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</li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Operation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_products" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_products"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Major products </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_products-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Chemical processes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flow_diagram_of_typical_refinery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flow_diagram_of_typical_refinery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Flow diagram of typical refinery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flow_diagram_of_typical_refinery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crude_oil_distillation_unit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crude_oil_distillation_unit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Crude oil distillation unit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crude_oil_distillation_unit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Location_of_refineries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Location_of_refineries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Location of refineries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Location_of_refineries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety_and_environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety_and_environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Safety and environment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety_and_environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Worker_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worker_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Worker health </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Worker_health-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Worker health subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Worker_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Background </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_exposures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_exposures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Chemical exposures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_exposures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Potential_chemical_exposure_by_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_chemical_exposure_by_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.1 Potential chemical exposure by process </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_chemical_exposure_by_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_hazards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_hazards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Physical hazards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_hazards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hazard_controls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hazard_controls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Hazard controls </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hazard_controls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Regulations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5.1 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corrosion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corrosion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Corrosion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corrosion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Oil refinery</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" > 48 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olieraffinadery" title="Olieraffinadery – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Olieraffinadery" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B7" title="مصفاة النفط – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مصفاة النفط" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refiner%C3%ADa_de_petroleu" title="Refinería de petroleu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Refinería de petroleu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="তেল শোধনাগার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তেল শোধনাগার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C4%81n-i%C3%BB-chhi%C3%BA%E2%81%BF" title="Liān-iû-chhiúⁿ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Liān-iû-chhiúⁿ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%82%D1%8C_%D1%8D%D1%88%D0%BA%D3%99%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B5%D2%AF_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Нефть эшкәртеү заводы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Нефть эшкәртеү заводы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Петролна рафинерия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Петролна рафинерия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planta_petroqu%C3%ADmica" title="Planta petroquímica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Planta petroquímica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ropn%C3%A1_rafinerie" title="Ropná rafinerie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ropná rafinerie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olieraffinaderi" title="Olieraffinaderi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Olieraffinaderi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erd%C3%B6lraffinerie" title="Erdölraffinerie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Erdölraffinerie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Διυλιστήριο πετρελαίου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διυλιστήριο πετρελαίου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refiner%C3%ADa_de_petr%C3%B3leo" title="Refinería de petróleo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Refinería de petróleo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafta_rafinejo" title="Nafta rafinejo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nafta rafinejo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrolio_findegi" title="Petrolio findegi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Petrolio findegi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%86%D9%81%D8%AA" title="پالایشگاه نفت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پالایشگاه نفت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raffinerie_de_p%C3%A9trole" title="Raffinerie de pétrole – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Raffinerie de pétrole" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refinar%C3%ADa_de_petr%C3%B3leo" title="Refinaría de petróleo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Refinaría de petróleo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="तेल शोधनागार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तेल शोधनागार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafinerija_nafte" title="Rafinerija nafte – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rafinerija nafte" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilang_minyak" title="Kilang minyak – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kilang minyak" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ol%C3%ADuhreinsist%C3%B6%C3%B0" title="Olíuhreinsistöð – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Olíuhreinsistöð" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raffineria_di_petrolio" title="Raffineria di petrolio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Raffineria di petrolio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A7_%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%98" title="בית זיקוק לנפט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בית זיקוק לנפט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilang_lenga" title="Kilang lenga – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kilang lenga" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiwanda_cha_kusafisha_mafuta" title="Kiwanda cha kusafisha mafuta – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kiwanda cha kusafisha mafuta" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raffinaderij" title="Raffinaderij – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Raffinaderij" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA" title="तेल शुद्धीकरण प्रकल्प – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="तेल शुद्धीकरण प्रकल्प" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loji_penapis_minyak" title="Loji penapis minyak – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Loji penapis minyak" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%80%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%85_%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Газрын тос боловсруулах үйлдвэр – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Газрын тос боловсруулах үйлдвэр" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oljeraffineri" title="Oljeraffineri – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Oljeraffineri" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oljeraffineri" title="Oljeraffineri – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Oljeraffineri" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafinari%C3%A1_de_petr%C3%B2li" title="Rafinariá de petròli – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Rafinariá de petròli" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refineria_di_zeta" title="Refineria di zeta – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Refineria di zeta" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafineria_ropy_naftowej" title="Rafineria ropy naftowej – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rafineria ropy naftowej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refinaria_de_petr%C3%B3leo" title="Refinaria de petróleo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Refinaria de petróleo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Нефтеперерабатывающий завод – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нефтеперерабатывающий завод" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafineria_e_naft%C3%ABs" title="Rafineria e naftës – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Rafineria e naftës" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Oil refinery" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafinerija_nafte" title="Rafinerija nafte – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Rafinerija nafte" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafinerija_nafte" title="Rafinerija nafte – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rafinerija nafte" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oljeraffinaderi" title="Oljeraffinaderi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Oljeraffinaderi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Facility that processes crude oil</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anacortes_Refinery_31911.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Anacortes_Refinery_31911.JPG/220px-Anacortes_Refinery_31911.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Anacortes_Refinery_31911.JPG/330px-Anacortes_Refinery_31911.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Anacortes_Refinery_31911.JPG/440px-Anacortes_Refinery_31911.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2527" data-file-height="1875" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marathon_Anacortes_Refinery" title="Marathon Anacortes Refinery">Anacortes Refinery</a>, on the north end of March Point southeast of <a href="/wiki/Anacortes,_Washington" title="Anacortes, Washington">Anacortes, Washington</a>, United States</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grangemouth04nov06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Grangemouth04nov06.jpg/220px-Grangemouth04nov06.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Grangemouth04nov06.jpg/330px-Grangemouth04nov06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Grangemouth04nov06.jpg/440px-Grangemouth04nov06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Grangemouth_Refinery" title="Grangemouth Refinery">Grangemouth Refinery</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jamnagar_Refinery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Jamnagar_Refinery.jpg/220px-Jamnagar_Refinery.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Jamnagar_Refinery.jpg/330px-Jamnagar_Refinery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Jamnagar_Refinery.jpg/440px-Jamnagar_Refinery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jamnagar_Refinery" title="Jamnagar Refinery">Jamnagar Refinery</a>, the world's largest oil refinery, in <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></figcaption></figure> An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an <a href="/wiki/Industrial_processes" title="Industrial processes">industrial process</a> <a href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">plant</a> where <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> (crude oil) is transformed and <a href="/wiki/Refining" title="Refining">refined</a> into products such as <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a> (petrol), <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel fuel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">asphalt base</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">fuel oils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heating_oil" title="Heating oil">heating oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas" title="Liquefied petroleum gas">liquefied petroleum gas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_naphtha" title="Petroleum naphtha">petroleum naphtha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Handwerk2-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leffler2-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-speight-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">Petrochemical</a> feedstock like <a href="/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">ethylene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Propene" class="mw-redirect" title="Propene">propylene</a> can also be produced directly by <a href="/wiki/Cracking_(chemistry)" title="Cracking (chemistry)">cracking</a> crude oil without the need of using refined products of crude oil such as naphtha.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The crude oil feedstock has typically been processed by an <a href="/wiki/Oil_production_plant" title="Oil production plant">oil production plant</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://seekghana.com/listing/tema-oil-refinery">[1]</a> There is usually an <a href="/wiki/Oil_depot" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil depot">oil depot</a> at or near an oil refinery for the storage of incoming crude oil feedstock as well as bulk liquid products. In 2020, the total capacity of global refineries for crude oil was about 101.2 million barrels per day.