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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early humans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Fire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paint" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paint"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Paint</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paint-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_metallurgy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_metallurgy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Early metallurgy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_metallurgy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronze_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronze_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Bronze Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronze_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tin,_lead,_and_copper_smelting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tin,_lead,_and_copper_smelting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Tin, lead, and copper smelting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tin,_lead,_and_copper_smelting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Bronze</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Iron Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ferrous_metallurgy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ferrous_metallurgy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Ferrous metallurgy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ferrous_metallurgy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_antiquity_and_atomism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_antiquity_and_atomism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Classical antiquity and atomism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_antiquity_and_atomism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>Ancient world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_alchemy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_alchemy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Medieval alchemy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medieval_alchemy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Medieval alchemy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Medieval_alchemy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_philosopher's_stone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_philosopher's_stone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>The philosopher's stone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_philosopher's_stone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alchemy_in_the_Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alchemy_in_the_Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Alchemy in the Islamic world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alchemy_in_the_Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problems_encountered_with_alchemy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problems_encountered_with_alchemy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Problems encountered with alchemy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problems_encountered_with_alchemy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-17th_and_18th_centuries:_Early_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#17th_and_18th_centuries:_Early_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>17th and 18th centuries: Early chemistry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-17th_and_18th_centuries:_Early_chemistry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 17th and 18th centuries: Early chemistry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-17th_and_18th_centuries:_Early_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Robert_Boyle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Robert_Boyle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Robert Boyle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Robert_Boyle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_and_dismantling_of_phlogiston" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_and_dismantling_of_phlogiston"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Development and dismantling of phlogiston</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_and_dismantling_of_phlogiston-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volta_and_the_Voltaic_pile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volta_and_the_Voltaic_pile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Volta and the Voltaic pile</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volta_and_the_Voltaic_pile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antoine-Laurent_de_Lavoisier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antoine-Laurent_de_Lavoisier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antoine-Laurent_de_Lavoisier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 19th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-John_Dalton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Dalton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>John Dalton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Dalton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jöns_Jacob_Berzelius" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jöns_Jacob_Berzelius"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Jöns Jacob Berzelius</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jöns_Jacob_Berzelius-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_elements_and_gas_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_elements_and_gas_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>New elements and gas laws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_elements_and_gas_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wöhler,_von_Liebig,_organic_chemistry_and_the_vitalism_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wöhler,_von_Liebig,_organic_chemistry_and_the_vitalism_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Wöhler, von Liebig, organic chemistry and the vitalism debate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wöhler,_von_Liebig,_organic_chemistry_and_the_vitalism_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vladimir_Markovnikov" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vladimir_Markovnikov"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Vladimir Markovnikov</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vladimir_Markovnikov-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mid-1800s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mid-1800s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Mid-1800s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mid-1800s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perkin,_Crookes,_and_Nobel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perkin,_Crookes,_and_Nobel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Perkin, Crookes, and Nobel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perkin,_Crookes,_and_Nobel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mendeleev's_periodic_table" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mendeleev's_periodic_table"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Mendeleev's periodic table</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mendeleev's_periodic_table-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Josiah_Willard_Gibbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Josiah Willard Gibbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Josiah_Willard_Gibbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10</span> <span>Late 19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carl_von_Linde_and_the_modern_chemical_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carl_von_Linde_and_the_modern_chemical_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10.1</span> <span>Carl von Linde and the modern chemical process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carl_von_Linde_and_the_modern_chemical_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ramsay's_discovery_of_the_noble_gases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ramsay's_discovery_of_the_noble_gases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10.2</span> <span>Ramsay's discovery of the noble gases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ramsay's_discovery_of_the_noble_gases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marie_and_Pierre_Curie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marie_and_Pierre_Curie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10.3</span> <span>Marie and Pierre Curie</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marie_and_Pierre_Curie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ernest_Rutherford" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ernest_Rutherford"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10.4</span> <span>Ernest Rutherford</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ernest_Rutherford-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 20th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Otto_Hahn" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Otto_Hahn"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Otto Hahn</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Otto_Hahn-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Niels_Bohr" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Niels_Bohr"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Niels Bohr</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Niels_Bohr-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gilbert_N._Lewis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gilbert_N._Lewis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Gilbert N. Lewis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gilbert_N._Lewis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantum_mechanics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantum_mechanics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Quantum mechanics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantum_mechanics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantum_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantum_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Quantum chemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantum_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molecular_biology_and_biochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_biology_and_biochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Molecular biology and biochemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molecular_biology_and_biochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Late 20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics_and_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics_and_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Mathematics and chemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics_and_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scope_of_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scope_of_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Scope of chemistry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scope_of_chemistry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Scope of chemistry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Scope_of_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chemical_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Chemical industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Histories_and_timelines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Histories_and_timelines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Histories and timelines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Histories_and_timelines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_chemists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_chemists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Notable chemists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_chemists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of chemistry</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="تاريخ الكيمياء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الكيمياء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Historia de la química – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de la química" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimya_tarixi" title="Kimya tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kimya tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="রসায়নের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রসায়নের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%96" title="Гісторыя хіміі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя хіміі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_hemije" title="Historija hemije – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Historija hemije" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_la_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Història de la química – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de la química" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Chemie" title="Geschichte der Chemie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Chemie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keemia_ajalugu" title="Keemia ajalugu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keemia ajalugu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ιστορία της χημείας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία της χημείας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Historia de la química – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la química" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimikaren_historia" title="Kimikaren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kimikaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C" title="تاریخ شیمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ شیمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_chimie" title="Histoire de la chimie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de la chimie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Historia da química – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da química" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hithitor%C4%A9_ya_Kemu" title="Hithitorĩ ya Kemu – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Hithitorĩ ya Kemu" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%94%ED%95%99%EC%82%AC" title="화학사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="화학사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="रसायन विज्ञान का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रसायन विज्ञान का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_kemije" title="Povijest kemije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest kemije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_kimia" title="Sejarah kimia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah kimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_della_chimica" title="Storia della chimica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia della chimica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94" title="היסטוריה של הכימיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של הכימיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ქიმიის ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ქიმიის ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_kimia" title="Sejarah kimia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah kimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_de_scheikunde" title="Geschiedenis van de scheikunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van de scheikunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="化学の歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="化学の歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjemiens_historie" title="Kjemiens historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjemiens historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%DA%86%D9%87" title="د کیمیا تاریخچه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د کیمیا تاریخچه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_chemii" title="Historia chemii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia chemii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_qu%C3%ADmica" title="História da química – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da química" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_chimiei" title="Istoria chimiei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria chimiei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="История химии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История химии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_kimis%C3%AB" title="Historia e kimisë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e kimisë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorija_hemije" title="Istorija hemije – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Istorija hemije" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemian_historia" title="Kemian historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kemian historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemins_historia" title="Kemins historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kemins historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="வேதியியலின் வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வேதியியலின் வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimya_tarihi" title="Kimya tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kimya tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%97" title="Історія хімії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія хімії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_h%C3%B3a_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Lịch sử hóa học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử hóa học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="化學史 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="化學史" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="化学史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="化学史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q501353#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Chemistry" title="Template:TopicTOC-Chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Chemistry" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mendelejevs_periodiska_system_1871.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Mendelejevs_periodiska_system_1871.png/390px-Mendelejevs_periodiska_system_1871.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Mendelejevs_periodiska_system_1871.png/585px-Mendelejevs_periodiska_system_1871.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Mendelejevs_periodiska_system_1871.png 2x" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>The 1871 <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> constructed by <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a>. The periodic table is one of the most potent icons in science, lying at the core of chemistry and embodying the most fundamental principles of the field.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>history of chemistry</b> represents a time span from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient history</a> to the present. By 1000 BC, civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include the discovery of fire, extracting <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ores</a>, making <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a> and glazes, fermenting <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>, extracting chemicals from plants for <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perfume" title="Perfume">perfume</a>, rendering fat into <a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">soap</a>, making <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a>, and making <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a> like <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">protoscience</a> of chemistry, and <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>, was unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations. However, by performing experiments and recording the results, alchemists set the stage for <a href="/wiki/Modern_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern chemistry">modern chemistry</a>. </p><p>The history of chemistry is intertwined with the <a href="/wiki/History_of_thermodynamics" title="History of thermodynamics">history of thermodynamics</a>, especially through the work of <a href="/wiki/Willard_Gibbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Willard Gibbs">Willard Gibbs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_history">Ancient history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ancient history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_humans">Early humans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fire">Fire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Fire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Control of fire by early humans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ceramic_art#History" title="Ceramic art">Ceramic art § History</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brick#History" title="Brick">Brick § History</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glass#History" title="Glass">Glass § History</a></div> <p>Arguably the first chemical reaction used in a controlled manner was <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">fire</a>. However, for millennia fire was seen simply as a mystical force that could transform one substance into another (burning wood, or boiling water) while producing heat and light. Fire affected many aspects of early societies. These ranged from the simplest facets of everyday life, such as cooking and habitat heating and lighting, to more advanced uses, such as making pottery and bricks and melting of metals to make tools. It was fire that led to the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a> and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_purification_methods_in_chemistry" title="List of purification methods in chemistry">purification</a> of metals; this was followed by the rise of <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paint">Paint</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Paint"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ochre#Historical_use_in_art_and_culture" title="Ochre">Ochre § Historical use in art and culture</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Paint#History" title="Paint">Paint § History</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave#Ochre_processing_workshop" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave § Ochre processing workshop</a></div> <p>A 100,000-year-old <a href="/wiki/Ochre" title="Ochre">ochre</a>-processing workshop was found at <a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. It indicates that early humans had an elementary knowledge of mineral processing. Paintings drawn by early humans consisting of early humans mixing animal blood with other liquids found on cave walls also indicate a small knowledge of chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-CS_Al._2011_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CS_Al._2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Corbyn_2011_p._4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corbyn_2011_p.-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_metallurgy">Early metallurgy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early metallurgy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">Ferrous metallurgy</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent</a></div> <p>The earliest recorded metal employed by humans seems to be <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, which can be found free or "native". Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> period, around 40,000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest gold metallurgy is known from the <a href="/wiki/Varna_culture" title="Varna culture">Varna culture</a> in Bulgaria, dating from c. 4600 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meteoric_iron" title="Meteoric iron">meteoric iron</a> can also be found native, allowing a limited amount of <a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">metalworking</a> in ancient cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-ephotos_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ephotos-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3000 BC were highly prized as "daggers from Heaven".<sup id="cite_ref-keller_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keller-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the early stages of metallurgy, methods of purification of metals were sought, and gold, known in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> as early as 2900 BC, became a precious metal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bronze_Age">Bronze Age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Bronze Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tin,_lead,_and_copper_smelting"><span id="Tin.2C_lead.2C_and_copper_smelting"></span>Tin, lead, and copper smelting</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Tin, lead, and copper smelting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Certain metals can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire: notably <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> and (at a higher temperature) copper. This process is known as <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a>. The first evidence of this extractive metallurgy dates from the 6th and 5th millennia BC, and was found in the archaeological sites of the <a href="/wiki/Vin%C4%8Da_culture" title="Vinča culture">Vinča culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Majdanpek" title="Majdanpek">Majdanpek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jarmovac" class="mw-redirect" title="Jarmovac">Jarmovac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plo%C4%8Dnik_(archaeological_site)" title="Pločnik (archaeological site)">Pločnik</a> in <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest copper smelting is found at the Belovode site;<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> these examples include a copper axe from 5500 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in places like <a href="/wiki/Palmela" title="Palmela">Palmela</a> (Portugal), <a href="/wiki/Los_Millares" title="Los Millares">Los Millares</a> (Spain), and <a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a> (United Kingdom). However, as often happens in the study of <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> times, the ultimate beginnings cannot be clearly defined and new discoveries are ongoing. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg/220px-Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg/330px-Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg/440px-Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1249" data-file-height="693" /></a><figcaption>Mining areas of the ancient Middle East. Boxes colors: <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> is in brown, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> in red, <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> in grey, iron in reddish-brown, gold in yellow, silver in white and <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> in black. Yellow area stands for <a href="/wiki/Arsenic_bronze" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsenic bronze">arsenic bronze</a>, while grey area stands for tin <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bronze">Bronze</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bronze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These first metals were single elements, or else combinations as naturally occurred. By combining copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloy</a> called <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>. This was a major technological shift that began the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> about 3500 BC. The Bronze Age was a period in human cultural development when the most advanced metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use) included techniques for smelting <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> from naturally occurring outcroppings of copper ores, and then smelting those ores to cast bronze. These naturally occurring ores typically included arsenic as a common impurity. Copper/tin ores are rare, as reflected in the absence of tin bronzes in <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">western Asia</a> before 3000 BC. </p><p>After the Bronze Age, the history of metallurgy was marked by armies seeking better weaponry. States in <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> prospered when they made the superior alloys, which, in turn, made better armor and better weapons.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Chinese are credited with the first ever use of <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Chromium</a> to prevent rusting. Modern archaeologists discovered that bronze-tipped <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbow</a> bolts at the <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_the_First_Qin_Emperor" title="Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor">tomb of Qin Shi Huang</a> showed no sign of corrosion after more than 2,000 years, because they had been coated in chromium.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chromium was not used anywhere else until the experiments of French pharmacist and chemist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin" title="Louis Nicolas Vauquelin">Louis Nicolas Vauquelin</a> (1763–1829) in the late 1790s.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>In multiple Warring States period tombs, sharp swords and other weapons were also found to be coated with 10 to 15 micrometers of <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> oxide, which left them in pristine condition to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Significant progress in metallurgy and alchemy was also made in <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">ancient India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron_Age">Iron Age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Iron Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ferrous_metallurgy">Ferrous metallurgy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ferrous metallurgy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The extraction of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than copper or tin. While iron is not better suited for tools than bronze (until <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> was discovered), iron ore is much more abundant and common than either copper or tin, and therefore more often available locally, with no need to trade for it. </p><p>Iron working appears to have been invented by the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a> in about 1200 BC, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>. The secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the <a href="/wiki/Philistines" title="Philistines">Philistines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-keller_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keller-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron smithing</a> as well as the innovation of the <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast Furnace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cupola_furnace" title="Cupola furnace">Cupola furnace</a> was invented in ancient China, during the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> when armies sought to develop better weaponry and armor in state-armories. Many other applications, practices, and devices associated with or involved in metallurgy were also established in ancient China, with the innovations of <a href="/wiki/Hydraulics" title="Hydraulics">hydraulic</a>-powered <a href="/wiki/Trip_hammer" title="Trip hammer">trip hammers</a>, and double-acting piston <a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-temple-r_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-temple-r-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Iron Age refers to the advent of iron working (<a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">ferrous metallurgy</a>). Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations. These include the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and Near East, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Iran">ancient Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, ancient <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> (Turkey), <a href="/wiki/Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Ancient Nok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> of ancient Europe, medieval Europe, ancient and medieval China, ancient and medieval India, ancient and medieval Japan, amongst others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_antiquity_and_atomism">Classical antiquity and atomism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Classical antiquity and atomism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Democritus2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Democritus2.jpg/200px-Democritus2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Democritus2.jpg/300px-Democritus2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Democritus2.jpg/400px-Democritus2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="518" data-file-height="716" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>, Greek philosopher and ancient atomist</figcaption></figure> <p>Philosophical attempts to rationalize why different substances have different properties (color, density, smell), exist in different states (gaseous, liquid, and solid), and react in a different manner when exposed to environments, for example to water or fire or temperature changes, led ancient philosophers to postulate the first theories on nature and chemistry. The history of such philosophical theories that relate to chemistry can probably be traced back to every single ancient civilization. The common aspect in all these theories was the attempt to identify a small number of primary <a href="/wiki/Classical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical elements">classical elements</a> that make up all the various substances in nature. Substances like air, water, and soil/earth, energy forms, such as fire and light, and more abstract concepts such as thoughts, <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">aether</a>, and heaven, were common in ancient civilizations even in the absence of any cross-fertilization: for example ancient Greek, Indian, Mayan, and Chinese philosophies all considered <a href="/wiki/Air_(classical_element)" title="Air (classical element)">air</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_(classical_element)" title="Water (classical element)">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earth_(classical_element)" title="Earth (classical element)">earth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">fire</a> as primary elements.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_world">Ancient world</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ancient world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Around 420 BC, <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> stated that all matter is made up of <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">four elemental substances</a>: earth, fire, air and water. The early theory of <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a> can be traced back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>. Greek atomism was made popular by the Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>, who declared that matter is composed of indivisible and indestructible particles called "atomos" around 380 BC. Earlier, <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> also declared that atoms were the most indivisible part of matter. This coincided with a similar declaration by the <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">Kanada</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a> <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutras</a> around the same time period.