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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Experimental_assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Experimental assessment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experimental_assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analytical/Numerical_assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytical/Numerical_assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Analytical/Numerical assessment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analytical/Numerical_assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_for_earthquake_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_for_earthquake_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Research for earthquake engineering</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_for_earthquake_engineering-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research for earthquake engineering subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research_for_earthquake_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Major_U.S._research_programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_U.S._research_programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Major U.S. research programs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_U.S._research_programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earthquake_simulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earthquake_simulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Earthquake simulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earthquake_simulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure_simulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure_simulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Structure simulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure_simulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seismic_vibration_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seismic_vibration_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Seismic vibration control</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Seismic_vibration_control-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Seismic vibration control subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Seismic_vibration_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dry-stone_walls_in_Peru" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dry-stone_walls_in_Peru"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Dry-stone walls in Peru</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dry-stone_walls_in_Peru-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tuned_mass_damper" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tuned_mass_damper"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Tuned mass damper</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tuned_mass_damper-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hysteretic_dampers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hysteretic_dampers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Hysteretic dampers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hysteretic_dampers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Base_isolation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Base_isolation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Base isolation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Base_isolation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seismic_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seismic_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Seismic design</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Seismic_design-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Seismic design subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Seismic_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Seismic_design_requirements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seismic_design_requirements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Seismic design requirements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seismic_design_requirements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failure_modes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failure_modes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Failure modes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failure_modes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earthquake-resistant_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earthquake-resistant_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Earthquake-resistant construction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Earthquake-resistant_construction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Earthquake-resistant construction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Earthquake-resistant_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Adobe_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adobe_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Adobe structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adobe_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limestone_and_sandstone_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limestone_and_sandstone_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Limestone and sandstone structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limestone_and_sandstone_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timber_frame_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timber_frame_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Timber frame structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timber_frame_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Light-frame_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Light-frame_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Light-frame structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Light-frame_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reinforced_masonry_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reinforced_masonry_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Reinforced masonry structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reinforced_masonry_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reinforced_concrete_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reinforced_concrete_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Reinforced concrete structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reinforced_concrete_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prestressed_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prestressed_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Prestressed structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prestressed_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Steel_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steel_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>Steel structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steel_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prediction_of_earthquake_losses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prediction_of_earthquake_losses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Prediction of earthquake losses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prediction_of_earthquake_losses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" 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type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%B2%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%84" title="هندسة زلازل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هندسة زلازل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inxenier%C3%ADa_s%C3%ADsmica" title="Inxeniería sísmica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Inxeniería sísmica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C_%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Сейсматрываласць будаўніцтва – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сейсматрываласць будаўніцтва" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Сеизмично инженерство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сеизмично инженерство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enginyeria_antis%C3%ADsmica" title="Enginyeria antisísmica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Enginyeria antisísmica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdbebensicheres_Bauen" title="Erdbebensicheres Bauen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Erdbebensicheres