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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Derived_quantities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derived_quantities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Derived quantities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derived_quantities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Measurement</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Measurement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Measurement subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Direct_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Direct methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laboratory_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laboratory_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Laboratory methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laboratory_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soil_moisture_measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soil_moisture_measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Soil moisture measurement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soil_moisture_measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geophysical_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geophysical_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Geophysical methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geophysical_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Satellite_remote_sensing_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Satellite_remote_sensing_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Satellite remote sensing method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Satellite_remote_sensing_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wood_moisture_measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wood_moisture_measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Wood moisture measurement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wood_moisture_measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_and_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_and_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Classification and uses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification_and_uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification and uses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification_and_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Earth_and_agricultural_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earth_and_agricultural_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Earth and agricultural sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earth_and_agricultural_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Groundwater" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Groundwater"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Groundwater</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Groundwater-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_aggregates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_aggregates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>In aggregates</span> </div> </a> <button 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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main 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class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Water content</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingut_d%27aigua" title="Contingut d'aigua – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Contingut d'aigua" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassergehalt" title="Wassergehalt – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wassergehalt" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veesisaldus" title="Veesisaldus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Veesisaldus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contenido_de_agua" title="Contenido de agua – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Contenido de agua" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%A8" title="محتوای آب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="محتوای آب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teneur_en_eau_(milieux_poreux)" title="Teneur en eau (milieux poreux) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Teneur en eau (milieux poreux)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%A8%EC%88%98%EB%9F%89" title="함수량 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="함수량" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadar_air" title="Kadar air – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kadar air" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%AB%E6%B0%B4%E7%8E%87" title="含水率 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="含水率" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilgotno%C5%9B%C4%87_gleby" title="Wilgotność gleby – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wilgotność gleby" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umidade_do_solo" title="Umidade do solo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Umidade do solo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Содержание воды – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Содержание воды" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_content" title="Water content – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Water content" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vattenhalt" title="Vattenhalt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vattenhalt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toprak_nem_rejimleri" title="Toprak nem rejimleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Toprak nem rejimleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%94%D0%BC%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Вологоємність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вологоємність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%AB%E6%B0%B4%E9%87%8F" title="含水量 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="含水量" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Quantity of water contained in a material</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soil-phase-diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Soil-phase-diagram.svg/300px-Soil-phase-diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Soil-phase-diagram.svg/450px-Soil-phase-diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Soil-phase-diagram.svg/600px-Soil-phase-diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Soil_morphology" title="Soil morphology">Soil composition</a> by <b>V</b>olume and <b>M</b>ass, by phase: <b>a</b>ir, <b>w</b>ater, <b>v</b>oid (pores filled with water or air), <b>s</b>oil, and <b>t</b>otal.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Water content</b> or <b>moisture content</b> is the quantity of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> contained in a material, such as <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> (called <i><a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture" title="Soil moisture">soil moisture</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Crops">crops</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>. Water content is used in a wide range of scientific and technical areas, and is expressed as a ratio, which can range from 0 (completely dry) to the value of the materials' <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porosity</a> at saturation. It can be given on a volumetric or mass (gravimetric) basis. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Volumetric water content</b>, θ, is defined mathematically as: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \theta ={\frac {V_{w}}{V_{\text{wet}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>θ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>wet</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \theta ={\frac {V_{w}}{V_{\text{wet}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1fb81086bbba1750736f2a484e52f2958078b177" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:9.169ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \theta ={\frac {V_{w}}{V_{\text{wet}}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{w}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{w}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8b3417115633747e6616d838e82fdcb92f1e76cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.764ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{w}}"></span> is the volume of water and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{wet}}=V_{s}+V_{w}+V_{a}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>wet</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{wet}}=V_{s}+V_{w}+V_{a}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e3a156e4b46caaaac605f44b45f4eeeea5d538b0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:20.503ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{wet}}=V_{s}+V_{w}+V_{a}}"></span> is equal to the total volume of the wet material, i.e. of the sum of the volume of solid host material (e.g., soil particles, vegetation tissue) <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{s}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{s}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/57d5d0bb9d326d015df44456d7c0648f80c0f1f5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.359ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{s}}"></span>, of water <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{w}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{w}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8b3417115633747e6616d838e82fdcb92f1e76cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.764ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{w}}"></span>, and of air <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{a}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{a}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b26205fe6c67ed47c72959a921fe7fd9c1c250ed" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.457ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{a}}"></span>. </p><p><b>Gravimetric water content</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is expressed by mass (weight) as follows: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u={\frac {m_{w}}{m_{s}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>u</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u={\frac {m_{w}}{m_{s}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/759120c6916b9d6b37207264d37b2ed16c54ea05" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:8.714ex; height:5.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u={\frac {m_{w}}{m_{s}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{w}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{w}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1bd173f48c4afc862b28f62d46b4ff220e64f016" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.449ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{w}}"></span> is the mass of water and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{s}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{s}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/488560816fccdf62695552ac8bf0611a0d5c09b4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.044ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{s}}"></span> is the mass of the solids. </p><p>For materials that change in volume with water content, such as <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, the gravimetric water content, <i>u</i>, is expressed in terms of the mass of water per unit mass of the moist specimen (before drying): </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u'={\frac {m_{w}}{m_{\text{wet}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>u</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>wet</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u'={\frac {m_{w}}{m_{\text{wet}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/054681fc39ab2e113ee4238f9c7a511605d3af5c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:10.778ex; height:5.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u'={\frac {m_{w}}{m_{\text{wet}}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>However, <a href="/wiki/Woodworking" title="Woodworking">woodworking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geotechnics" class="mw-redirect" title="Geotechnics">geotechnics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">soil science</a> require the gravimetric moisture content to be expressed with respect to the sample's dry weight: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u''={\frac {m_{w}}{m_{\text{dry}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>u</mi> <mo>″</mo> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>dry</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u''={\frac {m_{w}}{m_{\text{dry}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7d1d0184c4293ce6b5c803931f99e2729b5a06b3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:11.101ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u''={\frac {m_{w}}{m_{\text{dry}}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>And in <a href="/wiki/Food_science" title="Food science">food science</a>, both <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u'}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>u</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u'}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bee645f272e64333868e2baa275419eca4ee0718" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.014ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u'}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u''}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>u</mi> <mo>″</mo> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u''}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/75057c7f0c536c8aa2f1df42cfddcfd96985c4f9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.467ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u''}"></span> are used and called respectively <b>moisture content wet basis</b> (MC<sub>wb</sub>) and <b>moisture content <a href="/wiki/Dry_basis" title="Dry basis">dry basis</a></b> (MC<sub>db</sub>).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Values are often expressed as a percentage, i.e. <i>u</i>×100%. </p><p>To convert gravimetric water content to volumetric water content, multiply the gravimetric water content by the bulk <a href="/wiki/Specific_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific gravity">specific gravity</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle SG}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>G</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle SG}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6910f93458a60f1fb5457f21f7054c32fbc347d6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.326ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle SG}"></span> of the material: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \theta =u\times SG}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>θ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>u</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mi>G</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \theta =u\times SG}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b3ff94e6e7023c6cfb68cd61882b1c2672648dce" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:11.685ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \theta =u\times SG}"></span>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Derived_quantities">Derived quantities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Derived quantities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">soil mechanics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">petroleum engineering</a> the <b>water saturation</b> or <b>degree of saturation</b>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{w}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{w}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/727e2945c3e0a54e22c86ed12ec1205a358961a7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.834ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{w}}"></span>, is defined as </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{w}={\frac {V_{w}}{V_{v}}}={\frac {V_{w}}{V\phi }}={\frac {\theta }{\phi }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mi>V</mi> <mi>ϕ</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>θ</mi> <mi>ϕ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{w}={\frac {V_{w}}{V_{v}}}={\frac {V_{w}}{V\phi }}={\frac {\theta }{\phi }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6911e4ffb5154563c08e6c58e70b1170d33c5d14" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:21.96ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{w}={\frac {V_{w}}{V_{v}}}={\frac {V_{w}}{V\phi }}={\frac {\theta }{\phi }}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi =V_{v}/V}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>V</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi =V_{v}/V}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4c9ccb2db6bcacdc3bb8fa33108cc9dd5f8169c2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.818ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi =V_{v}/V}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porosity</a>, in terms of the volume of void or pore space <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{v}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{v}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cd10bf605dca1100ddb95dd0a175b020a756d9bd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.385ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{v}}"></span> and the total volume of the substance <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>V</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/af0f6064540e84211d0ffe4dac72098adfa52845" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.787ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V}"></span>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Dry or wet total volume? (March 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Values of <i>S<sub>w</sub></i> can range from 0 (dry) to 1 (saturated). In reality, <i>S<sub>w</sub></i> never reaches 0 or 1 - these are idealizations for engineering use. </p><p>The <b>normalized water content</b>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Theta }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Θ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Theta }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bc927b19f46d005b4720db7a0f96cd5b6f1a0d9b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.808ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Theta }"></span>, (also called <b>effective saturation</b> or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{e}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{e}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3c116b38a936976c554aaf49bddf5c6476313dab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.423ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{e}}"></span>) is a dimensionless value defined by van Genuchten<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Theta ={\frac {\theta -\theta _{r}}{\theta _{s}-\theta _{r}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Θ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>θ</mi> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>θ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <msub> <mi>θ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>θ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Theta ={\frac {\theta -\theta _{r}}{\theta _{s}-\theta _{r}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c87e5d62f4fe9a6ad1c527387ed6c00b5188d05b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:12.741ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Theta ={\frac {\theta -\theta _{r}}{\theta _{s}-\theta _{r}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \theta }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>θ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \theta }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6e5ab2664b422d53eb0c7df3b87e1360d75ad9af" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \theta }"></span> is the volumetric water content; <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \theta _{r}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>θ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \theta _{r}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8150e6ff5705574752b8a69aa3da335179961b5e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.064ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \theta _{r}}"></span> is the residual water content, defined as the water content for which the gradient <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d\theta /dh}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> <mi>θ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d\theta /dh}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8bc981715e70f8443e4ba65ab1615b4e04db350" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.024ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d\theta /dh}"></span> becomes zero; and, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \theta _{s}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>θ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \theta _{s}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/835141623ca41c8deb23ca33ec7e84a858566b57" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.094ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \theta _{s}}"></span> is the saturated water content, which is equivalent to porosity, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ϕ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/72b1f30316670aee6270a28334bdf4f5072cdde4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.385ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi }"></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement">Measurement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Direct_methods">Direct methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Direct methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Water content can be directly measured using a drying <a href="/wiki/Oven" title="Oven">oven</a>. <span class="anchor" id="oven-dry_method"></span>The <b>oven-dry method</b> requires drying a sample (of soil, wood, etc.) in a special oven or kiln and checking the sample weight at regular time intervals. When the drying process is complete, the sample's weight is compared to its weight before drying, and the difference is used to calculate the sample's original moisture content. </p><p>Gravimetric water content, <i>u</i>, is calculated<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> via the mass of water <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{w}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{w}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1bd173f48c4afc862b28f62d46b4ff220e64f016" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.449ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{w}}"></span>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{w}=m_{\text{wet}}-m_{\text{dry}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>wet</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>dry</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{w}=m_{\text{wet}}-m_{\text{dry}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fcd5780006840c7cdf0fd8301e1bc91c386c128d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:18.916ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{w}=m_{\text{wet}}-m_{\text{dry}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{\text{wet}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>wet</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{\text{wet}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/191c7bfb693352fc5db41d214bba7201000ed92a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.829ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{\text{wet}}}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{\text{dry}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>dry</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{\text{dry}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6aefb795a1564d26ebcc65c705e80b5fca497f79" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.699ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{\text{dry}}}"></span> are the <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">masses</a> of the sample before and after drying in the oven. This gives the numerator of <i>u</i>; the denominator is either <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{\text{wet}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>wet</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{\text{wet}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/191c7bfb693352fc5db41d214bba7201000ed92a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.829ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{\text{wet}}}"></span> or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{\text{dry}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>dry</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{\text{dry}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6aefb795a1564d26ebcc65c705e80b5fca497f79" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.699ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{\text{dry}}}"></span> (resulting in <i>u'</i> or <i>u"</i>, respectively), depending on the discipline. </p><p>On the other hand, volumetric water content, <i>θ</i>, is calculated<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> via the volume of water <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{w}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{w}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8b3417115633747e6616d838e82fdcb92f1e76cb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.764ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{w}}"></span>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{w}={\frac {m_{w}}{\rho _{w}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{w}={\frac {m_{w}}{\rho _{w}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cc7099396dada4bdbb49c66252d97f039b67ac1e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:10.148ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{w}={\frac {m_{w}}{\rho _{w}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho _{w}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho _{w}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3ba05ad86dbe23f819d2b17a77fd2187e98251f8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.611ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho _{w}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Density_of_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Density of water">density of water</a>. This gives the numerator of <i>θ</i>; the denominator, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{wet}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>wet</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{wet}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3c63032d49d565834c3deea4cc88439e3ccfa04c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.144ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{wet}}}"></span>, is the total volume of the wet material, which is fixed by simply filling up a container of known volume (e.g., a <a href="/wiki/Tin_can" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin can">tin can</a>) when taking a sample. </p><p>For <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>, the convention is to report moisture content on oven-dry basis (i.e. generally drying sample in an oven set at 105 deg Celsius for 24 hours or until it stops losing weight). In <a href="/wiki/Wood_drying" title="Wood drying">wood drying</a>, this is an important concept. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laboratory_methods">Laboratory methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Laboratory methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Moisture_analysis" title="Moisture analysis">Moisture analysis</a></div> <p>Other methods that determine water content of a sample include chemical <a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">titrations</a> (for example the <a href="/wiki/Karl_Fischer_titration" title="Karl Fischer titration">Karl Fischer titration</a>), determining mass loss on heating (perhaps in the presence of an inert gas), or after <a href="/wiki/Freeze_drying" title="Freeze drying">freeze drying</a>. In the food industry the <a href="/wiki/Dean-Stark_apparatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dean-Stark apparatus">Dean-Stark method</a> is also commonly used. </p><p>From the Annual Book of <a href="/wiki/ASTM" class="mw-redirect" title="ASTM">ASTM</a> (American Society for Testing and Materials) Standards, the total evaporable moisture content in Aggregate (C 566) can be calculated with the formula: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p={\frac {W-D}{W}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>W</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>D</mi> </mrow> <mi>W</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p={\frac {W-D}{W}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4c2b7e0af40a1fcb8d6b10ab01ff3d9d649bff9b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:12.393ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p={\frac {W-D}{W}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span> is the fraction of total evaporable moisture content of sample, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>W</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/54a9c4c547f4d6111f81946cad242b18298d70b7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.435ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle W}"></span> is the mass of the original sample, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.924ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D}"></span> is mass of dried sample. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soil_moisture_measurement">Soil moisture measurement<span class="anchor" id="Soil"></span><span class="anchor" id="Soil_moisture"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Soil moisture measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture" title="Soil moisture">Soil moisture</a></div> <p>In addition to the direct and laboratory methods above, the following options are available. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geophysical_methods">Geophysical methods</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Geophysical methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture_sensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil moisture sensors">Soil moisture sensors</a></div> <p>There are several <a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">geophysical</a> methods available that can approximate <i>in situ</i> soil water content. These methods include: <a href="/wiki/Time-domain_reflectometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Time-domain reflectometry">time-domain reflectometry</a> (TDR), <a href="/wiki/Neutron_probe" title="Neutron probe">neutron probe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frequency_domain_sensor" title="Frequency domain sensor">frequency domain sensor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capacitance_probe" title="Capacitance probe">capacitance probe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amplitude_Domain_Reflectometry_(ADR)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amplitude Domain Reflectometry (ADR)">amplitude domain reflectometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_tomography" title="Electrical resistivity tomography">electrical resistivity tomography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ground_penetrating_radar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground penetrating radar">ground penetrating radar</a> (GPR), and others that are sensitive to the <a href="/wiki/Water_(molecule)" class="mw-redirect" title="Water (molecule)">physical properties of water</a> .<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geophysical sensors are often used to monitor soil moisture continuously in agricultural and scientific applications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Satellite_remote_sensing_method">Satellite remote sensing method</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Satellite remote sensing method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></div> <p>Satellite microwave remote sensing is used to estimate soil moisture based on the large contrast between the dielectric properties of wet and dry soil. The microwave radiation is not sensitive to atmospheric variables, and can penetrate through clouds. Also, microwave signal can penetrate, to a certain extent, the vegetation canopy and retrieve information from ground surface.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The data from microwave remote sensing satellites such as WindSat, AMSR-E, RADARSAT, ERS-1-2, Metop/ASCAT, and SMAP are used to estimate surface soil moisture.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wood_moisture_measurement">Wood moisture measurement<span class="anchor" id="Wood"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Wood moisture measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Moisture_meter" title="Moisture meter">Moisture meter</a></div> <p>In addition to the primary methods above, another method exists to measure the moisture content of wood: an electronic <i><a href="/wiki/Moisture_meter" title="Moisture meter">moisture meter</a></i>. Pin and pinless meters are the two main types of moisture meters. </p><p>Pin meters require driving two pins into the surface of the wood while making sure that the pins are aligned with the grain and not perpendicular to it. Pin meters provide moisture content readings by measuring the resistance in the electrical current between the two pins. The drier the wood, the more resistance to the electrical current, when measuring below the fiber saturation point of wood. Pin meters are generally preferred when there is no flat surface of the wood available to measure </p><p>Pinless meters emit an electromagnetic signal into the wood to provide readings of the wood's moisture content and are generally preferred when damage to the wood's surface is unacceptable or when a high volume of readings or greater ease of use is required. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_and_uses">Classification and uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Classification and uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Moisture may be present as adsorbed moisture at internal surfaces and as capillary condensed water in small pores. At low relative humidities, moisture consists mainly of adsorbed water. At higher relative humidities, liquid water becomes more and more important, depending or not depending on the pore size can also be an influence of volume. In wood-based materials, however, almost all water is adsorbed at humidities below 98% RH. </p><p>In biological applications there can also be a distinction between physisorbed water and "free" water — the physisorbed water being that closely associated with and relatively difficult to remove from a biological material. The method used to determine water content may affect whether water present in this form is accounted for. For a better indication of "free" and "bound" water, the <a href="/wiki/Water_activity" title="Water activity">water activity</a> of a material should be considered. </p><p>Water molecules may also be present in materials closely associated with individual molecules, as "water of crystallization", or as water molecules which are static components of protein structure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earth_and_agricultural_sciences">Earth and agricultural sciences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Earth and agricultural sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">soil science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">agricultural sciences</a>, water content has an important role for <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">groundwater recharge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">soil chemistry</a>. Many recent scientific research efforts have aimed toward a predictive-understanding of water content over space and time. Observations have revealed generally that spatial variance in water content tends to increase as overall wetness increases in semiarid regions, to decrease as overall wetness increases in humid regions, and to peak under intermediate wetness conditions in temperate regions .<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are four standard water contents that are routinely measured and used, which are described in the following table: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Name </th> <th>Notation </th> <th>Suction pressure<br />(J/kg or kPa) </th> <th>Typical water content<br />(vol/vol) </th> <th>Conditions </th></tr> <tr> <td>Saturated water content </td> <td align="center">θ<sub>s</sub> </td> <td align="right">0 </td> <td align="center">0.2–0.5 </td> <td>Fully saturated soil, equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Effective_porosity" title="Effective porosity">effective porosity</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Field_capacity" title="Field capacity">Field capacity</a> </td> <td align="center">θ<sub>fc</sub> </td> <td align="right">−33 </td> <td align="center">0.1–0.35 </td> <td>Soil moisture 2–3 days after a rain or irrigation </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Permanent_wilting_point" title="Permanent wilting point">Permanent wilting point</a> </td> <td align="center">θ<sub>pwp</sub> or θ<sub>wp</sub> </td> <td align="right">−1500 </td> <td align="center">0.01–0.25 </td> <td>Minimum soil moisture at which a plant wilts </td></tr> <tr> <td>Residual water content </td> <td align="center">θ<sub>r</sub> </td> <td align="right">−∞ </td> <td align="center">0.001–0.1 </td> <td>Remaining water at high tension </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>And lastly the <a href="/wiki/Available_water_capacity" title="Available water capacity">available water content</a>, θ<sub>a</sub>, which is equivalent to: </p> <dl><dd>θ<sub>a</sub> ≡ θ<sub>fc</sub> − θ<sub>pwp</sub></dd></dl> <p>which can range between 0.1 in <a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</a> and 0.3 in <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When a soil becomes too dry, plant <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a> drops because the water is increasingly bound to the soil particles by suction. Below the <a href="/wiki/Wilting_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilting point">wilting point</a> plants are no longer able to extract water. At this point they wilt and cease transpiring altogether. Conditions where soil is too dry to maintain reliable plant growth is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a>, and is a particular focus of <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> management. Such conditions are common in <a href="/wiki/Arid" class="mw-redirect" title="Arid">arid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-arid">semi-arid</a> environments. </p><p>Some agriculture professionals are beginning to use environmental measurements such as soil moisture to schedule <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>. This method is referred to as <i>smart irrigation</i> or <i>soil cultivation</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Groundwater">Groundwater</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Groundwater"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In saturated <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a>, all available <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">pore</a> spaces are filled with water (volumetric water content = <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porosity</a>). Above a <a href="/wiki/Capillary_fringe" title="Capillary fringe">capillary fringe</a>, pore spaces have air in them too. </p><p>Most soils have a water content less than porosity, which is the definition of unsaturated conditions, and they make up the subject of <a href="/wiki/Vadose_zone" title="Vadose zone">vadose zone</a> hydrogeology. The <a href="/wiki/Capillary_fringe" title="Capillary fringe">capillary fringe</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> is the dividing line between <a href="/wiki/Aquifer#Saturated_versus_unsaturated" title="Aquifer">saturated and unsaturated</a> conditions. Water content in the capillary fringe decreases with increasing distance above the <a href="/wiki/Phreatic" title="Phreatic">phreatic</a> surface. The flow of water through and unsaturated zone in soils often involves a process of fingering, resulting from <a href="/wiki/Saffman%E2%80%93Taylor_instability" title="Saffman–Taylor instability">Saffman–Taylor instability</a>. This results mostly through <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a> processes and produces and unstable interface between saturated and unsaturated regions. </p><p>One of the main complications which arises in studying the vadose zone, is the fact that the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is a function of the water content of the material. As a material dries out, the connected wet pathways through the media become smaller, the hydraulic conductivity decreasing with lower water content in a very non-linear fashion. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Water_retention_curve" title="Water retention curve">water retention curve</a> is the relationship between volumetric water content and the <a href="/wiki/Water_potential" title="Water potential">water potential</a> of the porous medium. It is characteristic for different types of porous medium. Due to <a href="/wiki/Hysteresis" title="Hysteresis">hysteresis</a>, different wetting and drying curves may be distinguished. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_aggregates">In aggregates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In aggregates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Generally, an aggregate has four different moisture conditions. They are Oven-dry (OD), Air-dry (AD), <a href="/wiki/Saturated-surface-dry" title="Saturated-surface-dry">Saturated surface dry (SSD)</a> and damp (or wet).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oven-dry and Saturated surface dry can be achieved by experiments in laboratories, while Air-dry and damp (or wet) are aggregates' common conditions in nature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Four_Conditions">Four Conditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Four Conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>Oven-dry</b> (OD) is defined as the condition of an aggregate where there is no moisture within any part of the aggregate. This condition can be achieved in a laboratory by heating the aggregate to 220 °F (105 °C) for a period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Air-dry</b> (AD) is defined as the condition of an aggregate in which there are some water or moisture in the pores of the aggregate, while the outer surfaces of it is dry. This is a natural condition of aggregates in summer or in dry regions. In this condition, an aggregate will absorb water from other materials added to the surface of it, which would possibly have some impact on some characters of the aggregate.