<sup id="cite_ref-Will_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Will-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> opposed the existence of atoms in 330 BC. A Greek text attributed to <a href="/wiki/Polybus_(physician)" title="Polybus (physician)">Polybus the physician</a> (ca. 380 BC) argued that the human body is composed of four <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">humours</a> instead. <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> (fl. 300 BC) postulated a universe of indestructible atoms in which man himself is responsible for achieving a balanced life. </p><p>With the goal of explaining <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean philosophy</a> to a Roman audience, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman</a> poet and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> (On the Nature of Things)<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the middle of the first century BC. In the work, Lucretius presents the principles of <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a>; the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a>; explanations of <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sensation</a> and thought; the development of the world and its phenomena; and explains a variety of <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">terrestrial</a> phenomena. </p><p>The earliest alchemists in the Western tradition seemed to have come from <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman Egypt">Greco-Roman Egypt</a> in the first centuries AD. In addition to technical work, many of them invented chemical apparatuses. The <i>bain-marie</i>, or water bath, is named for <a href="/wiki/Mary_the_Jewess" title="Mary the Jewess">Mary the Jewess</a>. Her work also gives the first descriptions of the <i>tribikos</i> and <i>kerotakis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_the_Alchemist" title="Cleopatra the Alchemist">Cleopatra the Alchemist</a> described furnaces and has been credited with the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Alembic" title="Alembic">alembic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, <a href="/wiki/Zosimos_of_Panopolis" title="Zosimos of Panopolis">Zosimos of Panopolis</a> wrote books on alchemy, which he called <i>cheirokmeta</i>, the Greek word for "things made by hand." These works include many references to recipes and procedures, as well as descriptions of instruments. Much of the early development of purification methods were described earlier by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a>. He tried to explain those methods, as well as making acute observations of the state of many minerals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_alchemy">Medieval alchemy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Medieval alchemy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Minima_naturalia" title="Minima naturalia">Minima naturalia</a></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Elements_in_Medieval_alchemy"></span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/220px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/330px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/440px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="922" /></a><figcaption>15th-century artistic impression of <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81bir_ibn_Hayy%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Jābir ibn Hayyān">Jābir ibn Hayyān</a> (Geber), a <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in Islam">Perso-Arab alchemist</a> and pioneer in <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_tg_0007129_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fotothek_df_tg_0007129_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie.jpg/220px-Fotothek_df_tg_0007129_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fotothek_df_tg_0007129_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie.jpg/330px-Fotothek_df_tg_0007129_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fotothek_df_tg_0007129_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie.jpg/440px-Fotothek_df_tg_0007129_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="791" /></a><figcaption>Seventeenth-century alchemical emblem showing the four Classical elements in the corners of the image, alongside the tria prima on the central triangle</figcaption></figure> <p>The elemental system used in medieval <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a> was developed primarily by the <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> alchemist <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81bir_ibn_Hayy%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Jābir ibn Hayyān">Jābir ibn Hayyān</a> and was rooted in the classical elements of Greek tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His system consisted of the four Aristotelian elements of air, earth, fire, and water in addition to two philosophical elements: <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulphur</a>, characterizing the principle of combustibility, "the stone which burns"; and <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, characterizing the principle of metallic properties. They were seen by early alchemists as idealized expressions of irreducible components of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are of larger consideration<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> within philosophical alchemy. </p><p>The three metallic principles (sulphur to flammability or combustion, mercury to volatility and stability, and <a href="/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)">salt</a> to solidity) became the <i>tria prima</i> of the Swiss alchemist <a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a>. He reasoned that Aristotle's four-element theory appeared in bodies as three principles. Paracelsus saw these principles as fundamental and justified them by recourse to the description of how wood burns in fire. Mercury included the cohesive principle, so that when it left the wood (in smoke) the wood fell apart. Smoke described the volatility (the mercurial principle), the heat-giving flames described flammability (sulphur), and the remnant ash described solidity (salt).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_philosopher's_stone"><span id="The_philosopher.27s_stone"></span>The philosopher's stone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: The philosopher's stone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Fettes_Douglas_-_The_Alchemist.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/William_Fettes_Douglas_-_The_Alchemist.jpg/220px-William_Fettes_Douglas_-_The_Alchemist.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/William_Fettes_Douglas_-_The_Alchemist.jpg/330px-William_Fettes_Douglas_-_The_Alchemist.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/William_Fettes_Douglas_-_The_Alchemist.jpg/440px-William_Fettes_Douglas_-_The_Alchemist.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1729" data-file-height="2278" /></a><figcaption><i>The Alchemist</i>, by Sir William Douglas, 1855</figcaption></figure> <p>Alchemy is defined by the <a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermetic</a> quest for the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">philosopher's stone</a>, the study of which is steeped in symbolic mysticism, and differs greatly from modern science. Alchemists toiled to make transformations on an <a href="/wiki/Esoteric" class="mw-redirect" title="Esoteric">esoteric</a> (spiritual) and/or <a href="/wiki/Exoteric" title="Exoteric">exoteric</a> (practical) level.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the <a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">protoscientific</a>, exoteric aspects of alchemy that contributed heavily to the evolution of chemistry in <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Greco-Roman Egypt</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, and then in Europe. Alchemy and chemistry share an interest in the composition and properties of matter, and until the 18th century they were not separate disciplines. The term <i>chymistry</i> has been used to describe the blend of alchemy and chemistry that existed before that time.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Renaissance, exoteric alchemy remained popular in the form of <a href="/wiki/Paracelsian" class="mw-redirect" title="Paracelsian">Paracelsian</a> <a href="/wiki/Iatrochemistry" title="Iatrochemistry">iatrochemistry</a>, while spiritual alchemy flourished, realigned to its <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic</a>, Hermetic, and <a href="/wiki/Gnostic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnostic">Gnostic</a> roots. Consequently, the symbolic quest for the philosopher's stone was not superseded by scientific advances, and was still the domain of respected scientists and doctors until the early 18th century. Early modern alchemists who are renowned for their scientific contributions include <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alchemy_in_the_Islamic_world">Alchemy in the Islamic world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Alchemy in the Islamic world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic World">Islamic World</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> were translating the works of ancient <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> philosophers into Arabic and were experimenting with scientific ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Arabic works attributed to the 8th-century alchemist <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81bir_ibn_Hayy%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Jābir ibn Hayyān">Jābir ibn Hayyān</a> introduced a systematic classification of chemical substances, and provided instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (<a href="/wiki/Sal_ammoniac" class="mw-redirect" title="Sal ammoniac">sal ammoniac</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_chloride" title="Ammonium chloride">ammonium chloride</a>) from <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic substances</a> (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Arabic Jabirian works (e.g., the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") were later translated into Latin under the <a href="/wiki/Latinisation_of_names" title="Latinisation of names">Latinized</a> name "Geber",<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Geber" title="Pseudo-Geber">pseudo-Geber</a>, started to produce alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later influential Muslim philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_al-Rayh%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī">Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> disputed the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">transmutation of metals</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Problems_encountered_with_alchemy">Problems encountered with alchemy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Problems encountered with alchemy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There were several problems with alchemy, as seen from today's standpoint. There was no systematic naming scheme for new compounds, and the language was esoteric and vague to the point that the terminologies meant different things to different people. In fact, according to <i>The Fontana History of Chemistry</i> (Brock, 1992): </p> <blockquote> <p>The language of alchemy soon developed an arcane and secretive technical vocabulary designed to conceal information from the uninitiated. To a large degree, this language is incomprehensible to us today, though it is apparent that readers of <a href="/wiki/Geoffery_Chaucer" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffery Chaucer">Geoffery Chaucer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Canon%27s_Yeoman%27s_Prologue_and_Tale" class="mw-redirect" title="The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale">Canon's Yeoman's Tale</a> or audiences of <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson">Ben Jonson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Alchemist_(play)" title="The Alchemist (play)"><i>The Alchemist</i></a> were able to construe it sufficiently to laugh at it.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>Chaucer's tale exposed the more fraudulent side of alchemy, especially the manufacture of counterfeit gold from cheap substances. Less than a century earlier, <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a> also demonstrated an awareness of this fraudulence, causing him to consign all alchemists to the <a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Inferno</a> in his writings. Soon afterwards, in 1317, the <a href="/wiki/Avignon" title="Avignon">Avignon</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXII" title="Pope John XXII">Pope John XXII</a> ordered all alchemists to leave France for making counterfeit money. A law was passed in England in 1403 which made the "multiplication of metals" punishable by death. Despite these and other apparently extreme measures, alchemy did not die. Royalty and privileged classes still sought to discover the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life for themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was also no agreed-upon scientific method for making experiments reproducible. Indeed, many alchemists included in their methods irrelevant information such as the timing of the tides or the phases of the moon. The esoteric nature and codified vocabulary of alchemy appeared to be more useful in concealing the fact that they could not be sure of very much at all. As early as the 14th century, cracks seemed to grow in the facade of alchemy; and people became sceptical.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Clearly, there needed to be a scientific method in which experiments could be repeated by other people, and results needed to be reported in a clear language that laid out both what was known and what was unknown. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="17th_and_18th_centuries:_Early_chemistry">17th and 18th centuries: Early chemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 17th and 18th centuries: Early chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georgius_Agricola.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Georgius_Agricola.jpg/150px-Georgius_Agricola.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Georgius_Agricola.jpg/225px-Georgius_Agricola.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Georgius_Agricola.jpg/300px-Georgius_Agricola.jpg 2x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>Agricola, author of <i>De re metallica</i>, was the first to drop the Arabic definite article <i>al-</i>, exclusively writing <i>chymia</i> and <i>chymista</i>, giving <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> its modern name.<sup id="cite_ref-Hexagon2005_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hexagon2005-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:De_Re_Metallica_1556_p_357AQ20_(3).TIF" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/De_Re_Metallica_1556_p_357AQ20_%283%29.TIF/lossy-page1-150px-De_Re_Metallica_1556_p_357AQ20_%283%29.TIF.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/De_Re_Metallica_1556_p_357AQ20_%283%29.TIF/lossy-page1-225px-De_Re_Metallica_1556_p_357AQ20_%283%29.TIF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/De_Re_Metallica_1556_p_357AQ20_%283%29.TIF/lossy-page1-300px-De_Re_Metallica_1556_p_357AQ20_%283%29.TIF.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3744" data-file-height="5616" /></a><figcaption>Workroom, from <i><a href="/wiki/De_re_metallica" title="De re metallica">De re metallica</a></i>, 1556, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Heritage_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical Heritage Foundation">Chemical Heritage Foundation</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corpuscularianism" title="Corpuscularianism">Corpuscularianism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_revolution" title="Chemical revolution">Chemical revolution</a></div> <p>Practical attempts to improve the refining of ores and their extraction to smelt metals was an important source of information for early chemists in the 16th century, among them <a href="/wiki/Georg_Agricola" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Agricola">Georg Agricola</a> (1494–1555), who published his great work <i><a href="/wiki/De_re_metallica" title="De re metallica">De re metallica</a></i> in 1556. His work describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction and metallurgy of the time. His approach removed the mysticism associated with the subject, creating the practical base upon which others could build. The work describes the many kinds of furnace used to smelt ore, and stimulated interest in minerals and their composition. It is no coincidence that he gives numerous references to the earlier author, Pliny the Elder and his <i>Naturalis Historia</i>. Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy" and the founder of <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> as a scientific discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-berk_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berk-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._10_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty_2012_p._10-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1605, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Francis_Bacon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Francis Bacon">Sir Francis Bacon</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/The_Proficience_and_Advancement_of_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="The Proficience and Advancement of Learning">The Proficience and Advancement of Learning</a></i>, which contains a description of what would later be known as the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1605, <a href="/wiki/Michal_Sedziw%C3%B3j" class="mw-redirect" title="Michal Sedziwój">Michal Sedziwój</a> publishes the alchemical treatise <i>A New Light of Alchemy</i> which proposed the existence of the "food of life" within air, much later recognized as oxygen. In 1615 <a href="/wiki/Jean_Beguin" title="Jean Beguin">Jean Beguin</a> published the <i><a href="/wiki/Tyrocinium_Chymicum" title="Tyrocinium Chymicum">Tyrocinium Chymicum</a></i>, an early chemistry textbook, and in it draws the first-ever <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equation" title="Chemical equation">chemical equation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1637 <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> publishes <i><a href="/wiki/Discours_de_la_m%C3%A9thode" class="mw-redirect" title="Discours de la méthode">Discours de la méthode</a></i>, which contains an outline of the scientific method. </p><p>The Dutch chemist <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a>'s work <i>Ortus medicinae</i> was published posthumously in 1648; the book is cited by some as a major transitional work between alchemy and chemistry, and as an important influence on <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>. The book contains the results of numerous experiments and establishes an early version of the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_conservation_of_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of conservation of mass">law of conservation of mass</a>. Working during the time just after <a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iatrochemistry" title="Iatrochemistry">iatrochemistry</a>, Jan Baptist van Helmont suggested that there are insubstantial substances other than air and coined a name for them – "<a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a>", from the Greek word <i>chaos</i>. In addition to introducing the word "gas" into the vocabulary of scientists, van Helmont conducted several experiments involving gases. Jan Baptist van Helmont is also remembered today largely for his ideas on <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">spontaneous generation</a> and his 5-year <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont#Willow_tree_experiment" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">tree experiment</a>, as well as being considered the founder of <a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_chemistry" title="Pneumatic chemistry">pneumatic chemistry</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Robert_Boyle">Robert Boyle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Robert Boyle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Boyle_0001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Robert_Boyle_0001.jpg/200px-Robert_Boyle_0001.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Robert_Boyle_0001.jpg/300px-Robert_Boyle_0001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Robert_Boyle_0001.jpg/400px-Robert_Boyle_0001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="523" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, a transitional figure between alchemy and modern chemistry</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sceptical_chymist_1661_Boyle_Title_page_AQ18_(3).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Sceptical_chymist_1661_Boyle_Title_page_AQ18_%283%29.jpg/220px-Sceptical_chymist_1661_Boyle_Title_page_AQ18_%283%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Sceptical_chymist_1661_Boyle_Title_page_AQ18_%283%29.jpg/330px-Sceptical_chymist_1661_Boyle_Title_page_AQ18_%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Sceptical_chymist_1661_Boyle_Title_page_AQ18_%283%29.jpg/440px-Sceptical_chymist_1661_Boyle_Title_page_AQ18_%283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3744" data-file-height="5616" /></a><figcaption>Title page from <i>The Sceptical Chymist</i>, 1661, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Heritage_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical Heritage Foundation">Chemical Heritage Foundation</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>Anglo-Irish chemist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> (1627–1691) is considered to have initiated the gradual separation of chemistry from alchemy.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although skeptical of elements and convinced of alchemy, Boyle played a key part in elevating the "sacred art" as an independent, fundamental and philosophical discipline. He is best known for <a href="/wiki/Boyle%27s_law" title="Boyle's law">Boyle's law</a>, which he presented in 1662, though he was not the first to discover it.<sup id="cite_ref-acottLaw_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acottLaw-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a> of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a <a href="/wiki/Closed_system" title="Closed system">closed system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-levine_1_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-levine_1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Boyle is also credited for his landmark publication <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sceptical_Chymist" title="The Sceptical Chymist">The Sceptical Chymist</a></i> (1661), which advocated for a rigorous approach to experimentation among chemists. In the work, Boyle questioned some commonly held alchemical theories and argued for practitioners to be more "philosophical" and less commercially focused.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He rejected the classical four elements of earth, fire, air, and water, and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a> that could be subject to rigorous experiment. </p><p>Boyle also tried to purify chemicals to obtain reproducible reactions. He was a vocal proponent of the mechanical philosophy proposed by <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> to explain and quantify the physical properties and interactions of material substances. Boyle was an atomist, but favoured the word <i>corpuscle</i> over <i>atoms</i>. He commented that the finest division of matter where the properties are retained is at the level of corpuscles. </p><p>Boyle repeated the tree experiment of van Helmont, and was the first to use <a href="/wiki/PH_indicator" title="PH indicator">indicators</a> which changed colors with acidity. He also performed numerous investigations with an <a href="/wiki/Air_pump" title="Air pump">air pump</a>, and noted that the <a href="/wiki/Mercury_barometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercury barometer">mercury</a> fell as air was pumped out. He also observed that pumping the air out of a container would extinguish a flame and kill small animals placed inside. Through his works, Boyle helped to lay the foundations for the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical Revolution">chemical revolution</a> two centuries later.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_and_dismantling_of_phlogiston">Development and dismantling of phlogiston</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Development and dismantling of phlogiston"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:331px;max-width:331px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:160px;max-width:160px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele-Swedish-German-1780.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele-Swedish-German-1780.webp/158px-Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele-Swedish-German-1780.webp.png" decoding="async" width="158" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele-Swedish-German-1780.webp/237px-Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele-Swedish-German-1780.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele-Swedish-German-1780.webp/316px-Carl-Wilhelm-Scheele-Swedish-German-1780.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele" title="Carl Wilhelm Scheele">Carl Wilhelm Scheele</a> co-discovered <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and called it "fire air".</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Priestley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Priestley.jpg/165px-Priestley.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Priestley.jpg/248px-Priestley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Priestley.jpg/330px-Priestley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="905" data-file-height="1099" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a>, co-discoverer of the element oxygen, which he called "dephlogisticated air"</div></div></div></div></div> <p>In 1702, German chemist <a href="/wiki/Georg_Stahl" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Stahl">Georg Stahl</a> coined the name "<a href="/wiki/Phlogiston" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlogiston">phlogiston</a>" for the substance believed to be released in the process of burning. Around 1735, Swedish chemist <a href="/wiki/Georg_Brandt" title="Georg Brandt">Georg Brandt</a> analyzed a dark blue pigment found in copper ore. Brandt demonstrated that the pigment contained a new element, later named <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>. In 1751, a Swedish chemist and pupil of Stahl's named <a href="/wiki/Axel_Fredrik_Cronstedt" title="Axel Fredrik Cronstedt">Axel Fredrik Cronstedt</a>, identified an impurity in copper ore as a separate metallic element, which he named <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>. Cronstedt is one of the founders of modern <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cronstedt also discovered the mineral <a href="/wiki/Scheelite" title="Scheelite">scheelite</a> in 1751, which he named tungsten, meaning "heavy stone" in Swedish. </p><p>In 1754, Scottish chemist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Joseph Black</a> isolated <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, which he called "fixed air".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1757, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Claude_Cadet_de_Gassicourt" title="Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt">Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt</a>, while investigating arsenic compounds, creates <a href="/wiki/Cadet%27s_fuming_liquid" title="Cadet's fuming liquid">Cadet's fuming liquid</a>, later discovered to be <a href="/wiki/Cacodyl_oxide" title="Cacodyl oxide">cacodyl oxide</a>, considered to be the first synthetic <a href="/wiki/Organometallic" class="mw-redirect" title="Organometallic">organometallic</a> compound.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1758, Joseph Black formulated the concept of <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a> to explain the <a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">thermochemistry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Phase_changes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase changes">phase changes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1766, English chemist <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cavendish" title="Henry Cavendish">Henry Cavendish</a> isolated <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, which he called "inflammable air". Cavendish discovered hydrogen as a colorless, odourless gas that burns and can form an explosive mixture with air, and published a paper on the production of water by burning inflammable air (that is, hydrogen) in dephlogisticated air (now known to be oxygen), the latter a constituent of atmospheric air (<a href="/wiki/Phlogiston_theory" title="Phlogiston theory">phlogiston theory</a>). </p><p>In 1773, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Pomerania" title="Swedish Pomerania">Swedish German</a><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> chemist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele" title="Carl Wilhelm Scheele">Carl Wilhelm Scheele</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, which he called "fire air", but did not immediately publish his achievement.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1774, English chemist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a> independently isolated oxygen in its gaseous state, calling it "dephlogisticated air", and published his work before Scheele.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention of <a href="/wiki/Soda_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Soda water">soda water</a>, his writings on <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>, and his discovery of several "airs" (gases), the most famous being what Priestley dubbed "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). However, Priestley's determination to defend phlogiston theory and to reject what would become the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_revolution" title="Chemical revolution">chemical revolution</a> eventually left him isolated within the scientific community. </p><p>In 1781, Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered that a new <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tungstic_acid" title="Tungstic acid">tungstic acid</a>, could be made from Cronstedt's scheelite (at the time named tungsten). Scheele and <a href="/wiki/Torbern_Bergman" title="Torbern Bergman">Torbern Bergman</a> suggested that it might be possible to obtain a new metal by reducing this acid.<sup id="cite_ref-SaundersN_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SaundersN-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1783, <a href="/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Elhuyar" title="Juan José Elhuyar">José</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fausto_Elhuyar" title="Fausto Elhuyar">Fausto Elhuyar</a> found an acid made from <a href="/wiki/Wolframite" title="Wolframite">wolframite</a> that was identical to tungstic acid. Later that year, in Spain, the brothers succeeded in isolating the metal now known as <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> by reduction of this acid with <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a>, and they are credited with the discovery of the element.<sup id="cite_ref-ITIAnews_0605_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ITIAnews_0605-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ITIAnews_1205_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ITIAnews_1205-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volta_and_the_Voltaic_pile">Volta and the Voltaic pile</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Volta and the Voltaic pile"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VoltaBattery.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/VoltaBattery.JPG/199px-VoltaBattery.JPG" decoding="async" width="199" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/VoltaBattery.JPG/299px-VoltaBattery.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/VoltaBattery.JPG/398px-VoltaBattery.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>A voltaic pile on display in the <i><a href="/wiki/Tempio_Voltiano" title="Tempio Voltiano">Tempio Voltiano</a></i> (the Volta Temple) near Volta's home in <a href="/wiki/Como" title="Como">Como</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Italian physicist <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> constructed a device for accumulating a large charge by a series of inductions and groundings. He investigated the 1780s discovery "<a href="/wiki/Galvanism" title="Galvanism">animal electricity</a>" by <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Luigi Galvani</a>, and found that the <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> was generated from the contact of dissimilar metals, and that the frog leg was only acting as a detector. Volta demonstrated in 1794 that when two metals and brine-soaked cloth or cardboard are arranged in a circuit they produce an <a href="/wiki/Electric" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric">electric</a> current. </p><p>In 1800, Volta stacked several pairs of alternating <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> discs (<a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a>) separated by cloth or cardboard soaked in <a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a>) to increase the electrolyte conductivity.<sup id="cite_ref-Mottelay_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mottelay-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the top and bottom contacts were connected by a wire, an electric <a href="/wiki/Current_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Current (electricity)">current</a> flowed through this <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">voltaic pile</a> and the connecting wire. Thus, Volta is credited with constructing the first <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">electrical battery</a> to produce <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>. </p><p>Thus, Volta is considered to be the founder of the discipline of <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemistry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">Galvanic cell</a> (or voltaic cell) is an <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_cell" title="Electrochemical cell">electrochemical cell</a> that derives electrical energy from a spontaneous <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> reaction taking place within the cell. It generally consists of two different metals connected by a <a href="/wiki/Salt_bridge" title="Salt bridge">salt bridge</a>, or individual half-cells separated by a porous membrane. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antoine-Laurent_de_Lavoisier">Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg/220px-David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg/330px-David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg/440px-David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_and_His_Wife.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4390" data-file-height="5852" /></a><figcaption><i>Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and his wife</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_revolution" title="Chemical revolution">Chemical revolution</a></div> <p>Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier demonstrated with careful measurements that transmutation of water to earth was not possible, but that the sediment observed from boiling water came from the container. He burnt phosphorus and sulfur in air, and proved that the products weighed more than the original samples, with the mass gained being lost from the air. Thus, in 1789, he established the Law of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_mass" title="Conservation of mass">Conservation of Mass</a>, which is also called "Lavoisier's Law."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ice-calorimeter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ice-calorimeter.jpg/150px-Ice-calorimeter.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ice-calorimeter.jpg/225px-Ice-calorimeter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ice-calorimeter.jpg/300px-Ice-calorimeter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="358" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The world's first ice-calorimeter, used in the winter of 1782–83, by Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace, to determine the heat involved in various <a href="/wiki/Chemical_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical change">chemical changes</a>; calculations which were based on Joseph Black's prior discovery of <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a>. These experiments mark the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">thermochemistry</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Repeating the experiments of Priestley, he demonstrated that air is composed of two parts, one of which combines with metals to form <a href="/wiki/Calx" title="Calx">calxes</a>. In <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides</i></span> (1778), he demonstrated that the "air" responsible for combustion was also the source of acidity. The next year, he named this portion oxygen (Greek for acid-former), and the other azote (Greek for no life). Because of his more thorough characterization of it as an element, Lavoisier thus has a claim to the discovery of oxygen along with Priestley and Scheele. He also discovered that the "inflammable air" discovered by Cavendish – which he termed <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (Greek for water-former) – combined with oxygen to produce a dew, as Priestley had reported, which appeared to be water. In <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Reflexions sur le Phlogistique</i></span> (1783), Lavoisier showed the <a href="/wiki/Phlogiston_theory" title="Phlogiston theory">phlogiston theory</a> of combustion to be inconsistent. <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Mikhail Lomonosov</a> independently established a tradition of chemistry in Russia in the 18th century; he also rejected the phlogiston theory, and anticipated the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases" title="Kinetic theory of gases">kinetic theory of gases</a>. Lomonosov regarded heat as a form of motion, and stated the idea of conservation of matter. </p><p>Lavoisier worked with <a href="/wiki/Claude_Louis_Berthollet" title="Claude Louis Berthollet">Claude Louis Berthollet</a> and others to devise a system of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_nomenclature" title="Chemical nomenclature">chemical nomenclature</a>, which serves as the basis of the modern system of naming chemical compounds. In his <i>Methods of Chemical Nomenclature</i> (1787), Lavoisier invented the system of naming and classification still largely in use today, including names such as <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sulfite" title="Sulfite">sulfites</a>. In 1785, Berthollet was the first to introduce the use of chlorine gas as a commercial bleach. In the same year he first determined the elemental composition of the gas <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>. Berthollet first produced a modern bleaching liquid in 1789 by passing chlorine gas through a solution of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">sodium carbonate</a> – the result was a weak solution of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hypochlorite" title="Sodium hypochlorite">sodium hypochlorite</a>. Another strong chlorine oxidant and bleach which he investigated and was the first to produce, <a href="/wiki/Potassium_chlorate" title="Potassium chlorate">potassium chlorate</a> (KClO<sub>3</sub>), is known as Berthollet's Salt. Berthollet is also known for his scientific contributions to the theory of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">chemical equilibrium</a> via the mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Reversible_reaction" title="Reversible reaction">reversible reactions</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lavoisier_-_Trait%C3%A9_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_chimie,_1789_-_3895821_F.