signed the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> in 1776, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alliance_(1778)" title="Treaty of Alliance (1778)">Treaty of Alliance with France</a> in 1778, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a> in 1783, and <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">U.S. Constitution</a> in 1787, Franklin is considered one of the leading <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a>. His pervasive influence in the early history of the nation has led to his being jocularly called "the only president of the United States who was never president of the United States."<a href="#cite_note-305">[301]</a> Franklin's likeness is ubiquitous. Since 1914, it has adorned American <a href="/wiki/United_States_one-hundred-dollar_bill" title="United States one-hundred-dollar bill">$100 bills</a>. From 1948 to 1963, Franklin's portrait was on the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_half_dollar" title="Franklin half dollar">half-dollar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-306">[302]</a> He has appeared on a <a href="/wiki/United_States_fifty-dollar_bill" title="United States fifty-dollar bill">$50 bill</a> and on several varieties of the $100 bill from 1914 and 1918.<a href="#cite_note-307">[303]</a> Franklin also appears on the $1,000 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Savings_Bonds#Series_EE" title="United States Savings Bonds">Series EE savings bond</a>.<a href="#cite_note-308">[304]</a> On April 12, 1976, as part of a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bicentennial" title="United States Bicentennial">bicentennial</a> celebration, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> dedicated a 20-foot (6 m) tall marble statue in Philadelphia's <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Institute" title="Franklin Institute">Franklin Institute</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_National_Memorial" title="Benjamin Franklin National Memorial">Benjamin Franklin National Memorial</a>. Vice President <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Rockefeller" title="Nelson Rockefeller">Nelson Rockefeller</a> presided over the dedication ceremony.<a href="#cite_note-309">[305]</a> Many of Franklin's personal possessions are on display at the institute. In London, his house at 36 Craven Street, which is the only surviving former residence of Franklin, was first marked with a <a href="/wiki/Blue_plaque" title="Blue plaque">blue plaque</a> and has since been opened to the public as the <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_House" title="Benjamin Franklin House">Benjamin Franklin House</a>.<a href="#cite_note-310">[306]</a> In 1998, workmen restoring the building dug up the remains of six children and four adults hidden below the home. A total of 15 bodies have been recovered.<a href="#cite_note-311">[307]</a> The Friends of Benjamin Franklin House (the organization responsible for the restoration) note that the bones were likely placed there by <a href="/wiki/William_Hewson_(surgeon)" title="William Hewson (surgeon)">William Hewson</a>, who lived in the house for two years and who had built a small anatomy school at the back of the house. They note that while Franklin likely knew what Hewson was doing, he probably did not participate in any dissections because he was much more of a physicist than a medical man.<a href="#cite_note-312">[308]</a> He has been honored on U.S. postage stamps many times. The image of Franklin, the first postmaster general of the United States, occurs on the face of U.S. postage more than any other American save that of George Washington.<a href="#cite_note-Scotts-313">[309]</a> He appeared on the first U.S. postage stamp issued in 1847. From 1908 through 1923, the U.S. Post Office issued a series of postage stamps commonly referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Washington%E2%80%93Franklin_Issues" title="Washington–Franklin Issues">Washington–Franklin Issues</a>, in which Washington and Franklin were depicted many times over a 14-year period, the longest run of any one series in U.S. postal history. However, he only appears on a few <a href="/wiki/File:Ben_Franklin_250th_1956_issue-3c.jpg" title="File:Ben Franklin 250th 1956 issue-3c.jpg">commemorative stamps</a>. Some of the finest portrayals of Franklin on record can be found on the engravings inscribed on the face of U.S. postage.<a href="#cite_note-Scotts-313">[309]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Obverse_of_the_series_2009_$100_Federal_Reserve_Note.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Obverse_of_the_series_2009_%24100_Federal_Reserve_Note.jpg/400px-Obverse_of_the_series_2009_%24100_Federal_Reserve_Note.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Obverse_of_the_series_2009_%24100_Federal_Reserve_Note.jpg/600px-Obverse_of_the_series_2009_%24100_Federal_Reserve_Note.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Obverse_of_the_series_2009_%24100_Federal_Reserve_Note.jpg/800px-Obverse_of_the_series_2009_%24100_Federal_Reserve_Note.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="505" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Franklin has appeared on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_one_hundred-dollar_bill" class="mw-redirect" title="United States one hundred-dollar bill">United States $100 bill</a> since 1914.</div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:792px;max-width:792px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:200px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_1861_Issue-1c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Benjamin_Franklin_1861_Issue-1c.jpg/160px-Benjamin_Franklin_1861_Issue-1c.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Benjamin_Franklin_1861_Issue-1c.jpg/240px-Benjamin_Franklin_1861_Issue-1c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Benjamin_Franklin_1861_Issue-1c.jpg/320px-Benjamin_Franklin_1861_Issue-1c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="546" data-file-height="686" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Issue of 1861</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:175px;max-width:175px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:200px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin2_1895_Issue-1c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Benjamin_Franklin2_1895_Issue-1c.jpg/173px-Benjamin_Franklin2_1895_Issue-1c.jpg" decoding="async" width="173" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Benjamin_Franklin2_1895_Issue-1c.jpg/260px-Benjamin_Franklin2_1895_Issue-1c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Benjamin_Franklin2_1895_Issue-1c.jpg/346px-Benjamin_Franklin2_1895_Issue-1c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="650" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Issue of 1895</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:449px;max-width:449px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:200px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Franklin_2-Big-Bens_1918_Issue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Benjamin_Franklin_2-Big-Bens_1918_Issue.jpg/447px-Benjamin_Franklin_2-Big-Bens_1918_Issue.jpg" decoding="async" width="447" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Benjamin_Franklin_2-Big-Bens_1918_Issue.jpg/671px-Benjamin_Franklin_2-Big-Bens_1918_Issue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Benjamin_Franklin_2-Big-Bens_1918_Issue.jpg/894px-Benjamin_Franklin_2-Big-Bens_1918_Issue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1333" data-file-height="600" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Issue of 1918</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Examples of Franklin on U. S. Postage</div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_in_popular_culture" title="Benjamin Franklin in popular culture">Benjamin Franklin in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Benjamin_Franklin_on_stamps" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Benjamin Franklin on stamps">Benjamin Franklin on postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_early_American_publishers_and_printers" title="Bibliography of early American publishers and printers">Bibliography of early American publishers and printers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Online" title="Founders Online">Founders Online</a>, database of Franklin's papers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin%27s_electrostatic_machine" title="Franklin's electrostatic machine">Franklin's electrostatic machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugio_Cent" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugio Cent">Fugio Cent</a>, 1787 coin designed by Franklin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_American_publishers_and_printers" title="List of early American publishers and printers">List of early American publishers and printers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_opponents_of_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="List of opponents of slavery">List of opponents of slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_richest_Americans_in_history" title="List of richest Americans in history">List of richest Americans in history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Papers_of_Benjamin_Franklin" title="The Papers of Benjamin Franklin">The Papers of Benjamin Franklin</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-birthdate-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-birthdate_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-birthdate_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-birthdate_1-2">c</a> Contemporary records, which used the Julian calendar and the <a href="/wiki/New_Year#Annunciation_Style" title="New Year">Annunciation Style</a> of enumerating years, recorded his birth as January 6, 1705.<a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scott-57"><a href="#cite_ref-Scott_57-0">^</a> Major General <a href="/wiki/Hugh_L._Scott" title="Hugh L. Scott">Hugh L. Scott</a> was a descendant of Franklin. The family line ran from Scott to Elizabeth Hodge (mother) to Sarah Bache (grandmother) to Dr. William Bache (great-grandfather) to Sarah Franklin Bache (great-great grandmother) to Franklin (great-great-great grandfather.)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayden190670–72-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParton1864629–631-56">[55]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> According to Professor Zara Anishanslin. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Portraits of Franklin at this time often contained an inscription, the best known being <a href="/wiki/Anne-Robert-Jacques_Turgot,_Baron_de_Laune" class="mw-redirect" title="Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune">Turgot's</a> acclamation, "Eripuit fulmen coelo sceptrumque tyrannis." (He snatched the lightning from the skies and the scepter from the tyrants.) Historian <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Christoph_Schlosser" title="Friedrich Christoph Schlosser">Friedrich Christoph Schlosser</a> remarked at the time, with ample hyperbole, that "Such was the number of portraits, busts and medallions of him in circulation before he left Paris, that he would have been recognized from them by any adult citizen in any part of the civilized world." – <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Franklin,_Benjamin">"Franklin, Benjamin" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Franklin%2C+Benjamin&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_2-1">b</a> <a href="#britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morris1973-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Morris1973_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Morris" title="Richard B. Morris">Morris, Richard B.</a> (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sevenwhoshapedou00morr/page/n15/mode/2up">Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny: The Founding Fathers as Revolutionaries</a>. New York: Harper & Row. pp. 1, 5–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-090454-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-090454-8"><bdi>978-0-06-090454-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seven+Who+Shaped+Our+Destiny%3A+The+Founding+Fathers+as+Revolutionaries&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1%2C+5-30&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-06-090454-8&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsevenwhoshapedou00morr%2Fpage%2Fn15%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrands2010" class="citation book cs1">Brands, H.W. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B2bPCEbMAvwC&pg=PA390">The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin</a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. p. 390. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-75494-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-75494-3"><bdi>978-0-307-75494-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+American%3A+The+Life+and+Times+of+Benjamin+Franklin&rft.pages=390&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-307-75494-3&rft.aulast=Brands&rft.aufirst=H.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB2bPCEbMAvwC%26pg%3DPA390&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goodrich1829-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Goodrich1829_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodrich1829" class="citation book cs1">Goodrich, Charles A. 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Retrieved June 7, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lives+of+the+Signers+to+the+Declaration+of+Independence&rft.pages=267&rft.pub=W.+Reed+%26+Company&rft.date=1829&rft.aulast=Goodrich&rft.aufirst=Charles+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flivessignerstod02goodgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smithsonian+Constitutional_Post-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian+Constitutional_Post_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/out-of-the-mails-hugh-finlays-journey/william-goddard%E2%80%99s-constitutional-post">"William Goddard and the Constitutional Post"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_National_Postal_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithsonian National Postal Museum">Smithsonian National Postal Museum</a>. 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Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 90 (3): i–155. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1586007">10.2307/1586007</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0065-9746">0065-9746</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1586007">1586007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Franklin%27s+Father+Josiah%3A+Life+of+a+Colonial+Boston+Tallow+Chandler%2C+1657%E2%80%931745&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=i-155&rft.date=2000&rft.issn=0065-9746&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1586007%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1586007&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Nian-Sheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1586007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/04017892/">"Nantucket lands and landowners"</a>. 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Wood">Wood, Gordon S.</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ak1RVLZDv4gC&pg=PA17">The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Group" title="Penguin Group">Penguin Press</a>. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780143035282" title="Special:BookSources/9780143035282"><bdi>9780143035282</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Americanization+of+Benjamin+Franklin&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780143035282&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Gordon+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAk1RVLZDv4gC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-autobio-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autobio_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autobio_20-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin1901" class="citation book cs1">Franklin, Benjamin (1901) [1771]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qW4VAAAAYAAJ">"Introduction"</a>. Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin. Macmillan's pocket English and American classics. New York: Macmillan. p. vi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780758302939" title="Special:BookSources/9780758302939"><bdi>9780758302939</bdi></a>. 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University of Missouri Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8262-6601-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8262-6601-9"><bdi>978-0-8262-6601-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved June 1, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Porcupine%2C+Picayune%2C+%26+Post%3A+How+Newspapers+Get+Their+Names&rft.series=EBL-Schweitzer&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=University+of+Missouri+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8262-6601-9&rft.aulast=Bernhard&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_oO5fWi6dikC%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-Seelye_Selby_2018_p._394-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Seelye_Selby_2018_p._394_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeelyeSelby2018" class="citation book cs1">Seelye, J.E.; Selby, S. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YgVnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA394">Shaping North America: From Exploration to the American Revolution [3 volumes]</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 394. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-3669-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-3669-5"><bdi>978-1-4408-3669-5</bdi></a>. 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(1938).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOnMumford2002" class="citation journal cs1">On; Mumford, Michael D. (2002). "Social innovation: ten cases from Benjamin Franklin". 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Constitutional Law Reporter. November 28, 2018. Retrieved May 4, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Constitutional+Law+Reporter&rft.atitle=Deborah+Read&rft.date=2018-11-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconstitutionallawreporter.com%2Fgreat-american-biographies%2Fdeborah-read%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DIn%25201725%252C%2520Deborah%27s%2520mother%2520convinced%2Cwith%2520Deborah%2520and%2520proposed%2520marriage.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTise2000" class="citation book cs1">Tise, Larry E. (2000). Benjamin Franklin and women. 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New York: Lewis Publishing Company. pp. 70–72 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genealogical+and+Family+History+of+the+Wyoming+and+Lackawanna+Valleys+Pennsylvania&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=70-72&rft.pub=Lewis+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1906&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH8c4AQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParton1864" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Parton" title="James Parton">Parton, James</a> (1864). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7Os5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA629">Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin</a>. Vol. II. 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Smithsonian. Retrieved February 26, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=What+Led+Benjamin+Franklin+to+Live+Estranged+From+His+Wife+for+Nearly+Two+Decades%3F&rft.date=2017-09&rft.aulast=Coss&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory%2Fbenjamin-franklin-estranged-wife-nearly-two-decades-180964400%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Skemp SL. 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Houghton Mifflin Company. </li> <li id="cite_note-MontgomeryHistory-75"><a href="#cite_ref-MontgomeryHistory_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontgomery1900" class="citation book cs1">Montgomery, Thomas Harrison (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ahistoryunivers02montgoog">A History of the University of Pennsylvania from Its Foundation to A.D. 1770</a>. Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs & Co. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/00003240">00003240</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+University+of+Pennsylvania+from+Its+Foundation+to+A.D.+1770&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=George+W.+Jacobs+%26+Co.&rft.date=1900&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F00003240&rft.aulast=Montgomery&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Harrison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fahistoryunivers02montgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archives.upenn.edu/primdocs/upl/upl125.pdf">The Early Years: The Charity School, Academy and College of Philadelphia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120205112444/http://www.archives.upenn.edu/primdocs/upl/upl125.pdf">Archived</a> February 5, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at the University of Pennsylvania Archives, 1972. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorwart1998" class="citation book cs1">Dorwart, Jeffery (1998). 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(December 1957), "The Industrial Orientation of Science in the Lunar Society of Birmingham", <a href="/wiki/Isis_(journal)" title="Isis (journal)">Isis</a>, 48 (4), The University of Chicago Press on behalf of <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Science_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="The History of Science Society">The History of Science Society</a>: 408–415, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F348607">10.1086/348607</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1753">0021-1753</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/227513">227513</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144950413">144950413</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=The+Industrial+Orientation+of+Science+in+the+Lunar+Society+of+Birmingham&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=408-415&rft.date=1957-12&rft.issn=0021-1753&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144950413%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F227513%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F348607&rft.aulast=Schofield&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/inde/learn/historyculture/people-franklin-resume.htm">"Benjamin Franklin's Resume – Independence National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)"</a>. www.nps.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nps.gov&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Franklin%27s+Resume+%E2%80%93+Independence+National+Historical+Park+%28U.S.+National+Park+Service%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Finde%2Flearn%2Fhistoryculture%2Fpeople-franklin-resume.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090327111941/http://katekennedyclub.org.uk/news.aspx">"The Kate Kennedy Club"</a>. 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Harper. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-055888-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-055888-1"><bdi>0-06-055888-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crowded+with+Genius&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=2003-11-25&rft.isbn=0-06-055888-1&rft.aulast=Buchan&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNathan_Haskell_Dole2003" class="citation book cs1">Nathan Haskell Dole, ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gIAxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR21">Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin</a>. 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Retrieved September 21, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Autobiography+of+Benjamin+Franklin&rft.pub=Kessinger&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7661-4375-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgIAxAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPR21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_116-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/kenburns/benjamin-franklin/">"Benjamin Franklin | Ken Burns | PBS | Watch Benjamin Franklin: A Ken Burns Film | Full Documentary Now Streaming | PBS"</a>. Benjamin Franklin | Ken Burns | PBS. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Benjamin+Franklin+%26%23124%3B+Ken+Burns+%26%23124%3B+PBS&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Franklin+%26%23124%3B+Ken+Burns+%26%23124%3B+PBS+%26%23124%3B+Watch+Benjamin+Franklin%3A+A+Ken+Burns+Film+%26%23124%3B+Full+Documentary+Now+Streaming+%26%23124%3B+PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fkenburns%2Fbenjamin-franklin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/prus1785.asp">"The Avalon Project : Treaty of Amity and Commerce between His Majesty the King of Prussia, and the United States of America"</a>. avalon.law.yale.edu. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=avalon.law.yale.edu&rft.atitle=The+Avalon+Project+%3A+Treaty+of+Amity+and+Commerce+between+His+Majesty+the+King+of+Prussia%2C+and+the+United+States+of+America&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fprus1785.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_A._Henretta.2011" class="citation book cs1">James A. Henretta., ed. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h_rsacFjVCAC&pg=PA110">Documents for America's History, Volume 1: To 1877</a>. Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-64862-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-64862-6"><bdi>978-0-312-64862-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Documents+for+America%27s+History%2C+Volume+1%3A+To+1877&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-312-64862-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh_rsacFjVCAC%26pg%3DPA110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, pp. 229–230. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailyn1974" class="citation book cs1">Bailyn, Bernard (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ordealofthomashu00bern">The Ordeal of Thomas Hutchinson</a>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-64160-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-64160-0"><bdi>978-0-674-64160-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/6825524">6825524</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ordeal+of+Thomas+Hutchinson&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F6825524&rft.isbn=978-0-674-64160-0&rft.aulast=Bailyn&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fordealofthomashu00bern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988">, p. 240. </li> <li id="cite_note-Penegar29-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Penegar29_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenegar2011" class="citation book cs1">Penegar, Kenneth (2011). The Political Trial of Benjamin Franklin. New York: Algora Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-849-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-849-3"><bdi>978-0-87586-849-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/696296728">696296728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Trial+of+Benjamin+Franklin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Algora+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F696296728&rft.isbn=978-0-87586-849-3&rft.aulast=Penegar&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988">, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Sheila L. Skemp, The Making of a Patriot: Benjamin Franklin at the Cockpit (Oxford University Press; 2012) </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin" class="citation web cs1">Franklin, Benjamin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060103051246/http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/pa-1773.htm">"reprinted on The History Carper"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/pa-1773.htm">the original</a> on January 3, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=reprinted+on+The+History+Carper&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historycarper.com%2Fresources%2Ftwobf3%2Fpa-1773.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> City of Blood, Cities of the Underworld – History Channel 2 (H2), 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Ashe, Geoffrey. The Hell-Fire Clubs: A History of Anti-Morality. Great Britain: Sutton Publishing, 2005, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/fc/deacononfranklin.html">""Famous British Historian claims Benjamin Franklin Was A British Spy", by Richard Deacon"</a>. msuweb.montclair.edu. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=msuweb.montclair.edu&rft.atitle=%22Famous+British+Historian+claims+Benjamin+Franklin+Was+A+British+Spy%22%2C+by+Richard+Deacon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmsuweb.montclair.edu%2F~furrg%2Ffc%2Fdeacononfranklin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpence2015" class="citation book cs1">Spence, Richard B. (January 15, 2015). "Donald McCormick: 2 + 2 = 5". Hayek: A Collaborative Biography. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 236. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-45242-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-45242-9"><bdi>978-1-137-45242-9</bdi></a>. <q>The question at the heart of this volume is the reliability, indeed, the fundamental honesty, of Donald McCormick, best known under his nom de plume, Richard Deacon. As the chapters generally attest, 'Deacon' McCormick could be an unreliable, even misleading, source.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Donald+McCormick%3A+2+%2B+2+%3D+5&rft.btitle=Hayek%3A+A+Collaborative+Biography&rft.pages=236&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2015-01-15&rft.isbn=978-1-137-45242-9&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsaacson,_W.2003" class="citation book cs1">Isaacson, W. (2003). Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. Simon & Schuster. pp. 209–216.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin%3A+An+American+Life&rft.pages=209-216&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Isaacson%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Franklin, Benjamin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/massacre.htm">"A Narrative of the Late Massacres ..."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060427070508/http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/massacre.htm">Archived</a> April 27, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> reprinted on The History Carper. </li> <li id="cite_note-:01scratch-130"><a href="#cite_ref-:01scratch_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalloway,_C._G.2006" class="citation book cs1">Calloway, C. 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Random House. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/benjaminfranklin00clar_0/page/87">87</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84212-272-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84212-272-3"><bdi>978-1-84212-272-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin%2C+A+Biography&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-1-84212-272-3&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Ronald+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbenjaminfranklin00clar_0%2Fpage%2F87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100209131349/http://www.mos.org/sln/toe/kite.html">"Franklin's Kite"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Science_(Boston)" title="Museum of Science (Boston)">Museum of Science (Boston)</a>. 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Physics Today. 59 (1): 42. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhT....59a..42K">2006PhT....59a..42K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2180176">10.1063/1.2180176</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:110623159">110623159</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Franklin+and+Lightning+Rods&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=42&rft.date=2006-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A110623159%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.2180176&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006PhT....59a..42K&rft.aulast=Krider&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1063%252F1.2180176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouston2008" class="citation book cs1">Houston, Alan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dMN9VEhrTxwC&pg=PA106">Benjamin Franklin and the Politics of Improvement</a>. Yale U.P. pp. 106–41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15239-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15239-5"><bdi>978-0-300-15239-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin+and+the+Politics+of+Improvement&rft.pages=106-41&rft.pub=Yale+U.P.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-300-15239-5&rft.aulast=Houston&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdMN9VEhrTxwC%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemay2008" class="citation book cs1">Lemay, J.A. Leo (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NL5bcRP5aRAC&pg=PA245">The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 3: Soldier, Scientist, and Politician, 1748–1757</a>. U. of Pennsylvania Press. p. 245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4121-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4121-1"><bdi>978-0-8122-4121-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Benjamin+Franklin%2C+Volume+3%3A+Soldier%2C+Scientist%2C+and+Politician%2C+1748%E2%80%931757&rft.pages=245&rft.pub=U.+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4121-1&rft.aulast=Lemay&rft.aufirst=J.A.+Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNL5bcRP5aRAC%26pg%3DPA245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <a href="#isaacson2004">Isaacson, 2004</a>, p. 150. </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2005" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, I. 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Journal of Economic History. 9 (1): 25–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050700090318">10.1017/S0022050700090318</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2113719">2113719</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154647498">154647498</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Franklin+as+Demographer&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-44&rft.date=1949&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154647498%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2113719%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700090318&rft.aulast=Aldridge&rft.aufirst=Alfred+Owen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrake2011" class="citation book cs1">Drake, James David (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EWV9T2MT5SoC&pg=PA63">The Nation's Nature: How Continental Presumptions Gave Rise to the United States of America</a>. 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Cornell U.P. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9755-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9755-1"><bdi>978-0-8014-9755-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People+of+Paradox%3A+An+Inquiry+Concerning+the+Origins+of+American+Civilization&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Cornell+U.P.&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-9755-1&rft.aulast=Kammen&rft.aufirst=Michael+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyvmJZh38JQ4C%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Cleve2010" class="citation book cs1">Van Cleve, George William (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dgp26Y2KzxUC&pg=PA148">A Slaveholders' Union: Slavery, Politics, and the Constitution in the Early American Republic</a>. U. of Chicago Press. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-84669-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-84669-9"><bdi>978-0-226-84669-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Slaveholders%27+Union%3A+Slavery%2C+Politics%2C+and+the+Constitution+in+the+Early+American+Republic&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=U.+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-226-84669-9&rft.aulast=Van+Cleve&rft.aufirst=George+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDgp26Y2KzxUC%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111202175522/http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/price.htm">"The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, Volume III: London, 1757 – 1775 – On the Price of Corn, and Management of the Poor"</a>. 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Isis, 34(5), 404–407. </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaraday1839" class="citation book cs1">Faraday, Michael (1839). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XuITAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR5">Experimental researches in electricity</a>. Vol. 2. R. & J.E. Taylor. p. v. <q>Franklin's experiments on the non-conduction of ice ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Experimental+researches+in+electricity&rft.pages=v&rft.pub=R.+%26+J.E.+Taylor&rft.date=1839&rft.aulast=Faraday&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXuITAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPR5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1836" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Thomas P. (1836). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zV9DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7">Journal of the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania</a>. 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Kidd, Benjamin Franklin: The Religious Life of a Founding Father (Yale UP, 2017) p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> Morgan, David T. "Benjamin Franklin: Champion of Generic Religion". The Historian. 62#4 2000. pp. 722 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> Kidd, (2017) p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> Benjamin Franklin to Richard Price, October 9, 1780 Writings 8:153–54 </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdseverance2019" class="citation web cs1">dseverance (October 15, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hc.edu/museums/dunham-bible-museum/tour-of-the-museum/past-exhibits/from-geneva-the-first-english-study-bible/">"The Geneva Bible: The First English Study Bible | Houston Christian University"</a>. hc.edu. 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Harvard. p. 347. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674375017" title="Special:BookSources/9780674375017"><bdi>9780674375017</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Glass+harmonica&rft.btitle=Harvard+Dictionary+of+Music&rft.pages=347&rft.pub=Harvard&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=9780674375017&rft.aulast=Apel&rft.aufirst=Willi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTMdf1SioFk4C%26pg%3DPA347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenke2001" class="citation news cs1">Benke, Richard (February 25, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-feb-25-mn-30005-story.html">"'Armonicists' Debate Source of Beethoven's Maladies"</a>. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 21, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=%27Armonicists%27+Debate+Source+of+Beethoven%27s+Maladies&rft.date=2001-02-25&rft.aulast=Benke&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-2001-feb-25-mn-30005-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarmel1983" class="citation web cs1">Carmel, Jeffrey J. (November 22, 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csmonitor.com/1983/1129/112916.html">"Franklin invented it, Mozart wrote for it: the 'armonica' returns"</a>. The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved August 21, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=Franklin+invented+it%2C+Mozart+wrote+for+it%3A+the+%27armonica%27+returns&rft.date=1983-11-22&rft.aulast=Carmel&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2F1983%2F1129%2F112916.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Osborne1994-289"><a href="#cite_ref-Osborne1994_289-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsborne1994" class="citation book cs1">Osborne, Charles (April 1, 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/belcantooperasof0000osbo">The bel canto operas of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini</a>. Amadeus Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931340-71-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931340-71-0"><bdi>978-0-931340-71-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+bel+canto+operas+of+Rossini%2C+Donizetti%2C+and+Bellini&rft.pub=Amadeus+Press&rft.date=1994-04-01&rft.isbn=978-0-931340-71-0&rft.aulast=Osborne&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbelcantooperasof0000osbo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <a href="https://imslp.org/wiki/La_Carnaval_des_Animaux_(Saint-Sa%C3%ABns,_Camille)" class="extiw" title="scores:La Carnaval des Animaux (Saint-Saëns, Camille)">The Carnival of the Animals</a>: Scores at the <a href="/wiki/International_Music_Score_Library_Project" title="International Music Score Library Project">International Music Score Library Project</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCraryChessandFranklin-291">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCraryChessandFranklin_291-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCraryChessandFranklin_291-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCraryChessandFranklin_291-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCrary" class="citation web cs1">McCrary, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benfranklin300.org/_etc_pdf/Chess_John_McCrary.pdf">"Chess and Benjamin Franklin-His Pioneering Contributions"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.benfranklin300.org/_etc_pdf/Chess_John_McCrary.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved April 26, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chess+and+Benjamin+Franklin-His+Pioneering+Contributions&rft.aulast=McCrary&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.benfranklin300.org%2F_etc_pdf%2FChess_John_McCrary.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Vincent_Hooper" title="David Vincent Hooper">David Hooper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Whyld" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth Whyld">Kenneth Whyld</a>, The Oxford Companion to Chess, Oxford University Press (2nd ed. 1992), p. 145. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-866164-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-866164-9">0-19-866164-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> The essay appears in <a href="/wiki/Marcello_Truzzi" title="Marcello Truzzi">Marcello Truzzi</a> (ed.), Chess in Literature, Avon Books, 1974, pp. 14–15. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-380-00164-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-380-00164-0">0-380-00164-0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> The essay appears in a book by the felicitously named Norman Knight, "Chess Pieces", <a href="/wiki/Chess_Magazine" title="Chess Magazine">Chess Magazine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Coldfield" title="Sutton Coldfield">Sutton Coldfield</a>, England (2nd ed. 1968), pp. 5–6. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-380-00164-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-380-00164-0">0-380-00164-0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> Franklin's essay is also reproduced at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100522105848/http://www.washingtonpost.com/gog/museums/u.s.-chess-center-museum-and-hall-of-fame,800594.html">U.S. Chess Center Museum and Hall of Fame</a> in Washington, DC. Retrieved December 3, 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Temple_Franklin" title="William Temple Franklin">William Temple Franklin</a>, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin, reprinted in Knight, Chess Pieces, pp. 136–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2015" class="citation book cs1">Price, Bill (2015). The History of Chess in Fifty Moves. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books (U.S.) Inc. pp. 90–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-77085-529-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-77085-529-8"><bdi>978-1-77085-529-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Chess+in+Fifty+Moves&rft.place=Buffalo%2C+New+York&rft.pages=90-95&rft.pub=Firefly+Books+%28U.S.%29+Inc.&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-77085-529-8&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Bill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurrell2017" class="citation news cs1">Murrell, David (April 21, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/pennsylvania/philadelphia/Franklin-Mercantile-Chess-club.html">"How the Country's Second Oldest Chess Club is Surviving in a Center City Basement"</a>. The Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved September 17, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philadelphia+Inquirer&rft.atitle=How+the+Country%27s+Second+Oldest+Chess+Club+is+Surviving+in+a+Center+City+Basement&rft.date=2017-04-21&rft.aulast=Murrell&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inquirer.com%2Fphilly%2Fnews%2Fpennsylvania%2Fphiladelphia%2FFranklin-Mercantile-Chess-club.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/PHMCWebSearch/ViewMarker.aspx?markerId=1045">"Pennsylvania Historical Marker Search"</a>. PHMC. Retrieved November 3, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PHMC&rft.atitle=Pennsylvania+Historical+Marker+Search&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phmc.state.pa.us%2FPHMCWebSearch%2FViewMarker.aspx%3FmarkerId%3D1045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/">"Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount – 1790 to Present"</a>. measuringworth.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070408052700/http://measuringworth.com:80/calculators/uscompare/">Archived</a> from the original on April 8, 2007. Retrieved October 21, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=measuringworth.com&rft.atitle=Seven+Ways+to+Compute+the+Relative+Value+of+a+U.S.+Dollar+Amount+%E2%80%93+1790+to+Present&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.measuringworth.com%2Fcalculators%2Fuscompare%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> Richard Price. Observations on the Importance of the American Revolution, and the Means of Making it a Benefit to the World. To which is added, a Letter from M. Turgot, late Comptroller-General of the Finances of France: with an Appendix, containing a Translation of the Will of M. Fortuné Ricard, lately published in France. London: T. Cadell, 1785. </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100510050913/http://www.mathsci.appstate.edu/~sjg/class/1010/wc/finance/franklin1.html">"Excerpt from Philadelphia Inquirer article by Clark De Leon"</a>. Mathsci.appstate.edu. February 7, 1993. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mathsci.appstate.edu/~sjg/class/1010/wc/finance/franklin1.html">the original</a> on May 10, 2010. Retrieved September 21, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Excerpt+from+Philadelphia+Inquirer+article+by+Clark+De+Leon&rft.pub=Mathsci.appstate.edu&rft.date=1993-02-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mathsci.appstate.edu%2F~sjg%2Fclass%2F1010%2Fwc%2Ffinance%2Ffranklin1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080731130624/http://www.bfit.edu/aboutus/history.php">"History of the Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology"</a>. Bfit.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bfit.edu/aboutus/history.php">the original</a> on July 31, 2008. Retrieved September 21, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Benjamin+Franklin+Institute+of+Technology&rft.pub=Bfit.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bfit.edu%2Faboutus%2Fhistory.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120301155906/http://library.fandm.edu/archives/foundingdocs/fclist.jpg">"Letter of introduction : image"</a>. Library.fandm.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.fandm.edu/archives/foundingdocs/fclist.jpg">the original</a> (JPG) on March 1, 2012. Retrieved September 17, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library.fandm.edu&rft.atitle=Letter+of+introduction+%3A+image&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.fandm.edu%2Farchives%2Ffoundingdocs%2Ffclist.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Everything_You_Know_Is_Wrong" title="Everything You Know Is Wrong">Firesign Theater quote, meant humorously but poignantly.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreen1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_H._Breen" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter H. Breen">Breen, Walter</a> (1988). Walter Breen's Complete Encyclopedia of U.S. and Colonial Coins. New York: Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-14207-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-14207-6"><bdi>978-0-385-14207-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Walter+Breen%27s+Complete+Encyclopedia+of+U.S.+and+Colonial+Coins&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-385-14207-6&rft.aulast=Breen&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilhite1998" class="citation book cs1">Wilhite, Robert (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/standardcatalogo0000krau">Standard Catalog of United States Paper Money (17th ed)</a>. Krause Pubns Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87341-653-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87341-653-8"><bdi>0-87341-653-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Standard+Catalog+of+United+States+Paper+Money+%2817th+ed%29&rft.pub=Krause+Pubns+Inc&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-87341-653-8&rft.aulast=Wilhite&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstandardcatalogo0000krau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treasurydirect.gov/instit/savbond/mat/clipart/clipart_savbond.htm">"U.S. Savings Bond Images"</a>. treasurydirect.