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Oil refineries are typically large, sprawling industrial complexes with extensive <a href="/wiki/Piping" title="Piping">piping</a> running throughout, carrying streams of <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluids</a> between large <a href="/wiki/Chemical_process" title="Chemical process">chemical processing</a> units, such as <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a> columns. In many ways, oil refineries use many different technologies and can be thought of as types of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_plant" title="Chemical plant">chemical plants</a>. Since December 2008, the world's largest oil refinery has been the <a href="/wiki/Jamnagar_Refinery" title="Jamnagar Refinery">Jamnagar Refinery</a> owned by <a href="/wiki/Reliance_Industries" title="Reliance Industries">Reliance Industries</a>, located in <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>, India, with a processing capacity of 1.24 million barrels (197,000 m3) per day. Oil refineries are an essential part of the petroleum industry's <a href="/wiki/Downstream_(petroleum_industry)" title="Downstream (petroleum industry)">downstream</a> sector.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> The Chinese were among the first civilizations to refine oil.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDengWang201140-8">[8]</a> As early as the first century, the Chinese were refining crude oil for use as an energy source.<a href="#cite_note-Spataru_2017-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDengWang201140-8">[8]</a> Between 512 and 518, in the late <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wei dynasty">Northern Wei dynasty</a>, the Chinese geographer, writer and politician <a href="/wiki/Li_Daoyuan" title="Li Daoyuan">Li Daoyuan</a> introduced the process of refining oil into various lubricants in his famous work <a href="/wiki/Commentary_on_the_Water_Classic" title="Commentary on the Water Classic">Commentary on the Water Classic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spataru_2017-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDengWang201140-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Crude_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude oil">Crude oil</a> was often distilled by <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam">Persian chemists</a>, with clear descriptions given in handbooks such as those of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakar%C4%ABya_R%C4%81zi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi">Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 865–925).<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The streets of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> were paved with <a href="/wiki/Tar" title="Tar">tar</a>, derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region. In the 9th century, <a href="/wiki/Oil_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil field">oil fields</a> were exploited in the area around modern <a href="/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a>, Azerbaijan. These fields were described by the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic geography">Arab geographer</a> <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hasan_%27Al%C4%AB_al-Mas%27%C5%ABd%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī">Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī</a> in the 10th century, and by <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> in the 13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in Islam">Arab and Persian chemists</a> also distilled crude oil in order to produce <a href="/wiki/Flammability" class="mw-redirect" title="Flammability">flammable</a> products for military purposes. Through <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Islamic Spain</a>, distillation became available in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> by the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Song dynasty">Northern Song dynasty</a> (960–1127), a workshop called the "Fierce Oil Workshop", was established in the city of Kaifeng to produce refined oil for the Song military as a weapon. The troops would then fill iron cans with refined oil and throw them toward the enemy troops, causing a fire – effectively the world's first "<a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">fire bomb</a>". The workshop was one of the world's earliest oil refining factories where thousands of people worked to produce Chinese oil-powered weaponry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDengWang201141-14">[14]</a> Prior to the nineteenth century, petroleum was known and utilized in various fashions in <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>. However, the modern history of the petroleum industry is said to have begun in 1846 when Abraham Gessner of <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> devised a process to produce kerosene from coal. Shortly thereafter, in 1854, <a href="/wiki/Ignacy_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Ignacy Łukasiewicz">Ignacy Łukasiewicz</a> began producing kerosene from hand-dug oil wells near the town of <a href="/wiki/Krosno" title="Krosno">Krosno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>. Romania was registered as the first country in world oil production statistics, according to the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldrecordacademy.org/technology/worlds-first-oil-refinery-ploiesti-218277">Academy Of World Records</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pbs-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> In North America, the first oil well was drilled in 1858 by <a href="/wiki/James_Miller_Williams" title="James Miller Williams">James Miller Williams</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oil_Springs,_Ontario" title="Oil Springs, Ontario">Oil Springs, Ontario</a>, Canada.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> In the United States, the petroleum industry began in 1859 when <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Drake" title="Edwin Drake">Edwin Drake</a> found oil near <a href="/wiki/Titusville,_Pennsylvania" title="Titusville, Pennsylvania">Titusville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The industry grew slowly in the 1800s, primarily producing kerosene for oil lamps. In the early twentieth century, the introduction of the internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles created a market for gasoline that was the impetus for fairly rapid growth of the petroleum industry. The early finds of petroleum like those in Ontario and <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> were soon outstripped by large oil "booms" in <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> and <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Kier" title="Samuel Kier">Samuel Kier</a> established America's first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh Avenue near Grant Street, in 1853.<a href="#cite_note-The_American_Manufacturer_and_Iron_World-20">[20]</a> Polish pharmacist and inventor <a href="/wiki/Ignacy_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Ignacy Łukasiewicz">Ignacy Łukasiewicz</a> established an oil refinery in <a href="/wiki/Jas%C5%82o" title="Jasło">Jasło</a>, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (now in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>) in 1854. The first large refinery opened at <a href="/wiki/Ploie%C8%99ti" title="Ploiești">Ploiești</a>, Romania, in 1856–1857.<a href="#cite_note-pbs-15">[15]</a> It was in Ploiesti that, 51 years later, in 1908, <a href="/wiki/Laz%C4%83r_Edeleanu" title="Lazăr Edeleanu">Lazăr Edeleanu</a>, a Romanian chemist of Jewish origin who got his PhD in 1887 by discovering <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">amphetamine</a>, invented, patented and tested on industrial scale the first modern method of liquid extraction for refining crude oil, the <a href="/wiki/Edeleanu_process" title="Edeleanu process">Edeleanu process</a>. This increased the refining efficiency compared to pure <a href="/wiki/Fractional_distillation" title="Fractional distillation">fractional distillation</a> and allowed a massive development of the refining plants. Successively, the process was implemented in France, Germany, U.S. and in a few decades became worldwide spread. In 1910 Edeleanu founded "Allgemeine Gesellschaft für Chemische Industrie" in Germany, which, given the success of the name, changed to Edeleanu GmbH, in 1930. During Nazi's time, the company was bought by the Deutsche Erdöl-AG and Edeleanu, being of Jewish origin, moved back to Romania. After the war, the trademark was used by the successor company EDELEANU Gesellschaft mbH Alzenau (RWE) for many petroleum products, while the company was lately integrated as EDL in the <a href="/wiki/P%C3%B6rner_Group" title="Pörner Group">Pörner Group</a>. The Ploiești refineries, after being taken over by <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, were bombed in the 1943 <a href="/wiki/Operation_Tidal_Wave" title="Operation Tidal Wave">Operation Tidal Wave</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Oil_Campaign_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil Campaign of World War II">Oil Campaign of World War II</a>. Another close contender for the title of hosting the world's oldest oil refinery is <a href="/wiki/Salzbergen" title="Salzbergen">Salzbergen</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Saxony" title="Lower Saxony">Lower Saxony</a>, Germany. Salzbergen's refinery was opened in 1860. At one point, the refinery in <a href="/wiki/Ras_Tanura" title="Ras Tanura">Ras Tanura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> owned by <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Aramco" title="Saudi Aramco">Saudi Aramco</a> was claimed to be the largest oil refinery in the world. For most of the 20th century, the largest refinery was the <a href="/wiki/Abadan_Refinery" title="Abadan Refinery">Abadan Refinery</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. This refinery suffered extensive damage during the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a>. Since 25 December 2008, the world's largest refinery complex is the <a href="/wiki/Jamnagar_Refinery" title="Jamnagar Refinery">Jamnagar Refinery</a> Complex, consisting of two refineries side by side operated by <a href="/wiki/Reliance_Industries_Limited" class="mw-redirect" title="Reliance Industries Limited">Reliance Industries Limited</a> in Jamnagar, India with a combined production capacity of 1,240,000 barrels per day (197,000 m3/d). <a href="/wiki/PDVSA" title="PDVSA">PDVSA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Paraguan%C3%A1_Refinery_Complex" title="Paraguaná Refinery Complex">Paraguaná Refinery Complex</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paraguan%C3%A1_Peninsula" title="Paraguaná Peninsula">Paraguaná Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, with a capacity of 940,000 bbl/d (149,000 m3/d) but effective run rates have been dramatically lower due to the impact of 20 years of sanctions, and <a href="/wiki/SK_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="SK Energy">SK Energy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ulsan" title="Ulsan">Ulsan</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> with 840,000 bbl/d (134,000 m3/d) are the second and third largest, respectively. Prior to World War II in the early 1940s, most petroleum refineries in the United States consisted simply of crude oil distillation units (often referred to as atmospheric crude oil distillation units). Some refineries also had <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_distillation" title="Vacuum distillation">vacuum distillation</a> units as well as <a href="/wiki/Thermal_cracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal cracking">thermal cracking</a> units such as <a href="/wiki/Visbreaker" title="Visbreaker">visbreakers</a> (viscosity breakers, units to lower the <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> of the oil). All of the many other refining processes discussed below were developed during the war or within a few years after the war. They became commercially available within 5 to 10 years after the war ended and the worldwide petroleum industry experienced very rapid growth. The driving force for that growth in technology and in the number and size of refineries worldwide was the growing demand for automotive gasoline and aircraft fuel. In the United States, for various complex economic and political reasons, the construction of new refineries came to a virtual stop in about the 1980s. However, many of the existing refineries in the United States have revamped many of their units and/or constructed add-on units in order to: increase their crude oil processing capacity, increase the <a href="/wiki/Octane" title="Octane">octane</a> rating of their product gasoline, lower the <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> content of their diesel fuel and home heating fuels to comply with environmental regulations and comply with environmental air pollution and water pollution requirements.<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ExxonMobil_Baton_Rouge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/ExxonMobil_Baton_Rouge.jpg/610px-ExxonMobil_Baton_Rouge.jpg" decoding="async" width="610" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/ExxonMobil_Baton_Rouge.jpg/915px-ExxonMobil_Baton_Rouge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/ExxonMobil_Baton_Rouge.jpg/1220px-ExxonMobil_Baton_Rouge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2853" data-file-height="621" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_Refinery" title="Baton Rouge Refinery">Baton Rouge Refinery</a> (the fifth-largest in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>)<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_refining_in_the_United_States" title="Petroleum refining in the United States">Petroleum refining in the United States</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Refinery,_Bayport_Industrial_Complex,_Harris_County,_Texas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Refinery%2C_Bayport_Industrial_Complex%2C_Harris_County%2C_Texas.jpg/200px-Refinery%2C_Bayport_Industrial_Complex%2C_Harris_County%2C_Texas.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Refinery%2C_Bayport_Industrial_Complex%2C_Harris_County%2C_Texas.jpg/300px-Refinery%2C_Bayport_Industrial_Complex%2C_Harris_County%2C_Texas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Refinery%2C_Bayport_Industrial_Complex%2C_Harris_County%2C_Texas.jpg/400px-Refinery%2C_Bayport_Industrial_Complex%2C_Harris_County%2C_Texas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3594" data-file-height="2505" /></a><figcaption>Refinery, Bayport Industrial Complex, Harris County, Texas</figcaption></figure> In the 19th century, refineries in the U.S. processed crude oil primarily to recover the <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a>. There was no market for the more volatile fraction, including gasoline, which was considered waste and was often dumped directly into the nearest river. The invention of the automobile shifted the demand to gasoline and diesel, which remain the primary refined products today.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Today, national and state legislation require refineries to meet stringent air and water cleanliness standards. In fact, oil companies in the U.S. perceive obtaining a permit to build a modern refinery to be so difficult and costly that no new refineries were built (though many have been expanded) in the U.S. from 1976 until 2014 when the small Dakota Prairie Refinery in North Dakota began operation.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> More than half the refineries that existed in 1981 are now closed due to low utilization rates and accelerating mergers.