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Lavoisier_-_Trait%C3%A9_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_chimie%2C_1789_-_3895821_F.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Lavoisier_-_Trait%C3%A9_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_chimie%2C_1789_-_3895821_F.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="345" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Lavoisier_-_Trait%C3%A9_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_chimie%2C_1789_-_3895821_F.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Lavoisier_-_Trait%C3%A9_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_chimie%2C_1789_-_3895821_F.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Lavoisier_-_Trait%C3%A9_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_chimie%2C_1789_-_3895821_F.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Lavoisier_-_Trait%C3%A9_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_chimie%2C_1789_-_3895821_F.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1982" data-file-height="3104" /></a><figcaption><i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Traité élémentaire de chimie</i></span></i></figcaption></figure> <p>Lavoisier's <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_%C3%89l%C3%A9mentaire_de_Chimie" title="Traité Élémentaire de Chimie">Traité Élémentaire de Chimie</a></i></span> (Elementary Treatise of Chemistry, 1789) was the first modern chemical textbook, and presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the Law of Conservation of Mass, and denied the existence of phlogiston. In addition, it contained a list of elements, or substances that could not be broken down further, which included oxygen, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, hydrogen, <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>. His list, however, also included light and <a href="/wiki/Caloric_theory" title="Caloric theory">caloric</a>, which he believed to be material substances. In the work, Lavoisier underscored the observational basis of his chemistry, stating "I have tried...to arrive at the truth by linking up facts; to suppress as much as possible the use of reasoning, which is often an unreliable instrument which deceives us, in order to follow as much as possible the torch of observation and of experiment." Nevertheless, he believed that the real existence of atoms was philosophically impossible. Lavoisier demonstrated that organisms disassemble and reconstitute atmospheric air in the same manner as a burning body. </p><p>With <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace">Pierre-Simon Laplace</a>, Lavoisier used a <a href="/wiki/Calorimeter" title="Calorimeter">calorimeter</a> to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced. They found the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion. Lavoisier believed in the <a href="/wiki/Radical_theory" title="Radical theory">radical theory</a>, which stated that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical reaction, would combine with oxygen in reactions. He believed all acids contained oxygen. He also discovered that <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> is a crystalline form of carbon. </p><p>Although many of Lavoisier's partners were influential for the advancement of chemistry as a scientific discipline, his wife Marie-Anne Lavoisier was arguably the most influential of them all. Upon their marriage, Mme. Lavoisier began to study chemistry, English, and drawing in order to help her husband in his work either by translating papers into English, a language which Lavoisier did not know, or by keeping records and drawing the various apparatuses that Lavoisier used in his labs.<sup id="cite_ref-humantouchofchemistry.com_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-humantouchofchemistry.com-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through her ability to read and translate articles from Britain for her husband, Lavoisier had access to knowledge of many of the chemical advances happening outside of his lab. Furthermore, Mme. Lavoisier kept records of her husband's work and ensured that his works were published. The first sign of Marie-Anne's true potential as a chemist in Lavoisier's lab came when she was translating a book by the scientist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Kirwan" title="Richard Kirwan">Richard Kirwan</a>. While translating, she stumbled upon and corrected multiple errors. When she presented her translation, along with her notes, to Lavoisier, her contributions led to Lavoisier's refutation of the theory of phlogiston. </p><p>Lavoisier made many fundamental contributions to the science of chemistry. Following his work, chemistry acquired a strict, quantitative nature, allowing reliable predictions to be made. The <a href="/wiki/Chemical_revolution" title="Chemical revolution">revolution in chemistry</a> which he brought about was a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature. Further potential contributions were cut short when Lavoisier was beheaded during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century">19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout the 19th century, chemistry was divided between those who followed the atomic theory of <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Energeticism" title="Energeticism">energeticists</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Ostwald" title="Wilhelm Ostwald">Wilhelm Ostwald</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pullman_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pullman-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although such proponents of the atomic theory as <a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Avogadro" title="Amedeo Avogadro">Amedeo Avogadro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann" title="Ludwig Boltzmann">Ludwig Boltzmann</a> made great advances in explaining the behavior of <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gases</a>, this dispute was not finally settled until <a href="/wiki/Jean_Perrin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Perrin">Jean Perrin</a>'s experimental investigation of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a>'s atomic explanation of <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a> in the first decade of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-pullman_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pullman-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Well before the dispute had been settled, many had already applied the concept of atomism to chemistry. A major example was the <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a> theory of <a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a> which anticipated ideas about atomic substructure that did not fully develop until the 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> was another early worker, whose major contribution to chemistry was <a href="/wiki/History_of_electrochemistry" title="History of electrochemistry">electrochemistry</a>, in which (among other things) a certain quantity of electricity during <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Underpotential_deposition" title="Underpotential deposition">electrodeposition</a> of metals was shown to be associated with certain quantities of chemical elements, and fixed quantities of the elements therefore with each other, in specific ratios.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These findings, like those of Dalton's combining ratios, were early clues to the atomic nature of matter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Dalton">John Dalton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: John Dalton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner.jpg/200px-John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner.jpg/300px-John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner.jpg/400px-John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="996" data-file-height="1230" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> is remembered for his work on partial pressures in gases, color blindness, and atomic theory.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">Atomic theory</a></div> <p>In 1803, English meteorologist and chemist <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> proposed <a href="/wiki/Dalton%27s_law" title="Dalton's law">Dalton's law</a>, which describes the relationship between the components in a mixture of gases and the relative pressure each contributes to that of the overall mixture.<sup id="cite_ref-dalton_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dalton-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Discovered in 1801, this concept is also known as Dalton's law of partial pressures. </p><p>Dalton also proposed a modern <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">atomic theory</a> in 1803 which stated that all matter was composed of small indivisible particles termed atoms, atoms of a given element possess unique characteristics and weight, and three types of atoms exist: simple (elements), compound (simple molecules), and complex (complex molecules). In 1808, Dalton first published <i>New System of Chemical Philosophy</i> (1808–1827), in which he outlined the first modern scientific description of the atomic theory. This work identified chemical elements as a specific type of atom, therefore rejecting <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>'s theory of chemical affinities. </p><p>Instead, Dalton inferred proportions of elements in compounds by taking ratios of the weights of reactants, setting the atomic weight of hydrogen to be identically one. Following <a href="/wiki/Jeremias_Benjamin_Richter" title="Jeremias Benjamin Richter">Jeremias Benjamin Richter</a> (known for introducing the term <i><a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">stoichiometry</a></i>), he proposed that chemical elements combine in integral ratios. This is known as the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_multiple_proportions" title="Law of multiple proportions">law of multiple proportions</a> or Dalton's law, and Dalton included a clear description of the law in his <i>New System of Chemical Philosophy</i>. The law of multiple proportions is one of the basic laws of stoichiometry used to establish the atomic theory. Despite the importance of the work as the first view of atoms as physically real entities and the introduction of a system of chemical symbols, <i>New System of Chemical Philosophy</i> devoted almost as much space to the caloric theory as to atomism. </p><p>French chemist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Proust" title="Joseph Proust">Joseph Proust</a> proposed the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_definite_proportions" title="Law of definite proportions">law of definite proportions</a>, which states that elements always combine in small, whole number ratios to form compounds, based on several experiments conducted between 1797 and 1804<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with the law of multiple proportions, the law of definite proportions forms the basis of stoichiometry. The law of definite proportions and constant composition do not prove that atoms exist, but they are difficult to explain without assuming that chemical compounds are formed when atoms combine in constant proportions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jöns_Jacob_Berzelius"><span id="J.C3.B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius"></span>Jöns Jacob Berzelius</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Jöns Jacob Berzelius"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius_from_Familj-Journalen1873.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius_from_Familj-Journalen1873.png/200px-J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius_from_Familj-Journalen1873.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius_from_Familj-Journalen1873.png/300px-J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius_from_Familj-Journalen1873.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius_from_Familj-Journalen1873.png/400px-J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius_from_Familj-Journalen1873.png 2x" data-file-width="482" data-file-height="615" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a>, the chemist who worked out the modern technique of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">chemical formula</a> notation and is considered one of the fathers of modern chemistry</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a></div> <p>A Swedish chemist and disciple of Dalton, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a> embarked on a systematic program to try to make accurate and precise quantitative measurements and to ensure the purity of chemicals. Along with Lavoisier, Boyle, and Dalton, Berzelius is known as the father of modern chemistry. In 1828 he compiled a table of relative atomic weights, where <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> was used as a standard, with its weight set at 100, and which included all of the elements known at the time. This work provided evidence in favor of Dalton's atomic theory – that inorganic chemical compounds are composed of atoms combined in <a href="/wiki/Whole_number_rule" title="Whole number rule">whole number amounts</a>. He determined the exact elementary constituents of a large number of compounds; the results strongly supported Proust's Law of Definite Proportions. In discovering that atomic weights are not integer multiples of the weight of hydrogen, Berzelius also disproved <a href="/wiki/Prout%27s_hypothesis" title="Prout's hypothesis">Prout's hypothesis</a> that elements are built up from atoms of hydrogen. </p><p>Motivated by his extensive atomic weight determinations and in a desire to aid his experiments, he introduced the classical system of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical symbols">chemical symbols</a> and notation with his 1808 publication <i>Lärbok i Kemien</i>, in which elements are abbreviated to one or two letters to make a distinct symbol from their Latin name. This system of chemical notation—in which the elements were given simple written labels, such as O for oxygen, or Fe for iron, with proportions denoted by numbers—is the same basic system used today. The only difference is that instead of the subscript number used today (e.g., H<sub>2</sub>O), Berzelius used a superscript (H<sup>2</sup>O). Berzelius is credited with identifying the chemical elements <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">cerium</a>. Students working in Berzelius's laboratory also discovered <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>. </p><p>Berzelius developed the <a href="/wiki/Radical_theory" title="Radical theory">radical theory</a> of chemical combination, which holds that reactions occur as stable groups of atoms called <a href="/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)" title="Radical (chemistry)">radicals</a> are exchanged between molecules. He believed that salts are compounds formed of <a href="/wiki/Acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Acids">acids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">bases</a>, and discovered that the anions in acids were attracted to a positive electrode (the <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a>), whereas the cations in a base were attracted to a negative electrode (the <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a>). Berzelius did not believe in the <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a> Theory, but instead in a regulative force which produced organization of tissues in an organism. Berzelius is also credited with originating the chemical terms "<a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalysis</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Isomer" title="Isomer">isomer</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/Allotrope" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotrope">allotrope</a>", although his original definitions differ dramatically from modern usage. For example, he coined the term "polymer" in 1833 to describe organic compounds which shared identical empirical formulas but which differed in overall molecular weight, the larger of the compounds being described as "polymers" of the smallest. By this long-superseded, pre-structural definition, <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>) was viewed as a polymer of <a href="/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">formaldehyde</a> (CH<sub>2</sub>O). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_elements_and_gas_laws">New elements and gas laws</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: New elements and gas laws"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Humphry_davy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Humphry_davy.jpg/200px-Humphry_davy.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Humphry_davy.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="244" data-file-height="346" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a>, the discover of several <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline earth metals">alkaline earth metals</a>, as well as contributions to the discoveries of the elemental nature of <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a></div> <p>English chemist <a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a> was a pioneer in the field of <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a>, using Alessandro Volta's voltaic pile to split up common compounds and thus isolate a series of new elements. He went on to electrolyse molten salts and discovered several new metals, especially <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a>, highly reactive elements known as the <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali metals</a>. Potassium, the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis, was discovered in 1807 by Davy, who derived it from <a href="/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide" title="Potassium hydroxide">caustic potash</a> (KOH). Before the 19th century, no distinction was made between potassium and sodium. Sodium was first isolated by Davy in the same year by passing an electric current through molten <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> (NaOH). When Davy heard that Berzelius and Pontin prepared calcium amalgam by electrolyzing lime in mercury, he tried it himself. Davy was successful, and discovered <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> in 1808 by electrolyzing a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Lime_(material)" title="Lime (material)">lime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mercuric_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercuric oxide">mercuric oxide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Enghag2004_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Enghag2004-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davy1807_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davy1807-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He worked with electrolysis throughout his life and, in 1808, he isolated <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a><sup id="cite_ref-weeks_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weeks-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-history_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Davy also experimented with gases by inhaling them. This experimental procedure nearly proved fatal on several occasions, but led to the discovery of the unusual effects of <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a>, which came to be known as laughing gas. <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Chlorine</a> was discovered in 1774 by Swedish chemist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele" title="Carl Wilhelm Scheele">Carl Wilhelm Scheele</a>, who called it <i>"dephlogisticated marine acid"</i> (see <a href="/wiki/Phlogiston_theory" title="Phlogiston theory">phlogiston theory</a>) and mistakenly thought it contained <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. Scheele observed several properties of chlorine gas, such as its bleaching effect on litmus, its deadly effect on insects, its yellow-green colour, and the similarity of its smell to that of <a href="/wiki/Aqua_regia" title="Aqua regia">aqua regia</a>. However, Scheele was unable to publish his findings at the time. In 1810, chlorine was given its current name by Humphry Davy (derived from the Greek word for green), who insisted that chlorine was in fact an <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">element</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also showed that <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> could not be obtained from the substance known as <a href="/wiki/Chlorine#History" title="Chlorine">oxymuriatic acid</a> (HCl solution). This discovery overturned <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier's</a> definition of acids as compounds of oxygen. Davy was a popular lecturer and able experimenter. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_louis_gay-lussac.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Joseph_louis_gay-lussac.jpg/200px-Joseph_louis_gay-lussac.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Joseph_louis_gay-lussac.jpg/300px-Joseph_louis_gay-lussac.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Joseph_louis_gay-lussac.jpg/400px-Joseph_louis_gay-lussac.jpg 2x" data-file-width="522" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Gay-Lussac" title="Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac">Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac</a>, who stated that the ratio between the volumes of the reactant gases and the products can be expressed in simple whole numbers</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Gay-Lussac" title="Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac">Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gay-Lussac%27s_law" title="Gay-Lussac's law">Gay-Lussac's law</a></div> <p>French chemist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Gay-Lussac" title="Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac">Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac</a> shared the interest of Lavoisier and others in the quantitative study of the properties of gases. From his first major program of research in 1801–1802, he concluded that equal volumes of all gases expand equally with the same increase in temperature: this conclusion is usually called "<a href="/wiki/Charles%27s_law" title="Charles's law">Charles's law</a>", as Gay-Lussac gave credit to <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Charles" title="Jacques Charles">Jacques Charles</a>, who had arrived at nearly the same conclusion in the 1780s but had not published it.<sup id="cite_ref-GL02_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GL02-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law was independently discovered by British natural philosopher John Dalton by 1801, although Dalton's description was less thorough than Gay-Lussac's.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1804 Gay-Lussac made several daring ascents of over 7,000 meters above sea level in hydrogen-filled balloons—a feat not equaled for another 50 years—that allowed him to investigate other aspects of gases. Not only did he gather magnetic measurements at various altitudes, but he also took pressure, temperature, and humidity measurements and samples of air, which he later analyzed chemically. </p><p>In 1808 Gay-Lussac announced what was probably his single greatest achievement: from his own and others' experiments he deduced that gases at constant temperature and pressure combine in simple numerical proportions by volume, and the resulting product or products—if gases—also bear a simple proportion by volume to the volumes of the reactants. In other words, gases under equal conditions of temperature and pressure react with one another in volume ratios of small whole numbers. This conclusion subsequently became known as "<a href="/wiki/Gay-Lussac%27s_law" title="Gay-Lussac's law">Gay-Lussac's law</a>" or the "<a href="/wiki/Gay-Lussac%27s_law#Law_of_combining_volumes" title="Gay-Lussac's law">Law of Combining Volumes</a>". With his fellow professor at the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Polytechnique" class="mw-redirect" title="École Polytechnique">École Polytechnique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Jacques_Th%C3%A9nard" title="Louis Jacques Thénard">Louis Jacques Thénard</a>, Gay-Lussac also participated in early electrochemical research, investigating the elements discovered by its means. Among other achievements, they decomposed <a href="/wiki/Boric_acid" title="Boric acid">boric acid</a> by using fused potassium, thus discovering the element <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>. The two also took part in contemporary debates that modified Lavoisier's definition of acids and furthered his program of analyzing organic compounds for their oxygen and hydrogen content. </p><p>The element <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a> was discovered by French chemist <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Courtois" title="Bernard Courtois">Bernard Courtois</a> in 1811.<sup id="cite_ref-court_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-court-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Courtois gave samples to his friends, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Bernard_Desormes" title="Charles Bernard Desormes">Charles Bernard Desormes</a> (1777–1862) and <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Cl%C3%A9ment" title="Nicolas Clément">Nicolas Clément</a> (1779–1841), to continue research. He also gave some of the substance to Gay-Lussac and to physicist <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re" title="André-Marie Ampère">André-Marie Ampère</a>. On December 6, 1813, Gay-Lussac announced that the new substance was either an element or a compound of oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-Gay-Lussac_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gay-Lussac-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was Gay-Lussac who suggested the name <i>"iode"</i>, from the Greek word ιώδες (iodes) for violet (because of the color of iodine vapor).<sup id="cite_ref-court_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-court-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gay-Lussac_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gay-Lussac-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ampère had given some of his sample to Humphry Davy. Davy did some experiments on the substance and noted its similarity to chlorine.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Davy sent a letter dated December 10 to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Society of London">Royal Society of London</a> stating that he had identified a new element.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arguments erupted between Davy and Gay-Lussac over who identified iodine first, but both scientists acknowledged Courtois as the first to isolate the element. </p><p>In 1815, Humphry Davy invented the <a href="/wiki/Davy_lamp" title="Davy lamp">Davy lamp</a>, which allowed miners within <a href="/wiki/Coal_mines" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal mines">coal mines</a> to work safely in the presence of flammable gases. There had been many mining explosions caused by <a href="/wiki/Firedamp" title="Firedamp">firedamp</a> or <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> often ignited by open flames of the lamps then used by miners. Davy conceived of using an iron gauze to enclose a lamp's flame, and so prevent the methane burning inside the lamp from passing out to the general atmosphere. Although the idea of the <a href="/wiki/Safety_lamp" title="Safety lamp">safety lamp</a> had already been demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/William_Reid_Clanny" title="William Reid Clanny">William Reid Clanny</a> and by the then unknown (but later very famous) engineer <a href="/wiki/George_Stephenson" title="George Stephenson">George Stephenson</a>, Davy's use of wire gauze to prevent the spread of flame was used by many other inventors in their later designs. There was some discussion as to whether Davy had discovered the principles behind his lamp without the help of the work of <a href="/wiki/Smithson_Tennant" title="Smithson Tennant">Smithson Tennant</a>, but it was generally agreed that the work of both men had been independent. Davy refused to patent the lamp, and its invention led to him being awarded the <a href="/wiki/Rumford_medal" class="mw-redirect" title="Rumford medal">Rumford medal</a> in 1816.<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avogadro_Amedeo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Avogadro_Amedeo.jpg/200px-Avogadro_Amedeo.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Avogadro_Amedeo.jpg/300px-Avogadro_Amedeo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Avogadro_Amedeo.jpg/400px-Avogadro_Amedeo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="764" data-file-height="925" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Avogadro" title="Amedeo Avogadro">Amedeo Avogadro</a>, who postulated that, under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain an equal number of molecules. This is known as <a href="/wiki/Avogadro%27s_law" title="Avogadro's law">Avogadro's law</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Avogadro" title="Amedeo Avogadro">Amedeo Avogadro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avogadro%27s_law" title="Avogadro's law">Avogadro's law</a></div> <p>After Dalton published his atomic theory in 1808, certain of his central ideas were soon adopted by most chemists. However, uncertainty persisted for half a century about how atomic theory was to be configured and applied to concrete situations; chemists in different countries developed several different incompatible atomistic systems. A paper that suggested a way out of this difficult situation was published as early as 1811 by the Italian physicist <a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Avogadro" title="Amedeo Avogadro">Amedeo Avogadro</a> (1776–1856), who hypothesized that equal volumes of gases at the same <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> contain equal numbers of molecules, from which it followed that relative <a href="/wiki/Molecular_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular weight">molecular weights</a> of any two gases are the same as the ratio of the densities of the two gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. Avogadro also reasoned that simple gases were not formed of solitary atoms but were instead compound molecules of two or more atoms. Thus Avogadro was able to overcome the difficulty that Dalton and others had encountered when Gay-Lussac reported that above 100 °C the volume of water vapor was twice the volume of the oxygen used to form it. According to Avogadro, the molecule of oxygen had split into two atoms in the course of forming water vapor. </p><p>Avogadro's hypothesis was neglected for half a century after it was first published. Many reasons for this neglect have been cited, including some theoretical problems, such as Jöns Jacob Berzelius's "dualism", which asserted that compounds are held together by the attraction of positive and negative electrical charges, making it inconceivable that a molecule composed of two electrically similar atoms—as in oxygen—could exist. An additional barrier to acceptance was the fact that many chemists were reluctant to adopt physical methods (such as vapour-density determinations) to solve their problems. By mid-century, however, some leading figures had begun to view the chaotic multiplicity of competing systems of atomic weights and molecular formulas as intolerable. Moreover, purely chemical evidence began to mount that suggested Avogadro's approach might be right after all. During the 1850s, younger chemists, such as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_William_Williamson" title="Alexander William Williamson">Alexander Williamson</a> in England, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Gerhardt" title="Charles Frédéric Gerhardt">Charles Gerhardt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles-Adolphe_Wurtz" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles-Adolphe Wurtz">Charles-Adolphe Wurtz</a> in France, and <a href="/wiki/August_Kekul%C3%A9" title="August Kekulé">August Kekulé</a> in Germany, began to advocate reforming theoretical chemistry to make it consistent with Avogadrian theory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wöhler,_von_Liebig,_organic_chemistry_and_the_vitalism_debate"><span id="W.C3.B6hler.2C_von_Liebig.2C_organic_chemistry_and_the_vitalism_debate"></span>Wöhler, von Liebig, organic chemistry and the vitalism debate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Wöhler, von Liebig, organic chemistry and the vitalism debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Urea_Structural_Formula_V2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Urea_Structural_Formula_V2.svg/160px-Urea_Structural_Formula_V2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Urea_Structural_Formula_V2.svg/240px-Urea_Structural_Formula_V2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Urea_Structural_Formula_V2.svg/320px-Urea_Structural_Formula_V2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="114" /></a><figcaption>Structural formula of <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler" title="Friedrich Wöhler">Friedrich Wöhler</a> used for seminal contributions in <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a>, for which <a href="/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig" title="Justus von Liebig">Justus von Liebig</a> also made major contributions<sup id="cite_ref-Keen_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keen-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler" title="Friedrich Wöhler">Friedrich Wöhler</a>, <a href="/wiki/W%C3%B6hler_synthesis" title="Wöhler synthesis">Wöhler synthesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig" title="Justus von Liebig">Justus von Liebig</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a></div> <p>In 1825, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler" title="Friedrich Wöhler">Friedrich Wöhler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig" title="Justus von Liebig">Justus von Liebig</a> performed the first confirmed discovery and explanation of <a href="/wiki/Isomer" title="Isomer">isomers</a>, earlier named by Berzelius. Working with <a href="/wiki/Cyanic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanic acid">cyanic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fulminic_acid" title="Fulminic acid">fulminic acid</a>, they correctly deduced that isomerism was caused by differing arrangements of atoms within a molecular structure. In 1827, <a href="/wiki/William_Prout" title="William Prout">William Prout</a> classified biomolecules into their modern groupings: <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a>. After the nature of combustion was settled, a dispute about <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">vitalism</a> and the essential distinction between organic and inorganic substances began. The vitalism question was revolutionized in 1828 when Friedrich Wöhler synthesized <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a>, thereby establishing that organic compounds could be produced from inorganic starting materials and disproving the theory of vitalism. </p><p>This opened a new research field in chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The most important among them are <a href="/wiki/Mauve" title="Mauve">mauve</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magenta" title="Magenta">magenta</a>, and other synthetic <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dyes</a>, as well as the widely used drug <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a>. The discovery of the artificial synthesis of urea contributed greatly to the theory of <a href="/wiki/Isomerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomerism">isomerism</a>, as the empirical chemical formulas for urea and <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_cyanate" title="Ammonium cyanate">ammonium cyanate</a> are identical (see <a href="/wiki/W%C3%B6hler_synthesis" title="Wöhler synthesis">Wöhler synthesis</a>). In 1832, Friedrich Wöhler and Justus von Liebig discovered and explained <a href="/wiki/Functional_group" title="Functional group">functional groups</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)" title="Radical (chemistry)">radicals</a> in relation to organic chemistry, as well as first synthesizing <a href="/wiki/Benzaldehyde" title="Benzaldehyde">benzaldehyde</a>. Liebig, a German chemist, made major contributions to <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biological chemistry</a>, and worked on the organization of <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a>, being considered one of its principal founders.<sup id="cite_ref-RoyalSocietyObit_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoyalSocietyObit-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liebig is also considered the "father of the <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a> industry" for his discovery of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> as an essential plant <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrient</a>, and his formulation of the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Minimum" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of the Minimum">Law of the Minimum</a> which described the effect of individual nutrients on crops. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vladimir_Markovnikov">Vladimir Markovnikov</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Vladimir Markovnikov"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VladimirMarkovnikov.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/VladimirMarkovnikov.jpg/220px-VladimirMarkovnikov.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/VladimirMarkovnikov.jpg/330px-VladimirMarkovnikov.