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060905172433/http://www.treasurydirect.gov:80/instit/savbond/mat/clipart/clipart_savbond.htm">Archived</a> from the original on September 5, 2006. Retrieved October 21, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=treasurydirect.gov&rft.atitle=U.S.+Savings+Bond+Images&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treasurydirect.gov%2Finstit%2Fsavbond%2Fmat%2Fclipart%2Fclipart_savbond.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/68328398/the-daily-intelligencer/">"Memorial dedicated"</a>. The Intelligencer. Associated Press. April 13, 1976. Retrieved January 23, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Intelligencer&rft.atitle=Memorial+dedicated&rft.date=1976-04-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F68328398%2Fthe-daily-intelligencer%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F160015c0">"Benjamin Franklin House"</a>. Nature. 160 (4053): 15. 1947. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1947Natur.160S..15.">1947Natur.160S..15.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F160015c0">10.1038/160015c0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Franklin+House&rft.volume=160&rft.issue=4053&rft.pages=15&rft.date=1947&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F160015c0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1947Natur.160S..15.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F160015c0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchultz2013" class="citation news cs1">Schultz, Colin (October 23, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/why-was-benjamin-franklins-basement-filled-with-skeletons-524521/">"Why Was Benjamin Franklin's Basement Filled with Skeletons?"</a>. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved September 17, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=Why+Was+Benjamin+Franklin%27s+Basement+Filled+with+Skeletons%3F&rft.date=2013-10-23&rft.aulast=Schultz&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmart-news%2Fwhy-was-benjamin-franklins-basement-filled-with-skeletons-524521%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050929140325/http://www.benjaminfranklinhouse.org/site/sections/news/pdf/Issue2.pdf">"Skeletons in the Closet"</a> (PDF). The Craven Street Gazette. The Friends of Benjamin Franklin House. August 1998. p. 1. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benjaminfranklinhouse.org/site/sections/news/pdf/Issue2.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on September 29, 2005. Retrieved September 8, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Craven+Street+Gazette&rft.atitle=Skeletons+in+the+Closet&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1998-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.benjaminfranklinhouse.org%2Fsite%2Fsections%2Fnews%2Fpdf%2FIssue2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scotts-313">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scotts_313-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scotts_313-1">b</a> Scotts Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Benjamin_Franklin" title="Bibliography of Benjamin Franklin">Bibliography of Benjamin Franklin</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_early_American_publishers_and_printers" title="Bibliography of early American publishers and printers">Bibliography of early American publishers and printers</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biographies">Biographies</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_L._Becker" title="Carl L. Becker">Becker, Carl Lotus</a>. "Benjamin Franklin", Dictionary of American Biography (1931) – vol 3, with links <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100316174915/http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker">Archived</a> March 16, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="brands2000" class="citation book cs1">Brands, H. W. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/firstamericanlif00bran">The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin</a>. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-49540-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-49540-0"><bdi>978-0-385-49540-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+American%3A+The+Life+and+Times+of+Benjamin+Franklin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-385-49540-0&rft.aulast=Brands&rft.aufirst=H.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffirstamericanlif00bran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrane1954" class="citation book cs1">Crane, Vernon W. (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/benjaminfranklin00cran">Benjamin Franklin and a Rising People</a>. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-673-39330-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-673-39330-2"><bdi>978-0-673-39330-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved June 2, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin+and+a+Rising+People&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+and+Company&rft.date=1954&rft.isbn=978-0-673-39330-2&rft.aulast=Crane&rft.aufirst=Vernon+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbenjaminfranklin00cran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin1916" class="citation book cs1">Franklin, Benjamin (1916). Pine, Frank Woodworth (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008997101&seq=9">The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin</a>. Garden City, NY: Garden City Publishing Company. Retrieved June 4, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Benjamin+Franklin&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+NY&rft.pub=Garden+City+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1916&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dmdp.39015008997101%26seq%3D9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaustad2006" class="citation book cs1">Gaustad, Edwin S. (2006). Benjamin Franklin. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195305357" title="Special:BookSources/9780195305357"><bdi>9780195305357</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780195305357&rft.aulast=Gaustad&rft.aufirst=Edwin+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="isaacson2004" class="citation book cs1">Isaacson, Walter (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L64OOJGaCKIC">Benjamin Franklin: An American Life</a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780743258074" title="Special:BookSources/9780743258074"><bdi>9780743258074</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin%3A+An+American+Life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780743258074&rft.aulast=Isaacson&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL64OOJGaCKIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKetcham1966" class="citation book cs1">Ketcham, Ralph L. (1966). Benjamin Franklin. New York: Washington Square Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Washington+Square+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Ketcham&rft.aufirst=Ralph+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemay,_J.A._Leo2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leo_Lemay" title="Leo Lemay">Lemay, J.A. Leo</a> (2005). The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 1: Journalist, 1706–1739. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3854-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3854-9"><bdi>978-0-8122-3854-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Benjamin+Franklin%2C+Volume+1%3A+Journalist%2C+1706%E2%80%931739&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-3854-9&rft.au=Lemay%2C+J.A.+Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemay,_J.A._Leo2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leo_Lemay" title="Leo Lemay">Lemay, J.A. Leo</a> (2005). The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 2: Printer and Publisher, 1730–1747. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3855-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3855-6"><bdi>978-0-8122-3855-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Benjamin+Franklin%2C+Volume+2%3A+Printer+and+Publisher%2C+1730%E2%80%931747&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-3855-6&rft.au=Lemay%2C+J.A.+Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemay,_J.A._Leo2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leo_Lemay" title="Leo Lemay">Lemay, J.A. Leo</a> (2008). The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 3: Soldier, scientist, and politician, 1748–1757. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4121-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4121-1"><bdi>978-0-8122-4121-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Benjamin+Franklin%2C+Volume+3%3A+Soldier%2C+scientist%2C+and+politician%2C+1748%E2%80%931757&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4121-1&rft.au=Lemay%2C+J.A.+Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan,_Edmund_S.2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Morgan_(historian)" title="Edmund Morgan (historian)">Morgan, Edmund S.</a> (2002). Benjamin Franklin. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-10162-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-10162-7"><bdi>0-300-10162-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-300-10162-7&rft.au=Morgan%2C+Edmund+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiff,_Stacy2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stacy_Schiff" title="Stacy Schiff">Schiff, Stacy</a> (2005). A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America. New York: Henry Holt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-8009-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-8009-4"><bdi>978-0-8050-8009-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Great+Improvisation%3A+Franklin%2C+France%2C+and+the+Birth+of+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Henry+Holt&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-8009-4&rft.au=Schiff%2C+Stacy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF_Srodes,_James2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Srodes" title="James Srodes"> Srodes, James</a> (2002). Franklin, The Essential Founding Father. Washington, DC: Regnery History. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89526-163-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89526-163-2"><bdi>978-0-89526-163-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin%2C+The+Essential+Founding+Father&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Regnery+History&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-89526-163-2&rft.au=Srodes%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Doren1938" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Van_Doren" title="Carl Van Doren">Van Doren, Carl</a> (1938). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.182793/page/n1/mode/2up">Benjamin Franklin</a>. New York: Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931541-85-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931541-85-5"><bdi>978-1-931541-85-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved June 3, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=1938&rft.isbn=978-1-931541-85-5&rft.aulast=Van+Doren&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.182793%2Fpage%2Fn1%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Wood, Gordon. "Benjamin Franklin" Encyclopedia Britannica (2021) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210702062014/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benjamin-Franklin">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood,_Gordon2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood" title="Gordon S. Wood">Wood, Gordon</a> (2004). The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin. New York: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59420-019-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-59420-019-X"><bdi>1-59420-019-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Americanization+of+Benjamin+Franklin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-59420-019-X&rft.au=Wood%2C+Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright,_Esmond1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Esmond_Wright" title="Esmond Wright">Wright, Esmond</a> (1988). Franklin of Philadelphia. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-31810-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-31810-6"><bdi>978-0-674-31810-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+of+Philadelphia&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-674-31810-6&rft.au=Wright%2C+Esmond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholarly_studies">Scholarly studies</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="institute" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070305234033/http://fi.edu/franklin/inventor/inventor.html">"Inventor"</a>. The Franklin Institute. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fi.edu/franklin/inventor/inventor.html">the original</a> on March 5, 2007. Retrieved April 25, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Inventor&rft.pub=The+Franklin+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffi.edu%2Ffranklin%2Finventor%2Finventor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1997" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Douglas (1997). The Radical Enlightenments of Benjamin Franklin. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801854453" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801854453"><bdi>978-0801854453</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Radical+Enlightenments+of+Benjamin+Franklin&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0801854453&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuxbaum1987" class="citation book cs1">Buxbaum, M. H., ed. (1987). Critical Essays on Benjamin Franklin. Boston: GK Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816186990" title="Special:BookSources/978-0816186990"><bdi>978-0816186990</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Essays+on+Benjamin+Franklin&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=GK+Hall&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0816186990&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaplin2007" class="citation book cs1">Chaplin, Joyce (2007). The First Scientific American: Benjamin Franklin and the Pursuit of Genius. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465009565" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465009565"><bdi>978-0465009565</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Scientific+American%3A+Benjamin+Franklin+and+the+Pursuit+of+Genius&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0465009565&rft.aulast=Chaplin&rft.aufirst=Joyce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1990" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, I. Bernard (1990). Benjamin Franklin's Science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674066588" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674066588"><bdi>978-0674066588</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin%27s+Science&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0674066588&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=I.+Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConner1965" class="citation book cs1">Conner, Paul W. (1965). Poor Richard's Politicks: Benjamin Franklin and His New American Order. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195005141" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195005141"><bdi>978-0195005141</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poor+Richard%27s+Politicks%3A+Benjamin+Franklin+and+His+New+American+Order&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0195005141&rft.aulast=Conner&rft.aufirst=Paul+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixon2011" class="citation thesis cs1">Dixon, Charles Robert (2011). All about the Benjamins: The Nineteenth Century Character Assassination of Benjamin Franklin (PhD thesis). University of Alabama.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=All+about+the+Benjamins%3A+The+Nineteenth+Century+Character+Assassination+of+Benjamin+Franklin&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Alabama&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=Charles+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> ProQuest Dissertations, 3461038.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDray,_Philip2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Dray" title="Philip Dray">Dray, Philip</a> (2005). Stealing God's Thunder: Benjamin Franklin's Lightning Rod and the Invention of America. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812968101" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812968101"><bdi>978-0812968101</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stealing+God%27s+Thunder%3A+Benjamin+Franklin%27s+Lightning+Rod+and+the+Invention+of+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0812968101&rft.au=Dray%2C+Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDull1985" class="citation book cs1">Dull, Jonathan R. (1985). A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300034196" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300034196"><bdi>978-0300034196</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Diplomatic+History+of+the+American+Revolution&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0300034196&rft.aulast=Dull&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDull2010" class="citation book cs1">Dull, Jonathan R. (2010). Benjamin Franklin and the American Revolution. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0803230330" title="Special:BookSources/978-0803230330"><bdi>978-0803230330</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin+and+the+American+Revolution&rft.place=Lincoln%2C+NE&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0803230330&rft.aulast=Dull&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFord1921" class="citation book cs1">Ford, Paul Leicester (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manysidedfrankli01ford">The Many-Sided Franklin</a>. New York: The Century Company. Retrieved June 5, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Many-Sided+Franklin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Century+Company&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Paul+Leicester&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanysidedfrankli01ford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0058-201">"Franklin as Politician and Diplomatist"</a> in The Century (October 1899) v. 57 pp. 881–899. By Paul Leicester Ford.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0057-169">"Franklin as Printer and Publisher"</a> in The Century (April 1899) v. 57 pp. 803–818.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0058-172">"Franklin as Scientist"</a> in The Century (September 1899) v.57 pp. 750–763. By Paul Leicester Ford.</li></ul></li> <li>Frasca, Ralph. "Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network and the Stamp Act." Pennsylvania History 71.4 (2004): 403–419 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.psu.edu/index.php/phj/article/download/25899/25668">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210115040142/https://journals.psu.edu/index.php/phj/article/download/25899/25668">Archived</a> January 15, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Frasca, Ralph. Benjamin Franklin's printing network: disseminating virtue in early America (U of Missouri Press, 2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Benjamin-Franklins-Printing-Network-Disseminating/dp/0826216145/">excerpt</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGleason2000" class="citation journal cs1">Gleason, Philip (2000). "Trouble in the Colonial Melting Pot". Journal of American Ethnic History. 20 (1): 3–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F27502642">10.2307/27502642</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27502642">27502642</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254480258">254480258</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Ethnic+History&rft.atitle=Trouble+in+the+Colonial+Melting+Pot&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-17&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A254480258%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27502642%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F27502642&rft.aulast=Gleason&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartsock2000" class="citation thesis cs1">Hartsock, Pamela Ann (2000). 'Tracing the Pattern among the Tangled Threads': The Composition and Publication History of 'The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin' (PhD thesis). University of Missouri.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=%27Tracing+the+Pattern+among+the+Tangled+Threads%27%3A+The+Composition+and+Publication+History+of+%27The+Autobiography+of+Benjamin+Franklin%27&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Missouri&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Hartsock&rft.aufirst=Pamela+Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 9999293.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouston2008" class="citation book cs1">Houston, Alan (2008). Benjamin Franklin and the Politics of Improvement. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12447-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12447-7"><bdi>978-0-300-12447-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin+and+the+Politics+of+Improvement&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-300-12447-7&rft.aulast=Houston&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kidd, Thomas S. Benjamin Franklin: The Religious Life of a Founding Father (Yale UP, 2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Benjamin-Franklin-Religious-Founding-Father/dp/0300217498/">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemay1993" class="citation book cs1">Lemay, J.A. Leo, ed. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_087413448X">Reappraising Benjamin Franklin: A Bicentennial Perspective</a>. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87413-448-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87413-448-X"><bdi>0-87413-448-X</bdi></a>. Retrieved June 5, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reappraising+Benjamin+Franklin%3A+A+Bicentennial+Perspective&rft.place=Newark%2C+DE&rft.pub=University+of+Delaware+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-87413-448-X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_087413448X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathews1914" class="citation journal cs1">Mathews, L.K. (August 1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-1946173">"Benjamin Franklin's Plans for a Colonial Union, 1750–1775"</a>. American Political Science Review. 8 (3): 393–412. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1946173">10.2307/1946173</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1946173">1946173</a>. Retrieved June 5, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Franklin%27s+Plans+for+a+Colonial+Union%2C+1750%E2%80%931775&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=393-412&rft.date=1914-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1946173&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1946173%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mathews&rft.aufirst=L.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjstor-1946173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCoy1978" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Drew_R._McCoy" title="Drew R. McCoy">McCoy, Drew R.</a> (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1923207">"Benjamin Franklin's Vision of a Republican Political Economy for America"</a>. William and Mary Quarterly. 35 (4): 607–628. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1923207">10.2307/1923207</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1923207">1923207</a>. Retrieved June 5, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Franklin%27s+Vision+of+a+Republican+Political+Economy+for+America&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=607-628&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1923207&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1923207%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=McCoy&rft.aufirst=Drew+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1923207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerliWilson1974" class="citation book cs1">Merli, Frank J; Wilson, Theodore A., eds. (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makersofamerican00merl">Makers of American Diplomacy, from Benjamin Franklin to Henry Kissinger</a>. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-13786-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-13786-0"><bdi>0-684-13786-0</bdi></a>. 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New England Quarterly. 72 (3): 415–443. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F366890">10.2307/366890</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/366890">366890</a>. Retrieved June 5, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+England+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Figuring+Benjamin+Franklin+in+American+Cultural+Memory&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=415-443&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F366890&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F366890%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mulford&rft.aufirst=Carla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F366890&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="nash2006" class="citation journal cs1">Nash, Gary B. (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4599029">"Franklin and Slavery"</a>. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 150 (4): 618–638. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4599029">4599029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Franklin+and+Slavery&rft.volume=150&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=618-638&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4599029%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nash&rft.aufirst=Gary+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4599029&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewman2009" class="citation journal cs1">Newman, Simon P. (August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40464376">"Benjamin Franklin and the Leather-Apron Men: The Politics of Class in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia"</a>. Journal of American Studies. 43 (2): 161–175. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021875809990089">10.1017/S0021875809990089</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40464376">40464376</a>. Retrieved June 5, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Studies&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Franklin+and+the+Leather-Apron+Men%3A+The+Politics+of+Class+in+Eighteenth-Century+Philadelphia&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-175&rft.date=2009-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021875809990089&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40464376%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=Simon+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40464376&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsen2013" class="citation book cs1">Olsen, Neil C. (2013). Pursuing Happiness: The Organizational Culture of the Continental Congress. Milford, CT: Nonagram Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4800-6550-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4800-6550-5"><bdi>978-1-4800-6550-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pursuing+Happiness%3A+The+Organizational+Culture+of+the+Continental+Congress&rft.place=Milford%2C+CT&rft.pub=Nonagram+Publications&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4800-6550-5&rft.aulast=Olsen&rft.aufirst=Neil+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlson2004" class="citation book cs1">Olson, Lester C. (2004). Benjamin Franklin's Vision of American Community: A Study in Rhetorical Iconology. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57003-525-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-57003-525-3"><bdi>1-57003-525-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin%27s+Vision+of+American+Community%3A+A+Study+in+Rhetorical+Iconology&rft.place=Columbia%2C+SC&rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-57003-525-3&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=Lester+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenthall2016" class="citation journal cs1">Rosenthall, Karen M. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/90000884">"A Generative Populace: Benjamin Franklin's Economic Agendas"</a>. Early American Literature. 51 (3): 571–598. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Feal.2016.0047">10.1353/eal.2016.0047</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/90000884">90000884</a>. Retrieved June 5, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Early+American+Literature&rft.atitle=A+Generative+Populace%3A+Benjamin+Franklin%27s+Economic+Agendas&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=571-598&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Feal.2016.0047&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F90000884%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rosenthall&rft.aufirst=Karen+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F90000884&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoyot2006" class="citation journal cs1">Royot, Daniel (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42573707">"Review: New Perspectives on Benjamin Franklin's Humor"</a>. Studies in American Humor. 3 (14): 133–138. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42573707">42573707</a>. Retrieved June 5, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+American+Humor&rft.atitle=Review%3A+New+Perspectives+on+Benjamin+Franklin%27s+Humor&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=133-138&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42573707%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Royot&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42573707&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiffer2003" class="citation book cs1">Schiffer, Michael Brian (2003). Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-23802-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-23802-8"><bdi>0-520-23802-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Draw+the+Lightning+Down%3A+Benjamin+Franklin+and+Electrical+Technology+in+the+Age+of+Enlightenment&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-520-23802-8&rft.aulast=Schiffer&rft.aufirst=Michael+Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkemp1994" class="citation book cs1">Skemp, Sheila L. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/benjaminwilliamf0000skem_x1h1/page/n5/mode/2up">Benjamin and William Franklin: Father and Son, Patriot and Loyalist</a>. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0312086176" title="Special:BookSources/978-0312086176"><bdi>978-0312086176</bdi></a>. Retrieved June 5, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+and+William+Franklin%3A+Father+and+Son%2C+Patriot+and+Loyalist&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0312086176&rft.aulast=Skemp&rft.aufirst=Sheila+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbenjaminwilliamf0000skem_x1h1%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlack2009" class="citation thesis cs1">Slack, Kevin Lee (2009). Benjamin Franklin and the Science of Virtue (PhD thesis). University of Dallas.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Benjamin+Franklin+and+the+Science+of+Virtue&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Dallas&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Slack&rft.aufirst=Kevin+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 3357482.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmart1989" class="citation thesis cs1">Smart, Karl Lyman (1989). A Man for All Ages: The Changing Image of Benjamin Franklin in Nineteenth Century American Popular Literature (PhD thesis). University of Florida.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=A+Man+for+All+Ages%3A+The+Changing+Image+of+Benjamin+Franklin+in+Nineteenth+Century+American+Popular+Literature&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Florida&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Smart&rft.aufirst=Karl+Lyman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"> ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 9021252.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldstreicher2004" class="citation book cs1">Waldstreicher, David (2004). Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution. New York: Hill and Wang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0809083152" title="Special:BookSources/978-0809083152"><bdi>978-0809083152</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Runaway+America%3A+Benjamin+Franklin%2C+Slavery%2C+and+the+American+Revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hill+and+Wang&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0809083152&rft.aulast=Waldstreicher&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerry_S._Walters" title="Kerry S. Walters">Walters, Kerry S.</a> Benjamin Franklin and His Gods. (1999). 213 pp. Takes position midway between D H Lawrence's brutal 1930 denunciation of Franklin's religion as nothing more than a bourgeois commercialism tricked out in shallow utilitarian moralisms and <a href="/wiki/Owen_Aldridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Owen Aldridge">Owen Aldridge</a>'s sympathetic 1967 treatment of the dynamism and protean character of Franklin's "polytheistic" religion.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYork2009" class="citation journal cs1">York, Neil (October 2009). "When Words Fail: William Pitt, Benjamin Franklin and the Imperial Crisis of 1766". Parliamentary History. 28 (3): 341–374. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1750-0206.2009.00120.x">10.1111/j.1750-0206.2009.00120.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Parliamentary+History&rft.atitle=When+Words+Fail%3A+William+Pitt%2C+Benjamin+Franklin+and+the+Imperial+Crisis+of+1766&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=341-374&rft.date=2009-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1750-0206.2009.00120.x&rft.aulast=York&rft.aufirst=Neil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrands2013" class="citation journal cs1">Brands, H. W. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43661532">"Review: Lives and Times, Then and Now"</a>. Reviews in American History. 41 (2): 207–212. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Frah.2013.0052">10.1353/rah.2013.0052</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43661532">43661532</a>. Retrieved June 6, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+in+American+History&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Lives+and+Times%2C+Then+and+Now&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=207-212&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Frah.2013.0052&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43661532%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Brands&rft.aufirst=H.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43661532&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Waldstreicher, David, ed. A Companion to Benjamin Franklin (2011), 25 essays by scholars emphasizing how historians have handled Franklin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/120084135/a-companion-to-benjamin-franklin">online edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020013408/https://www.questia.com/library/120084135/a-companion-to-benjamin-franklin">Archived</a> October 20, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/A_Dissertation_on_Liberty_and_Necessity,_Pleasure_and_Pain" title="A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain">A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain</a>."</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity" title="Experiments and Observations on Electricity">Experiments and Observations on Electricity</a>." (1751)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Fart_Proudly" class="mw-redirect" title="Fart Proudly">Fart Proudly</a>: Writings of Benjamin Franklin You Never Read in School." Carl Japikse, Ed. Frog Ltd.; Reprint ed. 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58394-079-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-58394-079-0">1-58394-079-0</a></li> <li>"Heroes of America Benjamin Franklin."</li> <li>"On Marriage."</li> <li>"Satires and Bagatelles."</li> <li>Autobiography, Poor Richard, & Later Writings (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (<a href="/wiki/Library_of_America" title="Library of America">Library of America</a>, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-883011-53-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-883011-53-6">978-1-883011-53-6</a></li> <li>Benjamin Franklin Reader edited by Walter Isaacson (2003)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/benjaminfranklin0000fran_o8e8">Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography</a> edited by J.A. Leo Lemay and P.M. Zall, (Norton Critical Editions, 1986); 390 pp. text, contemporary documents and 20th century analysis</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklinMajaultLe_RoySallin2002" class="citation journal cs1">Franklin, B.; Majault, M.J.; Le Roy, J.B.; Sallin, C.L.; Bailly, J.-S.; d'Arcet, J.; de Bory, G.; Guillotin, J.-I.; Lavoisier, A. (2002). "Report of The Commissioners charged by the King with the Examination of Animal Magnetism". International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. 50 (4): 332–363. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00207140208410109">10.1080/00207140208410109</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12362951">12362951</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36506710">36506710</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Clinical+and+Experimental+Hypnosis&rft.atitle=Report+of+The+Commissioners+charged+by+the+King+with+the+Examination+of+Animal+Magnetism&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=332-363&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36506710%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12362951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00207140208410109&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Majault%2C+M.J.&rft.au=Le+Roy%2C+J.B.&rft.au=Sallin%2C+C.L.&rft.au=Bailly%2C+J.-S.&rft.au=d%27Arcet%2C+J.&rft.au=de+Bory%2C+G.&rft.au=Guillotin%2C+J.-I.&rft.au=Lavoisier%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="franklin1769" class="citation book cs1">Franklin, Benjamin (1769). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/b30499860_0003/page/n7/mode/2up">Experiments and observations on electricity, made at Philadelphia in America</a>. London : Printed for David Henry; and sold by Francis Newberry.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Experiments+and+observations+on+electricity%2C+made+at+Philadelphia+in+America&rft.pub=London+%3A+Printed+for+David+Henry%3B+and+sold+by+Francis+Newberry&rft.date=1769&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fb30499860_0003%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Houston, Alan, ed. Franklin: The Autobiography and other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue. Cambridge University Press, 2004. 371 pp.</li> <li>Ketcham, Ralph, ed. The Political Thought of Benjamin Franklin. (1965, reprinted 2003). 459 pp.</li> <li>Lass, Hilda, ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thefabulousamericanfranklin">The Fabulous American: A Benjamin Franklin Almanac</a>. (1964). 222 pp.</li> <li>Woody, Thomas, ed. Educational views of Benjamin Franklin (1931) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/educationalviews0000fran/page/n6/mode/1uponline">[1]</a></li> <li>Leonard Labaree, and others., eds., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060214030435/http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/index.html">The Papers of Benjamin Franklin</a>, 39 vols. to date (1959–2008), definitive edition, through 1783. This massive collection of BF's writings, and letters to him, is available in large academic libraries. It is most useful for detailed research on specific topics. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://franklinpapers.org/franklin/">The complete text of all the documents are online and searchable</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100928051438/http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/indexintro.html">The Index is also online</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived September 28, 2010).</li> <li>Poor Richard Improved by Benjamin Franklin (1751)</li> <li>Silence Dogood, The Busy-Body, & Early Writings (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (<a href="/wiki/Library_of_America" title="Library of America">Library of America</a>, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931082-22-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931082-22-8">978-1-931082-22-8</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100928051438/http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/indexintro.html">The Papers of Benjamin Franklin</a> online, Sponsored by The American Philosophical Society and Yale University</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Way_to_Wealth" title="The Way to Wealth">The Way to Wealth</a>. Applewood Books; 1986. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-918222-88-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-918222-88-5">0-918222-88-5</a></li> <li>Writings (Franklin)|Writings. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-940450-29-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-940450-29-1">0-940450-29-1</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="For_young_readers">For young readers</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Asimov" title="Isaac Asimov">Asimov, Isaac</a>. The Kite That Won the Revolution, a biography for children that focuses on Franklin's scientific and diplomatic contributions.</li> <li>Fleming, Candace. Ben Franklin's Almanac: Being a True Account of the Good Gentleman's Life. Atheneum/Anne Schwart, 2003, 128 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-689-83549-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-689-83549-0">978-0-689-83549-0</a>.</li> <li>Miller, Brandon. Benjamin Franklin, American Genius: His Life and Ideas with 21 Activities (For Kids series) 2009 Chicago Review Press</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-files{text-align:center;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-icon{float:left;margin-left:5px;margin-top:10px}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer{margin-left:60px;margin-top:10px;font-size:95%;line-height:1.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-footer{margin-top:10px;text-align:center}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{width:20em;float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="spoken-wikipedia noprint haudio"><div class="spoken-wikipedia-header">Listen to this article (3 parts, 56 minutes)</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-files"> <ol><li><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="180" style="width:180px;" data-durationhint="969" data-mwtitle="Benjamin_Franklin_1.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Benjamin_Franklin_1.ogg" type="audio/ogg; 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codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Benjamin_Franklin_3.ogg/Benjamin_Franklin_3.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></li></ol> </div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-icon"><img alt="Spoken Wikipedia icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/45px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/68px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/90px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer">These audio files were created from a revision of this article dated 4 August 2008 (2008-08-04), and do not reflect subsequent edits.</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-footer">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Media help">Audio help</a> · <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Spoken_articles" title="Wikipedia:Spoken articles">More spoken articles</a>)</div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Benjamin Franklin <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=56609913&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=56609913">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=56609913&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow">By Benjamin Franklin <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=56609913&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=56609913">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=56609913&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?159616-1/first-american-benjamin-franklin">Presentation by H.W. Brands on The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin, October 5, 2000</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?177514-1/benjamin-franklin-american-life">Presentation by Walter Isaacson on Benjamin Franklin: An American Life, July 22, 2003</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?174035-1/benjamin-franklin">Presentation by Edmund S. Morgan on Benjamin Franklin, November 12, 2002</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?186653-1/great-improvisation">Presentation by Stacy Schiff on A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America, April 12, 2005</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?170126-1/franklin-essential-founding-father">Booknotes interview with James Srodes on Franklin: The Essential Founding Father, May 19, 2002</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?182263-1/americanization-benjamin-franklin">Interview with Gordon S. Wood on The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin, June 4, 2004</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?190664-1/life-legacy-benjamin-franklin">Panel discussion on Franklin with Walter Isaacson, Gordon Wood, and Stacy Schiff, hosted by Jim Lehrer, January 8, 2006</a>, C-SPAN</td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.compadre.org/psrc/Franklin/">Benjamin Franklin and Electrostatics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170814134955/http://www.compadre.org/psrc/Franklin/">Archived</a> August 14, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> experiments and Franklin's electrical writings from Wright Center for Science Education</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.library.upenn.edu/1017/d/ead/upenn_rbml_MsColl900">Benjamin Franklin Papers, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/rn/ockhamsrazor/stories/2006/1814928.htm">Franklin's impact on medicine</a> – talk by medical historian, Dr. Jim Leavesley celebrating the 300th anniversary of Franklin's birth on Okham's Razor ABC <a href="/wiki/Radio_National" title="Radio National">Radio National</a> – December 2006</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4iKz2F0kC2U">Video with sheet music</a> of Benjamin Franklin's string quartet</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biographical_and_guides">Biographical and guides</h3></div> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=F000342">Biography</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Biographical_Directory_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Biographical Directory of the United States Congress">Biographical Directory of the United States Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030704024551/http://www.time.com/time/2003/franklin/bffranklin.html">"Special Report: Citizen Ben's Greatest Virtues"</a> <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.c-span.org/video/?163159-1/writings-benjamin-franklin">"Writings of Benjamin Franklin"</a> from <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a>'s <a href="/wiki/American_Writers:_A_Journey_Through_History" title="American Writers: A Journey Through History">American Writers: A Journey Through History</a></li> <li>Afsai, Shai (2019). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/rrj/22/2/article-p228_5.xml">Benjamin Franklin's Influence on Mussar Thought and Practice: a Chronicle of Misapprehension</a>." Review of Rabbinic Judaism 22, 2: 228–276.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120502102128/http://www.english.udel.edu/lemay/franklin/">Benjamin Franklin: A Documentary History</a> by J.A. Leo Lemay</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/benfranklin/">Benjamin Franklin: An extraordinary life</a> PBS</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131102055511/http://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/BFranklin">Benjamin Franklin: First American Diplomat, 1776–1785</a> US State Department</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Franklin,_Benjamin">"Franklin, Benjamin" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Franklin%2C+Benjamin&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Franklin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/franklin/franklin.html">Finding Franklin: A Resource Guide</a> Library of Congress</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm">Guide to Benjamin Franklin</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100316174915/http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm">Archived</a> March 16, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> By a history professor at the University of Illinois.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.librarything.com/profile/BenjaminFranklin">Online edition of Franklin's personal library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/">The Electric Benjamin Franklin</a> ushistory.org</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Online_writings">Online writings</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/SilenceDogood_201306">"A Silence Dogood Sampler" – Selections from Franklin's Silence Dogood writings</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/Franklin%20Abridged/index.html">Abridgement of the Book of Common Prayer (1773), by Benjamin Franklin and Francis Dashwood</a>, transcribed by Richard Mammana</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090821230120/http://sln.fi.edu/franklin/family/lastwill.html">Franklin's Last Will & Testament</a> Transcription.