Bauen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%AD%CF%82" title="Αντισεισμικές κατασκευές – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αντισεισμικές κατασκευές" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenier%C3%ADa_s%C3%ADsmica" title="Ingeniería sísmica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ingeniería sísmica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertrem-imuna_konstruado" title="Tertrem-imuna konstruado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tertrem-imuna konstruado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingeniaritza_sismiko" title="Ingeniaritza sismiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ingeniaritza sismiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%87" title="مهندسی زمین‌لرزه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مهندسی زمین‌لرزه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_parasismique" title="Construction parasismique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Construction parasismique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enxe%C3%B1ar%C3%ADa_s%C3%ADsmica" title="Enxeñaría sísmica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Enxeñaría sísmica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EC%A7%84%EA%B3%B5%ED%95%99" title="지진공학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지진공학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potresno_in%C5%BEenjerstvo" title="Potresno inženjerstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Potresno inženjerstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekayasa_gempa" title="Rekayasa gempa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rekayasa gempa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingegneria_sismica" title="Ingegneria sismica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ingegneria sismica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingeniaria_terrae_motuum" title="Ingeniaria terrae motuum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ingeniaria terrae motuum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AA_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="भूकंप अभियांत्रिकी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भूकंप अभियांत्रिकी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kejuruteraan_gempa_bumi" title="Kejuruteraan gempa bumi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kejuruteraan gempa bumi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%96%D8%AF%D9%84%DB%90_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="د رېږدلې انجنيري – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د رېږدلې انجنيري" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapobieganie_skutkom_trz%C4%99sie%C5%84_ziemi" title="Zapobieganie skutkom trzęsień ziemi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zapobieganie skutkom trzęsień ziemi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engenharia_s%C3%ADsmica" title="Engenharia sísmica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Engenharia sísmica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Сейсмостойкое строительство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сейсмостойкое строительство" data-language-autonym="Русский" 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.sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Earthquakes" title="Category:Earthquakes">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquakes</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/80px-Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/120px-Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/160px-Earthquake_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="410" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_earthquake" title="Types of earthquake">Types</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainshock" title="Mainshock">Mainshock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreshock" title="Foreshock">Foreshock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftershock" title="Aftershock">Aftershock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blind_thrust_earthquake" title="Blind thrust earthquake">Blind thrust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublet_earthquake" title="Doublet earthquake">Doublet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplate_earthquake" title="Interplate earthquake">Interplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraplate_earthquake" title="Intraplate earthquake">Intraplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megathrust_earthquake" title="Megathrust earthquake">Megathrust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remotely_triggered_earthquakes" title="Remotely triggered earthquakes">Remotely triggered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_earthquake" title="Slow earthquake">Slow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_earthquake" title="Submarine earthquake">Submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supershear_earthquake" title="Supershear earthquake">Supershear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami_earthquake" title="Tsunami earthquake">Tsunami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_swarm" title="Earthquake swarm">Earthquake swarm</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Causes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">Fault movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcano_tectonic_earthquake" title="Volcano tectonic earthquake">Volcanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induced_seismicity" title="Induced seismicity">Induced seismicity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Characteristics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epicenter" title="Epicenter">Epicenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicentral_distance" title="Epicentral distance">Epicentral distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypocenter" title="Hypocenter">Hypocenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_zone" title="Shadow zone">Shadow zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_wave" title="Seismic wave">Seismic waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P_wave" title="P wave">P wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_wave" title="S wave">S wave</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Measurement</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seismometer" title="Seismometer">Seismometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_magnitude_scales" title="Seismic magnitude scales">Seismic magnitude scales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_intensity_scales" title="Seismic intensity scales">Seismic intensity scales</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_prediction" title="Earthquake prediction">Prediction</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Coordinating_Committee_for_Earthquake_Prediction" title="Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction">Coordinating Committee for<br />Earthquake Prediction</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_forecasting" title="Earthquake forecasting">Forecasting</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Other topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shear_wave_splitting" title="Shear wave splitting">Shear wave splitting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93Williamson_equation" title="Adams–Williamson equation">Adams–Williamson equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flinn%E2%80%93Engdahl_regions" class="mw-redirect" title="Flinn–Engdahl regions">Flinn–Engdahl regions</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Earthquake engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismite" title="Seismite">Seismite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth Sciences Portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Earthquakes" title="Category:Earthquakes">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles" title="Index of geology articles">Related topics</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Earthquakes" title="Template:Earthquakes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Earthquakes" title="Template talk:Earthquakes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Earthquakes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Earthquakes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Earthquake engineering</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinary</a> branch of engineering that designs and analyzes <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">structures</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">buildings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">bridges</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> in mind. Its overall goal is to make such structures more resistant to earthquakes. An earthquake (or seismic) engineer aims to construct structures that will not be damaged in minor shaking and will avoid serious damage or <a href="/wiki/Structural_integrity_and_failure" title="Structural integrity and failure">collapse</a> in a major earthquake. A <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering_structures" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquake engineering structures">properly engineered structure</a> does not necessarily have to be extremely strong or expensive. It has to be properly designed to withstand the seismic effects while sustaining an acceptable level of damage. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Earthquake engineering is a scientific field concerned with protecting society, the natural environment, and the man-made environment from earthquakes by limiting the <a href="/wiki/Seismic_risk" title="Seismic risk">seismic risk</a> to <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">socio-economically</a> acceptable levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Bozorgnia2004_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bozorgnia2004-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, it has been narrowly defined as the study of the behavior of structures and geo-structures subject to <a href="/wiki/Seismic_loading" title="Seismic loading">seismic loading</a>; it is considered as a subset of <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">structural engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">geotechnical engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">mechanical engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">chemical engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">applied physics</a>, etc. However, the tremendous costs experienced in recent earthquakes have led to an expansion of its scope to encompass disciplines from the wider field of <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">civil engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">mechanical engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">nuclear engineering</a>, and from the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">finance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main objectives of earthquake engineering are: </p> <ul><li>Foresee the potential consequences of strong <a href="/wiki/Earthquakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquakes">earthquakes</a> on <a href="/wiki/Urban_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban areas">urban areas</a> and civil infrastructure.</li> <li>Design, construct and maintain structures to <a href="/wiki/Seismic_performance" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic performance">perform</a> at earthquake exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with <a href="/wiki/Building_code" title="Building code">building codes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SeismicDesignCodes_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SeismicDesignCodes-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snapshot_of_earthquake-like_crash_testing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Snapshot_of_earthquake-like_crash_testing.jpg/220px-Snapshot_of_earthquake-like_crash_testing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Snapshot_of_earthquake-like_crash_testing.jpg/330px-Snapshot_of_earthquake-like_crash_testing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Snapshot_of_earthquake-like_crash_testing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_shaking_table" title="Earthquake shaking table">Shake-table</a> crash testing of a regular building model (left) and a <a href="/wiki/Base_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Base isolation">base-isolated</a> building model (right)<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at <a href="/wiki/UCSD" class="mw-redirect" title="UCSD">UCSD</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seismic_loading">Seismic loading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Seismic loading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012.JPG/220px-Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012.JPG/330px-Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012.JPG/440px-Tokyo_Sky_Tree_2012.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3221" data-file-height="4832" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Skytree" title="Tokyo Skytree">Tokyo Skytree</a>, equipped with a <a href="/wiki/Tuned_mass_damper" title="Tuned mass damper">tuned mass damper</a>, is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_towers_in_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tallest towers in the world">world's tallest tower</a> and is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures_in_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tallest buildings and structures in the world">world's third tallest structure</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seismic_loading" title="Seismic loading">Seismic loading</a></div> <p><b>Seismic loading</b> means application of an earthquake-generated excitation on a structure (or geo-structure). It happens at contact surfaces of a structure either with the ground,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with adjacent structures,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or with <a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">gravity waves</a> from <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a>. The loading that is expected at a given location on the Earth's surface is estimated by engineering <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismology</a>. It is related to the <a href="/wiki/Seismic_hazard" title="Seismic hazard">seismic hazard</a> of the location. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seismic_performance">Seismic performance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Seismic performance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seismic_analysis" title="Seismic analysis">Seismic analysis</a></div> <p><b>Earthquake</b> or <b>seismic performance</b> defines a structure's ability to sustain its main functions, such as its <a href="/wiki/Safety" title="Safety">safety</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serviceability_(structure)" title="Serviceability (structure)">serviceability</a>, <i>at</i> and <i>after</i> a particular earthquake exposure. A structure is normally considered <i>safe</i> if it does not endanger the lives and <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a> of those in or around it by partially or completely collapsing. A structure may be considered <i>serviceable</i> if it is able to fulfill its operational functions for which it was designed. </p><p>Basic concepts of the earthquake engineering, implemented in the major building codes, assume that a building should survive a rare, very severe earthquake by sustaining significant damage but without globally collapsing.<sup id="cite_ref-RecommendedLateralForce_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RecommendedLateralForce-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, it should remain operational for more frequent, but less severe seismic events. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seismic_performance_assessment">Seismic performance assessment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Seismic performance assessment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Engineers need to know the quantified level of the actual or anticipated seismic performance associated with the direct damage to an individual building subject to a specified ground shaking. Such an assessment may be performed either experimentally or analytically. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Experimental_assessment">Experimental assessment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Experimental assessment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Experimental evaluations are expensive tests that are typically done by placing a (scaled) model of the structure on a <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_shaking_table" title="Earthquake shaking table">shake-table</a> that simulates the earth shaking and observing its behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such kinds of experiments were first performed more than a century ago.