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/VladimirMarkovnikov.jpg/440px-VladimirMarkovnikov.jpg 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>Markovnikov did extensive research on substitution and stereochemistry.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Markovnikov" title="Vladimir Markovnikov">Vladimir Markovnikov</a></div> <p>Vladimir Markovnikov, born in 1838, was a Russian scientist who did most of his work at Kazan University in Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Kazan, he studied under <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Butlerov" title="Alexander Butlerov">Butlerov</a> in a laboratory better known as "the cradle of Russian organic chemistry", after which he also studied chemistry in Germany for two years.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Markovnikov's contributions to the fields of organic chemistry included the development of the eponymous <a href="/wiki/Markovnikov%27s_rule" title="Markovnikov's rule">Markovnikov's rule</a>, which states that hydrogen halides when added to alkenes and alkynes would add in a way that hydrogens would bond to the side of the carbon with the most hydrogen substituents.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Products in chemistry that follow this rule are considered Markovnikov products and those that did not are considered anti-Markovnikov products.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Markovnikov's rule was an early example of <a href="/wiki/Regioselectivity" title="Regioselectivity">regioselectivity</a> in organic synthesis and the modern understanding of it continues to be important in the chemical industry, where catalysts have been developed to produce anti-Markovnikov products.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A significant aspect of Markovnikov's rule is that it explains reactivity based on the structural arrangement of atoms, as many chemists at the time did not consider chemical formulas as representing physical arrangement of atoms (see also <a href="/wiki/Radical_theory" title="Radical theory">radical theory</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mid-1800s">Mid-1800s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Mid-1800s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1840, <a href="/wiki/Germain_Hess" class="mw-redirect" title="Germain Hess">Germain Hess</a> proposed <a href="/wiki/Hess%27s_law" title="Hess's law">Hess's law</a>, an early statement of the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_conservation_of_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of conservation of energy">law of conservation of energy</a>, which establishes that <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> changes in a chemical process depend only on the states of the starting and product materials and not on the specific pathway taken between the two states. In 1847, <a href="/wiki/Adolph_Wilhelm_Hermann_Kolbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe">Hermann Kolbe</a> obtained <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a> from completely inorganic sources, further disproving vitalism. In 1848, <a href="/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin</a> (commonly known as Lord Kelvin) established the concept of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a>, the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases. In 1849, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> discovered that the <a href="/wiki/Racemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Racemic">racemic</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Tartaric_acid" title="Tartaric acid">tartaric acid</a> is a mixture of the levorotatory and dextrotatory forms, thus clarifying the nature of <a href="/wiki/Optical_rotation" title="Optical rotation">optical rotation</a> and advancing the field of <a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">stereochemistry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1852, <a href="/wiki/August_Beer" title="August Beer">August Beer</a> proposed <a href="/wiki/Beer%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Beer's law">Beer's law</a>, which explains the relationship between the composition of a mixture and the amount of light it will absorb. Based partly on earlier work by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bouguer" title="Pierre Bouguer">Pierre Bouguer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Lambert" title="Johann Heinrich Lambert">Johann Heinrich Lambert</a>, it established the <a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">analytical</a> technique known as <a href="/wiki/Spectrophotometry" title="Spectrophotometry">spectrophotometry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1855, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Silliman,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Silliman, Jr.">Benjamin Silliman, Jr.</a> pioneered methods of <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_cracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Petroleum cracking">petroleum cracking</a>, which made the entire modern <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical_industry" title="Petrochemical industry">petrochemical industry</a> possible.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kekule_acetic_acid_formulae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Kekule_acetic_acid_formulae.jpg/220px-Kekule_acetic_acid_formulae.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Kekule_acetic_acid_formulae.jpg/330px-Kekule_acetic_acid_formulae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Kekule_acetic_acid_formulae.jpg/440px-Kekule_acetic_acid_formulae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="1046" /></a><figcaption>Formulas of acetic acid given by <a href="/wiki/August_Kekul%C3%A9" title="August Kekulé">August Kekulé</a> in 1861</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Stanislao_Cannizzaro" title="Stanislao Cannizzaro">Stanislao Cannizzaro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karlsruhe_Congress" title="Karlsruhe Congress">Karlsruhe Congress</a></div> <p>Avogadro's hypothesis began to gain broad appeal among chemists only after his compatriot and fellow scientist <a href="/wiki/Stanislao_Cannizzaro" title="Stanislao Cannizzaro">Stanislao Cannizzaro</a> demonstrated its value in 1858, two years after Avogadro's death. Cannizzaro's chemical interests had originally centered on natural products and on reactions of <a href="/wiki/Aromatic_compound" title="Aromatic compound">aromatic compounds</a>; in 1853 he discovered that when <a href="/wiki/Benzaldehyde" title="Benzaldehyde">benzaldehyde</a> is treated with concentrated base, both <a href="/wiki/Benzoic_acid" title="Benzoic acid">benzoic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benzyl_alcohol" title="Benzyl alcohol">benzyl alcohol</a> are produced—a phenomenon known today as the <a href="/wiki/Cannizzaro_reaction" title="Cannizzaro reaction">Cannizzaro reaction</a>. In his 1858 pamphlet, Cannizzaro showed that a complete return to the ideas of Avogadro could be used to construct a consistent and robust theoretical structure that fit nearly all of the available empirical evidence. For instance, he pointed to evidence that suggested that not all elementary gases consist of two atoms per molecule—some were <a href="/wiki/Monatomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monatomic">monatomic</a>, most were <a href="/wiki/Diatomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatomic">diatomic</a>, and a few were even more complex. </p><p>Another point of contention had been the formulas for compounds of the <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali metals</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">alkaline earth metals</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>), which, in view of their striking chemical analogies, most chemists had wanted to assign to the same formula type. Cannizzaro argued that placing these metals in different categories had the beneficial result of eliminating certain anomalies when using their physical properties to deduce atomic weights. Unfortunately, Cannizzaro's pamphlet was published initially only in Italian and had little immediate impact. The real breakthrough came with an <a href="/wiki/Karlsruhe_Congress" title="Karlsruhe Congress">international chemical congress</a> held in the German town of <a href="/wiki/Karlsruhe" title="Karlsruhe">Karlsruhe</a> in September 1860, at which most of the leading European chemists were present. The Karlsruhe Congress had been arranged by Kekulé, Wurtz, and a few others who shared Cannizzaro's sense of the direction chemistry should go. Speaking in French (as everyone there did), Cannizzaro's eloquence and logic made an indelible impression on the assembled body. Moreover, his friend Angelo Pavesi distributed Cannizzaro's pamphlet to attendees at the end of the meeting; more than one chemist later wrote of the decisive impression the reading of this document provided. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Lothar_Meyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Lothar Meyer">Lothar Meyer</a> later wrote that on reading Cannizzaro's paper, "The scales seemed to fall from my eyes."<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cannizzaro thus played a crucial role in winning the battle for reform. The system advocated by him, and soon thereafter adopted by most leading chemists, is substantially identical to what is still used today. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perkin,_Crookes,_and_Nobel"><span id="Perkin.2C_Crookes.2C_and_Nobel"></span>Perkin, Crookes, and Nobel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Perkin, Crookes, and Nobel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1856, Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Perkin" title="William Henry Perkin">William Henry Perkin</a>, age 18, given a challenge by his professor, <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_von_Hofmann" title="August Wilhelm von Hofmann">August Wilhelm von Hofmann</a>, sought to synthesize <a href="/wiki/Quinine_total_synthesis" title="Quinine total synthesis">quinine</a>, the anti-<a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> drug, from <a href="/wiki/Coal_tar" title="Coal tar">coal tar</a>. In one attempt, Perkin <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidized</a> aniline using <a href="/wiki/Potassium_dichromate" title="Potassium dichromate">potassium dichromate</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Toluidine" title="Toluidine">toluidine</a> impurities reacted with the aniline and yielded a black solid—suggesting a "failed" organic synthesis. Cleaning the flask with alcohol, Perkin noticed purple portions of the solution: a byproduct of the attempt was the first synthetic dye, known as <a href="/wiki/Mauveine" title="Mauveine">mauveine</a> or Perkin's mauve. Perkin's discovery is the foundation of the dye synthesis industry, one of the earliest successful chemical industries. </p><p>German chemist <a href="/wiki/August_Kekul%C3%A9" title="August Kekulé">August Kekulé von Stradonitz</a>'s most important single contribution was his structural theory of organic composition, outlined in two articles published in 1857 and 1858 and treated in great detail in the pages of his extraordinarily popular <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie</i></span> ("Textbook of Organic Chemistry"), the first installment of which appeared in 1859 and gradually extended to four volumes. Kekulé argued that tetravalent <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> atoms – that is, carbon forming exactly four <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bonds</a> – could link together to form what he called a "carbon chain" or a "carbon skeleton," to which other atoms with other valences (such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and chlorine) could join. He was convinced that it was possible for the chemist to specify this detailed molecular architecture for at least the simpler organic compounds known in his day. Kekulé was not the only chemist to make such claims in this era. The Scottish chemist <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Scott_Couper" title="Archibald Scott Couper">Archibald Scott Couper</a> published a substantially similar theory nearly simultaneously, and the Russian chemist <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Butlerov" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleksandr Butlerov">Aleksandr Butlerov</a> did much to clarify and expand structure theory. However, it was predominantly Kekulé's ideas that prevailed in the chemical community. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crookes_tube_two_views.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Crookes_tube_two_views.jpg/240px-Crookes_tube_two_views.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Crookes_tube_two_views.jpg/360px-Crookes_tube_two_views.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Crookes_tube_two_views.jpg/480px-Crookes_tube_two_views.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2022" data-file-height="2115" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Crookes_tube" title="Crookes tube">Crookes tube</a> (two views): light and dark. Electrons travel in straight lines from the <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a> (left), as evidenced by the shadow cast from the <a href="/wiki/Maltese_cross" title="Maltese cross">Maltese cross</a> on the fluorescence of the righthand end. The anode is at the bottom wire.</figcaption></figure> <p>British chemist and physicist <a href="/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a> is noted for his <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray" title="Cathode ray">cathode ray</a> studies, fundamental in the development of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">atomic physics</a>. His researches on electrical discharges through a rarefied gas led him to observe the dark space around the cathode, now called the Crookes dark space. He demonstrated that cathode rays travel in straight lines and produce phosphorescence and heat when they strike certain materials. A pioneer of vacuum tubes, Crookes invented the <a href="/wiki/Crookes_tube" title="Crookes tube">Crookes tube</a> – an early experimental discharge tube, with partial vacuum with which he studied the behavior of cathode rays. With the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectrum analysis</a> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bunsen" title="Robert Bunsen">Robert Bunsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Gustav Kirchhoff</a> (1859–1860), Crookes applied the new technique to the study of <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a> compounds. Bunsen and Kirchhoff had previously used spectroscopy as a means of chemical analysis to discover <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">rubidium</a>. In 1861, Crookes used this process to discover <a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">thallium</a> in some seleniferous deposits. He continued work on that new element, isolated it, studied its properties, and in 1873 determined its atomic weight. During his studies of thallium, Crookes discovered the principle of the <a href="/wiki/Crookes_radiometer" title="Crookes radiometer">Crookes radiometer</a>, a device that converts light radiation into rotary motion. The principle of this radiometer has found numerous applications in the development of sensitive measuring instruments. </p><p>In 1862, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Parkes" title="Alexander Parkes">Alexander Parkes</a> exhibited <a href="/wiki/Parkesine" class="mw-redirect" title="Parkesine">Parkesine</a>, one of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_polymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic polymer">synthetic polymers</a>, at the International Exhibition in London. This discovery formed the foundation of the modern <a href="/wiki/Plastics_industry" title="Plastics industry">plastics industry</a>. In 1864, <a href="/wiki/Cato_Maximilian_Guldberg" title="Cato Maximilian Guldberg">Cato Maximilian Guldberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Waage" title="Peter Waage">Peter Waage</a>, building on Claude Louis Berthollet's ideas, proposed the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_mass_action" title="Law of mass action">law of mass action</a>. In 1865, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Josef_Loschmidt" title="Johann Josef Loschmidt">Johann Josef Loschmidt</a> determined the number of molecules in a <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">mole</a>, later named <a href="/wiki/Avogadro_constant" title="Avogadro constant">Avogadro's number</a>. </p><p>In 1865, August Kekulé, based partially on the work of Loschmidt and others, established the structure of benzene as a six carbon ring with alternating single and <a href="/wiki/Double_bond" title="Double bond">double bonds</a>. Kekulé's novel proposal for benzene's cyclic structure was much contested but was never replaced by a superior theory. This theory provided the scientific basis for the dramatic expansion of the German chemical industry in the last third of the 19th century. Kekulé is also famous for having clarified the nature of aromatic compounds, which are compounds based on the benzene molecule. In 1865, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_von_Baeyer" title="Adolf von Baeyer">Adolf von Baeyer</a> began work on <a href="/wiki/Indigo_dye" title="Indigo dye">indigo dye</a>, a milestone in modern industrial organic chemistry which revolutionized the dye industry. </p><p>Swedish chemist and inventor <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Nobel" title="Alfred Nobel">Alfred Nobel</a> found that when <a href="/wiki/Nitroglycerin" title="Nitroglycerin">nitroglycerin</a> was incorporated in an absorbent inert substance like <i>kieselguhr</i> (<a href="/wiki/Diatomaceous_earth" title="Diatomaceous earth">diatomaceous earth</a>) it became safer and more convenient to handle, and this mixture he patented in 1867 as <a href="/wiki/Dynamite" title="Dynamite">dynamite</a>. Nobel later on combined nitroglycerin with various nitrocellulose compounds, similar to <a href="/wiki/Collodion" title="Collodion">collodion</a>, but settled on a more efficient recipe combining another nitrate explosive, and obtained a transparent, jelly-like substance, which was a more powerful explosive than dynamite. <a href="/wiki/Gelignite" title="Gelignite">Gelignite</a>, or blasting gelatin, as it was named, was patented in 1876; and was followed by a host of similar combinations, modified by the addition of <a href="/wiki/Potassium_nitrate" title="Potassium nitrate">potassium nitrate</a> and various other substances. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mendeleev's_periodic_table"><span id="Mendeleev.27s_periodic_table"></span>Mendeleev's periodic table</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Mendeleev's periodic table"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_periodic_table" title="History of the periodic table">History of the periodic table</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EB%93%9C%EB%AF%B8%ED%8A%B8%EB%A6%AC_%EB%A9%98%EB%8D%B8%EB%A0%88%EC%98%88%ED%94%84.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/%EB%93%9C%EB%AF%B8%ED%8A%B8%EB%A6%AC_%EB%A9%98%EB%8D%B8%EB%A0%88%EC%98%88%ED%94%84.jpg/216px-%EB%93%9C%EB%AF%B8%ED%8A%B8%EB%A6%AC_%EB%A9%98%EB%8D%B8%EB%A0%88%EC%98%88%ED%94%84.jpg" decoding="async" width="216" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/%EB%93%9C%EB%AF%B8%ED%8A%B8%EB%A6%AC_%EB%A9%98%EB%8D%B8%EB%A0%88%EC%98%88%ED%94%84.jpg/325px-%EB%93%9C%EB%AF%B8%ED%8A%B8%EB%A6%AC_%EB%A9%98%EB%8D%B8%EB%A0%88%EC%98%88%ED%94%84.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/%EB%93%9C%EB%AF%B8%ED%8A%B8%EB%A6%AC_%EB%A9%98%EB%8D%B8%EB%A0%88%EC%98%88%ED%94%84.jpg/433px-%EB%93%9C%EB%AF%B8%ED%8A%B8%EB%A6%AC_%EB%A9%98%EB%8D%B8%EB%A0%88%EC%98%88%ED%94%84.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1453" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a>, responsible for organizing the known chemical elements in a <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a></figcaption></figure> <p>An important breakthrough in making sense of the list of known chemical elements (as well as in understanding the internal structure of atoms) was <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a>'s development of the first modern <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>, or the periodic classification of the elements. Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, felt that there was some type of order to the elements and he spent more than thirteen years of his life collecting data and assembling the concept, initially with the idea of resolving some of the disorder in the field for his students. Mendeleev found that, when all the known chemical elements were arranged in order of increasing atomic weight, the resulting table displayed a recurring pattern, or periodicity, of properties within groups of elements. Mendeleev's law allowed him to build up a systematic periodic table of all the 66 elements then known based on atomic mass, which he published in <i>Principles of Chemistry</i> in 1869. His first Periodic Table was compiled on the basis of arranging the elements in ascending order of atomic weight and grouping them by similarity of properties. </p><p>Mendeleev had such faith in the validity of the periodic law that he proposed changes to the generally accepted values for the atomic weight of a few elements and, in his version of the periodic table of 1871, predicted the locations within the table of unknown elements together with their properties. He even predicted the likely properties of three yet-to-be-discovered elements, which he called <a href="/wiki/Mendeleev%27s_predicted_elements" title="Mendeleev's predicted elements">ekaboron (Eb), ekaaluminium (Ea), and ekasilicon (Es)</a>, which proved to be good predictors of the properties of <a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">scandium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">gallium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>, respectively, which each fill the spot in the periodic table assigned by Mendeleev. </p><p>At first the periodic system did not raise interest among chemists. However, with the discovery of the predicted elements, notably gallium in 1875, scandium in 1879, and germanium in 1886, it began to win wide acceptance. The subsequent proof of many of his predictions within his lifetime brought fame to Mendeleev as the founder of the periodic law. This organization surpassed earlier attempts at classification by <a href="/wiki/Alexandre-%C3%89mile_B%C3%A9guyer_de_Chancourtois" title="Alexandre-Émile Béguyer de Chancourtois">Alexandre-Émile Béguyer de Chancourtois</a>, who published the telluric helix, an early, three-dimensional version of the periodic table of the elements in 1862, <a href="/wiki/John_Alexander_Reina_Newlands" class="mw-redirect" title="John Alexander Reina Newlands">John Newlands</a>, who proposed the law of octaves (a precursor to the periodic law) in 1864, and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Lothar_Meyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Lothar Meyer">Lothar Meyer</a>, who developed an early version of the periodic table with 28 elements organized by <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">valence</a> in 1864. Mendeleev's table did not include any of the <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gases</a>, however, which had not yet been discovered. Gradually the periodic law and table became the framework for a great part of chemical theory. By the time Mendeleev died in 1907, he enjoyed international recognition and had received distinctions and awards from many countries. </p><p>In 1873, <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Henricus_van_%27t_Hoff" title="Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff">Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Achille_Le_Bel" title="Joseph Achille Le Bel">Joseph Achille Le Bel</a>, working independently, developed a model of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical bonds">chemical bonding</a> that explained the chirality experiments of Pasteur and provided a physical cause for <a href="/wiki/Optical_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical activity">optical activity</a> in chiral compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> van 't Hoff's publication, called <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">Voorstel tot Uitbreiding der Tegenwoordige in de Scheikunde gebruikte Structuurformules in de Ruimte</i></span>, etc. (Proposal for the development of 3-dimensional chemical structural formulae) and consisting of twelve pages of text and one page of diagrams, gave the impetus to the development of <a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">stereochemistry</a>. The concept of the "asymmetrical carbon atom", dealt with in this publication, supplied an explanation of the occurrence of numerous isomers, inexplicable by means of the then current structural formulae. At the same time he pointed out the existence of relationship between optical activity and the presence of an asymmetrical carbon atom. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Josiah_Willard_Gibbs">Josiah Willard Gibbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Josiah Willard Gibbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Josiah Willard Gibbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical mechanics</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Josiah_Willard_Gibbs_-from_MMS-.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs_-from_MMS-.jpg/250px-Josiah_Willard_Gibbs_-from_MMS-.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs_-from_MMS-.jpg/375px-Josiah_Willard_Gibbs_-from_MMS-.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs_-from_MMS-.jpg/500px-Josiah_Willard_Gibbs_-from_MMS-.jpg 2x" data-file-width="888" data-file-height="1184" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">J. Willard Gibbs</a> formulated a concept of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">thermodynamic equilibrium</a> of a system in terms of energy and entropy. He also did extensive work on chemical equilibrium, and equilibria between phases.</figcaption></figure> <p>American mathematical physicist <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">J. Willard Gibbs</a>'s work on the applications of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> was instrumental in transforming <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a> into a rigorous deductive science. During the years from 1876 to 1878, Gibbs worked on the principles of thermodynamics, applying them to the complex processes involved in chemical reactions. He discovered the concept of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_potential" title="Chemical potential">chemical potential</a>, or the "fuel" that makes chemical reactions work. In 1876 he published his most famous contribution, "<a href="/wiki/On_the_Equilibrium_of_Heterogeneous_Substances" title="On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances">On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances</a>", a compilation of his work on thermodynamics and physical chemistry which laid out the concept of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">free energy</a> to explain the physical basis of chemical equilibria.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these essays were the beginnings of Gibbs' theories of phases of matter: he considered each state of matter a phase, and each substance a component. Gibbs took all of the variables involved in a chemical reaction – temperature, pressure, energy, volume, and entropy – and included them in one simple equation known as <a href="/wiki/Gibbs%27_phase_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Gibbs' phase rule">Gibbs' phase rule</a>. </p><p>Within this paper was perhaps his most outstanding contribution, the introduction of the concept of free energy, now universally called <a href="/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy" title="Gibbs free energy">Gibbs free energy</a> in his honor. The Gibbs free energy relates the tendency of a physical or chemical system to simultaneously lower its energy and increase its disorder, or <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a>, in a spontaneous natural process. Gibbs's approach allows a researcher to calculate the change in free energy in the process, such as in a chemical reaction, and how fast it will happen. Since virtually all chemical processes and many physical ones involve such changes, his work has significantly impacted both the theoretical and experiential aspects of these sciences. In 1877, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann" title="Ludwig Boltzmann">Ludwig Boltzmann</a> established statistical derivations of many important physical and chemical concepts, including <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a>, and distributions of molecular velocities in the gas phase.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together with Boltzmann and <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a>, Gibbs created a new branch of theoretical physics called <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a> (a term that he coined), explaining the laws of thermodynamics as consequences of the statistical properties of large ensembles of particles. Gibbs also worked on the application of Maxwell's equations to problems in physical optics. Gibbs's derivation of the phenomenological laws of thermodynamics from the statistical properties of systems with many particles was presented in his highly influential textbook <i><a href="/wiki/Elementary_Principles_in_Statistical_Mechanics" title="Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics">Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics</a></i>, published in 1902, a year before his death. In that work, Gibbs reviewed the relationship between the laws of thermodynamics and the statistical theory of molecular motions. The overshooting of the original function by partial sums of <a href="/wiki/Fourier_series" title="Fourier series">Fourier series</a> at points of discontinuity is known as the <a href="/wiki/Gibbs_phenomenon" title="Gibbs phenomenon">Gibbs phenomenon</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_19th_century">Late 19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Late 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carl_von_Linde_and_the_modern_chemical_process">Carl von Linde and the modern chemical process</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Carl von Linde and the modern chemical process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_von_Linde_1868.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Carl_von_Linde_1868.jpg/160px-Carl_von_Linde_1868.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Carl_von_Linde_1868.jpg/240px-Carl_von_Linde_1868.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Carl_von_Linde_1868.jpg/320px-Carl_von_Linde_1868.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="1535" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Carl_von_Linde" title="Carl von Linde">Carl von Linde</a>, father of the industrial gas industry and modern refrigiation<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>German engineer <a href="/wiki/Carl_von_Linde" title="Carl von Linde">Carl von Linde</a>'s invention of a continuous process of liquefying gases in large quantities formed a basis for the modern technology of <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a> and provided both impetus and means for conducting scientific research at low temperatures and very high vacuums. He developed a <a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_ether" title="Dimethyl ether">dimethyl ether</a> refrigerator (1874) and an ammonia refrigerator (1876). Though other refrigeration units had been developed earlier, Linde's were the first to be designed with the aim of precise calculations of efficiency. In 1895 he set up a large-scale plant for the production of liquid air. Six years later he developed a method for separating pure liquid oxygen from liquid air that resulted in widespread industrial conversion to processes utilizing oxygen (e.g., in <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> manufacture). He founded the Linde plc, the world's largest <a href="/wiki/Industrial_gas" title="Industrial gas">industrial gas</a> company by market share and revenue. </p><p>In 1883, <a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a> developed an <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a> theory to explain conductivity in <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1884, <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Henricus_van_%27t_Hoff" title="Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff">Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff</a> published <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Études de Dynamique chimique</i></span> (Studies in Dynamic Chemistry), a seminal study on <a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">chemical kinetics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this work, van 't Hoff entered for the first time the field of physical chemistry. Of great importance was his development of the general thermodynamic relationship between the heat of conversion and the displacement of the equilibrium as a result of temperature variation. At constant volume, the equilibrium in a system will tend to shift in such a direction as to oppose the temperature change which is imposed upon the system. Thus, lowering the temperature results in heat development while increasing the temperature results in heat absorption. This principle of mobile equilibrium was subsequently (1885) put in a general form by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Le_Chatelier" title="Henry Louis Le Chatelier">Henry Louis Le Chatelier</a>, who extended the principle to include compensation, by change of volume, for imposed pressure changes. The van 't Hoff-Le Chatelier principle, or simply <a href="/wiki/Le_Chatelier%27s_principle" title="Le Chatelier's principle">Le Chatelier's principle</a>, explains the response of <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_equilibrium" title="Dynamic equilibrium">dynamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">chemical equilibria</a> to external stresses.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1884, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Emil_Fischer" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermann Emil Fischer">Hermann Emil Fischer</a> proposed the structure of <a href="/wiki/Purine" title="Purine">purine</a>, a key structure in many biomolecules, which he later synthesized in 1898. He also began work on the chemistry of <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and related <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1885, <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Goldstein" title="Eugen Goldstein">Eugen Goldstein</a> named the <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray" title="Cathode ray">cathode ray</a>, later discovered to be composed of electrons, and the <a href="/wiki/Canal_ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Canal ray">canal ray</a>, later discovered to be positive hydrogen ions that had been stripped of their electrons in a <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tube</a>; these would later be named <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The year 1885 also saw the publishing of J. H. van 't Hoff's <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">L'Équilibre chimique dans les Systèmes gazeux ou dissous à I'État dilué</i></span> (Chemical equilibria in gaseous systems or strongly diluted solutions), which dealt with this theory of dilute solutions. Here he demonstrated that the "<a href="/wiki/Osmotic_pressure" title="Osmotic pressure">osmotic pressure</a>" in solutions which are sufficiently dilute is proportionate to the <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a> and the absolute temperature so that this pressure can be represented by a formula that only deviates from the formula for gas pressure by a coefficient <b>i</b>. He also determined the value of <i>i</i> by various methods, for example by means of the <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Raoult" title="François-Marie Raoult">François-Marie Raoult</a>'s results on the lowering of the freezing point. Thus van 't Hoff was able to prove that thermodynamic laws are not only valid for gases, but also for dilute solutions. His pressure laws, given general validity by the electrolytic dissociation theory of Arrhenius (1884–1887) – the first foreigner who came to work with him in Amsterdam (1888) – are considered the most comprehensive and important in the realm of natural sciences. In 1893, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Werner" title="Alfred Werner">Alfred Werner</a> discovered the octahedral structure of cobalt complexes, thus establishing the field of <a href="/wiki/Coordination_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordination chemistry">coordination chemistry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ramsay's_discovery_of_the_noble_gases"><span id="Ramsay.27s_discovery_of_the_noble_gases"></span>Ramsay's discovery of the noble gases</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Ramsay's discovery of the noble gases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/William_Ramsay" title="William Ramsay">William Ramsay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">Noble gas</a></div> <p>The most celebrated discoveries of Scottish chemist <a href="/wiki/William_Ramsay" title="William Ramsay">William Ramsay</a> were made in inorganic chemistry. Ramsay was intrigued by the British physicist <a href="/wiki/John_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" class="mw-redirect" title="John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh</a>'s 1892 discovery that the atomic weight of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> found in chemical compounds was lower than that of nitrogen found in the atmosphere. He ascribed this discrepancy to a light gas included in chemical compounds of nitrogen, while Ramsay suspected a hitherto undiscovered heavy gas in atmospheric nitrogen. Using two different methods to remove all known gases from air, Ramsay and Lord Rayleigh were able to announce in 1894 that they had found a monatomic, chemically inert gaseous element that constituted nearly 1 percent of the atmosphere; they named it <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J.J_Thomson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg/160px-J.J_Thomson.