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> As a result of these closures total US refinery capacity fell between 1981 and 1995, though the operating capacity stayed fairly constant in that time period at around 15,000,000 barrels per day (2,400,000 m3/d).<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Increases in facility size and improvements in efficiencies have offset much of the lost physical capacity of the industry. In 1982 (the earliest data provided), the United States operated 301 refineries with a combined capacity of 17.9 million barrels (2,850,000 m3) of crude oil each calendar day. In 2010, there were 149 operable U.S. refineries with a combined capacity of 17.6 million barrels (2,800,000 m3) per calendar day.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> By 2014 the number of refinery had reduced to 140 but the total capacity increased to 18.02 million barrels (2,865,000 m3) per calendar day. Indeed, in order to reduce operating costs and depreciation, refining is operated in fewer sites but of bigger capacity. In 2009 through 2010, as revenue streams in the oil business dried up and profitability of oil refineries fell due to lower demand for product and high reserves of supply preceding the <a href="/wiki/Late-2000s_recession" class="mw-redirect" title="Late-2000s recession">economic recession</a>, oil companies began to close or sell the less profitable refineries.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation">Operation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Operation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neste_Oil_Porvoo_refinery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Neste_Oil_Porvoo_refinery.jpg/220px-Neste_Oil_Porvoo_refinery.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Neste_Oil_Porvoo_refinery.jpg/330px-Neste_Oil_Porvoo_refinery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Neste_Oil_Porvoo_refinery.jpg/440px-Neste_Oil_Porvoo_refinery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Neste_Oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Neste Oil">Neste Oil</a> refinery in <a href="/wiki/Porvoo" title="Porvoo">Porvoo</a>, Finland</figcaption></figure> Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial applications, although "light, sweet" (low viscosity, low <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>) crude oil has been used directly as a burner fuel to produce steam for the propulsion of seagoing vessels. The lighter elements, however, form explosive vapors in the fuel tanks and are therefore hazardous, especially in <a href="/wiki/Warships" class="mw-redirect" title="Warships">warships</a>. Instead, the hundreds of different hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil are separated in a refinery into components that can be used as <a href="/wiki/Fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuels">fuels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lubricants" class="mw-redirect" title="Lubricants">lubricants</a>, and feedstocks in <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">petrochemical</a> processes that manufacture such products as <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detergent" title="Detergent">detergents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elastomer" title="Elastomer">elastomers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fiber" title="Fiber">fibers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Nylon" title="Nylon">nylon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyesters" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyesters">polyesters</a>. <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a> <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a> are burned in internal combustion engines to provide power for <a href="/wiki/Ships" class="mw-redirect" title="Ships">ships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Automobiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobiles">automobiles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine" title="Aircraft engine">aircraft engines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawn_mower" title="Lawn mower">lawn mowers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dirt_bikes" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirt bikes">dirt bikes</a>, and other machines. Different <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling points</a> allow the <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a> to be separated by <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a>. Since the lighter liquid products are in great demand for use in internal combustion engines, a modern refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons and lighter gaseous elements into these higher-value products.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haifa_Refinery_by_David_Shankbone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Haifa_Refinery_by_David_Shankbone.jpg/220px-Haifa_Refinery_by_David_Shankbone.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Haifa_Refinery_by_David_Shankbone.jpg/330px-Haifa_Refinery_by_David_Shankbone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Haifa_Refinery_by_David_Shankbone.jpg/440px-Haifa_Refinery_by_David_Shankbone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The oil refinery in <a href="/wiki/Haifa,_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Haifa, Israel">Haifa, Israel</a>, is capable of processing about 9 million tons (66 million barrels) of <a href="/wiki/Crude_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude oil">crude oil</a> a year. Its two <a href="/wiki/Cooling_tower" title="Cooling tower">cooling towers</a> are landmarks of the city's skyline.</figcaption></figure> Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying <a href="/wiki/Molecular_mass" title="Molecular mass">molecular masses</a>, forms and lengths such as <a href="/wiki/Alkane" title="Alkane">paraffins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatic">aromatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naphthene" class="mw-redirect" title="Naphthene">naphthenes</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Cycloalkane" title="Cycloalkane">cycloalkanes</a>), <a href="/wiki/Alkene" title="Alkene">alkenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diene" title="Diene">dienes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alkyne" title="Alkyne">alkynes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> While the molecules in crude oil include different atoms such as sulfur and nitrogen, the hydrocarbons are the most common form of molecules, which are molecules of varying lengths and complexity made of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>, and a small number of oxygen atoms. The differences in the structure of these molecules account for their varying <a href="/wiki/Physical_property" title="Physical property">physical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_property" title="Chemical property">chemical properties</a>, and it is this variety that makes crude oil useful in a broad range of several applications. Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing. Smaller molecules such as <a href="/wiki/Isobutane" title="Isobutane">isobutane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Propylene" title="Propylene">propylene</a> or <a href="/wiki/Butylene" class="mw-redirect" title="Butylene">butylenes</a> can be recombined to meet specific <a href="/wiki/Octane_rating" title="Octane rating">octane</a> requirements by processes such as <a href="/wiki/Alkylation" title="Alkylation">alkylation</a>, or more commonly, <a href="/wiki/Dimer_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimer (chemistry)">dimerization</a>. The octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by <a href="/wiki/Catalytic_reforming" title="Catalytic reforming">catalytic reforming</a>, which involves removing <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> from hydrocarbons producing compounds with higher octane ratings such as <a href="/wiki/Aromatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatics">aromatics</a>. Intermediate products such as <a href="/wiki/Gasoil" class="mw-redirect" title="Gasoil">gasoils</a> can even be reprocessed to break a heavy, long-chained oil into a lighter short-chained one, by various forms of <a href="/wiki/Cracking_(chemistry)" title="Cracking (chemistry)">cracking</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Fluid_catalytic_cracking" title="Fluid catalytic cracking">fluid catalytic cracking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_cracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal cracking">thermal cracking</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrocracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocracking">hydrocracking</a>. The final step in gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings, <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressures</a>, and other properties to meet product specifications. Another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products (residual oils) uses a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/devolatilization" class="extiw" title="wikt:devolatilization">devolatilization</a> process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material. Certain cracked streams are particularly suitable to produce petrochemicals includes polypropylene, heavier polymers, and block polymers based on the molecular weight and the characteristics of the olefin specie that is cracked from the source feedstock. <a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Oil refineries are large-scale plants, processing about a hundred thousand to several hundred thousand <a href="/wiki/Barrel_(volume)" class="mw-redirect" title="Barrel (volume)">barrels</a> of crude oil a day. Because of the high capacity, many of the units operate <a href="/wiki/Continuous_production" title="Continuous production">continuously</a>, as opposed to processing in <a href="/wiki/Batch_production" title="Batch production">batches</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Steady_state" title="Steady state">steady state</a> or nearly steady state for months to years. The high capacity also makes <a href="/wiki/Process_optimization" title="Process optimization">process optimization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Advanced_process_control" title="Advanced process control">advanced process control</a> very desirable. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_products">Major products</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Major products">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crude_Oil_Distillation-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Crude_Oil_Distillation-en.svg/220px-Crude_Oil_Distillation-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Crude_Oil_Distillation-en.svg/330px-Crude_Oil_Distillation-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Crude_Oil_Distillation-en.svg/440px-Crude_Oil_Distillation-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="260" data-file-height="342" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Crude_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude oil">Crude oil</a> is separated into fractions by <a href="/wiki/Fractional_distillation" title="Fractional distillation">fractional distillation</a>. The fractions at the top of the <a href="/wiki/Fractionating_column" title="Fractionating column">fractionating column</a> have lower <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling points</a> than the fractions at the bottom. The heavy bottom fractions are often <a href="/wiki/Cracking_(chemistry)" title="Cracking (chemistry)">cracked</a> into lighter, more useful products. All of the fractions are processed further in other refining units.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Usesofpetroleum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Usesofpetroleum.png/300px-Usesofpetroleum.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Usesofpetroleum.png/450px-Usesofpetroleum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Usesofpetroleum.png/600px-Usesofpetroleum.png 2x" data-file-width="827" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>A breakdown of the products made from a typical barrel of US oil<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Petroleum products">Petroleum products</a> are materials derived from crude oil (<a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>) as it is processed in <a href="/wiki/Oil_refineries" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refineries">oil refineries</a>. The majority of petroleum is converted to petroleum products, which includes several classes of fuels.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Oil refineries also produce various intermediate products such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, light hydrocarbons, <a href="/wiki/Reformate" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformate">reformate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis_gasoline" title="Pyrolysis gasoline">pyrolysis gasoline</a>. These are not usually transported but instead are blended or processed further on-site. Chemical plants are thus often adjacent to oil refineries or a number of further chemical processes are integrated into it. For example, light hydrocarbons are <a href="/wiki/Steam_cracking" title="Steam cracking">steam-cracked</a> in an <a href="/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">ethylene</a> plant, and the produced ethylene is polymerized to produce <a href="/wiki/Polyethene" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyethene">polyethene</a>. To ensure both proper separation and environmental protection, a very low sulfur content is necessary in all but the heaviest products. The crude sulfur contaminant is transformed to <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> via catalytic <a href="/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization" title="Hydrodesulfurization">hydrodesulfurization</a> and removed from the product stream via <a href="/wiki/Amine_gas_treating" title="Amine gas treating">amine gas treating</a>. Using the <a href="/wiki/Claus_process" title="Claus process">Claus process</a>, hydrogen sulfide is afterward transformed to elementary sulfur to be sold to the chemical industry. The rather large heat energy freed by this process is directly used in the other parts of the refinery. Often an electrical power plant is combined into the whole refinery process to take up the excess heat. According to the composition of the crude oil and depending on the demands of the market, refineries can produce different shares of petroleum products. The largest share of oil products is used as "energy carriers", i.e. various grades of <a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">fuel oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>. These <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuels</a> include or can be blended to give gasoline, <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">jet fuel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel fuel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heating_oil" title="Heating oil">heating oil</a>, and heavier fuel oils. Heavier (less <a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">volatile</a>) fractions can also be used to produce <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">asphalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tar" title="Tar">tar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">paraffin wax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lubricant" title="Lubricant">lubricating</a> and other heavy oils. Refineries also produce other <a href="/wiki/Chemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemicals">chemicals</a>, some of which are used in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_process" title="Chemical process">chemical processes</a> to produce <a href="/wiki/Plastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastics">plastics</a> and other useful materials. Since petroleum often contains a few percent <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>-containing molecules, elemental sulfur is also often produced as a petroleum product. <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Carbon</a>, in the form of <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_coke" title="Petroleum coke">petroleum coke</a>, and hydrogen may also be produced as petroleum products. The hydrogen produced is often used as an intermediate product for other oil refinery processes such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrocracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocracking">hydrocracking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization" title="Hydrodesulfurization">hydrodesulfurization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Petroleum products are usually grouped into four categories: light distillates (LPG, gasoline, naphtha), middle distillates (kerosene, jet fuel, diesel), heavy distillates, and residuum (heavy fuel oil, lubricating oils, wax, asphalt). These require blending various feedstocks, mixing appropriate additives, providing short-term storage, and preparation for bulk loading to trucks, barges, product ships, and railcars. This classification is based on the way crude oil is distilled and separated into fractions.