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/franklin-home.html">Library of Congress web resource: Benjamin Franklin ... In His Own Words</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/people/FranklinB.html">Online Works by Franklin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/350">Works by Benjamin Franklin</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/benjamin-franklin">Works by Benjamin Franklin in eBook form</a> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_Ebooks" title="Standard Ebooks">Standard Ebooks</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Franklin,+Benjamin">Works by Benjamin Franklin</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Franklin%2C%20Benjamin%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Benjamin%20Franklin%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Franklin%2C%20Benjamin%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Benjamin%20Franklin%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Franklin%2C%20B%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Benjamin%20Franklin%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Franklin%2C%20Benjamin%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Benjamin%20Franklin%22%29%20OR%20%28%221706-1790%22%20AND%20Franklin%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Benjamin Franklin</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100928051438/http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/indexintro.html">Yale edition of complete works</a>, the standard scholarly edition <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://founders.archives.gov/about/Franklin">Online, searchable edition</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autobiography">Autobiography</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/148" class="extiw" title="gutenberg:148">The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin</a> at Project Gutenberg</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://librivox.org/the-autobigraphy-of-benjamin-franklin-ed-by-frank-woodworth-pine/">The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin</a> LibriVox recording</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_arts">In the arts</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benfranklin300.com/">Benjamin Franklin 300 (1706–2006)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080820111326/http://benfranklin300.com/">Archived</a> August 20, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Official web site of the Benjamin Franklin Tercentenary.</li> <li>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hsp.org/files/findingaid215franklin.pdf">Historical Society of Pennsylvania Collection of Benjamin Franklin Papers</a>, including correspondence, government documents, writings and a copy of his will, are available for research use at the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Society_of_Pennsylvania" title="Historical Society of Pennsylvania">Historical Society of Pennsylvania</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Benjamin_Franklin" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Benjamin_Franklin" title="Template:Benjamin Franklin"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Benjamin_Franklin" title="Template talk:Benjamin Franklin"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Benjamin_Franklin" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Benjamin Franklin"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Benjamin_Franklin" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benjamin Franklin</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Pennsylvania" title="List of governors of Pennsylvania">President of Pennsylvania (1785–1788)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_France" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to France">Ambassador to France (1779–1785)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress (1775–1776)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Founding of the United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Join,_or_Die" title="Join, or Die">Join, or Die. (1754 political cartoon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Plan" title="Albany Plan">Albany Plan of Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Congress" title="Albany Congress">Albany Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutchinson_letters_affair" title="Hutchinson letters affair">Hutchinson letters affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Secret_Correspondence" title="Committee of Secret Correspondence">Committee of Secret Correspondence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Committee of Five</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_men_are_created_equal" title="All men are created equal">"...to be self-evident"</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_Treaty" title="Model Treaty">Model Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-American_alliance" title="Franco-American alliance">Franco-American alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amity_and_Commerce_(France%E2%80%93United_States)" title="Treaty of Amity and Commerce (France–United States)">Treaty of Amity and Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alliance_(1778)" title="Treaty of Alliance (1778)">Treaty of Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staten_Island_Peace_Conference" title="Staten Island Peace Conference">Staten Island Peace Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Constitution_of_1776" title="Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776">1776 Pennsylvania Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertas_Americana" title="Libertas Americana">Libertas Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris, 1783</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Delegate, 1787 Constitutional Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pennsylvania#Government" title="Province of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">Postmaster General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inventions, other events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franklin%27s_electrostatic_machine" title="Franklin's electrostatic machine">Franklin's electrostatic machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bifocals" title="Bifocals">Bifocals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_stove" title="Franklin stove">Franklin stove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_harmonica#Franklin's_armonica" title="Glass harmonica">Glass armonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream#History" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream exploration, naming, and chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">Lightning rod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kite_experiment" title="Kite experiment">Kite experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pay_it_forward" title="Pay it forward">Pay it forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associators" title="Associators">Associators</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/111th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="111th Infantry Regiment (United States)">111th Infantry Regiment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junto_(club)" title="Junto (club)">Junto club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_Company_of_Philadelphia" title="Library Company of Philadelphia">Library Company of Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Hospital" title="Pennsylvania Hospital">Pennsylvania Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academy_and_College_of_Philadelphia" title="Academy and College of Philadelphia">Academy and College of Philadelphia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Contributionship" title="Philadelphia Contributionship">Philadelphia Contributionship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Fire_Company" title="Union Fire Company">Union Fire Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_American_currency" title="Early American currency">Early American currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Currency_dollar_coin" title="Continental Currency dollar coin">Continental Currency dollar coin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugio_cent" title="Fugio cent">Fugio cent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States#Early_postal_history" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">United States Postal Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_street_lighting_in_the_United_States" title="History of street lighting in the United States">Street lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Abolition_Society" title="Pennsylvania Abolition Society">President, Pennsylvania Abolition Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Neuf_S%C5%93urs" title="Les Neuf Sœurs">Master, Les Neuf Sœurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christ_Church_Burial_Ground" title="Christ Church Burial Ground">Gravesite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Papers_of_Benjamin_Franklin" title="The Papers of Benjamin Franklin">The Papers of Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Online" title="Founders Online">Founders Online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silence_Dogood" title="Silence Dogood">Silence Dogood letters (1722)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Dissertation_on_Liberty_and_Necessity,_Pleasure_and_Pain" title="A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain">A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain (1725)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Busy-Body_(pen_name)" title="The Busy-Body (pen name)">The Busy-Body columns (1729)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Pennsylvania_Gazette" title="The Pennsylvania Gazette">The Pennsylvania Gazette (1729–1790)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_American_publishers_and_printers" title="Early American publishers and printers">Early American publishers and printers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_Richard%27s_Almanack" title="Poor Richard's Almanack">Poor Richard's Almanack (1732–1758)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Drinker%27s_Dictionary" title="The Drinker's Dictionary">The Drinker's Dictionary (1737)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advice_to_a_Friend_on_Choosing_a_Mistress" title="Advice to a Friend on Choosing a Mistress">"Advice to a Friend on Choosing a Mistress" (1745)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Speech_of_Polly_Baker" title="The Speech of Polly Baker">"The Speech of Polly Baker" (1747)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observations_Concerning_the_Increase_of_Mankind,_Peopling_of_Countries,_etc." title="Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc.">Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc. (1751)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity" title="Experiments and Observations on Electricity">Experiments and Observations on Electricity (1751)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Birch#Copies_of_Franklin_letters" title="Thomas Birch">Birch letters (1755)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Way_to_Wealth" title="The Way to Wealth">The Way to Wealth (1758)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Chronicle" title="Pennsylvania Chronicle">Pennsylvania Chronicle (1767)</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Rules_By_Which_A_Great_Empire_May_Be_Reduced_To_A_Small_One" class="extiw" title="s:Rules By Which A Great Empire May Be Reduced To A Small One">Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One (1773)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal#Benjamin_Franklin" title="Indian removal">Proposed alliance with the Iroquois (1775)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Letter_to_a_Royal_Academy" title="A Letter to a Royal Academy">A Letter to a Royal Academy (1781)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_savage#Benjamin_Franklin's_Remarks_Concerning_the_Savages_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">Remarks Concerning the Savages of North America (1784)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Morals_of_Chess" title="The Morals of Chess">"The Morals of Chess" (1786)</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Address_to_the_Public" class="extiw" title="s:An Address to the Public">An Address to the Public (1789)</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Plan_for_Improving_the_Condition_of_the_Free_Blacks" class="extiw" title="s:A Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks">A Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks (1789)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Benjamin_Franklin" title="The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin">The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (1771–1790, pub. 1791)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagatelles_and_Satires" title="Bagatelles and Satires">Bagatelles and Satires (pub. 1845)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers#The_New_England_Courant" title="History of American newspapers">Franklin as a journalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin%27s_phonetic_alphabet" title="Benjamin Franklin's phonetic alphabet">Franklin's phonetic alphabet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Benjamin_Franklin" title="Bibliography of Benjamin Franklin">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Court" title="Franklin Court">Franklin Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_House" title="Benjamin Franklin House">Benjamin Franklin House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Institute_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology">Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Parkway" title="Benjamin Franklin Parkway">Benjamin Franklin Parkway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_National_Memorial" title="Benjamin Franklin National Memorial">Benjamin Franklin National Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Institute" title="Franklin Institute">Franklin Institute</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Institute_Awards" title="Franklin Institute Awards">awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Medal" title="Franklin Medal">medal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Medal_(American_Philosophical_Society)" title="Benjamin Franklin Medal (American Philosophical Society)">Benjamin Franklin Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Medal_(Royal_Society_of_Arts)" title="Benjamin Franklin Medal (Royal Society of Arts)">Royal Society of Arts medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Apotheosis_of_Washington" title="The Apotheosis of Washington">Depicted in The Apotheosis of Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(painting)" title="Treaty of Paris (painting)">Treaty of Paris</a> (1783 painting)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Drawing_Electricity_from_the_Sky" title="Benjamin Franklin Drawing Electricity from the Sky">Benjamin Franklin Drawing Electricity from the Sky</a> (1816 painting)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_War_Door" title="Revolutionary War Door">Revolutionary War Door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Benjamin_Franklin_(Boston)" title="Statue of Benjamin Franklin (Boston)">Boston statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Benjamin_Franklin_(Chicago)" title="Statue of Benjamin Franklin (Chicago)">Chicago statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Benjamin_Franklin_(Columbus,_Ohio)" title="Statue of Benjamin Franklin (Columbus, Ohio)">Columbus, Ohio, statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Benjamin_Franklin_(University_of_Pennsylvania)" title="Statue of Benjamin Franklin (University of Pennsylvania)">University of Pennsylvania statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Benjamin_Franklin_(Portland,_Oregon)" title="Statue of Benjamin Franklin (Portland, Oregon)">Portland, Oregon, statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Benjamin_Franklin_(San_Francisco)" title="Statue of Benjamin Franklin (San Francisco)">San Francisco statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Benjamin_Franklin_(Stanford_University)" title="Statue of Benjamin Franklin (Stanford University)">Stanford University statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Benjamin_Franklin_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Statue of Benjamin Franklin (Washington, D.C.)">Washington D.C. statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Memorial#Exterior" title="Jefferson Memorial">Jefferson Memorial pediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refunding_Certificate" title="Refunding Certificate">Refunding Certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_half_dollar" title="Franklin half dollar">Franklin half dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_one-hundred-dollar_bill" title="United States one-hundred-dollar bill">One-hundred-dollar bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_silver_dollar" title="Benjamin Franklin silver dollar">Franklin silver dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington%E2%80%93Franklin_Issues" title="Washington–Franklin Issues">Washington–Franklin stamps</a> <ul><li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Benjamin_Franklin_on_stamps" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Benjamin Franklin on stamps">other stamps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_named_for_Benjamin_Franklin" title="List of places named for Benjamin Franklin">Cities, counties, schools named for Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_College" title="Benjamin Franklin College">Benjamin Franklin College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Field" title="Franklin Field">Franklin Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Franklin_(New_Hampshire)" title="Mount Franklin (New Hampshire)">Mount Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Franklin" title="State of Franklin">State of Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Ben_(MLS_supporters_association)" title="Sons of Ben (MLS supporters association)">Sons of Ben (Philadelphia Union)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Franklin" title="USS Franklin">Ships named USS Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Franklin_effect" title="Ben Franklin effect">Ben Franklin effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_in_popular_culture" title="Benjamin Franklin in popular culture">In popular culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ben_and_Me" title="Ben and Me">Ben and Me (1953 short)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Franklin_in_Paris" title="Ben Franklin in Paris">Ben Franklin in Paris (1964 musical play)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1776_(musical)" title="1776 (musical)">1776 (1969 musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1776_(film)" title="1776 (film)">1972 film</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_(miniseries)" title="Benjamin Franklin (miniseries)">Benjamin Franklin (miniseries)</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union (1989 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty!" title="Liberty!">Liberty! (1997 documentary series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty%27s_Kids" title="Liberty's Kids">Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_(2002_TV_series)" title="Benjamin Franklin (2002 TV series)">Benjamin Franklin (2002 documentary series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(miniseries)" title="John Adams (miniseries)">John Adams (2008 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty_(miniseries)" title="Sons of Liberty (miniseries)">Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_(film)" title="Benjamin Franklin (film)">Benjamin Franklin (2022 documentary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_(miniseries)" title="Franklin (miniseries)">Franklin (2024 miniseries)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New-England_Courant" title="The New-England Courant">The New-England Courant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_American_Museum_(magazine)" title="The American Museum (magazine)">The American Museum magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">patriots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Read" title="Deborah Read">Deborah Read (wife)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Franklin" title="William Franklin">William Franklin (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Folger_Franklin" title="Francis Folger Franklin">Francis Franklin (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Franklin_Bache" title="Sarah Franklin Bache">Sarah Franklin Bache (daughter)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Temple_Franklin" title="William Temple Franklin">William Franklin (grandson)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Bache" title="Benjamin Franklin Bache">Benjamin F. Bache (grandson)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Franklin_Bache" title="Louis Franklin Bache">Louis F. Bache (grandson)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bache_Jr." title="Richard Bache Jr.">Richard Bache Jr. (grandson)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_A._Harwood" title="Andrew A. Harwood">Andrew Harwood (great-grandson)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dallas_Bache" title="Alexander Dallas Bache">Alexander Bache (great-grandson)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Franklin" title="Josiah Franklin">Josiah Franklin (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franklin_(printer)" title="James Franklin (printer)">James Franklin (brother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Franklin_Mecom" title="Jane Franklin Mecom">Jane Mecom (sister)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Morrell_Folger" title="Mary Morrell Folger">Mary Morrell Folger (grandmother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Folger_(Nantucket_settler)" title="Peter Folger (Nantucket settler)">Peter Folger (grandfather)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bache" title="Richard Bache">Richard Bache (son-in-law)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Smith_Franklin" title="Ann Smith Franklin">Ann Smith Franklin (sister-in-law)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Benjamin_Franklin" title="Category:Benjamin Franklin">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Template:United States Declaration of Independence"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Template talk:United States Declaration of Independence"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States Declaration of Independence"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_history_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Physical history of the United States Declaration of Independence">Physical history of the Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary author</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Continental_Congress" title="President of the Continental Congress">President of Congress</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a> (Massachusetts)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Bartlett" title="Josiah Bartlett">Josiah Bartlett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whipple" title="William Whipple">William Whipple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Thornton" title="Matthew Thornton">Matthew Thornton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Treat_Paine" title="Robert Treat Paine">Robert Treat Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhode Island</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hopkins_(politician)" title="Stephen Hopkins (politician)">Stephen Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ellery" title="William Ellery">William Ellery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Huntington_(Connecticut_politician)" title="Samuel Huntington (Connecticut politician)">Samuel Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Williams_(Connecticut_politician)" title="William Williams (Connecticut politician)">William Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wolcott" title="Oliver Wolcott">Oliver Wolcott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Floyd" title="William Floyd">William Floyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Livingston" title="Philip Livingston">Philip Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lewis" title="Francis Lewis">Francis Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Morris" title="Lewis Morris">Lewis Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stockton_(Continental_Congressman)" title="Richard Stockton (Continental Congressman)">Richard Stockton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Witherspoon" title="John Witherspoon">John Witherspoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hopkinson" title="Francis Hopkinson">Francis Hopkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hart_(New_Jersey_politician)" title="John Hart (New Jersey politician)">John Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Clark" title="Abraham Clark">Abraham Clark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Morton_(American_politician)" title="John Morton (American politician)">John Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Smith_(Pennsylvania_politician)" title="James Smith (Pennsylvania