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg/240px-J.J_Thomson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg/320px-J.J_Thomson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1563" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J.J._Thomson" class="mw-redirect" title="J.J. Thomson">J.J. Thomson</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>The following year, Ramsay liberated another inert gas from a mineral called <a href="/wiki/Cleveite" title="Cleveite">cleveite</a>; this proved to be <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, previously known only in the solar spectrum. In his book <i>The Gases of the Atmosphere</i> (1896), Ramsay showed that the positions of helium and argon in the periodic table of elements indicated that at least three more noble gases might exist. In 1898 Ramsay and the British chemist <a href="/wiki/Morris_Travers" title="Morris Travers">Morris W. Travers</a> isolated these elements—called <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">krypton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">xenon</a>—from air and brought them to a liquid state at low temperature and high pressure. Sir William Ramsay worked with <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Frederick Soddy</a> to demonstrate, in 1903, that alpha particles (helium nuclei) were continually produced during the radioactive decay of a sample of radium. Ramsay was awarded the 1904 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Chemistry">Nobel Prize for Chemistry</a> in recognition of "services in the discovery of the inert gaseous elements in the air, and his determination of their place in the periodic system." </p><p>In 1897, <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tube</a>. In 1898, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wilhelm Wien</a> demonstrated that canal rays (streams of positive ions) can be deflected by magnetic fields and that the amount of deflection is proportional to the <a href="/wiki/Mass-to-charge_ratio" title="Mass-to-charge ratio">mass-to-charge ratio</a>. This discovery would lead to the <a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">analytical</a> technique known as <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrometry</a> in 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marie_and_Pierre_Curie">Marie and Pierre Curie</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Marie and Pierre Curie"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mariecurie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg/185px-Mariecurie.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg/278px-Mariecurie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg/370px-Mariecurie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1987" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>, a pioneer in the field of radioactivity and the first twice-honored Nobel laureate (and still the only one in two different sciences)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Skłodowska-Curie</a> was a Polish-born French physicist and chemist who is famous for her pioneering research on <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactivity</a>. She and her husband are considered to have laid the cornerstone of the nuclear age with their research on radioactivity. Marie was fascinated with the work of <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a>, a French physicist who discovered in 1896 that uranium casts off rays similar to the <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> discovered by <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Wilhelm Röntgen</a>. Marie Curie began studying uranium in late 1897 and theorized, according to a 1904 article she wrote for <i>Century</i> magazine, "that the emission of rays by the compounds of uranium is a property of the metal itself—that it is an atomic property of the element uranium independent of its chemical or physical state." Curie took Becquerel's work a few steps further, conducting her own experiments on uranium rays. She discovered that the rays remained constant, no matter the condition or form of the uranium. The rays, she theorized, came from the element's atomic structure. This revolutionary idea created the field of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">atomic physics</a> and the Curies coined the word <i>radioactivity</i> to describe the phenomenon. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierre_Curie_by_Dujardin_c1906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Pierre_Curie_by_Dujardin_c1906.jpg/185px-Pierre_Curie_by_Dujardin_c1906.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Pierre_Curie_by_Dujardin_c1906.jpg/278px-Pierre_Curie_by_Dujardin_c1906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Pierre_Curie_by_Dujardin_c1906.jpg/370px-Pierre_Curie_by_Dujardin_c1906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="979" data-file-height="1380" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a>, known for his work on radioactivity as well as on <a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">ferromagnetism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paramagnetism" title="Paramagnetism">paramagnetism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diamagnetism" title="Diamagnetism">diamagnetism</a>; notably <a href="/wiki/Curie%27s_law" title="Curie's law">Curie's law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Curie_temperature" title="Curie temperature">Curie point</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Pierre and Marie further explored radioactivity by working to separate the substances in uranium ores and then using the <a href="/wiki/Electrometer" title="Electrometer">electrometer</a> to make radiation measurements to 'trace' the minute amount of unknown radioactive element among the fractions that resulted. Working with the mineral <a href="/wiki/Uraninite" title="Uraninite">pitchblende</a>, the pair discovered a new radioactive element in 1898. They named the element <a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">polonium</a>, after Marie's native country of Poland. On December 21, 1898, the Curies detected the presence of another radioactive material in the pitchblende. They presented this finding to the <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">French Academy of Sciences</a> on December 26, proposing that the new element be called <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>. The Curies then went to work isolating polonium and radium from naturally occurring compounds to prove that they were new elements. In 1902, the Curies announced that they had produced a decigram of pure radium, demonstrating its existence as a unique chemical element. While it took three years for them to isolate radium, they were never able to isolate polonium. Along with the discovery of two new elements and finding techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes, Curie oversaw the world's first studies into the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">neoplasms</a>, using radioactive isotopes. With Henri Becquerel and her husband, Pierre Curie, she was awarded the 1903 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Physics">Nobel Prize for Physics</a>. She was the sole winner of the 1911 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Chemistry">Nobel Prize for Chemistry</a>. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, and she is the only woman to win the award in two different fields. </p><p>While working with Marie to extract pure substances from ores, an undertaking that really required industrial resources but that they achieved in relatively primitive conditions, Pierre himself concentrated on the physical study (including luminous and chemical effects) of the new radiations. Through the action of magnetic fields on the rays given out by the radium, he proved the existence of particles that were electrically positive, negative, and neutral; these <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> was afterward to call alpha, beta, and gamma rays. Pierre then studied these radiations by <a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">calorimetry</a> and also observed the physiological effects of radium, thus opening the way to radium therapy. Among Pierre Curie's discoveries were that ferromagnetic substances exhibited a critical temperature transition, above which the substances lost their ferromagnetic behavior – this is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Curie_temperature" title="Curie temperature">Curie point</a>." He was elected to the Academy of Sciences (1905), having in 1903 jointly with Marie received the Royal Society's prestigious Davy Medal and jointly with her and Becquerel the Nobel Prize for Physics. He was run over by a carriage in the <a href="/wiki/Rue_Dauphine" title="Rue Dauphine">rue Dauphine</a> in Paris in 1906 and died instantly. His complete works were published in 1908. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ernest_Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Ernest Rutherford"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ernest_Rutherford_1908.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Ernest_Rutherford_1908.jpg/200px-Ernest_Rutherford_1908.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Ernest_Rutherford_1908.jpg/300px-Ernest_Rutherford_1908.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Ernest_Rutherford_1908.jpg/400px-Ernest_Rutherford_1908.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3227" data-file-height="4288" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a>, discoverer of the nucleus and considered the father of nuclear physics</figcaption></figure> <p>New Zealand-born chemist and physicist <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> is considered to be "the father of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>." Rutherford is best known for devising the names <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma</a> to classify various forms of radioactive "rays" which were poorly understood at his time (alpha and beta rays are particle beams, while gamma rays are a form of high-energy <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>). Rutherford deflected alpha rays with both electric and magnetic fields in 1903. Working with <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Frederick Soddy</a>, Rutherford explained that <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> is due to the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmutation</a> of elements, now known to involve <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear reactions">nuclear reactions</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg/150px-Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg/225px-Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg/300px-Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>Top: Predicted results based on the then-accepted plum pudding model of the atom. Bottom: Observed results. Rutherford disproved the plum pudding model and concluded that the positive charge of the atom must be concentrated in a small, central nucleus.</figcaption></figure> <p>He also observed that the intensity of radioactivity of a radioactive element decreases over a unique and regular amount of time until a point of stability, and he named the halving time the "<a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a>". In 1901 and 1902 he worked with Frederick Soddy to prove that atoms of one radioactive element would spontaneously turn into another, by expelling a piece of the atom at high velocity. In 1906 at the University of Manchester, Rutherford oversaw an experiment conducted by his students <a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Hans Geiger</a> (known for the <a href="/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">Geiger counter</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Marsden" title="Ernest Marsden">Ernest Marsden</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93Marsden_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Geiger–Marsden experiment">Geiger–Marsden experiment</a>, a beam of alpha particles, generated by the radioactive decay of <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a>, was directed normally onto a sheet of very thin gold foil in an evacuated chamber. Under the prevailing <a href="/wiki/Plum_pudding_model" title="Plum pudding model">plum pudding model</a>, the alpha particles should all have passed through the foil and hit the detector screen, or have been deflected by, at most, a few degrees. </p><p>However, the actual results surprised Rutherford. Although many of the alpha particles did pass through as expected, many others were deflected at small angles while others were reflected back to the alpha source. They observed that a very small percentage of particles were deflected through angles much larger than 90 degrees. The gold foil experiment showed large deflections for a small fraction of incident particles. Rutherford realized that, because some of the alpha particles were deflected or reflected, the atom had a concentrated centre of positive charge and of relatively large mass – Rutherford later termed this positive center the "<a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>". The alpha particles had either hit the positive centre directly or passed by it close enough to be affected by its positive charge. Since many other particles passed through the gold foil, the positive centre would have to be a relatively small size compared to the rest of the atom – meaning that the atom is mostly open space. From his results, Rutherford developed a model of the atom that was similar to the solar system, known as the <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_model" title="Rutherford model">Rutherford model</a>. Like planets, electrons orbited a central, sun-like nucleus. For his work with radiation and the atomic nucleus, Rutherford received the 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1911_Solvay_conference.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/1911_Solvay_conference.jpg/270px-1911_Solvay_conference.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/1911_Solvay_conference.jpg/405px-1911_Solvay_conference.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/1911_Solvay_conference.jpg/540px-1911_Solvay_conference.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1362" /></a><figcaption>The first <a href="/wiki/Solvay_Conference" title="Solvay Conference">Solvay Conference</a> was held in <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> in 1911 and was considered a turning point in the world of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and chemistry.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1903, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Tsvet" title="Mikhail Tsvet">Mikhail Tsvet</a> invented <a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">chromatography</a>, an important analytic technique. In 1904, <a href="/wiki/Hantaro_Nagaoka" title="Hantaro Nagaoka">Hantaro Nagaoka</a> proposed an early nuclear model of the atom, where electrons orbit a dense massive nucleus. In 1905, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Bosch" title="Carl Bosch">Carl Bosch</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Haber_process" title="Haber process">Haber process</a> for making <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, a milestone in industrial chemistry with deep consequences in agriculture. The Haber process, or Haber–Bosch process, combined <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> to form ammonia in industrial quantities for the production of fertilizer and munitions. The food production for half the world's current population depends on this method for producing fertilizer. Haber, along with <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a>, proposed the <a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Haber_cycle" title="Born–Haber cycle">Born–Haber cycle</a> as a method for evaluating the lattice energy of an ionic solid. Haber has also been described as the "father of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">chemical warfare</a>" for his work developing and deploying chlorine and other poisonous gases during World War I. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Millikan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Millikan.jpg/150px-Millikan.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Millikan.jpg/225px-Millikan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Millikan.jpg/300px-Millikan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1692" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Robert A. Millikan</a>, who is best known for measuring the charge on the electron, won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1923.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1905, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> explained <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a> in a way that definitively proved atomic theory. <a href="/wiki/Leo_Baekeland" title="Leo Baekeland">Leo Baekeland</a> invented <a href="/wiki/Bakelite" title="Bakelite">bakelite</a>, one of the first commercially successful plastics. In 1909, American physicist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Robert Andrews Millikan</a> – who had studied in Europe under <a href="/wiki/Walther_Nernst" title="Walther Nernst">Walther Nernst</a> and <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a> – measured the charge of individual electrons with unprecedented accuracy through the <a href="/wiki/Oil_drop_experiment" title="Oil drop experiment">oil drop experiment</a>, in which he measured the electric charges on tiny falling water (and later oil) droplets. His study established that any particular droplet's electrical charge is a multiple of a definite, fundamental value—the electron's charge—and thus a confirmation that all electrons have the same charge and mass. Beginning in 1912, he spent several years investigating and finally proving Albert Einstein's proposed linear relationship between energy and frequency, and providing the first direct <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric</a> support for the <a href="/wiki/Planck_constant" title="Planck constant">Planck constant</a>. In 1923 Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics. </p><p>In 1909, <a href="/wiki/S._P._L._S%C3%B8rensen" title="S. P. L. Sørensen">S. P. L. Sørensen</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> concept and developed methods for measuring acidity. In 1911, <a href="/wiki/Antonius_Van_den_Broek" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonius Van den Broek">Antonius Van den Broek</a> proposed the idea that the elements on the periodic table are more properly organized by positive nuclear charge rather than atomic weight. In 1911, the first <a href="/wiki/Solvay_Conference" title="Solvay Conference">Solvay Conference</a> was held in Brussels, bringing together most of the most prominent scientists of the day. In 1912, <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">William Henry Bragg</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Lawrence_Bragg" class="mw-redirect" title="William Lawrence Bragg">William Lawrence Bragg</a> proposed <a href="/wiki/Bragg%27s_law" title="Bragg's law">Bragg's law</a> and established the field of <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">X-ray crystallography</a>, an important tool for elucidating the crystal structure of substances. In 1912, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a> used the concept of a molecular dipole to describe asymmetric charge distribution in some molecules. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Otto_Hahn">Otto Hahn</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Otto Hahn"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Otto_Hahn_1970.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Otto_Hahn_1970.jpg/200px-Otto_Hahn_1970.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Otto_Hahn_1970.jpg/300px-Otto_Hahn_1970.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Otto_Hahn_1970.jpg/400px-Otto_Hahn_1970.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1157" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a>, father of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">nuclear chemistry</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> was a German <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</a> and a pioneer in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">radiochemistry</a>. He played a leading role in the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> and established <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">nuclear chemistry</a> as a scientic field. Hahn, <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Fritz Strassmann</a> discovered radioactive <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_radium" title="Isotopes of radium">isotopes of radium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_thorium" title="Isotopes of thorium">thorium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_protactinium" title="Isotopes of protactinium">protactinium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_uranium" title="Isotopes of uranium">uranium</a>. He also discovered the phenomena of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_recoil" title="Atomic recoil">atomic recoil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear isomerism">nuclear isomerism</a>, and pioneered <a href="/wiki/Rubidium%E2%80%93strontium_dating" title="Rubidium–strontium dating">rubidium–strontium dating</a>. In 1938, Hahn, Meitner and Strassmann <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_nuclear_fission" title="Discovery of nuclear fission">discovered nuclear fission</a>. In their second publication on nuclear fission in February 1939, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process, opening up the possibility of a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a>. Hahn received the 1944 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Chemistry">Nobel Prize for Chemistry</a> for the discoveries. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a> was the basis for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Niels_Bohr">Niels Bohr</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Niels Bohr"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niels_Bohr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg/200px-Niels_Bohr.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg/300px-Niels_Bohr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg/400px-Niels_Bohr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1456" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, the developer of the <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">Bohr model</a> of the atom, and a leading founder of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">Bohr model</a></div> <p>In 1913, <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, a Danish physicist, introduced the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> to atomic structure by proposing what is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">Bohr model</a> of the atom, where electrons exist only in strictly defined circular orbits around the nucleus similar to rungs on a ladder. The Bohr Model is a planetary model in which the negatively charged electrons orbit a small, positively charged nucleus similar to the planets orbiting the Sun (except that the orbits are not planar) – the gravitational force of the solar system is mathematically akin to the attractive Coulomb (electrical) force between the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons. </p><p>In the Bohr model, however, electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that have a set size and energy – the energy levels are said to be <i>quantized</i>, which means that only certain orbits with certain radii are allowed; orbits in between simply do not exist. The energy of the orbit is related to its size – that is, the lowest energy is found in the smallest orbit. Bohr also postulated that electromagnetic radiation is absorbed or emitted when an electron moves from one orbit to another. Because only certain electron orbits are permitted, the emission of light accompanying a jump of an electron from an excited energy state to ground state produces a unique <a href="/wiki/Emission_spectrum" title="Emission spectrum">emission spectrum</a> for each element. Bohr later received the Nobel Prize in physics for this work. </p><p>Niels Bohr also worked on the principle of <a href="/wiki/Complementarity_(physics)" title="Complementarity (physics)">complementarity</a>, which states that an electron can be interpreted in two mutually exclusive and valid ways. Electrons can be interpreted as wave or particle models. His hypothesis was that an incoming particle would strike the nucleus and create an excited compound nucleus. This formed the basis of his <a href="/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula" title="Semi-empirical mass formula">liquid drop model</a> and later provided a theory base for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> after its <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_nuclear_fission" title="Discovery of nuclear fission">discovery</a> by chemists <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassman" class="mw-redirect" title="Fritz Strassman">Fritz Strassman</a>, and explanation and naming by physicists <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Frisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Frisch">Otto Frisch</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moseley_step_ladder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Moseley_step_ladder.jpg/220px-Moseley_step_ladder.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Moseley_step_ladder.jpg/330px-Moseley_step_ladder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Moseley_step_ladder.jpg/440px-Moseley_step_ladder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1363" data-file-height="1750" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Moseley%27s_law" title="Moseley's law">Moseley's Staircase</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1913, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moseley" title="Henry Moseley">Henry Moseley</a>, working from Van den Broek's earlier idea, introduced the concept of atomic number to fix some inadequacies of Mendeleev's periodic table, which had been based on atomic weight. The peak of Frederick Soddy's career in radiochemistry was in 1913 with his formulation of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a>, which stated that certain elements exist in two or more forms which have different atomic weights but which are indistinguishable chemically. He is remembered for proving the existence of isotopes of certain radioactive elements, and is also credited, along with others, with the discovery of the element <a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">protactinium</a> in 1917. In 1913, J. J. Thomson expanded on the work of Wien by showing that charged subatomic particles can be separated by their mass-to-charge ratio, a technique known as <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrometry</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gilbert_N._Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Gilbert N. Lewis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a></div> <p>American physical chemist <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a> laid the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">valence bond theory</a>; he was instrumental in developing a bonding theory based on the number of electrons in the outermost "valence" shell of the atom. In 1902, while Lewis was trying to explain valence to his students, he depicted atoms as constructed of a concentric series of cubes with electrons at each corner. This "cubic atom" explained the eight groups in the periodic table and represented his idea that chemical bonds are formed by electron transference to give each atom a complete set of eight outer electrons (an "octet"). </p><p>Lewis's theory of chemical bonding continued to evolve and, in 1916, he published his seminal article "The Atom of the Molecule", which suggested that a chemical bond is a pair of electrons shared by two atoms. Lewis's model equated the classical <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bond</a> with the sharing of a pair of electrons between the two bonded atoms. Lewis introduced the "electron dot diagrams" in this paper to symbolize the electronic structures of atoms and molecules. Now known as <a href="/wiki/Lewis_structures" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis structures">Lewis structures</a>, they are discussed in virtually every introductory chemistry book. </p><p>Shortly after the publication of his 1916 paper, Lewis became involved with military research. He did not return to the subject of chemical bonding until 1923, when he masterfully summarized his model in a short monograph entitled Valence and the Structure of Atoms and Molecules. His renewal of interest in this subject was largely stimulated by the activities of the American chemist and General Electric researcher <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a>, who between 1919 and 1921 popularized and elaborated Lewis's model. Langmuir subsequently introduced the term <i><a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bond</a></i>. In 1921, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Stern" title="Otto Stern">Otto Stern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walther_Gerlach" title="Walther Gerlach">Walther Gerlach</a> established the concept of quantum mechanical spin in subatomic particles. </p><p>For cases where no sharing was involved, Lewis in 1923 developed the electron pair theory of <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">base</a>: Lewis redefined an acid as any atom or molecule with an incomplete octet that was thus capable of accepting electrons from another atom; bases were, of course, electron donors. His theory is known as the concept of <a href="/wiki/Lewis_acids_and_bases" title="Lewis acids and bases">Lewis acids and bases</a>. In 1923, G. N. Lewis and <a href="/wiki/Merle_Randall" title="Merle Randall">Merle Randall</a> published <i>Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances</i>, first modern treatise on chemical <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>. </p><p>The 1920s saw a rapid adoption and application of Lewis's model of the electron-pair bond in the fields of organic and coordination chemistry. In organic chemistry, this was primarily due to the efforts of the British chemists <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lapworth" title="Arthur Lapworth">Arthur Lapworth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Robinson_(organic_chemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Robinson (organic chemist)">Robert Robinson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Lowry" title="Martin Lowry">Thomas Lowry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ingold" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Ingold">Christopher Ingold</a>; while in coordination chemistry, Lewis's bonding model was promoted through the efforts of the American chemist <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Huggins" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurice Huggins">Maurice Huggins</a> and the British chemist <a href="/wiki/Nevil_Sidgwick" title="Nevil Sidgwick">Nevil Sidgwick</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantum_mechanics">Quantum mechanics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Quantum mechanics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Quantum mechanics in the 1920s</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Broglie_Big.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Broglie_Big.jpg/110px-Broglie_Big.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Broglie_Big.jpg/165px-Broglie_Big.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Broglie_Big.jpg/220px-Broglie_Big.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="381" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pauli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pauli.jpg/110px-Pauli.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pauli.jpg/165px-Pauli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pauli.jpg/220px-Pauli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger_(1933).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger_%281933%29.jpg/110px-Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger_%281933%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger_%281933%29.jpg/165px-Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger_%281933%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger_%281933%29.jpg/220px-Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger_%281933%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Werner_Heisenberg_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Werner_Heisenberg_cropped.jpg/110px-Werner_Heisenberg_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Werner_Heisenberg_cropped.jpg/165px-Werner_Heisenberg_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Werner_Heisenberg_cropped.jpg/220px-Werner_Heisenberg_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">From left to right, top row: <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a> (1892–1987) and <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> (1900–1958); second row: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a> (1887–1961) and <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> (1901–1976)</td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a></div> <p>In 1924, French quantum physicist <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a> published his thesis, in which he introduced a revolutionary theory of electron waves based on <a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">wave–particle duality</a>. In his time, the wave and particle interpretations of light and <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> were seen as being at odds with one another, but de Broglie suggested that these seemingly different characteristics were instead the same behavior observed from different perspectives—that particles can behave like waves, and waves (radiation) can behave like particles. Broglie's proposal offered an explanation of the restricted motion of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> within the atom. The first publications of Broglie's idea of "matter waves" had drawn little attention from other physicists, but a copy of his doctoral thesis chanced to reach Einstein, whose response was enthusiastic. Einstein stressed the importance of Broglie's work both explicitly and by building further on it. </p><p>In 1925, Austrian-born physicist <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a>, which states that no two electrons around a single nucleus in an atom can occupy the same <a href="/wiki/Quantum_state" title="Quantum state">quantum state</a> simultaneously, as described by four <a href="/wiki/Quantum_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum numbers">quantum numbers</a>. Pauli made major contributions to quantum mechanics and quantum field theory – he was awarded the 1945 Nobel Prize for Physics for his discovery of the Pauli exclusion principle – as well as solid-state physics, and he successfully hypothesized the existence of the <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a>. In addition to his original work, he wrote masterful syntheses of several areas of physical theory that are considered classics of scientific literature. </p> <div class="thumb tleft" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:-moz-fit-content; width:fit-content;"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:auto;"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H(t)|\psi (t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\psi (t)\rangle }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>H</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>ψ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>i</mi> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>d</mi> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mi>ψ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H(t)|\psi (t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\psi (t)\rangle }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f10236a69341ec8bdd1636861a7f77efcb5bb209" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:24.239ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H(t)|\psi (t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\psi (t)\rangle }"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a></div></div></div> <p>In 1926 at the age of 39, Austrian theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a> produced the papers that gave the foundations of quantum wave mechanics. In those papers he described his partial differential equation that is the basic equation of quantum mechanics and bears the same relation to the mechanics of the atom as <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's equations of motion</a> bear to planetary astronomy. Adopting a proposal made by Louis de Broglie in 1924 that particles of matter have a dual nature and in some situations act like waves, Schrödinger introduced a theory describing the behaviour of such a system by a wave equation that is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a>. The solutions to Schrödinger's equation, unlike the solutions to Newton's equations, are wave functions that can only be related to the probable occurrence of physical events. The readily visualized sequence of events of the planetary orbits of Newton is, in quantum mechanics, replaced by the more abstract notion of <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a>. (This aspect of the quantum theory made Schrödinger and several other physicists profoundly unhappy, and he devoted much of his later life to formulating philosophical objections to the generally accepted interpretation of the theory that he had done so much to create.) </p><p>German theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> was one of the key creators of quantum mechanics. In 1925, Heisenberg discovered a way to formulate quantum mechanics in terms of matrices. For that discovery, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for 1932. In 1927 he published his <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">uncertainty principle</a>, upon which he built his philosophy and for which he is best known. Heisenberg was able to demonstrate that if you were studying an electron in an atom you could say where it was (the electron's location) or where it was going (the electron's velocity), but it was impossible to express both at the same time. He also made important contributions to the theories of the <a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrodynamics">hydrodynamics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Turbulent_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbulent flow">turbulent flows</a>, the atomic nucleus, <a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">ferromagnetism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a>, and he was instrumental in planning the first West German <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> at <a href="/wiki/Karlsruhe" title="Karlsruhe">Karlsruhe</a>, together with a <a href="/wiki/Research_reactor" title="Research reactor">research reactor</a> in Munich, in 1957. Considerable controversy surrounds his work on atomic research during World War II. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantum_chemistry">Quantum chemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Quantum chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></div> <p>Some view the birth of quantum chemistry in the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a> and its application to the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_atom" title="Hydrogen atom">hydrogen atom</a> in 1926.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, the 1927 article of <a href="/wiki/Walter_Heitler" title="Walter Heitler">Walter Heitler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_London" title="Fritz London">Fritz London</a><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is often recognised as the first milestone in the history of quantum chemistry. This is the first application of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> to the diatomic <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> molecule, and thus to the phenomenon of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bond</a>. In the following years much progress was accomplished by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Mulliken" title="Robert S. Mulliken">Robert S. Mulliken</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erich_H%C3%BCckel" title="Erich Hückel">Erich Hückel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Hartree" title="Douglas Hartree">Douglas Hartree</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Aleksandrovich_Fock" class="mw-redirect" title="Vladimir Aleksandrovich Fock">Vladimir Aleksandrovich Fock</a>, to cite a few.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Still, skepticism remained as to the general power of quantum mechanics applied to complex chemical systems.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The situation around 1930 is described by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The underlying physical laws necessary for the mathematical theory of a large part of physics and the whole of chemistry are thus completely known, and the difficulty is only that the exact application of these laws leads to equations much too complicated to be soluble. It therefore becomes desirable that approximate practical methods of applying quantum mechanics should be developed, which can lead to an explanation of the main features of complex atomic systems without too much computation.</p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:305px;max-width:305px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Walter_heitler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/17/Walter_heitler.jpg/142px-Walter_heitler.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/17/Walter_heitler.jpg/213px-Walter_heitler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/17/Walter_heitler.jpg/284px-Walter_heitler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="681" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Heitler" title="Walter Heitler">Walter Heitler</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:157px;max-width:157px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:London,Fritz_1928_M%C3%BCnchen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/London%2CFritz_1928_M%C3%BCnchen.jpg/155px-London%2CFritz_1928_M%C3%BCnchen.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/London%2CFritz_1928_M%C3%BCnchen.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="225" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Fritz_London" title="Fritz London">Fritz London</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Hence the quantum mechanical methods developed in the 1930s and 1940s are often referred to as theoretical <a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">molecular</a> or <a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">atomic physics</a> to underline the fact that they were more the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry and <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> than answers to chemically relevant questions. In 1951, a milestone article in quantum chemistry is the seminal paper of <a href="/wiki/Clemens_C._J._Roothaan" title="Clemens C. J. Roothaan">Clemens C. J. Roothaan</a> on <a href="/wiki/Roothaan_equations" title="Roothaan equations">Roothaan equations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It opened the avenue to the solution of the <a href="/wiki/Self-consistent_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-consistent field">self-consistent field</a> equations for small molecules like <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>. Those computations were performed with the help of tables of integrals which were computed on the most advanced computers of the time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the 1940s many physicists turned from <a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">molecular</a> or <a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">atomic physics</a> to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a> (like <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> or <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>). <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> was an American nuclear chemist best known for his work on isolating and identifying <a href="/wiki/Transuranium_element" title="Transuranium element">transuranium elements</a> (those heavier than <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>). He shared the 1951 Nobel Prize for Chemistry with <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin Mattison McMillan</a> for their independent discoveries of transuranium elements. <a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">Seaborgium</a> was named in his honour, making him the only person, along with <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Oganessian" title="Yuri Oganessian">Yuri Oganessian</a>, for whom a chemical element was named during his lifetime. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molecular_biology_and_biochemistry">Molecular biology and biochemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Molecular biology and biochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">History of molecular biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_biochemistry" title="History of biochemistry">History of biochemistry</a></div> <p>By the mid 20th century, in principle, the integration of physics and chemistry was extensive, with chemical properties explained as the result of the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electronic</a> structure of the <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a>; <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>'s book on <i>The Nature of the Chemical Bond</i> used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce <a href="/wiki/Bond_angle" class="mw-redirect" title="Bond angle">bond angles</a> in ever-more complicated molecules. However, though some principles deduced from quantum mechanics were able to predict qualitatively some chemical features for biologically relevant molecules, they were, till the end of the 20th century, more a collection of rules, observations, and recipes than rigorous <a href="/wiki/Ab_initio" title="Ab initio">ab initio</a> quantitative methods.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_chemical_structure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DNA_chemical_structure.svg/200px-DNA_chemical_structure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DNA_chemical_structure.svg/300px-DNA_chemical_structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DNA_chemical_structure.svg/400px-DNA_chemical_structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1750" /></a><figcaption>Diagrammatic representation of some key structural features of DNA</figcaption></figure> <p>This heuristic approach triumphed in 1953 when <a href="/wiki/James_D._Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Watson">James Watson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> deduced the double helical structure of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> by constructing models constrained by and informed by the knowledge of the chemistry of the constituent parts and the <a href="/wiki/X-ray_diffraction" title="X-ray diffraction">X-ray diffraction</a> patterns obtained by <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This discovery lead to an explosion of research into the <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a> of life. </p><p>In the same year, the <a href="/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Urey_experiment" title="Miller–Urey experiment">Miller–Urey experiment</a> demonstrated that basic constituents of <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>, simple <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules in a <a href="/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">simulation</a> of primordial <a href="/wiki/Process_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Process (science)">processes</a> on Earth. This first attempt by chemists to study hypothetical processes in the laboratory under controlled conditions helped kickstart bountiful research, within the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>, into the <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins of life">origins of life</a>. </p><p>In 1983 <a href="/wiki/Kary_Mullis" title="Kary Mullis">Kary Mullis</a> devised a method for the in-vitro amplification of DNA, known as the <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> (PCR), which revolutionized the chemical processes used in the laboratory to manipulate it. PCR could be used to synthesize specific pieces of DNA and made possible the <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">sequencing of DNA</a> of organisms, which culminated in the huge <a href="/wiki/Human_genome_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Human genome project">human genome project</a>. </p><p>An important piece in the double helix puzzle was solved by one of Pauling's students <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Meselson" title="Matthew Meselson">Matthew Meselson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Stahl" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Stahl">Frank Stahl</a>, the result of their collaboration (<a href="/wiki/Meselson%E2%80%93Stahl_experiment" title="Meselson–Stahl experiment">Meselson–Stahl experiment</a>) has been called as "the most beautiful experiment in biology". </p><p>They used a centrifugation technique that sorted molecules according to differences in weight. Because nitrogen atoms are a component of DNA, they were labelled and therefore tracked in replication in bacteria. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_20th_century">Late 20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Late 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C60_Molecule.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/C60_Molecule.svg/170px-C60_Molecule.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/C60_Molecule.svg/255px-C60_Molecule.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/C60_Molecule.svg/340px-C60_Molecule.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>Buckminsterfullerene, C<sub>60</sub></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1970, <a href="/wiki/John_Pople" title="John Pople">John Pople</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Gaussian_(software)" title="Gaussian (software)">Gaussian</a> program greatly easing <a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">computational chemistry</a> calculations.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1971, <a href="/wiki/Yves_Chauvin" title="Yves Chauvin">Yves Chauvin</a> offered an explanation of the reaction mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Olefin_metathesis" title="Olefin metathesis">olefin metathesis</a> reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1975, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barry_Sharpless" title="Karl Barry Sharpless">Karl Barry Sharpless</a> and his group discovered stereoselective <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidation</a> reactions including <a href="/wiki/Sharpless_epoxidation" title="Sharpless epoxidation">Sharpless epoxidation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sharpless_asymmetric_dihydroxylation" title="Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation">Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sharpless_oxyamination" title="Sharpless oxyamination">Sharpless oxyamination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1985, <a href="/wiki/Harold_Kroto" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Kroto">Harold Kroto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Curl" title="Robert Curl">Robert Curl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Smalley" title="Richard Smalley">Richard Smalley</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Fullerenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fullerenes">fullerenes</a>, a class of large carbon molecules superficially resembling the <a href="/wiki/Geodesic_dome" title="Geodesic dome">geodesic dome</a> designed by architect <a href="/wiki/R._Buckminster_Fuller" class="mw-redirect" title="R. Buckminster Fuller">R. Buckminster Fuller</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1991, <a href="/wiki/Sumio_Iijima" title="Sumio Iijima">Sumio Iijima</a> used <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">electron microscopy</a> to discover a type of cylindrical fullerene known as a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotube</a>, though earlier work had been done in the field as early as 1951. This material is an important component in the field of <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1994, <a href="/wiki/K._C._Nicolaou" title="K. C. Nicolaou">K. C. Nicolaou</a> with his group <sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Holton" title="Robert A. Holton">Robert A. Holton</a> and his group, achieved the first <a href="/wiki/Holton_Taxol_total_synthesis" title="Holton Taxol total synthesis">total synthesis of Taxol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1995, <a href="/wiki/Eric_Cornell" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric Cornell">Eric Cornell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wieman" title="Carl Wieman">Carl Wieman</a> produced the first <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a>, a substance that displays quantum mechanical properties on the macroscopic scale.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mathematics_and_chemistry">Mathematics and chemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Mathematics and chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the 20th century, chemistry was defined as the science of the nature of matter and its transformations. It was therefore distinct from physics which was not concerned with such dramatic transformation of matter. Moreover, in contrast to physics, chemistry remained predominantly a descriptive and empirical science until the end of the 19th century. Though they developed a consistent quantitative foundation based on notions of atomic and molecular weights, combining proportions, and thermodynamic quantities, chemists had less use of advanced mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some even expressed reluctance about the use of mathematics within chemistry. For example, the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> wrote in 1830: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Every attempt to employ mathematical methods in the study of chemical questions must be considered profoundly irrational and contrary to the spirit of chemistry.... if mathematical analysis should ever hold a prominent place in chemistry – an aberration which is happily almost impossible – it would occasion a rapid and widespread degeneration of that science.</p></blockquote> <p>However, in the second part of the 19th century, the situation began to change as <a href="/wiki/August_Kekul%C3%A9" title="August Kekulé">August Kekulé</a> wrote in 1867: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I rather expect that we shall someday find a mathematico-mechanical explanation for what we now call atoms which will render an account of their properties.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scope_of_chemistry">Scope of chemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Scope of chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As understanding of the nature of matter has evolved, so too has the self-understanding of the science of chemistry by its practitioners. This continuing historical process of evaluation includes the categories, terms, aims and scope of chemistry. Additionally, the development of the social institutions and networks which support chemical enquiry are highly significant factors that enable the production, dissemination and application of chemical knowledge. (See <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Philosophy of chemistry</a>) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_industry">Chemical industry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Chemical industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">Chemical industry</a></div> <p>The later part of the nineteenth century saw a huge increase in the exploitation of <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> extracted from the earth for the production of a host of chemicals and largely replaced the use of <a href="/wiki/Whale_oil" title="Whale oil">whale oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coal_tar" title="Coal tar">coal tar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naval_stores" title="Naval stores">naval stores</a> used previously. Large-scale production and <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">refinement of petroleum</a> provided feedstocks for <a href="/wiki/Liquid_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid fuels">liquid fuels</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solvents" class="mw-redirect" title="Solvents">solvents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lubricants" class="mw-redirect" title="Lubricants">lubricants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">asphalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Waxes">waxes</a>, and for the production of many of the common materials of the modern world, such as synthetic <a href="/wiki/Fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibers">fibers</a>, plastics, <a href="/wiki/Paints" class="mw-redirect" title="Paints">paints</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detergent" title="Detergent">detergents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceuticals" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceuticals">pharmaceuticals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adhesives" class="mw-redirect" title="Adhesives">adhesives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> as <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a> and for other uses. Many of these required new <a href="/wiki/Catalysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalysts">catalysts</a> and the utilization of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">chemical engineering</a> for their cost-effective production.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the mid-twentieth century, control of the electronic structure of <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> materials was made precise by the creation of large ingots of extremely pure single crystals of <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>. Accurate control of their chemical composition by doping with other elements made the production of the solid state <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> in 1951 and made possible the production of tiny <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> for use in electronic devices, especially <a href="/wiki/Computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Computers">computers</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Histories_and_timelines">Histories and timelines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Histories and timelines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">Atomic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupellation" title="Cupellation">Cupellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chromatography" title="History of chromatography">History of chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electrochemistry" title="History of electrochemistry">History of electrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_energy" title="History of energy">History of energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">History of molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory" title="History of molecular theory">History of molecular theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">History of science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the molecule">History of the molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_periodic_table" title="History of the periodic table">History of the periodic table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_thermodynamics" title="History of thermodynamics">History of thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_science" title="List of years in science">List of years in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize in chemistry">Nobel Prize in chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" title="Timeline of scientific discoveries">Timeline of scientific discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics" title="Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics">Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemical_elements_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of chemical elements discoveries">Timeline of chemical elements discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography" title="Timeline of crystallography">Timeline of crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of historic inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">Timeline of materials technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_thermodynamics,_statistical_mechanics,_and_random_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes">Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Chemical_History_of_a_Candle" title="The Chemical History of a Candle">The Chemical History of a Candle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Mystery_of_Matter_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Mystery of Matter (film)">The Mystery of Matter: Search for the Elements (PBS film)</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_chemists">Notable chemists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Notable chemists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>listed chronologically:</i> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemists" title="List of chemists">List of chemists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, 1627–1691</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Joseph Black</a>, 1728–1799</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a>, 1733–1804</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele" title="Carl Wilhelm Scheele">Carl Wilhelm Scheele</a>, 1742–1786</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a>, 1743–1794</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a>, 1745–1827</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Charles" title="Jacques Charles">Jacques Charles</a>, 1746–1823</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Louis_Berthollet" title="Claude Louis Berthollet">Claude Louis Berthollet</a>, 1748–1822</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Avogadro" title="Amedeo Avogadro">Amedeo Avogadro</a>, 1776–1856</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph-Louis_Gay-Lussac" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac">Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac</a>, 1778–1850</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a>, 1778–1829</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a>, inventor of modern chemical notation, 1779–1848</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig" title="Justus von Liebig">Justus von Liebig</a>, 1803–1873</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a>, 1822–1895</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanislao_Cannizzaro" title="Stanislao Cannizzaro">Stanislao Cannizzaro</a>, 1826–1910</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_August_Kekul%C3%A9_von_Stradonitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz">Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz</a>, 1829–1896</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a>, 1834–1907</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Josiah Willard Gibbs</a>, 1839–1903</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._H._van_%27t_Hoff" class="mw-redirect" title="J. H. van 't Hoff">J. H. van 't Hoff</a>, 1852–1911</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ramsay" title="William Ramsay">William Ramsay</a>, 1852–1916</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a>, 1859–1927</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Nernst" title="Walther Nernst">Walther Nernst</a>, 1864–1941</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>, 1867–1934</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a>, 1875–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a>, 1879–1968</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a>, 1881–1957</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>, 1901–1994</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a>, 1912–1999</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Burns Woodward</a>, 1917–1979</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a>, 1918–2013</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Wilkinson" title="Geoffrey Wilkinson">Geoffrey Wilkinson</a>, 1921–1996</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus">Rudolph A. Marcus</a>, 1923–</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Andrew_Olah" title="George Andrew Olah">George Andrew Olah</a>, 1926–2017</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elias_James_Corey" title="Elias James Corey">Elias James Corey</a>, 1928–</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akira_Suzuki_(chemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Akira Suzuki (chemist)">Akira Suzuki</a>, 1930–</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_F._Heck" title="Richard F. Heck">Richard F. Heck</a>, 1931–2015</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Kroto" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Kroto">Harold Kroto</a>, 1939–2016</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Lehn" title="Jean-Marie Lehn">Jean-Marie Lehn</a>, 1939–</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Atkins" title="Peter Atkins">Peter Atkins</a>, 1940–</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Sharpless" class="mw-redirect" title="Barry Sharpless">Barry Sharpless</a>, 1941–</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Smalley" title="Richard Smalley">Richard Smalley</a>, 1943–2005</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Sauvage" title="Jean-Pierre Sauvage">Jean-Pierre Sauvage</a>, 1944–</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/papers.html">Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cmog.org/article/origins-glassmaking">"THE ORIGINS OF GLASSMAKING"</a>. <i>Corning Museum of Glass</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-10-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+News&rft.atitle=African+cave%27s+ancient+ochre+lab&rft.date=2011-10-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnews.2011.590&rft.aulast=Corbyn&rft.aufirst=Zo%C3%AB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnews%2F2011%2F111013%2Ffull%2Fnews.2011.590.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gold-eagle.com/gold_digest/history_gold.html">"History of Gold"</a>. Gold Digest<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Gold&rft.pub=Gold+Digest&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gold-eagle.com%2Fgold_digest%2Fhistory_gold.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPernicka2015" class="citation journal cs1">Pernicka, Ernst; et al. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276527606">"On the Invention of Gold Metallurgy: The Gold Objects from the Varna I Cemetery (Bulgaria)—Technological Consequence and Inventive Creativity"</a>. <i>Cambridge Archaeological Journal</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 353–376. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0959774314001140">10.1017/S0959774314001140</a> (inactive 1 November 2024).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Archaeological+Journal&rft.atitle=On+the+Invention+of+Gold+Metallurgy%3A+The+Gold+Objects+from+the+Varna+I+Cemetery+%28Bulgaria%29%E2%80%94Technological+Consequence+and+Inventive+Creativity&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=353-376&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0959774314001140&rft.aulast=Pernicka&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F276527606&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ephotos-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ephotos_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Photos, E., 'The Question of Meteorictic versus Smelted Nickel-Rich Iron: Archaeological Evidence and Experimental Results' <i>World Archaeology</i> Vol. 20, No. 3, Archaeometallurgy (February 1989), pp. 403–421. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/124562">Online version</a> accessed on 2010-02-08.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-keller-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-keller_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-keller_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">W. Keller (1963) <i>The Bible as History</i>, p. 156 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-00312-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-00312-X">0-340-00312-X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadivojevićRoberts2021" class="citation journal cs1">Radivojević, Miljana; Roberts, Benjamin W. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10963-021-09155-7">"Early Balkan Metallurgy: Origins, Evolution and Society, 6200–3700 BC"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_World_Prehistory" title="Journal of World Prehistory">Journal of World Prehistory</a></i>. <b>34</b> (2): 195–278. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10963-021-09155-7">10.1007/s10963-021-09155-7</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:237005605">237005605</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+Prehistory&rft.atitle=Early+Balkan+Metallurgy%3A+Origins%2C+Evolution+and+Society%2C+6200%E2%80%933700+BC&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=195-278&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10963-021-09155-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A237005605%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Radivojevi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Miljana&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Benjamin+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10963-021-09155-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadivojevićRehrenPernickaŠljivar2010" class="citation journal cs1">Radivojević, Miljana; Rehren, Thilo; Pernicka, Ernst; Šljivar, Dušan; Brauns, Michael; Borić, Dušan (2010). "On the origins of extractive metallurgy: New evidence from Europe". <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i>. <b>37</b> (11): 2775. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010JArSc..37.2775R">2010JArSc..37.2775R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2010.06.012">10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science&rft.atitle=On+the+origins+of+extractive+metallurgy%3A+New+evidence+from+Europe&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=2775&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2010.06.012&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010JArSc..37.2775R&rft.aulast=Radivojevi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Miljana&rft.au=Rehren%2C+Thilo&rft.au=Pernicka%2C+Ernst&rft.au=%C5%A0ljivar%2C+Du%C5%A1an&rft.au=Brauns%2C+Michael&rft.au=Bori%C4%87%2C+Du%C5%A1an&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/002605.html">Neolithic Vinca was a metallurgical culture</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170919043337/http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/002605.html">Archived</a> 2017-09-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Stonepages from news sources November 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuo1993" class="citation book cs1">Luo, Zhewen (1993). <i>China's Imperial Tombs and Mausoleums</i>. Foreign Languages Press. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-119-01619-9" title="Special:BookSources/7-119-01619-9"><bdi>7-119-01619-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Imperial+Tombs+and+Mausoleums&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=7-119-01619-9&rft.aulast=Luo&rft.aufirst=Zhewen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotterell2004" class="citation book cs1">Cotterell, Maurice (2004). <i>The Terracotta Warriors: The Secret Codes of the Emperor's Army</i>. p. 102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59143-033-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-59143-033-X"><bdi>1-59143-033-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Terracotta+Warriors%3A+The+Secret+Codes+of+the+Emperor%27s+Army&rft.pages=102&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-59143-033-X&rft.aulast=Cotterell&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacques_GuertinJames_A._JacobsCynthia_P._Avakian2005" class="citation book cs1">Jacques Guertin; James A. Jacobs; Cynthia P. Avakian (2005). <i>Chromium(VI) Handbook</i>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56670-608-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56670-608-7"><bdi>978-1-56670-608-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chromium%28VI%29+Handbook&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-56670-608-7&rft.au=Jacques+Guertin&rft.au=James+A.+Jacobs&rft.au=Cynthia+P.+Avakian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._C._McVeigh1984" class="citation book cs1">J. C. McVeigh (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QE3bAAAAMAAJ"><i>Energy around the world: an introduction to energy studies, global resources, needs, utilization</i></a>. Pergamon Press. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-08-031650-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-08-031650-6"><bdi>0-08-031650-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Energy+around+the+world%3A+an+introduction+to+energy+studies%2C+global+resources%2C+needs%2C+utilization&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-08-031650-6&rft.au=J.+C.+McVeigh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQE3bAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</a> wrote in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_Civilization" title="The Story of Civilization">The Story of Civilization</a> I: Our Oriental Heritage</i>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Something has been said about the chemical excellence of <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> in ancient India, and about the high industrial development of the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a> times, when India was looked to, even by <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Imperial Rome</a>, as the most skilled of the nations in such chemical <a href="/wiki/Industry_(economics)" title="Industry (economics)">industries</a> as <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dyeing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">tanning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">soap</a>-making, glass and <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a>... By the sixth century the Hindus were far ahead of Europe in industrial chemistry; they were masters of <a href="/wiki/Calcination" title="Calcination">calcinations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sublimation (chemistry)">sublimation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steaming" title="Steaming">steaming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fixation_(alchemy)" title="Fixation (alchemy)">fixation</a>, the production of light without heat, the mixing of <a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">anesthetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sleep" title="Sleep">soporific</a> powders, and the preparation of metallic <a href="/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)">salts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>. The tempering of steel was brought in ancient India to a perfection unknown in Europe till our own times; <a href="/wiki/King_Porus" class="mw-redirect" title="King Porus">King Porus</a> is said to have selected, as a specially valuable gift from <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a>, not gold or silver, but thirty pounds of steel. The Moslems took much of this Hindu chemical science and industry to the Near East and Europe; the secret of manufacturing <a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">"Damascus" blades</a>, for example, was taken by the Arabs from the <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>, and by the Persians from India."