<a href="#cite_note-Leffler2-2">[2]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaseous_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaseous fuel">Gaseous fuel</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Liquified_petroleum_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquified petroleum gas">liquified petroleum gas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">propane</a>, stored and shipped in liquid form under pressure.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lubricant" title="Lubricant">Lubricants</a> (produces light machine oils, <a href="/wiki/Motor_oil" title="Motor oil">motor oils</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grease_(lubricant)" title="Grease (lubricant)">greases</a>, adding <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> stabilizers as required), usually shipped in bulk to an offsite packaging plant.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">Paraffin wax</a>, used in the <a href="/wiki/Candle" title="Candle">candle</a> industry, among others. May be shipped in bulk to a site to prepare as packaged blocks. Used for wax emulsions, candles, matches, rust protection, vapor barriers, construction board, and packaging of <a href="/wiki/Frozen_food" title="Frozen food">frozen foods</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>), byproducts of sulfur removal from petroleum which may have up to a couple of percent sulfur as organic sulfur-containing compounds. Sulfur and sulfuric acid are useful industrial materials. Sulfuric acid is usually prepared and shipped as the acid precursor <a href="/wiki/Oleum" title="Oleum">oleum</a>.</li> <li>Bulk <a href="/wiki/Tar" title="Tar">tar</a> shipping for offsite unit packaging for use in tar-and-gravel roofing.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">Asphalt</a> used as a binder for <a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">asphalt concrete</a>, which is used for paving roads, lots, etc. An asphalt unit prepares bulk asphalt for shipment.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_coke" title="Petroleum coke">Petroleum coke</a>, used in specialty <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> products like <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a> or as solid fuel.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">Petrochemicals</a> are <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> that are the ingredients for the chemical industry, ranging from polymers and pharmaceuticals, including <a href="/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">ethylene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>-<a href="/wiki/Toluene" title="Toluene">toluene</a>-<a href="/wiki/Xylene" title="Xylene">xylenes</a> ("BTX") which are often sent to petro<a href="/wiki/Chemical_plant" title="Chemical plant">chemical plants</a> for further processing in a variety of ways. The petrochemicals may be <a href="/wiki/Olefin" class="mw-redirect" title="Olefin">olefins</a> or their precursors, or various types of <a href="/wiki/Aromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatic">aromatic</a> petrochemicals.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">Gasoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naphtha" title="Naphtha">Naphtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">Kerosene</a> and related <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">jet aircraft fuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">Diesel fuel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">fuel oils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">Heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a></li></ul> Over 6,000 items are made from petroleum waste by-products, including <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Floor_coverings&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Floor coverings (page does not exist)">floor coverings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perfume" title="Perfume">perfume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">insecticide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_jelly" title="Petroleum jelly">petroleum jelly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">soap</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_capsules&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vitamin capsules (page does not exist)">vitamin capsules</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Petroleum.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Sample of crude oil (petroleum)"><img alt="Sample of crude oil (petroleum)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Petroleum.JPG/90px-Petroleum.JPG" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Petroleum.JPG/135px-Petroleum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Petroleum.JPG/180px-Petroleum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sample of <a href="/wiki/Crude_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude oil">crude oil</a> (petroleum)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:LPG_cylinders.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Cylinders of liquified petroleum gas"><img alt="Cylinders of liquified petroleum gas" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/LPG_cylinders.JPG/90px-LPG_cylinders.JPG" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/LPG_cylinders.JPG/135px-LPG_cylinders.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/LPG_cylinders.JPG/180px-LPG_cylinders.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Gas_cylinder" title="Gas cylinder">Cylinders</a> of <a href="/wiki/Liquified_petroleum_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquified petroleum gas">liquified petroleum gas</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gasoline_in_mason_jar.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sample of gasoline"><img alt="Sample of gasoline" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Gasoline_in_mason_jar.jpg/90px-Gasoline_in_mason_jar.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Gasoline_in_mason_jar.jpg/135px-Gasoline_in_mason_jar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Gasoline_in_mason_jar.jpg/180px-Gasoline_in_mason_jar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sample of <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kerosene_in_mason_jar.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Sample of kerosene"><img alt="Sample of kerosene" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Kerosene_in_mason_jar.JPG/90px-Kerosene_in_mason_jar.JPG" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Kerosene_in_mason_jar.JPG/135px-Kerosene_in_mason_jar.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Kerosene_in_mason_jar.JPG/180px-Kerosene_in_mason_jar.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sample of <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Diesel_in_mason_jar.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Sample of diesel fuel"><img alt="Sample of diesel fuel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Diesel_in_mason_jar.JPG/90px-Diesel_in_mason_jar.JPG" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Diesel_in_mason_jar.JPG/135px-Diesel_in_mason_jar.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Diesel_in_mason_jar.JPG/180px-Diesel_in_mason_jar.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sample of <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel fuel</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Motor_oil.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Motor oil"><img alt="Motor oil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Motor_oil.JPG/86px-Motor_oil.JPG" decoding="async" width="86" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Motor_oil.JPG/129px-Motor_oil.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Motor_oil.JPG/172px-Motor_oil.JPG 2x" data-file-width="788" data-file-height="1098" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Motor_oil" title="Motor oil">Motor oil</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Asphalt_Concrete.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pile of asphalt-covered aggregate for formation into asphalt concrete"><img alt="Pile of asphalt-covered aggregate for formation into asphalt concrete" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Asphalt_Concrete.jpg/120px-Asphalt_Concrete.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Asphalt_Concrete.jpg/180px-Asphalt_Concrete.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Asphalt_Concrete.jpg/240px-Asphalt_Concrete.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pile of <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">asphalt</a>-covered aggregate for formation into <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">asphalt concrete</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Sulfur-sample.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sulphur"><img alt="Sulphur" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Sulfur-sample.jpg/120px-Sulfur-sample.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Sulfur-sample.jpg/180px-Sulfur-sample.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Sulfur-sample.jpg/240px-Sulfur-sample.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1925" data-file-height="1444" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sulphur" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphur">Sulphur</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_processes">Chemical processes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Chemical processes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anacortes_Refinery_32017.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Anacortes_Refinery_32017.JPG/220px-Anacortes_Refinery_32017.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Anacortes_Refinery_32017.JPG/330px-Anacortes_Refinery_32017.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Anacortes_Refinery_32017.JPG/440px-Anacortes_Refinery_32017.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2497" data-file-height="1837" /></a><figcaption>Storage tanks and towers at <a href="/wiki/Shell_Puget_Sound_Refinery" class="mw-redirect" title="Shell Puget Sound Refinery">Shell Puget Sound Refinery</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shell_Oil_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Shell Oil Company">Shell Oil Company</a>), <a href="/wiki/Anacortes,_Washington" title="Anacortes, Washington">Anacortes, Washington</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalter" title="Desalter">Desalter</a> unit washes out salt and other water soluble contaminants from the crude oil before it enters the atmospheric distillation unit.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beychok3-37">[37]</a></li> <li>Pre-flash and/or pre-distillation which is found in most atmospheric crude oil units of more than 100,000 bpsd in capacity. <a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_distillation_of_crude_oil" title="Atmospheric distillation of crude oil">Crude oil distillation</a> unit distills the incoming crude oil into various fractions for further processing in other units. See <a href="/wiki/Continuous_distillation" title="Continuous distillation">continuous distillation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kroschwitz-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-mccabe-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-kister-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-king-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-perry-43">[43]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_Distillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum Distillation">Vacuum distillation</a> further distills the residue oil from the bottom of the crude oil distillation unit. The vacuum distillation is performed at a pressure well below atmospheric pressure.<a href="#cite_note-kroschwitz-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-mccabe-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-kister-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-king-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-perry-43">[43]</a></li> <li>Naphtha <a href="/wiki/Hydrotreater" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrotreater">hydrotreater</a> unit uses <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> to desulfurize naphtha from atmospheric distillation. Naphtha must be desulfurized before sending it to a catalytic reformer unit.<a href="#cite_note-Handwerk2-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-yamaguchi-44">[44]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalytic_reforming" title="Catalytic reforming">Catalytic reformer</a> converts the desulfurized <a href="/wiki/Naphtha" title="Naphtha">naphtha</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> into higher-octane molecules to produce <a href="/wiki/Reformate" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformate">reformate</a> (reformer product). The reformate has higher content of aromatics and cyclic hydrocarbons which is a component of the end-product gasoline or petrol. An important byproduct of a reformer is hydrogen released during the catalyst reaction. The hydrogen is used either in the hydrotreaters or the hydrocracker.