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Saturated surface dry</b> (SSD) is defined as the condition of an <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_(composite)" title="Aggregate (composite)">aggregate</a> in which the surfaces of the particles are "dry" (<i>i.e.</i>, they will neither absorb any of the mixing water added; nor will they contribute any of their contained water to the mix<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), but the <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">inter-particle voids</a> are saturated with water. In this condition aggregates will not affect the free water content of a <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composite material</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The water adsorption by mass (A<sub>m</sub>) is defined in terms of the mass of saturated-surface-dry (M<sub>ssd</sub>) sample and the mass of oven dried test sample (M<sub>dry</sub>) by the formula: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A={\frac {M_{ssd}-M_{dry}}{M_{dry}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>s</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A={\frac {M_{ssd}-M_{dry}}{M_{dry}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a894bc2e337ac84c14bed280b091ed9b4c487bbe" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:18.311ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A={\frac {M_{ssd}-M_{dry}}{M_{dry}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>Damp</b> (or wet) is defined as the condition of an aggregate in which water is fully permeated the aggregate through the pores in it, and there is free water in excess of the SSD condition on its surfaces which will become part of the mixing water.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Application">Application</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Application"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among these four moisture conditions of aggregates, saturated surface dry is the condition that has the most applications in laboratory experiments, research, and studies, especially those related to water absorption, composition ratio, or shrinkage tests in materials like concrete. For many related experiments, a saturated surface dry condition is a premise that must be realized before the experiment. In saturated surface dry conditions, the aggregate's water content is in a relatively stable and static situation where its environment would not affect it. Therefore, in experiments and tests where aggregates are in saturated surface dry condition, there would be fewer disrupting factors than in the other three conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">Humidity</a>, "water content" in air</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moisture" title="Moisture">Moisture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viscous_fingering" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscous fingering">Viscous fingering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moisture_analysis" title="Moisture analysis">Moisture analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture_sensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil moisture sensors">Soil moisture sensors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_activity" title="Water activity">Water activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_retention_curve" title="Water retention curve">Water retention curve</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFT._William_LambeRobert_V._Whitman1969" class="citation book cs1">T. William Lambe & Robert V. Whitman (1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/soilmechanics00lamb/page/553">"Chapter 3: Description of an Assemblage of Particles"</a></span>. <i>Soil Mechanics</i> (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/soilmechanics00lamb/page/553">553</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-51192-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-51192-2"><bdi>978-0-471-51192-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+Description+of+an+Assemblage+of+Particles&rft.btitle=Soil+Mechanics&rft.pages=553&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-471-51192-2&rft.au=T.+William+Lambe&rft.au=Robert+V.+Whitman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsoilmechanics00lamb%2Fpage%2F553&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+content" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Paul_SinghDennis_R._Heldman2014" class="citation book cs1">R. Paul Singh; Dennis R. Heldman (2014). "Chapter 1: Introduction". <i>Introduction to Food Engineering</i> (Fifth ed.). 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"Water absorption of fine recycled aggregates: effective determination by a method based on electrical conductivity". <i>Materials and Structures</i>. <b>51</b> (5): 127. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1617%2Fs11527-018-1248-2">10.1617/s11527-018-1248-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11336%2F83159">11336/83159</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1871-6873">1871-6873</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:139201161">139201161</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Materials+and+Structures&rft.atitle=Water+absorption+of+fine+recycled+aggregates%3A+effective+determination+by+a+method+based+on+electrical+conductivity&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=127&rft.date=2018-10-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11336%2F83159&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A139201161%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1871-6873&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1617%2Fs11527-018-1248-2&rft.aulast=Zaccardi&rft.aufirst=Y.+A.+Villagr%C3%A1n&rft.au=Zega%2C+C.+J.&rft.au=Carrizo%2C+L.+E.&rft.au=Sosa%2C+M.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+content" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKawamuraKasai2009" class="citation journal cs1">Kawamura, Masashi; Kasai, Yoshio (2009-05-29). "Determination of saturated surface-dry condition of clay–sand mixed soils for soil–cement concrete construction". <i>Materials and Structures</i>. <b>43</b> (4): 571–582. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1617%2Fs11527-009-9512-0">10.1617/s11527-009-9512-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1359-5997">1359-5997</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:137282443">137282443</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Materials+and+Structures&rft.atitle=Determination+of+saturated+surface-dry+condition+of+clay%E2%80%93sand+mixed+soils+for+soil%E2%80%93cement+concrete+construction&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=571-582&rft.date=2009-05-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A137282443%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1359-5997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1617%2Fs11527-009-9512-0&rft.aulast=Kawamura&rft.aufirst=Masashi&rft.au=Kasai%2C+Yoshio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+content" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_content&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2008" class="citation cs2">Robinson, David A. (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-pub.iaea.org/mtcd/publications/pdf/tcs-30_web.pdf">"Field Estimation of Soil Water Content: A Practical Guide to Methods, Instrumentation and Sensor Technology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Soil Science Society of America Journal</i>, <b>73</b> (4), Vienna, Austria: International Atomic Energy Agency: 131, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009SSASJ..73.1437R">2009SSASJ..73.1437R</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2136%2Fsssaj2008.0016br">10.2136/sssaj2008.0016br</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1018-5518">1018-5518</a>, IAEA-TCS-30</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soil+Science+Society+of+America+Journal&rft.atitle=Field+Estimation+of+Soil+Water+Content%3A+A+Practical+Guide+to+Methods%2C+Instrumentation+and+Sensor+Technology&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=131&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=1018-5518&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2136%2Fsssaj2008.0016br&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009SSASJ..73.1437R&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pub.iaea.org%2Fmtcd%2Fpublications%2Fpdf%2Ftcs-30_web.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+content" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.schweizerbart.de/9783443011093">Wessel-Bothe, Weihermüller (2020): Field Measurement Methods in Soil Science.