politician)">James Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Taylor_(Pennsylvania_politician)" title="George Taylor (Pennsylvania politician)">George Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ross_(American_politician)" title="George Ross (American politician)">George Ross</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_Rodney" title="Caesar Rodney">Caesar Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_McKean" title="Thomas McKean">Thomas McKean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">Samuel Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paca" title="William Paca">William Paca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Stone" title="Thomas Stone">Thomas Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Carroll_of_Carrollton" title="Charles Carroll of Carrollton">Charles Carroll of Carrollton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Wythe" title="George Wythe">George Wythe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Henry_Lee" title="Richard Henry Lee">Richard Henry Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison_V" title="Benjamin Harrison V">Benjamin Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nelson_Jr." title="Thomas Nelson Jr.">Thomas Nelson Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lightfoot_Lee" title="Francis Lightfoot Lee">Francis Lightfoot Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Braxton" title="Carter Braxton">Carter Braxton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Hooper" title="William Hooper">William Hooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hewes" title="Joseph Hewes">Joseph Hewes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Penn_(North_Carolina_politician)" title="John Penn (North Carolina politician)">John Penn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Rutledge" title="Edward Rutledge">Edward Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Heyward_Jr." title="Thomas Heyward Jr.">Thomas Heyward Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lynch_Jr." title="Thomas Lynch Jr.">Thomas Lynch Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Middleton" title="Arthur Middleton">Arthur Middleton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Button_Gwinnett" title="Button Gwinnett">Button Gwinett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Hall" title="Lyman Hall">Lyman Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Walton" title="George Walton">George Walton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delegates voting for Independence (did not sign)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">New York: <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Livingston" title="Robert R. Livingston">Robert R. Livingston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Wisner" title="Henry Wisner">Henry Wisner</a> Maryland: <a href="/wiki/John_Rogers_(Continental_Congress)" title="John Rogers (Continental Congress)">John Rogers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tilghman" title="Matthew Tilghman">Matthew Tilghman</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Declaration_of_Rights" title="Virginia Declaration of Rights">Virginia Declaration of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Committee of Five</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/All_men_are_created_equal" title="All men are created equal">All men are created equal</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Life,_Liberty_and_the_pursuit_of_Happiness" title="Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness">Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grievances_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Grievances of the United States Declaration of Independence">27 grievances</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_history_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Physical history of the United States Declaration of Independence">Document's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence">signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson" title="Charles Thomson">Charles Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Matlack" title="Timothy Matlack">Timothy Matlack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journals_of_the_Continental_Congress" title="Journals of the Continental Congress">Journals of the Continental Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(United_States)" title="Independence Day (United States)">Independence Day</a></li> <li>Anniversaries <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centennial_Exposition" title="Centennial Exposition">Centennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesquicentennial_Exposition" title="Sesquicentennial Exposition">Sesquicentennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bicentennial" title="United States Bicentennial">Bicentennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Semiquincentennial" title="United States Semiquincentennial">Semiquincentennial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence</a> (Washington, D.C.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signers_Monument" title="Signers Monument">Signers Monument (Georgia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_Voting_Independence" title="Congress Voting Independence">Pine portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(painting)" title="Declaration of Independence (painting)">Trumbull portrait</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Proposed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment" title="Balanced budget amendment">Balanced budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendment" title="Blaine Amendment">Blaine amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_amendment" title="Campaign finance reform amendment">Campaign finance reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Opportunity_to_Govern_Amendment" title="Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment">Equal Opportunity to Govern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Marriage_Amendment" title="Federal Marriage Amendment">Federal Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Desecration_Amendment" title="Flag Desecration Amendment">Flag Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Life_Amendment" title="Human Life Amendment">Human Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_%22Liberty%22_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Proposed "Liberty" Amendment to the United States Constitution">"Liberty" amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_Rights_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Parental Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution">Parental Rights amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_subject_amendment" title="Single subject amendment">Single subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment" title="Victims' Rights Amendment">Victims' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">List of Framers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Printing of the United States Constitution">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Assemble and Petition Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagements_Clause" title="Engagements Clause">Engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex Post Facto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">House Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">Natural-born citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">Original Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Presidential Electors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">State of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Take Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li> <li>Title of Nobility (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Emoluments_Clause" title="Foreign Emoluments Clause">Foreign Emoluments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legislative_Vesting_Clause" title="Legislative Vesting Clause">Legislative</a> / <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Vesting_Clause" title="Judicial Vesting Clause">Judicial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxbe_fix" title="Saxbe fix">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_federalism" title="Symmetric federalism">Symmetric federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention President</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention Secretary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Mall_(Philadelphia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence Mall (Philadelphia)">Independence Mall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Day_and_Citizenship_Day" title="Constitution Day and Citizenship Day">Constitution Day and Citizenship Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Gardens" title="Constitution Gardens">Constitution Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Week" title="Constitution Week">Constitution Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution</a> (painting)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union</a> (film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldwide_influence_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Worldwide influence of the Constitution of the United States">Worldwide influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Offices_and_positions_held_by_Benjamin_Franklin" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Offices_and_positions_held_by_Benjamin_Franklin" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Offices and positions held by Benjamin Franklin</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #DAA520;">Academic offices </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">New institution </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Provost_(education)" title="Provost (education)">Provost</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">Academy of Pennsylvania</a> 1749–1754 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(Episcopalian_priest)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Smith (Episcopalian priest)">William Smith</a></div>as Provost of the College of Pennsylvania </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Norris_(statesman)" title="Isaac Norris (statesman)">Isaac Norris</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Speakers_of_the_Pennsylvania_House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Speakers of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives">Speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly</a> 1764 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Norris_(statesman)" title="Isaac Norris (statesman)">Isaac Norris</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">New office </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">United States Postmaster General</a> 1775–1776 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bache" title="Richard Bache">Richard Bache</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/James_Irvine_(Pennsylvania_politician)" title="James Irvine (Pennsylvania politician)">James Irvine</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Member of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Executive_Council_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Pennsylvania" title="Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania">Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania</a> from <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> 1785–1788 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Miles" title="Samuel Miles">Samuel Miles</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Pennsylvania" title="List of governors of Pennsylvania">President of Pennsylvania</a> 1785–1788 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FACEFF;">Diplomatic posts </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="2">New office </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_France" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to France">United States Minister to France</a> 1779–1785 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to Sweden">United States Minister to Sweden</a> 1782–1783 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Russell" title="Jonathan Russell">Jonathan Russell</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Articles_related_to_Benjamin_Franklin" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Articles_related_to_Benjamin_Franklin" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Articles related to Benjamin Franklin</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Copley_Medallists_(1751–1800)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Copley_Medallists_1751%E2%80%931800" title="Template:Copley Medallists 1751–1800"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Copley_Medallists_1751%E2%80%931800" title="Template talk:Copley Medallists 1751–1800"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copley_Medallists_1751%E2%80%931800" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Copley Medallists 1751–1800"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Copley_Medallists_(1751–1800)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medallists</a> (1751–1800)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Canton" title="John Canton">John Canton</a> (1751)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Pringle,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir John Pringle, 1st Baronet">John Pringle</a> (1752)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benjamin Franklin</a> (1753)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_(scientist)" title="William Lewis (scientist)">William Lewis</a> (1754)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Huxham" title="John Huxham">John Huxham</a> (1755)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Charles_Cavendish" title="Lord Charles Cavendish">Charles Cavendish</a> (1757)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dollond" title="John Dollond">John Dollond</a> (1758)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</a> (1759)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Wilson_(painter)" title="Benjamin Wilson (painter)">Benjamin Wilson</a> (1760)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Canton" title="John Canton">John Canton</a> (1764)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Brownrigg" title="William Brownrigg">William Brownrigg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Delaval" title="Edward Delaval">Edward Delaval</a> / <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cavendish" title="Henry Cavendish">Henry Cavendish</a> (1766)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ellis_(naturalist)" title="John Ellis (naturalist)">John Ellis</a> (1767)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Woulfe" title="Peter Woulfe">Peter Woulfe</a> (1768)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hewson_(surgeon)" title="William Hewson (surgeon)">William Hewson</a> (1769)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hamilton_(diplomat)" title="William Hamilton (diplomat)">William Hamilton</a> (1770)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Raper" title="Matthew Raper">Matthew Raper</a> (1771)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a> (1772)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Walsh_(scientist)" title="John Walsh (scientist)">John Walsh</a> (1773)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevil_Maskelyne" title="Nevil Maskelyne">Nevil Maskelyne</a> (1775)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a> (1776)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mudge" title="John Mudge">John Mudge</a> (1777)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hutton" title="Charles Hutton">Charles Hutton</a> (1778)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Vince" title="Samuel Vince">Samuel Vince</a> (1780)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Herschel" title="William Herschel">William Herschel</a> (1781)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Kirwan" title="Richard Kirwan">Richard Kirwan</a> (1782)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Goodricke" title="John Goodricke">John Goodricke</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hutchins_(naturalist)" title="Thomas Hutchins (naturalist)">Thomas Hutchins</a> (1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Waring" title="Edward Waring">Edward Waring</a> (1784)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Roy" title="William Roy">William Roy</a> (1785)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hunter_(surgeon)" title="John Hunter (surgeon)">John Hunter</a> (1787)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Blagden" title="Charles Blagden">Charles Blagden</a> (1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Morgan_(actuary)" title="William Morgan (actuary)">William Morgan</a> (1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rennell" title="James Rennell">James Rennell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jean-Andr%C3%A9_Deluc" title="Jean-André Deluc">Jean-André Deluc</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Thompson" title="Benjamin Thompson">Benjamin Thompson</a> (1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> (1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Ramsden" title="Jesse Ramsden">Jesse Ramsden</a> (1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Atwood" title="George Atwood">George Atwood</a> (1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Shuckburgh-Evelyn" title="George Shuckburgh-Evelyn">George Shuckburgh-Evelyn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hatchett" title="Charles Hatchett">Charles Hatchett</a> (1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hellins" title="John Hellins">John Hellins</a> (1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Charles_Howard" title="Edward Charles Howard">Edward Charles Howard</a> (1800)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template talk:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism">Romanticism</a> →</div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Category:Age of Enlightenment">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Speakers_of_the_Pennsylvania_Provincial_Assembly_(1682–1775)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:PAProvincialAssemblySpeakers" title="Template:PAProvincialAssemblySpeakers"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:PAProvincialAssemblySpeakers" title="Template talk:PAProvincialAssemblySpeakers"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:PAProvincialAssemblySpeakers" title="Special:EditPage/Template:PAProvincialAssemblySpeakers"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Speakers_of_the_Pennsylvania_Provincial_Assembly_(1682–1775)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Pennsylvania_House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives">Speakers</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pennsylvania#Government" title="Province of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly</a> (1682–1775)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wynne" title="Thomas Wynne">Wynne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_More" title="Nicholas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_White_(Pennsylvania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John White (Pennsylvania) (page does not exist)">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cook_(Pennsylvania_politician)" title="Arthur Cook (Pennsylvania politician)">Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Growdon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Growdon (page does not exist)">Growdon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Clark_(Pennsylvania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Clark (Pennsylvania) (page does not exist)">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Growdon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Growdon (page does not exist)">Growdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_(judge)" title="David Lloyd (judge)">Lloyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Shippen" title="Edward Shippen">Shippen</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Simcock&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Simcock (page does not exist)">Simcock</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Blunston&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Blunston (page does not exist)">Blunston</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phineas_Pemberton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phineas Pemberton (page does not exist)">Pemberton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Blunston&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Blunston (page does not exist)">Blunston</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Growdon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Growdon (page does not exist)">Growdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_(judge)" title="David Lloyd (judge)">Lloyd</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Growdon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Growdon (page does not exist)">Growdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hill_(Pennsylvania_politician)" title="Richard Hill (Pennsylvania politician)">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Norris_(mayor)" title="Isaac Norris (mayor)">Norris</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Growdon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Growdon (page does not exist)">Growdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_(judge)" title="David Lloyd (judge)">Lloyd</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Growdon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Growdon (page does not exist)">Growdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hill_(Pennsylvania_politician)" title="Richard Hill (Pennsylvania politician)">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Trent_(Trenton)" title="William Trent (Trenton)">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dickinson" title="Jonathan Dickinson">Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Trent_(Trenton)" title="William Trent (Trenton)">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Norris_(mayor)" title="Isaac Norris (mayor)">Norris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_Langhorne" title="Jeremiah Langhorne">Langhorne</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Growdon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Growdon (page does not exist)">Growdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_(judge)" title="David Lloyd (judge)">Lloyd</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Biles,_Jr.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Biles, Jr. (page does not exist)">Biles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_(judge)" title="David Lloyd (judge)">Lloyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hamilton_(lawyer)" title="Andrew Hamilton (lawyer)">Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_Langhorne" title="Jeremiah Langhorne">Langhorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hamilton_(lawyer)" title="Andrew Hamilton (lawyer)">Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Kinsey_(Pennsylvania_politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Kinsey (Pennsylvania politician) (page does not exist)">Kinsey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Wright_(Pennsylvania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Wright (Pennsylvania) (page does not exist)">Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Kinsey_(Pennsylvania_politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Kinsey (Pennsylvania politician) (page does not exist)">Kinsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Norris_(statesman)" title="Isaac Norris (statesman)">Norris (II)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Leech_(Pennsylvania_politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Leech (Pennsylvania politician) (page does not exist)">Leech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Norris_(statesman)" title="Isaac Norris (statesman)">Norris (II)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Leech_(Pennsylvania_politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Leech (Pennsylvania politician) (page does not exist)">Leech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Norris_(statesman)" title="Isaac Norris (statesman)">Norris (II)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Norris_(statesman)" title="Isaac Norris (statesman)">Norris (II)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Fox_(politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Fox (politician) (page does not exist)">Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Galloway" title="Joseph Galloway">Galloway</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Fox_(politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Fox (politician) (page does not exist)">Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Galloway" title="Joseph Galloway">Galloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Biddle" title="Edward Biddle">Biddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Morton_(American_politician)" title="John Morton (American politician)">Morton</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Pennsylvania.