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization" title="Hydrodesulfurization">Distillate hydrotreater</a> desulfurizes distillates (such as diesel) after atmospheric distillation. Uses <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> to desulfurize the <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_naphtha" title="Petroleum naphtha">naphtha</a> fraction from the crude oil distillation or other units within the refinery.<a href="#cite_note-Handwerk2-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-yamaguchi-44">[44]</a> Distillate hydrotreaters that operate above 700 psi are also capable of removing nitrogen contaminants from feedstocks if given adequate liquid hourly space velocity.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_catalytic_cracking" title="Fluid catalytic cracking">Fluid catalytic cracker</a> (FCC) upgrades the heavier, higher-boiling fractions from the crude oil distillation by converting them into lighter and lower boiling, more valuable products.<a href="#cite_note-gary2-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-speight-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-reza-49">[49]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cracking_(chemistry)" title="Cracking (chemistry)">Hydrocracker</a> uses hydrogen to upgrade heavy residual oils from the vacuum distillation unit by thermally cracking them into lighter, more valuable reduced viscosity products.<a href="#cite_note-ullmann-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-ILOPet-51">[51]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merox" title="Merox">Merox</a> desulfurize LPG, kerosene or jet fuel by oxidizing <a href="/wiki/Mercaptan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercaptan">mercaptans</a> to organic <a href="/wiki/Disulfide" title="Disulfide">disulfides</a>.</li> <li>Alternative processes for removing mercaptans are known, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Doctor_sweetening_process" title="Doctor sweetening process">doctor sweetening process</a> and caustic washing.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coker_unit" title="Coker unit">Coking units</a> (<a href="/wiki/Delayed_coker" title="Delayed coker">delayed coker</a>, fluid coker, and flexicoker) process very heavy residual oils into gasoline and diesel fuel, leaving petroleum coke as a residual product.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkylation" title="Alkylation">Alkylation</a> unit uses <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hydrofluoric_acid" title="Hydrofluoric acid">hydrofluoric acid</a> to produce high-octane components for gasoline blending. The "alky" unit converts light end <a href="/wiki/Isobutane" title="Isobutane">isobutane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Butylene" class="mw-redirect" title="Butylene">butylenes</a> from the FCC process into alkylate, a very high-octane component of the end-product gasoline or petrol.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimer_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimer (chemistry)">Dimerization</a> unit converts <a href="/wiki/Olefins" class="mw-redirect" title="Olefins">olefins</a> into higher-octane gasoline blending components. For example, <a href="/wiki/Butene" title="Butene">butenes</a> can be dimerized into isooctene which may subsequently be hydrogenated to form <a href="/wiki/Isooctane" class="mw-redirect" title="Isooctane">isooctane</a>. There are also other uses for dimerization. Gasoline produced through dimerization is highly unsaturated and very reactive. It tends spontaneously to form gums. For this reason, the effluent from the dimerization needs to be blended into the finished gasoline pool immediately or hydrogenated.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomerization" title="Isomerization">Isomerization</a> converts linear molecules such as normal <a href="/wiki/Pentane" title="Pentane">pentane</a> to higher-octane branched molecules for blending into gasoline or feed to alkylation units. Also used to convert linear normal <a href="/wiki/Butane" title="Butane">butane</a> into isobutane for use in the alkylation unit.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_reforming" title="Steam reforming">Steam reforming</a> converts natural gas into hydrogen for the hydrotreaters and/or the hydrocracker.</li> <li>Liquified gas storage vessels store propane and similar gaseous fuels at pressure sufficient to maintain them in liquid form. These are usually spherical vessels or "bullets" (i.e., horizontal vessels with rounded ends).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amine_gas_treater" class="mw-redirect" title="Amine gas treater">Amine gas treater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claus_process" title="Claus process">Claus unit</a>, and tail gas treatment convert <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> from <a href="/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization" title="Hydrodesulfurization">hydrodesulfurization</a> into elemental sulfur. The large majority of the 64,000,000 metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide in 2005 was byproduct sulfur from petroleum refining and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural gas processing">natural gas processing</a> plants.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claus_process" title="Claus process">Sour water stripper</a> uses steam to remove hydrogen sulfide gas from various wastewater streams for subsequent conversion into end-product sulfur in the Claus unit.<a href="#cite_note-Beychok3-37">[37]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_towers" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooling towers">Cooling towers</a> circulate cooling water, <a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">boiler plants</a> generates <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a> for <a href="/wiki/Water-tube_boiler" title="Water-tube boiler">steam generators</a>, and instrument air systems include pneumatically operated <a href="/wiki/Control_valves" class="mw-redirect" title="Control valves">control valves</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_substation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical substation">electrical substation</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a> collection and treating systems consist of <a href="/wiki/API_separator" class="mw-redirect" title="API separator">API separators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_air_flotation" title="Dissolved air flotation">dissolved air flotation (DAF) units</a> and further treatment units such as an <a href="/wiki/Activated_sludge" title="Activated sludge">activated sludge</a> biotreater to make water suitable for reuse or for disposal.<a href="#cite_note-Beychok-55">[55]</a></li> <li>Solvent refining uses solvent such as <a href="/wiki/Cresol" title="Cresol">cresol</a> or <a href="/wiki/Furfural" title="Furfural">furfural</a> to remove unwanted, mainly aromatics from lubricating oil stock or diesel stock.</li> <li>Solvent dewaxing removes the heavy waxy constituents <a href="/wiki/Petrolatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrolatum">petrolatum</a> from vacuum distillation products.</li> <li>Storage tanks for storing crude oil and finished products, usually vertical, cylindrical vessels with some sort of vapor emission control and surrounded by an earthen <a href="/wiki/Berm" title="Berm">berm</a> to contain spills.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Flow_diagram_of_typical_refinery">Flow diagram of typical refinery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Flow diagram of typical refinery">edit</a>]</div> The image below is a schematic <a href="/wiki/Process_flow_diagram" title="Process flow diagram">flow diagram</a> of a typical oil refinery that depicts the various <a href="/wiki/Chemical_plant#Chemical_processes" title="Chemical plant">unit</a> processes and the flow of intermediate product streams that occurs between the inlet crude oil feedstock and the final end products. The diagram depicts only one of the literally hundreds of different oil refinery configurations. The diagram also does not include any of the usual refinery facilities providing utilities such as steam, cooling water, and electric power as well as storage tanks for crude oil feedstock and for intermediate products and end products.<a href="#cite_note-Handwerk2-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="center"><div class="thumb tnone" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:627px"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:625px;"> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 606.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 604.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:RefineryFlow.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/RefineryFlow.svg/907px-RefineryFlow.svg.png" decoding="async" width="605" height="734" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/RefineryFlow.svg/1361px-RefineryFlow.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/RefineryFlow.svg/1814px-RefineryFlow.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1170" data-file-height="1420" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"></div> </li> </ul></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div style="float: right;"><a href="/wiki/File:RefineryFlow.svg" title="File:RefineryFlow.svg"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Desc-i.svg/16px-Desc-i.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Desc-i.svg/24px-Desc-i.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Desc-i.svg/32px-Desc-i.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="648" /></a></div>Schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery</div></div></div></div> There are many process configurations other than that depicted above. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_distillation" title="Vacuum distillation">vacuum distillation</a> unit may also produce fractions that can be refined into end products such as spindle oil used in the textile industry, light machine oil, motor oil, and various waxes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crude_oil_distillation_unit">Crude oil distillation unit</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Crude oil distillation unit">edit</a>]</div> The crude oil distillation unit (CDU) is the first processing unit in virtually all petroleum refineries. The CDU distills the incoming crude oil into various fractions of different boiling ranges, each of which is then processed further in the other refinery processing units. The CDU is often referred to as the atmospheric distillation unit because it operates at slightly above atmospheric pressure.<a href="#cite_note-Handwerk2-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leffler2-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-kister-41">[41]</a> Below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit. The incoming crude oil is preheated by exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then desalted to remove inorganic salts (primarily sodium chloride). Following the desalter, the crude oil is further heated by exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then heated in a fuel-fired furnace (fired heater) to a temperature of about 398 °C and routed into the bottom of the distillation unit. The cooling and condensing of the distillation tower overhead is provided partially by exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil and partially by either an air-cooled or water-cooled condenser. Additional heat is removed from the distillation column by a pumparound system as shown in the diagram below. As shown in the flow diagram, the overhead distillate fraction from the distillation column is naphtha. The fractions removed from the side of the distillation column at various points between the column top and bottom are called sidecuts. Each of the sidecuts (i.e., the kerosene, light gas oil, and heavy gas oil) is cooled by exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil. All of the fractions (i.e., the overhead naphtha, the sidecuts, and the bottom residue) are sent to intermediate storage tanks before being processed further. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Refine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Refine.svg/510px-Refine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="510" height="459" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Refine.svg/765px-Refine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Refine.svg/1020px-Refine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption>Schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit as used in petroleum crude oil refineries</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Location_of_refineries">Location of refineries</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Location of refineries">edit</a>]</div> A party searching for a site to construct a refinery or a chemical plant needs to consider the following issues: <ul><li>The site has to be reasonably far from residential areas.</li> <li>Infrastructure should be available for the supply of raw materials and shipment of products to markets.</li> <li>Energy to operate the plant should be available.</li> <li>Facilities should be available for waste disposal.</li></ul> Factors affecting site selection for oil refinery: <ul><li>Availability of land</li> <li>Conditions of traffic and transportation</li> <li>Conditions of utilities – power supply, water supply</li> <li>Availability of labours and resources</li></ul> Refineries that use a large amount of steam and cooling water need to have an abundant source of water. Oil refineries, therefore, are often located nearby navigable rivers or on a seashore, nearby a port. Such location also gives access to transportation by river or by sea. The advantages of transporting crude oil by pipeline are evident, and oil companies often transport a large volume of fuel to distribution terminals by pipeline. A pipeline may not be practical for products with small output, and railcars, road tankers, and barges are used. Petrochemical plants and solvent manufacturing (fine fractionating) plants need spaces for further processing of a large volume of refinery products, or to mix chemical additives with a product at source rather than at blending terminals. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Safety_and_environment">Safety and environment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Safety and environment">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BP_PLANT_EXPLOSION-1_lowres2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/BP_PLANT_EXPLOSION-1_lowres2.jpg/220px-BP_PLANT_EXPLOSION-1_lowres2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/BP_PLANT_EXPLOSION-1_lowres2.jpg/330px-BP_PLANT_EXPLOSION-1_lowres2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/BP_PLANT_EXPLOSION-1_lowres2.jpg/440px-BP_PLANT_EXPLOSION-1_lowres2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="504" data-file-height="334" /></a><figcaption>Fire-extinguishing operations after the <a href="/wiki/Texas_City_refinery_explosion" title="Texas City refinery explosion">Texas City refinery explosion</a></figcaption></figure> The refining process releases a number of different chemicals into the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> (see <a href="/wiki/AP_42_Compilation_of_Air_Pollutant_Emission_Factors" title="AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors">AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors</a>) and a notable <a href="/wiki/Odor" title="Odor">odor</a> normally accompanies the presence of a refinery. Aside from air pollution impacts there are also wastewater concerns,<a href="#cite_note-Beychok-55">[55]</a> risks of <a href="/wiki/Industrial_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial accident">industrial accidents</a> such as fire and explosion, and <a href="/wiki/Noise_health_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Noise health effects">noise health effects</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Industrial_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial noise">industrial noise</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Morata_141–149-59">[59]</a> Many governments worldwide have mandated restrictions on contaminants that refineries release, and most refineries have installed the equipment needed to comply with the requirements of the pertinent environmental protection regulatory agencies. In the United States, there is strong pressure to prevent the development of new refineries, and no major refinery has been built in the country since <a href="/wiki/Marathon_Petroleum_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Marathon Petroleum Company">Marathon's</a> <a href="/wiki/Garyville,_Louisiana" title="Garyville, Louisiana">Garyville, Louisiana</a> facility in 1976. However, many existing refineries have been expanded during that time. Environmental restrictions and pressure to prevent the construction of new refineries may have also contributed to rising fuel prices in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Additionally, many refineries (more than 100 since the 1980s) have closed due to obsolescence and/or merger activity within the industry itself.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Environmental and safety concerns mean that oil refineries are sometimes located some distance away from major urban areas. Nevertheless, there are many instances where refinery operations are close to populated areas and pose health risks.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> In California's <a href="/wiki/Contra_Costa_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Contra Costa County">Contra Costa County</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solano_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Solano County">Solano County</a>, a shoreline necklace of refineries, built in the early 20th century before this area was populated, and associated chemical plants are adjacent to urban areas in <a href="/wiki/Chevron_Richmond_Refinery" title="Chevron Richmond Refinery">Richmond</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martinez,_California" title="Martinez, California">Martinez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pacheco,_California" title="Pacheco, California">Pacheco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Concord,_California" title="Concord, California">Concord</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pittsburg,_California" title="Pittsburg, California">Pittsburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vallejo,_California" title="Vallejo, California">Vallejo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benicia,_California" title="Benicia, California">Benicia</a>, with occasional accidental events that require "<a href="/wiki/Shelter_in_place" class="mw-redirect" title="Shelter in place">shelter in place</a>" orders to the adjacent populations. A number of refineries are located in <a href="/wiki/Sherwood_Park,_Alberta" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherwood Park, Alberta">Sherwood Park, Alberta</a>, directly adjacent to the City of <a href="/wiki/Edmonton" title="Edmonton">Edmonton</a>, which has a population of over 1,000,000 residents.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">NIOSH</a> criteria for <a href="/wiki/Occupational_exposure_limit" title="Occupational exposure limit">occupational exposure</a> to refined petroleum solvents have been available since 1977.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Worker_health">Worker health</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Worker health">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> Modern <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_refining_processes" title="Petroleum refining processes">petroleum refining</a> involves a complicated system of interrelated chemical reactions that produce a wide variety of petroleum-based products.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Many of these reactions require precise temperature and pressure parameters.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a>  The equipment and monitoring required to ensure the proper progression of these processes is complex, and has evolved through the advancement of the scientific field of <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">petroleum engineering</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The wide array of high pressure and/or high temperature reactions, along with the necessary chemical additives or extracted contaminants, produces an astonishing number of potential health hazards to the oil refinery worker.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a>  Through the advancement of technical chemical and petroleum engineering, the vast majority of these processes are automated and enclosed, thus greatly reducing the potential health impact to workers.<a href="#cite_note-:0-73">[73]</a>  However, depending on the specific process in which a worker is engaged, as well as the particular method employed by the refinery in which he/she works, significant health hazards remain.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Although occupational injuries in the United States were not routinely tracked and reported at the time, reports of the health impacts of working in an oil refinery can be found as early as the 1800s. For instance, an explosion in a Chicago refinery killed 20 workers in 1890.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Since then, numerous fires, explosions, and other significant events have from time to time drawn the public's attention to the health of oil refinery workers.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Such events continue in the 21st century, with explosions reported in refineries in Wisconsin and Germany in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> However, there are many less visible hazards that endanger oil refinery workers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_exposures">Chemical exposures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Chemical exposures">edit</a>]</div> Given the highly automated and technically advanced nature of modern petroleum refineries, nearly all processes are contained within engineering controls and represent a substantially decreased risk of exposure to workers compared to earlier times.<a href="#cite_note-:0-73">[73]</a> However, certain situations or work tasks may subvert these safety mechanisms, and expose workers to a number of chemical (see table above) or physical (described below) hazards.<a href="#cite_note-:1-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-79">[79]</a> Examples of these scenarios include: <ul><li>System failures (leaks, explosions, etc.).<a href="#cite_note-:4-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-81">[81]</a></li> <li>Standard inspection, product sampling, process turnaround, or equipment maintenance/cleaning activities.<a href="#cite_note-:1-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-79">[79]</a></li></ul> A 2021 <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a> associated working in the <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical_industry" title="Petrochemical industry">petrochemical industry</a> with increased risk of various cancers, such as <a href="/wiki/Mesothelioma" title="Mesothelioma">mesothelioma</a>. It also found reduced risks of other cancers, such as <a href="/wiki/Stomach_cancer" title="Stomach cancer">stomach</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rectal_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Rectal cancer">rectal</a>. The systematic review did mention that several of the associations were not due to factors directly related to the petroleum industry, rather were related to lifestyle factors such as <a href="/wiki/Smoking" title="Smoking">smoking</a>. Evidence for adverse health effects for nearby residents was also weak, with the evidence primarily centering around neighborhoods in <a href="/wiki/Developed_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed countries">developed countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/BTX_(chemistry)" title="BTX (chemistry)">BTX</a> stands for benzene, <a href="/wiki/Toluene" title="Toluene">toluene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xylene" title="Xylene">xylene</a>. This is a group of common <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">volatile organic compounds</a> (VOCs) that are found in the oil refinery environment, and serve as a paradigm for more in depth discussion of occupational exposure limits, chemical exposure and surveillance among refinery workers.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The most important route of exposure for BTX chemicals is inhalation due to the low boiling point of these chemicals. The majority of the gaseous production of BTX occurs during tank cleaning and fuel transfer, which causes offgassing of these chemicals into the air.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Exposure can also occur through ingestion via contaminated water, but this is unlikely in an occupational setting.<a href="#cite_note-:17-86">[86]</a> Dermal exposure and absorption is also possible, but is again less likely in an occupational setting where appropriate personal protective equipment is in place.<a href="#cite_note-:17-86">[86]</a> In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration" title="Occupational Safety and Health Administration">Occupational Safety and Health Administration</a> (OSHA), <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> (NIOSH), and <a href="/wiki/American_Conference_of_Governmental_Industrial_Hygienists" title="American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists">American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists</a> (ACGIH) have all established <a href="/wiki/Occupational_exposure_limit" title="Occupational exposure limit">occupational exposure limits</a> (OELs) for many of the chemicals above that workers may be exposed to in petroleum refineries.<a href="#cite_note-:16-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Occupational exposure limits for <a href="/wiki/BTX_(chemistry)" title="BTX (chemistry)">BTX</a> chemicals </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration" title="Occupational Safety and Health Administration">OSHA</a> PEL (8-hour TWA) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/CalOSHA" class="mw-redirect" title="CalOSHA">CalOSHA</a> PEL (8-hour TWA) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/NIOSH" class="mw-redirect" title="NIOSH">NIOSH</a> REL (10-hour TWA) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/ACGIH" class="mw-redirect" title="ACGIH">ACGIH</a> TLV (8-hour TWA) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Benzene </td> <td>10 <a href="/wiki/Parts-per_notation" title="Parts-per notation">ppm</a> </td> <td>1 ppm </td> <td>0.1 ppm </td> <td>0.5 ppm </td></tr> <tr> <td>Toluene </td> <td>200 ppm </td> <td>10 ppm </td> <td>100 ppm </td> <td>20 ppm </td></tr> <tr> <td>Xylene </td> <td>100 ppmx </td> <td>100 ppm </td> <td>100 ppm </td> <td>100 ppm </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5">Sources:<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-:16-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> </th></tr></tbody></table> Benzene, in particular, has multiple <a href="/wiki/Biomarker" title="Biomarker">biomarkers</a> that can be measured to determine exposure. Benzene itself can be measured in the breath, blood, and urine, and metabolites such as <a href="/wiki/Phenol" title="Phenol">phenol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muconic_acid" title="Muconic acid">t,t-muconic acid</a> (t,tMA) and S-phenylmercapturic acid (sPMA) can be measured in urine.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> In addition to monitoring the exposure levels via these biomarkers, employers are required by OSHA to perform regular blood tests on workers to test for early signs of some of the feared hematologic outcomes, of which the most widely recognized is leukemia. Required testing includes <a href="/wiki/Complete_blood_count" title="Complete blood count">complete blood count with cell differentials</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_blood_smear" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripheral blood smear">peripheral blood smear</a> "on a regular basis".<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> The utility of these tests is supported by formal scientific studies.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Potential_chemical_exposure_by_process">Potential chemical exposure by process</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Potential chemical exposure by process">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-expanded"> <tbody><tr> <td>Process </td> <td>Potential chemical exposure<a href="#cite_note-:3-97">[97]</a> </td> <td>Common health concerns<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Solvent_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Solvent extraction">Solvent extraction</a> and dewaxing </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Phenols" title="Phenols">Phenol</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-99">[99]</a> </td> <td>Neurologic symptoms, muscle weakness, skin irritation. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Furfural" title="Furfural">Furfural</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> </td> <td>Skin irritation </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Glycols" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycols">Glycols</a> </td> <td>Central nervous system depression, weakness, irritation of the eyes, skin, nose, throat. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Methyl_ethyl_ketone" class="mw-redirect" title="Methyl ethyl ketone">Methyl ethyl ketone</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> </td> <td>Airway irritation, cough, dyspnea, pulmonary edema. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_cracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal cracking">Thermal cracking</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-102">[102]</a> </td> <td>Irritation of the respiratory tract, headache, visual disturbances, eye pain. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">Carbon monoxide</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-103">[103]</a> </td> <td>Electrocardiogram changes, cyanosis, headache, weakness. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">Ammonia</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-104">[104]</a> </td> <td>Respiratory tract irritation, dyspnea, pulmonary edema, skin burns. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Catalytic_cracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalytic cracking">Catalytic cracking</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-102">[102]</a> </td> <td>Irritation of the respiratory tract, headache, visual disturbances, eye pain. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">Carbon monoxide</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-103">[103]</a> </td> <td>Electrocardiogram changes, cyanosis, headache, weakness. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phenols" title="Phenols">Phenol</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-99">[99]</a> </td> <td>Neurologic symptoms, muscle weakness, skin irritation. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">Ammonia</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-104">[104]</a> </td> <td>Respiratory tract irritation, dyspnea, pulmonary edema, skin burns. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mercaptan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercaptan">Mercaptan</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> </td> <td>Cyanosis and narcosis, irritation of the respiratory tract, skin, and eyes. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nickel_carbonyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel carbonyl">Nickel carbonyl</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> </td> <td>Headache, teratogen, weakness, chest/abdominal pain, lung and nasal cancer. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Catalytic_reforming" title="Catalytic reforming">Catalytic reforming</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-102">[102]</a> </td> <td>Irritation of the respiratory tract, headache, visual disturbances, eye pain. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">Benzene</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> </td> <td>Leukemia, nervous system effects, respiratory symptoms. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Isomerization </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">Hydrochloric acid</a> </td> <td>Skin damage, respiratory tract irritation, eye burns. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_chloride" title="Hydrogen chloride">Hydrogen chloride</a> </td> <td>Respiratory tract irritation, skin irritation, eye burns. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Polymerization </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">Sodium hydroxide</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-109">[109]</a> </td> <td>Irritation of the mucous membranes, skin, pneumonitis. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phosphoric_acid" title="Phosphoric acid">Phosphoric acid</a> </td> <td>Skin, eye, respiratory irritation. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alkylation" title="Alkylation">Alkylation</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">Sulfuric acid</a> </td> <td>Eye and skin burns, pulmonary edema. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrofluoric_acid" title="Hydrofluoric acid">Hydrofluoric acid</a> </td> <td>Bone changes, skin burns, respiratory tract damage. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Sweetening and treating </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-102">[102]</a> </td> <td>Irritation of the respiratory tract, headache, visual disturbances, eye pain. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">Sodium hydroxide</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-109">[109]</a> </td> <td>Irritation of the mucous membranes, skin, pneumonitis. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Unsaturated gas recovery </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Monoethanolamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoethanolamine">Monoethanolamine</a> (MEA) </td> <td>Drowsiness, irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diethanolamine" title="Diethanolamine">Diethanolamine</a> (DEA) </td> <td>Corneal necrosis, skin burns, irritation of the eyes, nose, throat. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">Amine treatment </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Monoethanolamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoethanolamine">Monoethanolamine</a> (MEA) </td> <td>Drowsiness, irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diethanolamine" title="Diethanolamine">Diethanolamine</a> (DEA) </td> <td>Corneal necrosis, skin burns, irritation of the eyes, nose, throat. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-102">[102]</a> </td> <td>Irritation of the respiratory tract, headache, visual disturbances, eye pain. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a> </td> <td>Headache, dizziness, paresthesia, malaise, <a href="/wiki/Tachycardia" title="Tachycardia">tachycardia</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">Saturated gas extraction </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-102">[102]</a> </td> <td>Irritation of the respiratory tract, headache, visual disturbances, eye pain. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-110">[110]</a> </td> <td>Headache, dizziness, paresthesia, malaise, tachycardia. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diethanolamine" title="Diethanolamine">Diethanolamine</a> </td> <td>Corneal necrosis, skin burns, irritation of the eyes, nose, throat. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">Sodium hydroxide</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-109">[109]</a> </td> <td>Irritation of the mucous membranes, skin, pneumonitis. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">Hydrogen production</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">Carbon monoxide</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-103">[103]</a> </td> <td>Electrocardiogram changes, cyanosis, headache, weakness. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-110">[110]</a> </td> <td>Headache, dizziness, paresthesia, malaise, tachycardia. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_hazards">Physical hazards</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Physical hazards">edit</a>]</div> Workers are at risk of physical injuries due to a large number of high-powered machines in the relatively close proximity of the oil refinery. The high pressure required for many of the chemical reactions also presents the possibility of localized system failures resulting in blunt or penetrating trauma from exploding system components.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Heat is also a hazard. The temperature required for the proper progression of certain reactions in the refining process can reach 1,600 °F (870 °C).<a href="#cite_note-:0-73">[73]</a> As with chemicals, the operating system is designed to safely contain this hazard without injury to the worker. However, in system failures, this is a potent threat to workers' health. Concerns include both direct injury through a <a href="/wiki/Heat_illness" title="Heat illness">heat illness or injury</a>, as well as the potential for devastating burns should the worker come in contact with super-heated reagents/equipment.<a href="#cite_note-:0-73">[73]</a> Noise is another hazard. Refineries can be very loud environments, and have previously been shown to be associated with hearing loss among workers.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The interior environment of an oil refinery can reach levels in excess of 90 <a href="/wiki/Decibel" title="Decibel">dB</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Morata_141–149-59">[59]</a> In the United States, an average of 90 dB is the <a href="/wiki/Permissible_exposure_limit" title="Permissible exposure limit">permissible exposure limit</a> (PEL) for an 8-hour work-day.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Noise exposures that average greater than 85 dB over an 8-hour require a <a href="/wiki/Hearing_conservation_program" title="Hearing conservation program">hearing conservation program</a> to regularly evaluate workers' hearing and to promote its protection.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a>  Regular evaluation of workers' auditory capacity and faithful use of <a href="/wiki/Hearing_protection_device" title="Hearing protection device">properly vetted hearing protection</a> are essential parts of such programs.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> While not specific to the industry, oil refinery workers may also be at risk for hazards such as <a href="/wiki/Traffic_collision" title="Traffic collision">vehicle-related accidents</a>, machinery-associated injuries, work in a confined space, explosions/fires, <a href="/wiki/Ergonomic_hazard" title="Ergonomic hazard">ergonomic hazards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shift_work_sleep_disorder" title="Shift work sleep disorder">shift-work related sleep disorders</a>, and falls.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hazard_controls">Hazard controls</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hazard controls">edit</a>]</div> The theory of <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_hazard_controls" title="Hierarchy of hazard controls">hierarchy of controls</a> can be applied to petroleum refineries and their efforts to ensure worker safety. <a href="/wiki/Hazard_elimination" title="Hazard elimination">Elimination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hazard_substitution" title="Hazard substitution">substitution</a> are unlikely in petroleum refineries, as many of the raw materials, waste products, and finished products are hazardous in one form or another (e.g. flammable, carcinogenic).<a href="#cite_note-:3-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Examples of <a href="/wiki/Engineering_controls" title="Engineering controls">engineering controls</a> include a <a href="/wiki/Fire_detection_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire detection system">fire detection/extinguishing system</a>, pressure/chemical sensors to detect/predict loss of structural integrity,<a href="#cite_note-:8-119">[119]</a> and adequate maintenance of piping to prevent hydrocarbon-induced <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> (leading to structural failure).<a href="#cite_note-:4-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-121">[121]</a> Other examples employed in petroleum refineries include the post-construction protection of steel components with <a href="/wiki/Vermiculite" title="Vermiculite">vermiculite</a> to improve heat/fire resistance.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Compartmentalization_(fire_protection)" class="mw-redirect" title="Compartmentalization (fire protection)">Compartmentalization</a> can help to prevent a fire or other systems failure from spreading to affect other areas of the structure, and may help prevent dangerous reactions by keeping different chemicals separate from one another until they can be safely combined in the proper environment.<a href="#cite_note-:8-119">[119]</a> <a href="/wiki/Administrative_controls" title="Administrative controls">Administrative controls</a> include careful planning and oversight of the refinery cleaning, maintenance, and turnaround processes. These occur when many of the engineering controls are shut down or suppressed and may be especially dangerous to workers. Detailed coordination is necessary to ensure that maintenance of one part of the facility will not cause dangerous exposures to those performing the maintenance, or to workers in other areas of the plant. Due to the highly flammable nature of many of the involved chemicals, smoking areas are tightly controlled and carefully placed.<a href="#cite_note-:1-78">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">Personal protective equipment</a> (PPE) may be necessary depending on the specific chemical being processed or produced. Particular care is needed during sampling of the partially-completed product, tank cleaning, and other high-risk tasks as mentioned above. Such activities may require the use of impervious outerwear, acid hood, disposable coveralls, etc.<a href="#cite_note-:1-78">[78]</a> More generally, all personnel in operating areas should use appropriate <a href="/wiki/Hearing_protection_device" title="Hearing protection device">hearing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Safety_goggles" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety goggles">vision protection</a>, avoid clothes made of flammable material (<a href="/wiki/Nylon" title="Nylon">nylon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dacron" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacron">Dacron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acrylic_fiber" title="Acrylic fiber">acrylic</a>, or blends), and full-length pants and sleeves.<a href="#cite_note-:1-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulations">Regulations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Regulations">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States_2">United States</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> Worker health and safety in oil refineries is closely monitored at a national level by both the <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration" title="Occupational Safety and Health Administration">Occupational Safety and Health Administration</a> (OSHA) and <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> (NIOSH).<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> In addition to <a href="/wiki/US_Federal_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="US Federal Government">federal</a> monitoring, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>'s <a href="/wiki/California_Division_of_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="California Division of Occupational Safety and Health">CalOSHA</a> has been particularly active in protecting worker health in the industry, and adopted a policy in 2017 that requires petroleum refineries to perform a "Hierarchy of Hazard Controls Analysis" (see above "Hazard controls" section) for each <a href="/wiki/Process_safety" title="Process safety">process safety</a> hazard.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Safety regulations have resulted in a below-average injury rate for refining industry workers. In a 2018 report by the <a href="/wiki/US_Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="US Bureau of Labor Statistics">US Bureau of Labor Statistics</a>, they indicate that petroleum refinery workers have a significantly lower rate of occupational injury (0.4 OSHA-recordable cases per 100 full-time workers) than all industries (3.1 cases), oil and gas extraction (0.8 cases), and petroleum manufacturing in general (1.3 cases).<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Below is a list of the most common regulations referenced in petroleum refinery safety citations issued by OSHA:<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <ul><li>Flammable and Combustible Liquids (<a href="/wiki/Title_29_of_the_Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations">29 CFR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-29/part-1910.106">1910.106</a>)</li> <li>The Hazard Communication (HazCom) standard (<a href="/wiki/Title_29_of_the_Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations">29 CFR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-29/part-1910.1200">1910.1200</a>)</li> <li>Permit-Required Confined Spaces (<a href="/wiki/Title_29_of_the_Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations">29 CFR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-29/part-1910.146">1910.146</a>)</li> <li>Hazardous (Classified) Locations (<a href="/wiki/Title_29_of_the_Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations">29 CFR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-29/part-1910.307">1910.307</a>)</li> <li>The Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) standard (<a href="/wiki/Title_29_of_the_Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations">29 CFR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-29/part-1910.132">1910.132</a>)</li> <li>The Control of Hazardous Energy (Lockout/Tagout) standard (<a href="/wiki/Title_29_of_the_Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations">29 CFR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-29/part-1910.147">1910.147</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Corrosion">Corrosion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Corrosion">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Refinery_of_Slovnaft,_view_from_Nov%C3%BD_most_viewpoint_in_Bratislava,_Bratislava_II_District.