</a> New practical guide to soil measurements explains the principles of operation of different moisture sensor types (independent of manufacturer), their accuracy, fields of application and how such sensors are installed, as well as subtleties of the data so obtained. 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style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Core_sample.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Core_sample.svg/20px-Core_sample.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Core_sample.svg/30px-Core_sample.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Core_sample.svg/40px-Core_sample.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Core_drill" title="Core drill">Core drill</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cone_penetration_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cone_penetration_test.svg/20px-Cone_penetration_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" 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test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Load_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/20px-Load_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/30px-Load_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/40px-Load_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Load_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Load test">Load test</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Static_load_testing" title="Static load testing">Static</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_load_testing" title="Dynamic load testing">Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statnamic_load_test" title="Statnamic load test">Statnamic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/20px-Ram_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/30px-Ram_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/40px-Ram_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ram_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ram sounding (page does not exist)">Ram sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rock_control_drilling.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/20px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/30px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/40px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rock_control_drilling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rock control drilling (page does not exist)">Rock control drilling</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/20px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/30px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/40px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Rotary-pressure_sounding" title="Rotary-pressure sounding">Rotary-pressure sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotary_weight_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/20px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/30px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/40px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rotary_weight_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rotary weight sounding (page does not exist)">Rotary weight sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_series.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/20px-Sample_series.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/30px-Sample_series.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/40px-Sample_series.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Soil_test#Soil_testing" title="Soil test">Sample series</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Screw_plate_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/20px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/30px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/40px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Screw_plate_test&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Screw plate test (page does not exist)">Screw plate test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deformation_monitoring" title="Deformation monitoring">Deformation monitoring</a> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Inclinometer.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/20px-Inclinometer.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/30px-Inclinometer.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/40px-Inclinometer.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Inclinometer" title="Inclinometer">Inclinometer</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Settlement_recordings.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/20px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/30px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/40px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Soil_consolidation" title="Soil consolidation">Settlement recordings</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shear_vane_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/20px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/30px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/40px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Shear_vane_test" title="Shear vane test">Shear vane test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/20px-Simple_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/30px-Simple_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/40px-Simple_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Simple_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Simple sounding (page does not exist)">Simple sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_penetration_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/20px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/30px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/40px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Standard_penetration_test" title="Standard penetration test">Standard penetration test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Total_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/20px-Total_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/30px-Total_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/40px-Total_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Total_sounding" title="Total sounding">Total sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trial_pit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/20px-Trial_pit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/30px-Trial_pit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/40px-Trial_pit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Trial_pit" title="Trial pit">Trial pit</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Visible_rock.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/20px-Visible_rock.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/30px-Visible_rock.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/40px-Visible_rock.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">Visible bedrock</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_densometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear densometer">Nuclear densometer test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_geophysics" title="Exploration geophysics">Exploration geophysics</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crosshole_sonic_logging" title="Crosshole sonic logging">Crosshole sonic logging</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pile_integrity_test" title="Pile integrity test">Pile integrity test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wave_equation_analysis" title="Wave equation analysis">Wave equation analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Soil_test" title="Soil test">Laboratory <br />testing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_classification" title="Soil classification">Soil classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atterberg_limits" title="Atterberg limits">Atterberg limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_bearing_ratio" title="California bearing ratio">California bearing ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_shear_test" title="Direct shear test">Direct shear test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrometer" title="Hydrometer">Hydrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proctor_compaction_test" title="Proctor compaction test">Proctor compaction test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-value_(soils)" title="R-value (soils)">R-value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieve_analysis" title="Sieve analysis">Sieve analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triaxial_shear_test" title="Triaxial shear test">Triaxial shear test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oedometer_test" title="Oedometer test">Oedometer