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pennsylvania State Flag"><img alt="Pennsylvania State Flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Pennsylvania.svg/75px-Flag_of_Pennsylvania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Pennsylvania.svg/113px-Flag_of_Pennsylvania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Pennsylvania.svg/150px-Flag_of_Pennsylvania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="540" /></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chief_administrators_of_the_University_of_Pennsylvania" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#011F5B;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #990000, inset -2px -2px 0 #990000;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:University_of_Pennsylvania_presidents" title="Template:University of Pennsylvania presidents"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:University_of_Pennsylvania_presidents" title="Template talk:University of Pennsylvania presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:University_of_Pennsylvania_presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:University of Pennsylvania presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chief_administrators_of_the_University_of_Pennsylvania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_University_of_Pennsylvania" title="List of presidents of the University of Pennsylvania">Chief administrators of the University of Pennsylvania</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#011F5B;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #990000, inset -2px -2px 0 #990000;;width:1%">Provosts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Franklin</a> (1749–1754)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(Anglican_priest)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Smith (Anglican priest)">William Smith</a> (1754–1779)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ewing_(pastor)" title="John Ewing (pastor)"> Ewing</a> (1779–1802)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_McDowell_(educator)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John McDowell (educator) (page does not exist)">McDowell</a> (1806–1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Andrews_(clergyman)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Andrews (clergyman)">Andrews</a> (1810–1813)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Beasley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frederick Beasley (page does not exist)">Beasley</a> (1813–1828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._DeLancey" title="William H. DeLancey">DeLancey</a> (1828–1834)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Ludlow_(1793-1857)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Ludlow (1793-1857) (page does not exist)">Ludlow</a> (1834–1852)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_Vethake&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henry Vethake (page does not exist)">Vethake</a> (1853–1859)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Goodwin_(Penn)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Goodwin (Penn) (page does not exist)">Goodwin</a> (1860–1868)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Janeway_Still%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Janeway Stillé (page does not exist)">Stillé</a> (1868–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Pepper" title="William Pepper">Pepper</a> (1881–1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Custis_Harrison" title="Charles Custis Harrison">Harrison</a> (1894–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Fahs_Smith" title="Edgar Fahs Smith">Edgar Smith</a> (1910–1920)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Josiah_Harmar_Penniman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Josiah Harmar Penniman (page does not exist)">Penniman</a> (1921–1930)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#011F5B;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #990000, inset -2px -2px 0 #990000;;width:1%">Presidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sovereign_Gates" title="Thomas Sovereign Gates">Gates</a> (1930–1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_William_McClelland" title="George William McClelland">McClelland</a> (1944–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Stassen" title="Harold Stassen">Stassen</a> (1948–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hagan_DuBarry" title="William Hagan DuBarry">DuBarry</a> (acting, 1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaylord_Harnwell" title="Gaylord Harnwell">Harnwell</a> (1953–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Meyerson" title="Martin Meyerson">Meyerson</a> (1970–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Hackney" title="Sheldon Hackney">Hackney</a> (1981–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claire_Fagin" title="Claire Fagin">Fagin</a> (interim, 1993–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Rodin" title="Judith Rodin">Rodin</a> (1994–2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Gutmann" title="Amy Gutmann">Gutmann</a> (2004–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liz_Magill" title="Liz Magill">Magill</a> (2022–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Larry_Jameson" title="J. Larry Jameson">Jameson</a> (interim, 2023–Present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#011F5B;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #990000, inset -2px -2px 0 #990000;"><div>The chief administrator prior to 1930 was the provost.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_postmasters_general" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:USPostGen" title="Template:USPostGen"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:USPostGen" title="Template talk:USPostGen"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:USPostGen" title="Special:EditPage/Template:USPostGen"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_postmasters_general" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">United States postmasters general</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bache" title="Richard Bache">Bache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Hazard" title="Ebenezer Hazard">Hazard</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Post_Office.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Postal Department Seal"><img alt="Postal Department Seal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Post_Office.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Post_Office.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Post_Office.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Post_Office.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Post_Office.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Post_Office.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="901" data-file-height="901" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Osgood" title="Samuel Osgood">Osgood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Pickering" title="Timothy Pickering">Pickering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Habersham" title="Joseph Habersham">Habersham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gideon_Granger" title="Gideon Granger">G. Granger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Return_J._Meigs_Jr." title="Return J. Meigs Jr.">Meigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McLean" title="John McLean">McLean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet level</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Post_Office_Department" title="United States Post Office Department">Post Office Department</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_T._Barry" title="William T. Barry">Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Kendall" title="Amos Kendall">Kendall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton_Niles" title="John Milton Niles">Niles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Granger" title="Francis Granger">F. Granger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Wickliffe" title="Charles A. Wickliffe">Wickliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Johnson" title="Cave Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Collamer" title="Jacob Collamer">Collamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_K._Hall" title="Nathan K. Hall">Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dickinson_Hubbard" title="Samuel Dickinson Hubbard">Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Campbell_(postmaster_general)" title="James Campbell (postmaster general)">Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_V._Brown" title="Aaron V. Brown">A. Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Holt" title="Joseph Holt">Holt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horatio_King" title="Horatio King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Blair" title="Montgomery Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Dennison_Jr." title="William Dennison Jr.">Dennison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Randall_(Wisconsin_politician)" title="Alexander Randall (Wisconsin politician)">Randall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Creswell" title="John Creswell">Creswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_William_Marshall" title="James William Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Jewell" title="Marshall Jewell">Jewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Noble_Tyner" title="James Noble Tyner">Tyner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_M._Key" title="David M. Key">Key</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Maynard" title="Horace Maynard">Maynard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lemuel_James" title="Thomas Lemuel James">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_O._Howe" title="Timothy O. Howe">Howe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Q._Gresham" title="Walter Q. Gresham">Gresham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Hatton_(American_politician)" title="Frank Hatton (American politician)">Hatton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Vilas" title="William F. Vilas">Vilas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_M._Dickinson" title="Donald M. Dickinson">Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wanamaker" title="John Wanamaker">Wanamaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_S._Bissell" title="Wilson S. Bissell">Bissell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyne_Wilson" title="William Lyne Wilson">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Albert_Gary" title="James Albert Gary">Gary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Emory_Smith" title="Charles Emory Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay_Payne" title="Henry Clay Payne">Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wynne" title="Robert Wynne">Wynne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Cortelyou" title="George B. Cortelyou">Cortelyou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_von_Lengerke_Meyer" title="George von Lengerke Meyer">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Harris_Hitchcock" title="Frank Harris Hitchcock">Hitchcock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_S._Burleson" title="Albert S. Burleson">Burleson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_H._Hays" title="Will H. Hays">Hays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Work" title="Hubert Work">Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._New" title="Harry S. New">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Folger_Brown" title="Walter Folger Brown">W. Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farley" title="James Farley">Farley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_C._Walker" title="Frank C. Walker">Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Hannegan" title="Robert E. Hannegan">Hannegan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_M._Donaldson" title="Jesse M. Donaldson">Donaldson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Summerfield" title="Arthur Summerfield">Summerfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Edward_Day" title="J. Edward Day">Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_A._Gronouski" title="John A. Gronouski">Gronouski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_O%27Brien" title="Larry O'Brien">O'Brien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._Marvin_Watson" title="W. Marvin Watson">Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winton_M._Blount" title="Winton M. Blount">Blount</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service" title="United States Postal Service">U.S. Postal Service</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winton_M._Blount" title="Winton M. Blount">Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._T._Klassen" title="E. T. Klassen">Klassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_F._Bailar" title="Benjamin F. Bailar">Bailar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Bolger" title="William F. Bolger">Bolger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_N._Carlin" title="Paul N. Carlin">Carlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Vincent_Casey" title="Albert Vincent Casey">Casey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preston_Robert_Tisch" title="Preston Robert Tisch">Tisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_M._Frank" title="Anthony M. Frank">Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Travis_Runyon" title="Marvin Travis Runyon">Runyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Henderson" title="William J. Henderson">Henderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_E._Potter" title="John E. Potter">Potter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_R._Donahoe" title="Patrick R. Donahoe">Donahoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megan_Brennan" title="Megan Brennan">Brennan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_DeJoy" title="Louis DeJoy">DeJoy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Governors_and_presidents_of_Pennsylvania" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Governors_and_presidents_of_Pennsylvania" title="Template:Governors and presidents of Pennsylvania"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Governors_and_presidents_of_Pennsylvania" title="Template talk:Governors and presidents of Pennsylvania"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Governors_and_presidents_of_Pennsylvania" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Governors and presidents of Pennsylvania"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Governors_and_presidents_of_Pennsylvania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Pennsylvania" title="List of governors of Pennsylvania">Governors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Executive_Council_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Pennsylvania" title="Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania">presidents</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidents (1777–1790)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wharton_Jr." title="Thomas Wharton Jr.">Wharton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bryan" title="George Bryan">Bryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Reed_(politician)" title="Joseph Reed (politician)">Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moore_(Pennsylvania_politician,_died_1793)" title="William Moore (Pennsylvania politician, died 1793)">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">Dickinson</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Mifflin</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flag_of_the_Governor_of_Pennsylvania.svg/120px-Flag_of_the_Governor_of_Pennsylvania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flag_of_the_Governor_of_Pennsylvania.svg/180px-Flag_of_the_Governor_of_Pennsylvania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flag_of_the_Governor_of_Pennsylvania.svg/240px-Flag_of_the_Governor_of_Pennsylvania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="450" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governors (since 1790)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_McKean" title="Thomas McKean">McKean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Snyder" title="Simon Snyder">Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Findlay_(governor)" title="William Findlay (governor)">Findlay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hiester" title="Joseph Hiester">Hiester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Andrew_Shulze" title="John Andrew Shulze">Shulze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wolf" title="George Wolf">G. Wolf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ritner" title="Joseph Ritner">Ritner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_R._Porter" title="David R. Porter">Porter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_R._Shunk" title="Francis R. Shunk">Shunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Johnston" title="William F. Johnston">Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Bigler" title="William Bigler">Bigler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pollock_(American_politician)" title="James Pollock (American politician)">Pollock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Packer" title="William F. Packer">Packer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Gregg_Curtin" title="Andrew Gregg Curtin">Curtin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Geary" title="John W. Geary">Geary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Hartranft" title="John F. Hartranft">Hartranft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Hoyt" title="Henry M. Hoyt">Hoyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Pattison" title="Robert E. Pattison">Pattison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Beaver" title="James A. Beaver">Beaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Pattison" title="Robert E. Pattison">Pattison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_H._Hastings" title="Daniel H. Hastings">Hastings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Stone" title="William A. Stone">Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_W._Pennypacker" title="Samuel W. Pennypacker">Pennypacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Sydney_Stuart" title="Edwin Sydney Stuart">Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_K._Tener" title="John K. Tener">Tener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Grove_Brumbaugh" title="Martin Grove Brumbaugh">Brumbaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cameron_Sproul" title="William Cameron Sproul">Sproul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot" title="Gifford Pinchot">Pinchot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuchell_Fisher" title="John Stuchell Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot" title="Gifford Pinchot">Pinchot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Howard_Earle_III" title="George Howard Earle III">Earle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_James_(politician)" title="Arthur James (politician)">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Martin_(Pennsylvania_politician)" title="Edward Martin (Pennsylvania politician)">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Bell_Jr." title="John C. Bell Jr.">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_H._Duff" title="James H. Duff">Duff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_S._Fine" title="John S. Fine">Fine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_M._Leader" title="George M. Leader">Leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_L._Lawrence" title="David L. Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Scranton" title="William Scranton">Scranton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_P._Shafer" title="Raymond P. Shafer">Shafer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Shapp" title="Milton Shapp">Shapp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Thornburgh" title="Dick Thornburgh">Thornburgh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Casey_Sr." title="Bob Casey Sr.">Casey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Ridge" title="Tom Ridge">Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Schweiker" title="Mark Schweiker">Schweiker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Rendell" title="Ed Rendell">Rendell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Corbett" title="Tom Corbett">Corbett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Wolf" title="Tom Wolf">T. Wolf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josh_Shapiro" title="Josh Shapiro">Shapiro</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=United_States&#124;link=United_States_United_States_Ambassadors_to_France_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=France&#124;link=France" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Ambassadors_to_France" title="Template:US Ambassadors to France"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_Ambassadors_to_France" title="Template talk:US Ambassadors to France"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_Ambassadors_to_France" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US Ambassadors to France"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=United_States&#124;link=United_States_United_States_Ambassadors_to_France_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=France&#124;link=France" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_France" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to France">United States Ambassadors to France</a> <a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Envoys to France (1776–1779)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Franklin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lee_(diplomat)" title="Arthur Lee (diplomat)">Lee</a> & <a href="/wiki/Silas_Deane" title="Silas Deane">Deane</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal of the US Department of State"><img alt="Seal of the US Department of State" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg/70px-U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg/105px-U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg/140px-U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ministers Plenipotentiary to France (1778–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Short_(American_ambassador)" title="William Short (American ambassador)">Short</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Livingston" title="Robert R. Livingston">Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Armstrong_Jr." title="John Armstrong Jr.">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Russell" title="Jonathan Russell">Russell</a> (chargé d'affaires)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Barlow" title="Joel Barlow">Barlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Crawford" title="William H. Crawford">Crawford</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to France (1816–1893)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Gallatin" title="Albert Gallatin">Gallatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Brown_(Louisiana_politician)" title="James Brown (Louisiana politician)">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cabell_Rives" title="William Cabell Rives">Rives</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Levett_Harris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Levett Harris (page does not exist)">Harris</a> (chargé d'affaires)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Livingston" title="Edward Livingston">Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_P._Barton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas P. Barton (page does not exist)">Barton</a> (chargé d'affaires)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Cass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._King" title="William R. King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rush" title="Richard Rush">Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cabell_Rives" title="William Cabell Rives">Rives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Y._Mason" title="John Y. Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_J._Faulkner" title="Charles J. Faulkner">Faulkner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Dayton" title="William L. Dayton">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bigelow" title="John Bigelow">Bigelow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Dix" title="John Adams Dix">Dix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elihu_B._Washburne" title="Elihu B. Washburne">Washburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Follansbee_Noyes" title="Edward Follansbee Noyes">Noyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_P._Morton" title="Levi P. Morton">Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Milligan_McLane" title="Robert Milligan McLane">McLane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitelaw_Reid" title="Whitelaw Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._Jefferson_Coolidge" title="T. Jefferson Coolidge">Coolidge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to France (1893–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Eustis" title="James B. Eustis">Eustis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Porter" title="Horace Porter">Porter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sanderson_McCormick" title="Robert Sanderson McCormick">McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_White_(diplomat)" title="Henry White (diplomat)">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacon" title="Robert Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myron_T._Herrick" title="Myron T. Herrick">Herrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Graves_Sharp" class="mw-redirect" title="William Graves Sharp">Sharp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Campbell_Wallace" title="Hugh Campbell Wallace">Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myron_T._Herrick" title="Myron T. Herrick">Herrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_E._Edge" title="Walter E. Edge">Edge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_I._Straus" title="Jesse I. Straus">Straus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Christian_Bullitt_Jr." title="William Christian Bullitt Jr.">Bullitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_D._Leahy" title="William D. Leahy">Leahy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somerville_Pinkney_Tuck" class="mw-redirect" title="Somerville Pinkney Tuck">Tuck</a> (chargé d'affaires)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Caffery" title="Jefferson Caffery">Caffery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_K._E._Bruce" title="David K. E. Bruce">Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clement_Dunn" title="James Clement Dunn">Dunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Douglas_Dillon" title="C. Douglas Dillon">Dillon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amory_Houghton" title="Amory Houghton">Houghton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Gavin" title="James M. Gavin">Gavin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Bohlen" title="Charles E. Bohlen">Bohlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sargent_Shriver" title="Sargent Shriver">Shriver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_K._Watson" title="Arthur K. Watson">Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_N._Irwin_II" title="John N. Irwin II">Irwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Rush" title="Kenneth Rush">Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_A._Hartman" title="Arthur A. Hartman">Hartman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evan_G._Galbraith" title="Evan G. Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_M._Rodgers" title="Joe M. Rodgers">Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Curley" title="Walter Curley">Curley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamela_Harriman" title="Pamela Harriman">Harriman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Rohatyn" title="Felix Rohatyn">Rohatyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_H._Leach" title="Howard H. Leach">Leach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_Roberts_Stapleton" title="Craig Roberts Stapleton">Stapleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rivkin" title="Charles Rivkin">Rivkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_D._Hartley" title="Jane D. Hartley">Hartley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamie_McCourt" title="Jamie McCourt">McCourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denise_Bauer" title="Denise Bauer">Bauer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a> (44 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a> (1486)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a> (1756)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> (c. 375 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a> (51 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a> (c. 1274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a> (1313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a> (1532)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a> (1651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a> (1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a> (1992)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans_inductees" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Template:Hall of Fame for Great Americans"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Template talk:Hall of Fame for Great Americans"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hall of Fame for Great Americans"><abbr title="Edit this 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Anthony">Susan B. Anthony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_James_Audubon" title="John James Audubon">John James Audubon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bancroft" title="George Bancroft">George Bancroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Barton" title="Clara Barton">Clara Barton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ward_Beecher" title="Henry Ward Beecher">Henry Ward Beecher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Boone" title="Daniel Boone">Daniel Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Booth" title="Edwin Booth">Edwin Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_Brooks" title="Phillips Brooks">Phillips Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant" title="William Cullen Bryant">William Cullen Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Burbank" title="Luther Burbank">Luther Burbank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ellery_Channing" title="William Ellery Channing">William Ellery Channing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_Choate" title="Rufus Choate">Rufus Choate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">James Fenimore Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Cooper" title="Peter Cooper">Peter Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Cushman" title="Charlotte Cushman">Charlotte Cushman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan_Eads" title="James Buchanan Eads">James Buchanan Eads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Alva Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Edwards_(theologian)" title="Jonathan Edwards (theologian)">Jonathan Edwards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Farragut" title="David Farragut">David Farragut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Foster" title="Stephen Foster">Stephen Foster</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fulton" title="Robert Fulton">Robert Fulton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Josiah W. Gibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_C._Gorgas" title="William C. Gorgas">William C. Gorgas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Nathaniel Hawthorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Joseph Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Sr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Hopkins_(educator)" title="Mark Hopkins (educator)">Mark Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elias_Howe" title="Elias Howe">Elias Howe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Washington Irving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson" title="Stonewall Jackson">Thomas J. Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Jones" title="John Paul Jones">John Paul Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Kent_(jurist)" title="James Kent (jurist)">James Kent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lanier" title="Sidney Lanier">Sidney Lanier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Henry Wadsworth Longfellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">James Russell Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Lyon" title="Mary Lyon">Mary Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_MacDowell" title="Edward MacDowell">Edward MacDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Mann" title="Horace Mann">Horace Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Fontaine_Maury" title="Matthew Fontaine Maury">Matthew Fontaine Maury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Albert A. Michelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Mitchell" title="Maria Mitchell">Maria Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel F. B. Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_T._G._Morton" title="William T. G. Morton">William T. G. Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lothrop_Motley" title="John Lothrop Motley">John Lothrop Motley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Newcomb" title="Simon Newcomb">Simon Newcomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Freeman_Palmer" title="Alice Freeman Palmer">Alice Freeman Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Parkman" title="Francis Parkman">Francis Parkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Peabody" title="George Peabody">George Peabody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Penn" title="William Penn">William Penn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed" title="Walter Reed">Walter Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_Saint-Gaudens" title="Augustus Saint-Gaudens">Augustus Saint-Gaudens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">William Tecumseh Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Philip_Sousa" title="John Philip Sousa">John Philip Sousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe">Harriet Beecher Stowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Stuart" title="Gilbert Stuart">Gilbert Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvanus_Thayer" title="Sylvanus Thayer">Sylvanus Thayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lillian_Wald" title="Lillian Wald">Lillian Wald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Webster" title="Daniel Webster">Daniel Webster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Westinghouse" title="George Westinghouse">George Westinghouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McNeill_Whistler" title="James McNeill Whistler">James McNeill Whistler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Greenleaf_Whittier" title="John Greenleaf Whittier">John Greenleaf Whittier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Willard" title="Emma Willard">Emma Willard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Willard" title="Frances Willard">Frances Willard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Williams" title="Roger Williams">Roger Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Orville Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wilbur Wright</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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class="sister-bar-header">Benjamin Franklin at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Franklin" class="extiw" title="wikt:Franklin">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Benjamin_Franklin" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Benjamin Franklin">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/42px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" class="extiw" title="n:Benjamin Franklin">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" class="extiw" title="q:Benjamin Franklin">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Benjamin_Franklin" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Benjamin Franklin">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/American_Literature/Enlightenment_Period_(1760s%E2%80%931820s)" class="extiw" title="b:American Literature/Enlightenment Period (1760s–1820s)">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Virtues/thirteen_virtues" class="extiw" title="v:Virtues/thirteen virtues">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:au:finaf:000109414">Finland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058517298206706">Catalonia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/16881209">Belgium</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:franklin.benjamin">zbMATH</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500331804">ULAN</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/ca5c6242-7ba8-4cc9-9c32-3bf4719e54c6">MusicBrainz</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rkd.nl/en/explore/artists/279007">RKD Artists</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/16265204">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=F000342">US Congress</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/826450">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118534912.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118534912">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/026873478">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10580588">NARA</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6vz16nm">SNAC</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6tn815h">2</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6z31xzn">3</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rism.online/people/30016155">RISM</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Franklin&oldid=1259078494">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Franklin&oldid=1259078494</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Benjamin_Franklin" title="Category:Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the 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[\"CITEREFCalloway,_C._G.2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarl_Japikse2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarmel1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChaplin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFChylinska2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarke1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoffman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen1990\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCohen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConner1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoss2017\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCrane1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrews2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDixon2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorwart1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrake2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDray,_Philip2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDull1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDull2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEidenmuller\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaraday1839\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisher1903\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFord1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin1728\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin1747\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin1749\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin1750\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin1751\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin1771\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin1901\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin1916\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklinMajaultLe_RoySallin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrantz1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrasca1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrasca2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrasca2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaustad2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGleason2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodrich1829\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartsock2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayden1906\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHouston2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHuang2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsaacson,_W.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacoby2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_A._Henretta.2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJehlenWarner1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1836\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaiser\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKammen1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKetcham1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorn2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorty1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrider2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKyriakodis2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLamb2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLanders2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemay,_J.A._Leo2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLemay,_J.A._Leo2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemay1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemay2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemay2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathews1914\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCoy1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCrary\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGuire2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerliWilson1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMirabeau1784\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontgomery1900\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan,_Edmund_S.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMulford1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMulford2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurray2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurrell2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNathan_Haskell_Dole2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholles2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlsen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnMumford2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOsborne1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParton1864\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaxton1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPenegar2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhilip2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiers_Letcher_–_Jacques_Charles2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPocock1851\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrice2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPriceThomasPeach1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichards2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenthall2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoyot2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchiff,_Stacy2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchiffer2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchofield1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchultz2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeelyeSelby2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShurtleffAoyagi2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkemp1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkemp1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlack2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmart1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSparks1856\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpence2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSrodes,_James2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTise2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomase2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuchman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Cleve2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Doren1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaldstreicher2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWalter_Isaacson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatefield2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeber2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeisstein\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilhite1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolf1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood,_Gordon2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright,_Esmond1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYork2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFdseverance2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFsays2020\"] = 1,\n [\"The_Busy-Body\"] = 1,\n [\"The_Busybody\"] = 1,\n [\"brands2000\"] = 1,\n [\"franklin1769\"] = 1,\n [\"institute\"] = 1,\n [\"isaacson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"nash2006\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"' \\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"'s\"] = 1,\n [\"Abbr\"] = 1,\n [\"Age of Enlightenment\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 3,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Benjamin Franklin\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 11,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 4,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite ODNB\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 101,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 32,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite newsletter\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 97,\n [\"CongLinks\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 5,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"Copley Medallists 1751–1800\"] = 1,\n [\"Cquote\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Franklin, Benjamin\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"Endash\"] = 3,\n [\"External media\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Format price\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Governors and Presidents of Pennsylvania\"] = 1,\n [\"Gutenberg author\"] = 1,\n [\"Hall of Fame for Great Americans\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 1,\n [\"IMSLP\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 12,\n [\"Inflation\"] = 1,\n [\"Inflation/year\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox designation list\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox officeholder\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive author\"] = 1,\n [\"JSTOR\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Librivox author\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Main article\"] = 1,\n [\"Marriage\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 3,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 2,\n [\"Ndash\"] = 1,\n [\"OldStyleDateDY\"] = 2,\n [\"PAProvincialAssemblySpeakers\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 5,\n [\"Pipe\"] = 10,\n [\"Political philosophy\"] = 1,\n [\"Post-nominals\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 6,\n [\"Republicanism sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aca\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 7,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 3,\n [\"S-break\"] = 6,\n [\"S-dip\"] = 1,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-new\"] = 3,\n [\"S-off\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 7,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 8,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sic\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 2,\n [\"Social and political philosophy\"] = 1,\n [\"Spaced ndash\"] = 1,\n [\"Spoken Wikipedia\"] = 1,\n [\"StandardEbooks\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"US Ambassadors to France\"] = 1,\n [\"USDecOfIndSig\"] = 1,\n [\"USPostGen\"] = 1,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 2,\n [\"United States Constitution signatories\"] = 1,\n [\"University of Pennsylvania presidents\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreliable source?\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 15,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","520","19.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","440","16.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","260","9.6"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","180","6.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","180","6.6"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","140","5.1"],["select_one \u003CModule:Citation/CS1/Utilities:426\u003E","80","2.9"],["gsub","60","2.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","60","2.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::unstripNoWiki","60","2.2"],["[others]","740","27.2"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-849f99967d-6d74s","timestamp":"20241123063433","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Benjamin Franklin","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benjamin_Franklin","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q34969","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q34969","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-08-09T13:28:20Z","dateModified":"2024-11-23T06:33:59Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/87\/Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg","headline":"American author, printer, political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman, diplomat, Founding Father (1706\u20131790)"}</script> </body> </html>