</p></blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B. W. Anderson (1975) <i>The Living World of the Old Testament</i>, p. 154, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-48598-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-48598-3">0-582-48598-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._F._Tylecote1992" class="citation book cs1">R. F. Tylecote (1992). <i>A History of Metallurgy</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-901462-88-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-901462-88-8"><bdi>0-901462-88-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Metallurgy&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-901462-88-8&rft.au=R.+F.+Tylecote&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-temple-r-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-temple-r_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Temple, Robert K.G. (2007). <i>The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention</i> (3rd edition). London: <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Deutsch" title="André Deutsch">André Deutsch</a>. pp. 44–56. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-233-00202-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-233-00202-6">978-0-233-00202-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Will-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Will_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</a> (1935), <i>Our Oriental Heritage</i>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Two systems of <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> thought propound <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physical</a> theories suggestively similar to those of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">Kanada</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a> philosophy, held that the world was composed of atoms as many in kind as the various elements. The <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jains</a> more nearly approximated to <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> by teaching that all atoms were of the same kind, producing different effects by diverse modes of combinations. Kanada believed light and heat to be varieties of the same substance; <a href="/wiki/Udayana" title="Udayana">Udayana</a> taught that all heat comes from the sun; and <a href="/wiki/V%C4%81caspati_Mi%C5%9Bra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vācaspati Miśra">Vachaspati</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>, interpreted light as composed of minute particles emitted by substances and striking the eye."</p></blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2005" class="citation web cs1">Simpson, David (29 June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/l/lucretiu.htm">"Lucretius (c. 99 – c. 55 BCE)"</a>. <i>The Internet History of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-01-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Internet+History+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Lucretius+%28c.+99+%E2%80%93+c.+55+BCE%29&rft.date=2005-06-29&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fl%2Flucretiu.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucretius" class="citation web cs1">Lucretius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Carus/nature_things.html">"de Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things)"</a>. <i>The Internet Classics Archive</i>. Massachusetts Institute of Technology<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-01-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Internet+Classics+Archive&rft.atitle=de+Rerum+Natura+%28On+the+Nature+of+Things%29&rft.au=Lucretius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FCarus%2Fnature_things.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmyard1957" class="citation book cs1">Holmyard, E.J. (1957). <i>Alchemy</i>. New York: Dover, 1990. pp. 48, 49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alchemy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=48%2C+49&rft.pub=Dover%2C+1990&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Holmyard&rft.aufirst=E.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanton J. Linden. <i>The alchemy reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton</i> Cambridge University Press. 2003. p.44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorris2006" class="citation journal cs1">Norris, John A. (2006). "The Mineral Exhalation Theory of Metallogenesis in Pre-Modern Mineral Science". <i>Ambix</i>. <b>53</b>: 43–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2F174582306X93183">10.1179/174582306X93183</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:97109455">97109455</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ambix&rft.atitle=The+Mineral+Exhalation+Theory+of+Metallogenesis+in+Pre-Modern+Mineral+Science&rft.volume=53&rft.pages=43-65&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2F174582306X93183&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A97109455%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Norris&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClulee1988" class="citation book cs1">Clulee, Nicholas H. (1988). <i>John Dee's Natural Philosophy</i>. Routledge. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-00625-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-00625-5"><bdi>978-0-415-00625-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Dee%27s+Natural+Philosophy&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-415-00625-5&rft.aulast=Clulee&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strathern, 2000. Page 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmyard1957" class="citation book cs1">Holmyard, E.J. (1957). <i>Alchemy</i>. New York: Dover, 1990. pp. 15, 16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alchemy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=15%2C+16&rft.pub=Dover%2C+1990&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Holmyard&rft.aufirst=E.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Royall Newman. <i>Atoms and Alchemy: Chymistry and the experimental origins of the scientific revolution.</i> University of Chicago Press, 2006. p.xi</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://realscience.breckschool.org/upper/fruen/files/Enrichmentarticles/files/History.html">The History of Ancient Chemistry</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150304162204/http://www.realscience.breckschool.org/upper/fruen/files/Enrichmentarticles/files/History.html">Archived</a> 2015-03-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStapletonAzoHidayat_Husain1927" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ernest_Stapleton" title="Henry Ernest Stapleton">Stapleton, Henry E.</a>; Azo, R.F.; Hidayat Husain, M. (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.southasiaarchive.com/Content/sarf.100203/231270">"Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D."</a> <i>Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>. <b>VIII</b> (6): 317–418. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/706947607">706947607</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+Asiatic+Society+of+Bengal&rft.atitle=Chemistry+in+Iraq+and+Persia+in+the+Tenth+Century+A.D.&rft.volume=VIII&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=317-418&rft.date=1927&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F706947607&rft.aulast=Stapleton&rft.aufirst=Henry+E.&rft.au=Azo%2C+R.F.&rft.au=Hidayat+Husain%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.southasiaarchive.com%2FContent%2Fsarf.100203%2F231270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span> pp. 338–340; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraus1942–1943" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kraus_(Arabist)" title="Paul Kraus (Arabist)">Kraus, Paul</a> (1942–1943). <i>Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque</i>. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-487-09115-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-487-09115-0"><bdi>978-3-487-09115-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/468740510">468740510</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=J%C3%A2bir+ibn+Hayy%C3%A2n%3A+Contribution+%C3%A0+l%27histoire+des+id%C3%A9es+scientifiques+dans+l%27Islam.+I.+Le+corpus+des+%C3%A9crits+j%C3%A2biriens.+II.+J%C3%A2bir+et+la+science+grecque&rft.place=Cairo&rft.pub=Institut+Fran%C3%A7ais+d%27Arch%C3%A9ologie+Orientale&rft.date=1942%2F1943&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F468740510&rft.isbn=978-3-487-09115-0&rft.aulast=Kraus&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span> vol. II, pp. 41–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darmstaedter, Ernst. "Liber Misericordiae Geber: Eine lateinische Übersetzung des gröβeren Kitâb l-raḥma", <i>Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin</i>, 17/4, 1925, pp. 181–197; Berthelot, Marcellin. "Archéologie et Histoire des sciences", <i>Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences de l'Institut de France</i>, 49, 1906, pp. 308–363; see also Forster, Regula. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/jabir-b-hayyan-COM_32665">"Jābir b. Ḥayyān"</a>, <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newman, William R. "New Light on the Identity of Geber", <i>Sudhoffs Archiv</i>, 1985, 69, pp. 76–90; Newman, William R. <i>The Summa perfectionis of Pseudo-Geber: A critical edition, translation and study</i>, Leiden: Brill, 1991, pp. 57–103. It has been argued by Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan that the pseudo-Geber works were actually translated into Latin from the Arabic (see Al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. "The Arabic Origin of the <i>Summa</i> and Geber Latin Works: A Refutation of Berthelot, Ruska, and Newman Based on Arabic Sources", in: Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan. <i>Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry</i>. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 2009, pp. 53–104; also available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/geber/geber%2004.html">online</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarmuraNasr1965" class="citation journal cs1">Marmura, Michael E.; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1965). <a href="/wiki/Hossein_Nasr" class="mw-redirect" title="Hossein Nasr">"<i>An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina</i> by Seyyed Hossein Nasr"</a>. <i>Speculum</i>. <b>40</b> (4): 744–746. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2851429">10.2307/2851429</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2851429">2851429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speculum&rft.atitle=An+Introduction+to+Islamic+Cosmological+Doctrines.+Conceptions+of+Nature+and+Methods+Used+for+Its+Study+by+the+Ikhwan+Al-Safa%27an%2C+Al-Biruni%2C+and+Ibn+Sina+by+Seyyed+Hossein+Nasr&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=744-746&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2851429&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2851429%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Marmura&rft.aufirst=Michael+E.&rft.au=Nasr%2C+Seyyed+Hossein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Briffault" title="Robert Briffault">Robert Briffault</a> (1938). <i>The Making of Humanity</i>, pp. 196–197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrock1992" class="citation book cs1">Brock, William H. (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fontanahistoryof0000broc"><i>The Fontana History of Chemistry</i></a></span>. London, England: Fontana Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fontanahistoryof0000broc/page/32">32–33</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-686173-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-686173-7"><bdi>978-0-00-686173-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fontana+History+of+Chemistry&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pages=32-33&rft.pub=Fontana+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-00-686173-7&rft.aulast=Brock&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffontanahistoryof0000broc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrock1992" class="citation book cs1">Brock, William H. (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fontanahistoryof0000broc"><i>The Fontana History of Chemistry</i></a></span>. London, England: Fontana Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-686173-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-686173-7"><bdi>978-0-00-686173-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fontana+History+of+Chemistry&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Fontana+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-00-686173-7&rft.aulast=Brock&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffontanahistoryof0000broc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hexagon2005-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hexagon2005_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshallMarshall2005" class="citation journal cs1">Marshall, James L.; Marshall, Virginia R. (Autumn 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chemistry.unt.edu/sites/default/files/users/owj0001/agricola.pdf">"Rediscovery of the Elements: Agricola"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Hexagon</i>. <b>96</b> (3). Alpha Chi Sigma: 59. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0164-6109">0164-6109</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4478114">4478114</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hexagon&rft.atitle=Rediscovery+of+the+Elements%3A+Agricola&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=59&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4478114&rft.issn=0164-6109&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rft.au=Marshall%2C+Virginia+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchemistry.unt.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fusers%2Fowj0001%2Fagricola.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Alfred_von_Zittel" title="Karl Alfred von Zittel">Karl Alfred von Zittel</a> (1901) <i>History of Geology and Palaeontology</i>, p. 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-berk-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-berk_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/agricola.html">"Georgius Agricola"</a>. 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New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 10. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781615305445" title="Special:BookSources/9781615305445">9781615305445</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsarnow2005" class="citation web cs1">Asarnow, Herman (2005-08-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070201210445/http://faculty.up.edu/asarnow/eliz4.htm">"Sir Francis Bacon: Empiricism"</a>. <i>An Image-Oriented Introduction to Backgrounds for English Renaissance Literature</i>. University of Portland. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-11-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Robert+Boyle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funderstandingscience.ucc.ie%2Fpages%2Fsci_robertboyle.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-acottLaw-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-acottLaw_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAcott,_Chris1999" class="citation journal cs1">Acott, Chris (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110402073203/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/5990">"The diving "Law-ers": A brief resume of their lives"</a>. <i>South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal</i>. <b>29</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0813-1988">0813-1988</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/16986801">16986801</a>. Archived from the original on April 2, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+Pacific+Underwater+Medicine+Society+Journal&rft.atitle=The+diving+%22Law-ers%22%3A+A+brief+resume+of+their+lives.&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F16986801&rft.issn=0813-1988&rft.au=Acott%2C+Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.rubicon-foundation.org%2F5990&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Levine, Ira. N (1978). "Physical Chemistry" University of Brooklyn: <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill">McGraw-Hill</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-levine_1-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-levine_1_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Levine, Ira. N. (1978), p12 gives the original definition.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrincipe2011" class="citation journal cs1">Principe, L. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F469030a">"In retrospect: The Sceptical Chymist"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>469</b> (7328): 30–31. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Natur.469...30P">2011Natur.469...30P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F469030a">10.1038/469030a</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6490305">6490305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=In+retrospect%3A+The+Sceptical+Chymist&rft.volume=469&rft.issue=7328&rft.pages=30-31&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F469030a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6490305%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Natur.469...30P&rft.aulast=Principe&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F469030a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrsula_Klein2007" class="citation journal cs1">Ursula Klein (July 2007). "Styles of Experimentation and Alchemical Matter Theory in the Scientific Revolution". <i>Metascience</i>. <b>16</b> (2): 247–256 [247]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11016-007-9095-8">10.1007/s11016-007-9095-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1467-9981">1467-9981</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170194372">170194372</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Metascience&rft.atitle=Styles+of+Experimentation+and+Alchemical+Matter+Theory+in+the+Scientific+Revolution&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=247-256+247&rft.date=2007-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170194372%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1467-9981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11016-007-9095-8&rft.au=Ursula+Klein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://runeberg.org/nfbe/0487.html">Nordisk familjebok – Cronstedt</a>: "<i>den moderna mineralogiens och geognosiens grundläggare</i>" = "<i>the modern mineralogy's and geognosie's founder</i>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper1999" class="citation web cs1">Cooper, Alan (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060410074412/http://www.chem.gla.ac.uk/dept/black.htm">"Joseph Black"</a>. <i>History of Glasgow University Chemistry Department</i>. University of Glasgow Department of Chemistry. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chem.gla.ac.uk/dept/black.htm">the original</a> on 2006-04-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-02-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+of+Glasgow+University+Chemistry+Department&rft.atitle=Joseph+Black&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chem.gla.ac.uk%2Fdept%2Fblack.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeyferth2001" class="citation journal cs1">Seyferth, Dietmar (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fom0101947">"Cadet's Fuming Arsenical Liquid and the Cacodyl Compounds of Bunsen"</a>. <i>Organometallics</i>. <b>20</b> (8): 1488–1498. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fom0101947">10.1021/om0101947</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Organometallics&rft.atitle=Cadet%27s+Fuming+Arsenical+Liquid+and+the+Cacodyl+Compounds+of+Bunsen&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1488-1498&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fom0101947&rft.aulast=Seyferth&rft.aufirst=Dietmar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1021%252Fom0101947&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPartington1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._R._Partington" title="J. R. Partington">Partington, J.R.</a> (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofch0000part_q6h4"><i>A Short History of Chemistry</i></a></span>. Dover Publications, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65977-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65977-0"><bdi>978-0-486-65977-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Chemistry&rft.pub=Dover+Publications%2C+Inc&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-486-65977-0&rft.aulast=Partington&rft.aufirst=J.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshorthistoryofch0000part_q6h4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/science-and-technology/chemistry-biographies/karl-wilhelm-scheele">"Karl Wilhelm Scheele | Encyclopedia.com"</a>. <i>www.encyclopedia.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Karl+Wilhelm+Scheele+%26%23124%3B+Encyclopedia.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fpeople%2Fscience-and-technology%2Fchemistry-biographies%2Fkarl-wilhelm-scheele&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuhn, 53–60; Schofield (2004), 112–13. The difficulty in precisely defining the time and place of the "discovery" of oxygen, within the context of the developing <a href="/wiki/Chemical_revolution" title="Chemical revolution">chemical revolution</a>, is one of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a>'s central illustrations of the gradual nature of <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Joseph Priestley". <i>Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of the Chemical Sciences</i>. Chemical Heritage Foundation. 2005. pp. 5–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780941901123" title="Special:BookSources/9780941901123"><bdi>9780941901123</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Joseph+Priestley&rft.btitle=Chemical+Achievers%3A+The+Human+Face+of+the+Chemical+Sciences&rft.pages=5-6&rft.pub=Chemical+Heritage+Foundation&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780941901123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mattson.creighton.edu/History_Gas_Chemistry/Scheele.html">"Carl Wilhelm Scheele"</a>. <i>History of Gas Chemistry</i>. Center for Microscale Gas Chemistry, Creighton University. 2005-09-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+of+Gas+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Carl+Wilhelm+Scheele&rft.date=2005-09-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmattson.creighton.edu%2FHistory_Gas_Chemistry%2FScheele.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SaundersN-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SaundersN_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaunders2004" class="citation book cs1">Saunders, Nigel (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tungstenelements00nige"><i>Tungsten and the Elements of Groups 3 to 7 (The Periodic Table)</i></a></span>. Chicago: Heinemann Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4034-3518-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4034-3518-7"><bdi>978-1-4034-3518-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tungsten+and+the+Elements+of+Groups+3+to+7+%28The+Periodic+Table%29&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Heinemann+Library&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4034-3518-7&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftungstenelements00nige&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ITIAnews_0605-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ITIAnews_0605_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721214335/http://www.itia.info/FileLib/Newsletter_2005_06.pdf">"ITIA Newsletter"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. International Tungsten Industry Association. June 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itia.info/FileLib/Newsletter_2005_06.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on July 21, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-06-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=ITIA+Newsletter&rft.date=2005-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itia.info%2FFileLib%2FNewsletter_2005_06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ITIAnews_1205-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ITIAnews_1205_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721214335/http://www.itia.info/FileLib/Newsletter_2005_12.pdf">"ITIA Newsletter"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. International Tungsten Industry Association. December 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itia.info/FileLib/Newsletter_2005_12.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on July 21, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-06-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=ITIA+Newsletter&rft.date=2005-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itia.info%2FFileLib%2FNewsletter_2005_12.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mottelay-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mottelay_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMottelay2008" class="citation book cs1">Mottelay, Paul Fleury (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9vzti90Q8i0C&pg=PA247"><i>Bibliographical History of Electricity and Magnetism</i></a> (Reprint of 1892 ed.). Read Books. p. 247. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4437-2844-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4437-2844-7"><bdi>978-1-4437-2844-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bibliographical+History+of+Electricity+and+Magnetism&rft.pages=247&rft.edition=Reprint+of+1892&rft.pub=Read+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4437-2844-7&rft.aulast=Mottelay&rft.aufirst=Paul+Fleury&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9vzti90Q8i0C%26pg%3DPA247&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventors/volta.htm">"Inventor Alessandro Volta Biography"</a>. <i>The Great Idea Finder</i>. 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Great+Idea+Finder&rft.atitle=Inventor+Alessandro+Volta+Biography&rft.date=2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ideafinder.com%2Fhistory%2Finventors%2Fvolta.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Lavoisier.html">Lavoisier, Antoine (1743–1794) – from Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography</a>, ScienceWorld</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-humantouchofchemistry.com-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-humantouchofchemistry.com_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150417152425/http://www.humantouchofchemistry.com/marieanne-lavoisier.htm">"Famous Scientists - Marie-Anne Lavoisier"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humantouchofchemistry.com/marieanne-lavoisier.htm">the original</a> on 2015-04-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-04-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Famous+Scientists+-+Marie-Anne+Lavoisier&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.humantouchofchemistry.com%2Fmarieanne-lavoisier.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pullman-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pullman_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pullman_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPullman2004" class="citation book cs1">Pullman, Bernard (2004). <i>The Atom in the History of Human Thought</i>. Reisinger, Axel. USA: Oxford University Press Inc. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ahht.book.....P">1998ahht.book.....P</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511447-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511447-8"><bdi>978-0-19-511447-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atom+in+the+History+of+Human+Thought&rft.place=USA&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+Inc&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998ahht.book.....P&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511447-8&rft.aulast=Pullman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dalton-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dalton_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowden2005" class="citation book cs1">Bowden, Mary Ellen (2005). "John Dalton". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eCg5MgI2S54C"><i>Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences</i></a>. Chemical Heritage Foundation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-941901-12-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-941901-12-3"><bdi>978-0-941901-12-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Dalton&rft.btitle=Chemical+Achievers%3A+The+Human+Face+of+Chemical+Sciences&rft.pub=Chemical+Heritage+Foundation&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-941901-12-3&rft.aulast=Bowden&rft.aufirst=Mary+Ellen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeCg5MgI2S54C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080515224050/http://www.euchems.org/Distinguished/19thCentury/proustlouis.asp">"Proust, Joseph Louis (1754–1826)"</a>. <i>100 Distinguished Chemists</i>. European Association for Chemical and Molecular Science. 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euchems.org/Distinguished/19thCentury/proustlouis.asp">the original</a> on 2008-05-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=100+Distinguished+Chemists&rft.atitle=Proust%2C+Joseph+Louis+%281754%E2%80%931826%29&rft.date=2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.euchems.org%2FDistinguished%2F19thCentury%2Fproustlouis.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Enghag2004-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Enghag2004_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnghag,_P.2004" class="citation book cs1">Enghag, P. (2004). "11. Sodium and Potassium". <i>Encyclopedia of the elements</i>. Wiley-VCH Weinheim. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-30666-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-30666-4"><bdi>978-3-527-30666-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=11.+Sodium+and+Potassium&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+elements&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH+Weinheim&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-527-30666-4&rft.au=Enghag%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davy1807-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davy1807_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavy1808" class="citation journal cs1">Davy, Humphry (1808). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kg9GAAAAMAAJ">"On some new Phenomena of Chemical Changes produced by Electricity, particularly the Decomposition of the fixed Alkalies, and the Exhibition of the new Substances, which constitute their Bases"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>98</b>: 1–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1808.0001">10.1098/rstl.1808.0001</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=On+some+new+Phenomena+of+Chemical+Changes+produced+by+Electricity%2C+particularly+the+Decomposition+of+the+fixed+Alkalies%2C+and+the+Exhibition+of+the+new+Substances%2C+which+constitute+their+Bases&rft.volume=98&rft.pages=1-45&rft.date=1808&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1808.0001&rft.aulast=Davy&rft.aufirst=Humphry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKg9GAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-weeks-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-weeks_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeeks1933" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Elvira_Weeks" title="Mary Elvira Weeks">Weeks, Mary Elvira</a> (1933). "XII. Other Elements Isolated with the Aid of Potassium and Sodium: Beryllium, Boron, Silicon and Aluminum". <i>The Discovery of the Elements</i>. Easton, Pennsylvania: Journal of Chemical Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-3872-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-3872-8"><bdi>978-0-7661-3872-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XII.+Other+Elements+Isolated+with+the+Aid+of+Potassium+and+Sodium%3A+Beryllium%2C+Boron%2C+Silicon+and+Aluminum&rft.btitle=The+Discovery+of+the+Elements&rft.place=Easton%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.date=1933&rft.isbn=978-0-7661-3872-8&rft.aulast=Weeks&rft.aufirst=Mary+Elvira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-history-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-history_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_E._Krebs2006" class="citation book cs1">Robert E. Krebs (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yb9xTj72vNAC"><i>The history and use of our earth's chemical elements: a reference guide</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33438-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33438-2"><bdi>978-0-313-33438-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+and+use+of+our+earth%27s+chemical+elements%3A+a+reference+guide&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33438-2&rft.au=Robert+E.+Krebs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dyb9xTj72vNAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSir_Humphry_Davy1811" class="citation journal cs1">Sir Humphry Davy (1811). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Davy-Chlorine-1811.html">"On a Combination of Oxymuriatic Gas and Oxygene Gas"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</i>. <b>101</b>: 155–162. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1811.0008">10.1098/rstl.1811.0008</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=On+a+Combination+of+Oxymuriatic+Gas+and+Oxygene+Gas&rft.volume=101&rft.pages=155-162&rft.date=1811&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1811.0008&rft.au=Sir+Humphry+Davy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemteam.info%2FChem-History%2FDavy-Chlorine-1811.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GL02-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GL02_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGay-Lussac,_J._L.1802" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Gay-Lussac" title="Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac">Gay-Lussac, J. L.</a> (1802), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6ctSn3TIeYC&pg=PA137">"Recherches sur la dilatation des gaz et des vapeurs"</a> [Researches on the expansion of gases and vapors], <i>Annales de Chimie</i>, <b>43</b>: 137–175</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+Chimie&rft.atitle=Recherches+sur+la+dilatation+des+gaz+et+des+vapeurs&rft.volume=43&rft.pages=137-175&rft.date=1802&rft.au=Gay-Lussac%2C+J.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ6ctSn3TIeYC%26pg%3DPA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/gaygas.html">English translation (extract).</a><br /> On page 157, Gay-Lussac mentions the unpublished findings of Charles: "<i>Avant d'aller plus loin, je dois prévenir que quoique j'eusse reconnu un grand nombre de fois que les gaz oxigène, azote, hydrogène et acide carbonique, et l'air atmosphérique se dilatent également depuis 0° jusqu'a 80°, le cit. Charles avait remarqué depuis 15 ans la même propriété dans ces gaz; mais n'avant jamais publié ses résultats, c'est par le plus grand hasard que je les ai connus</i>." (Before going further, I should inform [you] that although I had recognized many times that the gases oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid [i.e., carbon dioxide], and atmospheric air also expand from 0° to 80°, citizen Charles had noticed 15 years ago the same property in these gases; but having never published his results, it is by the merest chance that I knew of them.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Dalton (1802) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3qdJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA595">"Essay IV. On the expansion of elastic fluids by heat,"</a> <i>Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester</i>, vol. 5, pt. 2, pages 595-602.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Fe-Ge/Gay-Lussac-Joseph-Louis.html">"Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac – Chemistry Encyclopedia – gas, number"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Joseph-Louis+Gay-Lussac+%E2%80%93+Chemistry+Encyclopedia+%E2%80%93+gas%2C+number&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemistryexplained.com%2FFe-Ge%2FGay-Lussac-Joseph-Louis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-court-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-court_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-court_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCourtois,_Bernard1813" class="citation journal cs1">Courtois, Bernard (1813). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YGwri-w7sMAC&pg=RA2-PA304">"Découverte d'une substance nouvelle dans le Vareck"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Annales_de_chimie" class="mw-redirect" title="Annales de chimie">Annales de chimie</a></i>. <b>88</b>: 304.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+chimie&rft.atitle=D%C3%A9couverte+d%27une+substance+nouvelle+dans+le+Vareck&rft.volume=88&rft.pages=304&rft.date=1813&rft.au=Courtois%2C+Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYGwri-w7sMAC%26pg%3DRA2-PA304&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span> In French, seaweed that had been washed onto the shore was called "varec", "varech", or "vareck", whence the English word "wrack". Later, "varec" also referred to the ashes of such seaweed: The ashes were used as a source of iodine and salts of sodium and potassium.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwain,_Patricia_A.2005" class="citation journal cs1">Swain, Patricia A. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100714110757/http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/OPA%20Papers/2007-Swain.pdf">"Bernard Courtois (1777–1838) famed for discovering iodine (1811), and his life in Paris from 1798"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Bulletin for the History of Chemistry</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 103. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/OPA%20Papers/2007-Swain.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2010-07-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. 2002. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aist.go.jp/aist_e/topics/20020129/20020129.html">the original</a> on 2007-04-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-03-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin+Medal+awarded+to+Dr.+Sumio+Iijima%2C+Director+of+the+Research+Center+for+Advanced+Carbon+Materials%2C+AIST&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Advanced+Industrial+Science+and+Technology&rft.date=2002&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aist.go.jp%2Faist_e%2Ftopics%2F20020129%2F20020129.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorman1994" class="citation news cs1">Borman, Stu (21 February 1994). "Total Synthesis of Anticancer Agent Taxol Achieved by Two Different Routes". <i>Chemical & Engineering News</i>. Vol. 72, no. 8. pp. 32–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fcen-v072n008.p032">10.1021/cen-v072n008.p032</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+%26+Engineering+News&rft.atitle=Total+Synthesis+of+Anticancer+Agent+Taxol+Achieved+by+Two+Different+Routes&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=32-34&rft.date=1994-02-21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fcen-v072n008.p032&rft.aulast=Borman&rft.aufirst=Stu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlakeslee1994" class="citation news cs1">Blakeslee, Sandra (15 February 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/15/science/race-to-synthesize-cancer-drug-molecule-has-photo-finish.html">"Race to Synthesize Cancer Drug Molecule Has Photo Finish"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Race+to+Synthesize+Cancer+Drug+Molecule+Has+Photo+Finish&rft.date=1994-02-15&rft.aulast=Blakeslee&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F02%2F15%2Fscience%2Frace-to-synthesize-cancer-drug-molecule-has-photo-finish.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>First total synthesis of taxol 1.</i> Functionalization of the B ring Robert A. Holton, Carmen Somoza, Hyeong Baik Kim, Feng Liang, Ronald J. Biediger, P. Douglas Boatman, Mitsuru Shindo, Chase C. Smith, Soekchan Kim, et al.; <a href="/wiki/J._Am._Chem._Soc." class="mw-redirect" title="J. Am. Chem. Soc.">J. Am. Chem. Soc.</a>; <b>1994</b>; 116(4); 1597–1598. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00083a066">DOI Abstract</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>First total synthesis of taxol. 2.</i> Completion of the C and D rings Robert A. Holton, Hyeong Baik Kim, Carmen Somoza, Feng Liang, Ronald J. Biediger, P. Douglas Boatman, Mitsuru Shindo, Chase C. Smith, Soekchan Kim, and et al. <a href="/wiki/J._Am._Chem._Soc." class="mw-redirect" title="J. Am. Chem. Soc.">J. Am. Chem. Soc.</a>; <b>1994</b>; 116(4) pp 1599–1600 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00083a067">DOI Abstract</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A synthesis of taxusin</i> Robert A. Holton, R. R. Juo, Hyeong B. Kim, Andrew D. Williams, Shinya Harusawa, Richard E. Lowenthal, Sadamu Yogai <a href="/wiki/J._Am._Chem._Soc." class="mw-redirect" title="J. Am. Chem. Soc.">J. Am. Chem. Soc.</a>; <b>1988</b>; 110(19); 6558–6560. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00227a043">Abstract</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070610080506/https://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/n01-04.htm">"Cornell and Wieman Share 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics"</a>. <i>NIST News Release</i>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2001. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/n01-04.htm">the original</a> on 2007-06-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-03-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NIST+News+Release&rft.atitle=Cornell+and+Wieman+Share+2001+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fpublic_affairs%2Freleases%2Fn01-04.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlinderHouse2018" class="citation book cs1">Blinder, S. M.; House, James E. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cjd8DwAAQBAJ"><i>Mathematical Physics in Theoretical Chemistry</i></a>. Elsevier. pp. xiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-813701-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-813701-7"><bdi>978-0-12-813701-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Physics+in+Theoretical+Chemistry&rft.pages=xiii&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-12-813701-7&rft.aulast=Blinder&rft.aufirst=S.+M.&rft.au=House%2C+James+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcjd8DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/papers.html">Selected classic papers from the history of chemistry</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/rschg/biog.html">Biographies of Chemists</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170708212507/http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/rschg/biog.html">Archived</a> 2017-07-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.listserv.dfn.de/sympa/info/chem-hist">CHEM-HIST: International Mailing List for the History of Chemistry</a></li> <li>Eric R. Scerri, The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, 2006.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_chemistry&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrisRocke2022" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Peter J. T.; Rocke, Alan, eds. (2022). <i>A Cultural History of Chemistry. Volumes 1–6</i>. London: Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781474294928" title="Special:BookSources/9781474294928"><bdi>9781474294928</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+of+Chemistry.+Volumes+1%E2%80%936&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9781474294928&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeretta2022" class="citation book cs1">Beretta, Marco, ed. (2022). <i>A Cultural History Of Chemistry in Antiquity (Volume 1)</i>. London: Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5040%2F9781474203746">10.5040/9781474203746</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-9453-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-9453-9"><bdi>978-1-4742-9453-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+Of+Chemistry+in+Antiquity+%28Volume+1%29&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5040%2F9781474203746&rft.isbn=978-1-4742-9453-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJensen2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_B._Jensen" title="William B. Jensen">Jensen, William B</a> (2006). "Textbooks and the future of the history of chemistry as an academic discipline". <i>Bulletin for the History of Chemistry</i>. <b>3</b>: 1–8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+for+the+History+of+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Textbooks+and+the+future+of+the+history+of+chemistry+as+an+academic+discipline&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=1-8&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=William+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulthauf1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Multhauf" title="Robert P. Multhauf">Multhauf, Robert P.</a> (1966). <i>The Origins of Chemistry</i>. London: Oldbourne. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/977570829">977570829</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Chemistry&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oldbourne&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F977570829&rft.aulast=Multhauf&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPartington1961–1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._R._Partington" title="J. R. Partington">Partington, James R.</a> (1961–1964). <i>A History of Chemistry</i>. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1149250811">1149250811</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chemistry&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1961%2F1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1149250811&rft.aulast=Partington&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span> (four volumes)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrincipe2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Principe" title="Lawrence M. Principe">Principe, Lawrence M.</a> (2013). <i>The Secrets of Alchemy</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226103792" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226103792"><bdi>978-0226103792</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secrets+of+Alchemy&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0226103792&rft.aulast=Principe&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span> (general overview of the history of alchemy and chemistry, with a focus on the relationship between the two; written in a highly accessible style)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRampling2017" class="citation journal cs1">Rampling, Jennifer M (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00026980.2017.1434970">"The Future of the History of Chemistry"</a>. <i>Ambix</i>. <b>64</b> (4): 295–300. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00026980.2017.1434970">10.1080/00026980.2017.1434970</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29448901">29448901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ambix&rft.atitle=The+Future+of+the+History+of+Chemistry&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=295-300&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00026980.2017.1434970&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29448901&rft.aulast=Rampling&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00026980.2017.1434970&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRampling2020" class="citation book cs1">Rampling, Jennifer M. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/E/bo50462000.html"><i>The Experimental Fire: Inventing English Alchemy, 1300-1700</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226826547" title="Special:BookSources/9780226826547"><bdi>9780226826547</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Experimental+Fire%3A+Inventing+English+Alchemy%2C+1300-1700&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780226826547&rft.aulast=Rampling&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.uchicago.edu%2Fucp%2Fbooks%2Fbook%2Fchicago%2FE%2Fbo50462000.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>Documentaries</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> (2010). <i><a href="/wiki/Chemistry:_A_Volatile_History" title="Chemistry: A Volatile History">Chemistry: A Volatile History</a></i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alchemy" title="Template:Alchemy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alchemy" title="Template talk:Alchemy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alchemy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alchemy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alchemy_(general)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy (general)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_alchemists" title="List of alchemists">Alchemists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greco-Egyptian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agathodaemon_(alchemist)" title="Agathodaemon (alchemist)">Agathodaemon (legendary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chymes" title="Chymes">Chymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_the_Alchemist" title="Cleopatra the Alchemist">pseudo-Cleopatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Democritus" title="Pseudo-Democritus">pseudo-Democritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermetica" title="Hermetica">Hermes Trismegistus (legendary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_the_Jewess" title="Mary the Jewess">Mary the Jewess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_of_Alexandria" title="Moses of Alexandria">pseudo-Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostanes" title="Ostanes">Ostanes (legendary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paphnutia_the_Virgin" title="Paphnutia the Virgin">Paphnutia the Virgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimos_of_Panopolis" title="Zosimos of Panopolis">Zosimos of Panopolis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_alchemy" title="Chinese alchemy">Ancient Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fang_(alchemist)" title="Fang (alchemist)">Fang (alchemist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_Geng" title="Master Geng">Master Geng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Boyang" title="Wei Boyang">Wei Boyang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Byzantine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olympiodorus_the_Younger" title="Olympiodorus the Younger">pseudo-Olympiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Alexandria" title="Stephanus of Alexandria">Stephanus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synesius" title="Synesius">Synesius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Arabic-Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Rhazes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphidius" title="Alphidius">Alphidius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-khaliqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-khaliqa">pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana (Balīnūs/Balīnās)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artephius" title="Artephius">Artephius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">pseudo-Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arfa%27_Ra%27s" title="Ibn Arfa' Ra's">Ibn Arfaʿ Raʾs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Umayl" title="Ibn Umayl">Ibn Umayl (Senior Zadith)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Wahshiyya" title="Ibn Wahshiyya">Ibn Waḥshiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Simawi" title="Al-Simawi">al-ʿIrāqī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Geber)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Yazid" title="Khalid ibn Yazid">pseudo-Khālid ibn Yazīd (Calid)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jildaki" title="Al-Jildaki">al-Jildakī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picatrix" title="Picatrix">Maslama al-Qurṭubī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tughrai" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Tughrai">al-Ṭughrāʾī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">al-Zahrāwī (Abulcasis)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Late medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Albertus" title="Pseudo-Albertus">pseudo-Albertus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnaldus_de_Villa_Nova" title="Arnaldus de Villa Nova">(pseudo-)Arnaldus de Villa Nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Geber" title="Pseudo-Geber">pseudo-Geber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ripley_(alchemist)" title="George Ripley (alchemist)">George Ripley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guido_di_Montanor" title="Guido di Montanor">Guido di Montanor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Evesham" title="Hugh of Evesham">Hugh of Evesham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_of_Laz" title="Johann of Laz">Johann of Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dastin" title="John Dastin">John Dastin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Roquetaillade" title="Jean de Roquetaillade">John of Rupescissa (Jean de Roquetaillade)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_Salernus" title="Magister Salernus">Magister Salernus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scot" title="Michael Scot">pseudo-Michael Scot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ortolanus" title="Ortolanus">Ortolanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Taranto" title="Paul of Taranto">Paul of Taranto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Bonus" title="Petrus Bonus">Petrus Bonus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">pseudo-Ramon Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">(pseudo-)Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taddeo_Alderotti" title="Taddeo Alderotti">Taddeo Alderotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Norton_(alchemist)" title="Thomas Norton (alchemist)">Thomas Norton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Libavius" title="Andreas Libavius">Andreas Libavius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basil_Valentine" title="Basil Valentine">Basil Valentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Trevisan" title="Bernard Trevisan">pseudo-Bernard of Treviso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Starkey" title="George Starkey">George Starkey (Eirenaeus Philalethes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Dorn" title="Gerhard Dorn">Gerhard Dorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Mercurio_da_Correggio" title="Giovanni Mercurio da Correggio">Giovanni da Correggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Khunrath" title="Heinrich Khunrath">Heinrich Khunrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hennig_Brand" title="Hennig Brand">Hennig Brand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_B%C3%B6hme" title="Jakob Böhme">Jakob Böhme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Rudolf_Glauber" title="Johann Rudolf Glauber">Johann Rudolf Glauber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dee" title="John Dee">John Dee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Maier" title="Michael Maier">Michael Maier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sendivogius" title="Michael Sendivogius">Michael Sendivogius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Jean_Fabre" title="Pierre-Jean Fabre">Pierre-Jean Fabre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Norton_(alchemist)" title="Samuel Norton (alchemist)">Samuel Norton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Vaughan_(philosopher)" title="Thomas Vaughan (philosopher)">Thomas Vaughan (Eugenius Philalethes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Homberg" title="Wilhelm Homberg">Wilhelm Homberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung#Alchemy" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Canseliet" title="Eugène Canseliet">Eugène Canseliet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frater_Albertus" title="Frater Albertus">Frater Albertus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulcanelli" title="Fulcanelli">Fulcanelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anne_Atwood" title="Mary Anne Atwood">Mary Anne Atwood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemical_documents" title="Category:Alchemical documents">Writings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Atalanta_Fugiens" title="Atalanta Fugiens">Atalanta fugiens</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aurora_consurgens" title="Aurora consurgens">Aurora consurgens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber_de_compositione_alchemiae" title="Liber de compositione alchemiae"><i>Liber de compositione alchemiae</i> (<i>Morienus</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Silvery_Water_and_the_Starry_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of the Silvery Water and the Starry Earth">Book of the Silvery Water and the Starry Earth</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Mercy_(alchemical_treatise)" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Mercy (alchemical treatise)">Book of Mercy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Books_of_the_Balances" class="mw-redirect" title="Books of the Balances">Books of the Balances</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buch_der_heiligen_Dreifaltigkeit" title="Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit">Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cantong_qi" title="Cantong qi">Cantong Qi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chymical_Wedding_of_Christian_Rosenkreutz" title="Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz">Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clavis_sapientiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Clavis sapientiae"><i>Clavis sapientiae</i> (<i>Miftāḥ al-ḥikma</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_consideratione_quintae_essentiae" class="mw-redirect" title="De consideratione quintae essentiae">De consideratione quintae essentiae</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerald_Tablet" title="Emerald Tablet"><i>Emerald Tablet</i> (<i>Tabula Smaragdina</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leyden_papyrus_X" title="Leyden papyrus X">Leyden papyrus X</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber_Hermetis_de_alchemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Liber Hermetis de alchemia"><i>Liber Hermetis de alchemia</i> (<i>Liber dabessi</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liber_Ignium" title="Liber Ignium">Liber ignium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liber_lucis" class="mw-redirect" title="Liber lucis">Liber lucis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mappae_clavicula" title="Mappae clavicula">Mappae clavicula</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mirror_of_Alchimy" title="The Mirror of Alchimy">Mirror of Alchimy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mutus_Liber" title="Mutus Liber">Mutus liber</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Nabataean_Agriculture" title="The Nabataean Agriculture">Nabataean Agriculture</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Norton_(alchemist)" title="Thomas Norton (alchemist)">Ordinal of Alchemy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Graecus_Holmiensis" title="Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis">Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Physika_kai_mystika" class="mw-redirect" title="Physika kai mystika">Physika kai mystika</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rosary_of_the_Philosophers" title="Rosary of the Philosophers">Rosary of the Philosophers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutbat_al-hakim" class="mw-redirect" title="Rutbat al-hakim"><i>Rutbat al-ḥakīm</i> (<i>Step of the Sage</i>)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seventy_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventy Books">Seventy Books</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-khaliqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-khaliqa"><i>Sirr al-khalīqa</i> (<i>Secret of Creation</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretum_Secretorum" title="Secretum Secretorum"><i>Sirr al-asrār</i> (pseudo-Aristotle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-asrar_(al-Razi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-asrar (al-Razi)"><i>Sirr al-asrār</i> (al-Rāzī)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Splendor_Solis" title="Splendor Solis">Splendor solis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Summa_perfectionis" class="mw-redirect" title="Summa perfectionis">Summa perfectionis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Suspicions_about_the_Hidden_Realities_of_the_Air" title="Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air">Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Turba_Philosophorum" title="Turba Philosophorum">Turba philosophorum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Keys_of_Basil_Valentine" title="The Twelve Keys of Basil Valentine">Twelve Keys of Basil Valentine</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compilations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Salomon_Trismosin#Aureum_Vellus" title="Salomon Trismosin">Aureum vellus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_Chemica_Curiosa" title="Bibliotheca Chemica Curiosa">Bibliotheca chemica curiosa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Alchemia" title="De Alchemia">De alchemia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Theatrum_Chemicum" title="Deutsches Theatrum Chemicum">Deutsches Theatrum Chemicum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fasciculus_Chemicus" title="Fasciculus Chemicus">Fasciculus chemicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Musaeum_Hermeticum" title="Musaeum Hermeticum">Musaeum Hermeticum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theatrum_Chemicum" title="Theatrum Chemicum">Theatrum chemicum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theatrum_Chemicum_Britannicum" title="Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum">Theatrum chemicum Britannicum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tripus_Aureus" title="Tripus Aureus">Tripus aureus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Various</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alembic" title="Alembic">Alembic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanor" title="Athanor">Athanor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azoth" title="Azoth">Azoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysopoeia" title="Chrysopoeia">Chrysopoeia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">Element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elixir_of_life" title="Elixir of life">Elixir of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homunculus" title="Homunculus">Homunculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iatrochemistry" title="Iatrochemistry">Iatrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_in_art_and_entertainment" title="Alchemy in art and entertainment">In art/entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnum_opus_(alchemy)" title="Magnum opus (alchemy)">Magnum opus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouroboros" title="Ouroboros">Ouroboros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pill_of_Immortality" title="Pill of Immortality">Pill of Immortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">Philosophers' stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prima_materia" title="Prima materia">Prima materia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebis" title="Rebis">Rebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takwin" title="Takwin">Takwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yliaster" title="Yliaster">Yliaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemical_processes" title="Category:Alchemical processes">Processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances" title="List of alchemical substances">Substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemical_symbol" title="Alchemical symbol">Symbols</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alchemical_Symbols_(Unicode_block)" title="Alchemical Symbols (Unicode block)">Unicode</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suns_in_alchemy" title="Suns in alchemy">Suns in alchemy</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemy" title="Category:Alchemy">All articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_science" title="Template:History of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:History of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Theories and sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience" title="History of pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/80px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/120px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/160px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3992" data-file-height="5880" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By era</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_ancient_world" title="Science in the ancient world">Ancient world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Medieval European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_science" title="19th century in science">19th century in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/20th_century_in_science" title="20th century in science">20th century in science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Argentina" title="History of science and technology in Argentina">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in France">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Japan" title="History of science and technology in Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Korea" title="History of science and technology in Korea">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Mexico" title="History of science and technology in Mexico">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in Russia">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Spain" title="History of science and technology in Spain">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_natural_science" class="mw-redirect" title="History of natural science">Natural sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_sciences#History_of_Earth_science" title="Outline of Earth sciences">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">Mathematics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_algebra" title="History of algebra">Algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_calculus" title="History of calculus">Calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_combinatorics" title="History of combinatorics">Combinatorics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geometry" title="History of geometry">Geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_probability" title="History of probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_statistics" title="History of statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trigonometry" title="History of trigonometry">Trigonometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">Social sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archaeology" title="History of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_science" title="History of political science">Political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_engineering" title="History of engineering">Engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Human medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_veterinary_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="History of veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neurology_and_neurosurgery" title="History of neurology and neurosurgery">Neurology and neurosurgery </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="History of nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pathology" title="History of pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pharmacy" title="History of pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="margin-right:0.5em; padding:0.1em 0 0.4em;line-height:1.7em;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines#Science" title="List of timelines">Timelines</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">Portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_science" title="Category:History of science">Category</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_chemistry_(timeline)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_chemistry" title="Template:History of chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:History_of_chemistry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:History of chemistry (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_chemistry_(timeline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of chemistry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By branch</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical chemistry (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_physical_chemistry" title="Timeline of physical chemistry">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atomic_theory" title="History of atomic theory">Atomic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory" title="History of molecular theory">Molecular theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electrochemistry" title="History of electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_spectroscopy" title="History of spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_thermodynamics" title="History of thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_thermodynamics" title="Timeline of thermodynamics">timeline</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organic chemistry (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biochemistry" title="History of biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nuclear chemistry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_nuclear_fission" title="Discovery of nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_fusion" title="History of nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_power" title="History of nuclear power">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied chemistry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cosmetics" title="History of cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">Material science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nanotechnology" title="History of nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pharmacy" title="History of pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_alchemy" title="Chinese alchemy">Chinese alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic World alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Indian metallurgy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_periodic_table" title="History of the periodic table">Periodic table</a> (<a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_elements" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fluorine" title="History of fluorine">F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_aluminium" title="History of aluminium">Al</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On specific discoveries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_battery" title="History of the battery">Battery</a></li> <li>Carbon nanotubes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_carbon_nanotubes" title="Timeline of carbon nanotubes">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electrophoresis" title="History of electrophoresis">Electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_manufactured_fuel_gases" title="History of manufactured fuel gases">Gaseous fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_graphene" title="Discovery of graphene">Graphene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gunpowder" title="History of gunpowder">Gunpowder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Haber_process" title="History of the Haber process">Haber process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific disputes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_element_naming_controversies" title="List of chemical element naming controversies">Element naming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_equivalent_of_heat" title="Mechanical equivalent of heat">Joule–von Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfermium_Wars" title="Transfermium Wars">Transfermium Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_chemistry" title="Women in chemistry">Women in chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_chemistry" title="Category:History of chemistry">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_chemistry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template talk:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae" title="Glossary of chemical formulae">Glossary of chemical formulae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biomolecules" title="List of biomolecules">List of biomolecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" title="List of inorganic compounds">List of inorganic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_chemistry" title="Instrumental chemistry">Instrumental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroanalytical_methods" title="Electroanalytical methods">Electroanalytical methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">UV-Vis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_ionization" title="Electron ionization">EI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">ICP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">MALDI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">GC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">Wet chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">Molecular dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">Molecular geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryochemistry" title="Cryochemistry">Cryochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_chemistry" title="Spin chemistry">Spin chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">Mechanochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">Coordination chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organolanthanide_chemistry" title="Organolanthanide chemistry">Organolanthanide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthetic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogeochemistry" title="Photogeochemistry">Photogeochemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_chemistry" title="Clay chemistry">Clay chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbochemistry" title="Carbochemistry">Carbochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate chemistry">Carbohydrate chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_physical_chemistry" title="Food physical chemistry">Food physical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_chemistry" title="Agricultural chemistry">Agricultural chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_chemistry" title="Amateur chemistry">Amateur chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_chemistry" title="General chemistry">General chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" title="Clandestine chemistry">Clandestine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Forensic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanochemistry" title="Nanochemistry">Nanochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_chemistry" title="Click chemistry">Click chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_chemistry" title="Combinatorial chemistry">Combinatorial chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">Stoichiometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> 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