test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity#Experimental_approach" title="Hydraulic conductivity">Hydraulic conductivity tests</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Measurement">Water content tests</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">Silt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">Gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">Loam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">Loess</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Properties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">Hydraulic conductivity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Water content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Void_ratio" title="Void ratio">Void ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_density" title="Bulk density">Bulk density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thixotropy" title="Thixotropy">Thixotropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reynolds%27_dilatancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reynolds' dilatancy">Reynolds' dilatancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_repose" title="Angle of repose">Angle of repose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction#Angle_of_friction" title="Friction">Friction angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(geology)" title="Cohesion (geology)">Cohesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">Porosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(earth_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (earth sciences)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_storage" title="Specific storage">Specific storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shear_strength_(soil)" title="Shear strength (soil)">Shear strength</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="Soil liquefaction">Sensitivity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures <br />(<a href="/wiki/Soil-structure_interaction" title="Soil-structure interaction">Interaction</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Natural features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">Topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">Vegetation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">Terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">Topsoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">Water table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">Bedrock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgrade" title="Subgrade">Subgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsoil" title="Subsoil">Subsoil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">Earthworks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Shoring structures <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">Retaining walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_freezing" title="Ground freezing">Ground freezing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanically_stabilized_earth" title="Mechanically stabilized earth">Mechanically stabilized earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_grouting" title="Pressure grouting">Pressure grouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slurry_wall" title="Slurry wall">Slurry wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_nailing" title="Soil nailing">Soil nailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tieback_(geotechnical)" title="Tieback (geotechnical)">Tieback</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">Land development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging" title="Digging">Excavation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench" title="Trench">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embankment_(earthworks)" title="Embankment (earthworks)">Embankment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_(earthworks)" title="Cut (earthworks)">Cut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causeway" title="Causeway">Causeway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel#Cut-and-cover" title="Tunnel">Cut-and-cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_and_fill" title="Cut and fill">Cut and fill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_dirt" title="Fill dirt">Fill dirt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grading_(engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grading (engineering)">Grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">Land reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Track_bed" title="Track bed">Track bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">Erosion control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_structure" title="Earth structure">Earth structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expanded_clay_aggregate" title="Expanded clay aggregate">Expanded clay aggregate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crushed_stone" title="Crushed stone">Crushed stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetics" title="Geosynthetics">Geosynthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geotextile" title="Geotextile">Geotextile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomembrane" title="Geomembrane">Geomembrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetic_clay_liner" title="Geosynthetic clay liner">Geosynthetic clay liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_confinement" title="Cellular confinement">Cellular confinement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">Infiltration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)" title="Foundation (engineering)">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_foundation" title="Shallow foundation">Shallow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_foundation" title="Deep foundation">Deep</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">Mechanics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_stress" title="Effective stress">Effective stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pore_water_pressure" title="Pore water pressure">Pore water pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_earth_pressure" title="Lateral earth pressure">Lateral earth pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overburden_pressure" title="Overburden pressure">Overburden pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preconsolidation_pressure" title="Preconsolidation pressure">Preconsolidation pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Phenomena/<br />problems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">Permafrost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_heaving" title="Frost heaving">Frost heaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolidation (soil)">Consolidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">Compaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquake</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Response_spectrum" title="Response spectrum">Response spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_hazard" title="Seismic hazard">Seismic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_wave" title="S wave">Shear wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">Landslide</a> analysis <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slope_stability_analysis" title="Slope stability analysis">Stability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide_mitigation" title="Landslide mitigation">Mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide_classification" title="Landslide classification">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sliding_criterion_(geotechnical_engineering)" title="Sliding criterion (geotechnical engineering)">Sliding criterion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road#Slab_stabilization" title="Road">Slab stabilisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bearing_capacity" title="Bearing capacity">Bearing capacity</a> * <a href="/wiki/Stress_distribution_in_soil" title="Stress distribution in soil">Stress distribution in soil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Numerical analysis <br />software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SEEP2D" title="SEEP2D">SEEP2D</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=STABL&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="STABL (page does not exist)">STABL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SVFlux" title="SVFlux">SVFlux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SVSlope" title="SVSlope">SVSlope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UTEXAS" title="UTEXAS">UTEXAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaxis" title="Plaxis">Plaxis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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