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Refinery_of_Slovnaft%2C_view_from_Nov%C3%BD_most_viewpoint_in_Bratislava%2C_Bratislava_II_District.jpg/300px-Refinery_of_Slovnaft%2C_view_from_Nov%C3%BD_most_viewpoint_in_Bratislava%2C_Bratislava_II_District.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Refinery_of_Slovnaft%2C_view_from_Nov%C3%BD_most_viewpoint_in_Bratislava%2C_Bratislava_II_District.jpg/450px-Refinery_of_Slovnaft%2C_view_from_Nov%C3%BD_most_viewpoint_in_Bratislava%2C_Bratislava_II_District.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Refinery_of_Slovnaft%2C_view_from_Nov%C3%BD_most_viewpoint_in_Bratislava%2C_Bratislava_II_District.jpg/600px-Refinery_of_Slovnaft%2C_view_from_Nov%C3%BD_most_viewpoint_in_Bratislava%2C_Bratislava_II_District.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Refinery of <a href="/wiki/Slovnaft" title="Slovnaft">Slovnaft</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bidboland_gas_refinery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Bidboland_gas_refinery.jpg/300px-Bidboland_gas_refinery.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Bidboland_gas_refinery.jpg/450px-Bidboland_gas_refinery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Bidboland_gas_refinery.jpg/600px-Bidboland_gas_refinery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2935" data-file-height="2480" /></a><figcaption>Oil refinery in Iran</figcaption></figure> Corrosion of metallic components is a major factor of inefficiency in the refining process. Because it leads to equipment failure, it is a primary driver for the refinery maintenance schedule. Corrosion-related direct costs in the U.S. petroleum industry as of 1996 were estimated at US$3.7 billion.<a href="#cite_note-:7-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Corrosion occurs in various forms in the refining process, such as pitting corrosion from water droplets, embrittlement from hydrogen, and stress corrosion cracking from sulfide attack.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> From a materials standpoint, carbon steel is used for upwards of 80 percent of refinery components, which is beneficial due to its low cost. <a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">Carbon steel</a> is resistant to the most common forms of corrosion, particularly from hydrocarbon impurities at temperatures below 205 °C, but other corrosive chemicals and environments prevent its use everywhere. Common replacement materials are <a href="/wiki/Low_alloy_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Low alloy steel">low alloy steels</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steels" class="mw-redirect" title="Stainless steels">stainless steels</a> containing more chromium dealing with more corrosive environments. More expensive materials commonly used are <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> alloys. These are primarily saved for the most problematic areas where extremely high temperatures and/or very corrosive chemicals are present.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Corrosion is fought by a complex system of monitoring, preventative repairs, and careful use of materials. Monitoring methods include both offline checks taken during maintenance and online monitoring. Offline checks measure corrosion after it has occurred, telling the engineer when equipment must be replaced based on the historical information they have collected. This is referred to as preventative management. Online systems are a more modern development and are revolutionizing the way corrosion is approached. There are several types of online corrosion monitoring technologies such as linear polarization resistance, <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_noise" title="Electrochemical noise">electrochemical noise</a> and electrical resistance. Online monitoring has generally had slow reporting rates in the past (minutes or hours) and been limited by process conditions and sources of error but newer technologies can report rates up to twice per minute with much higher accuracy (referred to as real-time monitoring). This allows process engineers to treat corrosion as another process variable that can be optimized in the system. Immediate responses to process changes allow the control of corrosion mechanisms, so they can be minimized while also maximizing production output.<a href="#cite_note-:6-120">[120]</a> In an ideal situation having on-line corrosion information that is accurate and real-time will allow conditions that cause high corrosion rates to be identified and reduced. This is known as predictive management. Materials methods include selecting the proper material for the application. In areas of minimal corrosion, cheap materials are preferable, but when bad corrosion can occur, more expensive but longer-lasting materials should be used. Other materials methods come in the form of protective barriers between corrosive substances and the equipment metals. These can be either a lining of refractory material such as standard <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a> or other special acid-resistant cement that is shot onto the inner surface of the vessel. Also available are thin overlays of more expensive metals that protect cheaper metal against corrosion without requiring much material.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_gas" title="Acid gas">Acid gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-Bio" title="H-Bio">H-Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AP_42_Compilation_of_Air_Pollutant_Emission_Factors" title="AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors">AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/API_oil-water_separator" class="mw-redirect" title="API oil-water separator">API oil-water separator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorefinery" title="Biorefinery">Biorefinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">Ethanol fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butanol_fuel" title="Butanol fuel">Butanol fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_flare" title="Gas flare">Gas flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K_factor_crude_oil_refining" class="mw-redirect" title="K factor crude oil refining">K factor crude oil refining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_refineries" title="List of oil refineries">List of oil refineries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-gas_processing" title="Natural-gas processing">Natural-gas processing</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/nora/councils/oilgas/default.html">National Occupational Research Agenda Oil and gas Extraction Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_complexity_index" title="Nelson complexity index">Nelson complexity index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sour_gas" title="Sour gas">Sour gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_distillation_of_crude_oil" title="Atmospheric distillation of crude oil">Atmospheric distillation of crude oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_production" title="List of countries by oil production">List of countries by oil production</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Handwerk2-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Handwerk2_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handwerk2_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handwerk2_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handwerk2_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handwerk2_1-4">e</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGaryHandwerk1984" class="citation book cs1">Gary, James H & Handwerk, Glenn E (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ISBN9780824771508">Petroleum Refining Technology and Economics</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Dekker" title="Marcel Dekker">Marcel Dekker</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-7150-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-7150-8"><bdi>978-0-8247-7150-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Petroleum+Refining+Technology+and+Economics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Marcel+Dekker&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-8247-7150-8&rft.aulast=Gary&rft.aufirst=James+H&rft.au=Handwerk%2C+Glenn+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DISBN9780824771508&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+refinery" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leffler2-2">^ <a 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Retrieved August 22, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Material+Protection+Performance&rft.atitle=Materials+Selection+for+Petroleum+Refineries+and+Petrochemical+Plants&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=19-22&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Hildebrand&rft.aufirst=E+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjglobal.jst.go.jp%2Fen%2Fdetail%3FJGLOBAL_ID%3D201602020852897366&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+refinery" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGillWeinbaum1972" class="citation journal cs1">McGill, W A; Weinbaum, M J (October 9, 1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jglobal.jst.go.jp/en/detail?JGLOBAL_ID=201602015835594046">"Aluminum-diffused steel lasts longer"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oil_%26_Gas_Journal" title="Oil & Gas Journal">Oil & Gas Journal</a>. 70 (41): 66–69. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0030-1388">0030-1388</a>. Retrieved August 22, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oil+%26+Gas+Journal&rft.atitle=Aluminum-diffused+steel+lasts+longer.&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=41&rft.pages=66-69&rft.date=1972-10-09&rft.issn=0030-1388&rft.aulast=McGill&rft.aufirst=W+A&rft.au=Weinbaum%2C+M+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjglobal.jst.go.jp%2Fen%2Fdetail%3FJGLOBAL_ID%3D201602015835594046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+refinery" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDengWang2011" class="citation book cs1">Deng, Yinke; Wang, Pinxing (2011). Ancient Chinese Inventions. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18692-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18692-6"><bdi>978-0-521-18692-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/671710733">671710733</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Chinese+Inventions&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F671710733&rft.isbn=978-0-521-18692-6&rft.aulast=Deng&rft.aufirst=Yinke&rft.au=Wang%2C+Pinxing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+refinery" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_refinery&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output 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decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Oil_refinery" class="extiw" title="commons:Oil refinery">Oil refinery</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071212173402/http://www.energyinst.org.uk/education/refineries/map.htm">Interactive map of UK refineries</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.energysupplylogistics.com/refineries">Searchable United States Refinery Map</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iv/otm_iv_2.html">Complete, detailed refinery description</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060815000718/http://www.ekomuseum.se/english/besoksmal/oljeon.html">Ecomuseum Bergslagen</a> – history of Oljeön, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://consumerfed.org/pdfs/oilprofits.pdf">Fueling Profits: Report on Industry Consolidation</a> (publication of the Consumer Federation of America)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://consumerfed.org/pdfs/gasoline1003.pdf">Price Spikes, Excess Profits and Excuses</a> (publication of the Consumer Federation of America)</li> <li>2022 AFPM Refinery <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://afpm.org/system/files/attachments/AFPM-US-Refining-Capacity-Report-2022.pdf">Listing</a> (free) with Detailed Unit Information (note the data is collected annually by the US Dept. of Energy)</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img 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[\"CITEREFSpeight2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStefanidakis,_G.Gwyn,_J.E.1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThurstonRyanChristianiSnow2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTjalvin2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToxicology1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurkZavalićBogadi-Šare2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWACHASUNDER2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeisel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitterTenneyClarkNewman2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWongRaabe2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXuZuoYangShu2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYamaguchi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÁlvarezBravoJiménezMourão2018\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 12,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 31,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 32,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 53,\n [\"Commons\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 9,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Oil Refinery\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Image frame\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 4,\n 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\u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","40","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","40","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::formatDate","40","3.6"],["[others]","280","25.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-m7f9v","timestamp":"20241122140659","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Oil refinery","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oil_refinery","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q12353044","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q12353044","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-03-12T04:13:09Z","dateModified":"2024-11-20T00:30:36Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/51\/Anacortes_Refinery_31911.JPG","headline":"industrial process plant where crude oil is processed and refined into more useful products"}</script> </body> </html>