<sup id="cite_ref-SeismicExperiments_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SeismicExperiments-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only recently has it become possible to perform 1:1 scale testing on full structures. </p><p>Due to the costly nature of such tests, they tend to be used mainly for understanding the seismic behavior of structures, validating models and verifying analysis methods. Thus, once properly validated, computational models and numerical procedures tend to carry the major burden for the seismic performance assessment of structures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Analytical/Numerical_assessment"><span id="Analytical.2FNumerical_assessment"></span>Analytical/Numerical assessment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Analytical/Numerical assessment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shaking_NDC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Shaking_NDC.jpg/220px-Shaking_NDC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Shaking_NDC.jpg/330px-Shaking_NDC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Shaking_NDC.jpg/440px-Shaking_NDC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Snapshot from <a href="/wiki/Shake-table_video" class="mw-redirect" title="Shake-table video">shake-table video</a> of a 6-story non-ductile concrete building <a href="/wiki/Destructive_testing" title="Destructive testing">destructive testing</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Seismic performance assessment</b> or <a href="/wiki/Seismic_analysis" title="Seismic analysis">seismic structural analysis</a> is a powerful tool of earthquake engineering which utilizes detailed modelling of the structure together with methods of structural analysis to gain a better understanding of seismic performance of building and <a href="/wiki/Non-building_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-building structure">non-building structures</a>. The technique as a formal concept is a relatively recent development. </p><p>In general, seismic structural analysis is based on the methods of <a href="/wiki/Structural_dynamics" title="Structural dynamics">structural dynamics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DynamicsOfStructures_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DynamicsOfStructures-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For decades, the most prominent instrument of seismic analysis has been the earthquake <a href="/wiki/Response_spectrum" title="Response spectrum">response spectrum</a> method which also contributed to the proposed building code's concept of today.<sup id="cite_ref-EarthquakeSpectra_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EarthquakeSpectra-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, such methods are good only for linear elastic systems, being largely unable to model the structural behavior when damage (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Non-linearity" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-linearity">non-linearity</a>) appears. Numerical <i>step-by-step integration</i> proved to be a more effective method of analysis for multi-degree-of-freedom <a href="/wiki/Structural_system" title="Structural system">structural systems</a> with significant <a href="/wiki/Non-linearity" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-linearity">non-linearity</a> under a <a href="/wiki/Transient_(oscillation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transient (oscillation)">transient</a> process of <a href="/wiki/Ground_motion" title="Ground motion">ground motion</a> excitation.<sup id="cite_ref-DynamicsofStructures_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DynamicsofStructures-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Use of the <a href="/wiki/Finite_element_method" title="Finite element method">finite element method</a> is one of the most common approaches for analyzing non-linear <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil structure interaction">soil structure interaction</a> computer models. </p><p>Basically, numerical analysis is conducted in order to evaluate the seismic performance of buildings. Performance evaluations are generally carried out by using nonlinear static pushover analysis or nonlinear time-history analysis. In such analyses, it is essential to achieve accurate non-linear modeling of structural components such as beams, columns, beam-column joints, shear walls etc. Thus, experimental results play an important role in determining the modeling parameters of individual components, especially those that are subject to significant non-linear deformations. The individual components are then assembled to create a full non-linear model of the structure. Thus created models are analyzed to evaluate the performance of buildings. </p><p>The capabilities of the structural analysis software are a major consideration in the above process as they restrict the possible component models, the analysis methods available and, most importantly, the numerical robustness. The latter becomes a major consideration for structures that venture into the non-linear range and approach global or local collapse as the numerical solution becomes increasingly unstable and thus difficult to reach. There are several commercially available Finite Element Analysis software's such as CSI-SAP2000 and CSI-PERFORM-3D, MTR/SASSI, Scia Engineer-ECtools, <a href="/wiki/ABAQUS" class="mw-redirect" title="ABAQUS">ABAQUS</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ansys" title="Ansys">Ansys</a>, all of which can be used for the seismic performance evaluation of buildings. Moreover, there is research-based finite element analysis platforms such as <a href="/wiki/OpenSees" title="OpenSees">OpenSees</a>, MASTODON, which is based on the <a href="/wiki/MOOSE_(software)" title="MOOSE (software)">MOOSE Framework</a>, RUAUMOKO and the older DRAIN-2D/3D, several of which are now open source. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_for_earthquake_engineering">Research for earthquake engineering</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Research for earthquake engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FPB_testing-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/FPB_testing-1.jpg/220px-FPB_testing-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/FPB_testing-1.jpg/330px-FPB_testing-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/FPB_testing-1.jpg/440px-FPB_testing-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1183" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_shaking_table" title="Earthquake shaking table">Shake-table</a> testing of <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Friction_pendulum_bearing">Friction Pendulum Bearings</a> at EERC</figcaption></figure> <p>Research for earthquake engineering means both field and analytical investigation or experimentation intended for discovery and scientific explanation of earthquake engineering related facts, revision of conventional concepts in the light of new findings, and practical application of the developed theories. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) is the main United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all fields of earthquake engineering. In particular, it focuses on experimental, analytical and computational research on design and performance enhancement of structural systems. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_Engineering_Research_Institute" title="Earthquake Engineering Research Institute">Earthquake Engineering Research Institute</a> (EERI) is a leader in dissemination of <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquake engineering research">earthquake engineering research</a> related information both in the U.S. and globally. </p><p> A definitive list of earthquake engineering research related <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_shaking_table" title="Earthquake shaking table">shaking tables</a> around the world may be found in Experimental Facilities for Earthquake Engineering Simulation Worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most prominent of them is now <a href="/wiki/E-Defense" title="E-Defense">E-Defense</a> Shake Table in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_U.S._research_programs">Major U.S. research programs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Major U.S. research programs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>NSF also supports the George E. Brown Jr. <a href="/wiki/Network_for_Earthquake_Engineering_Simulation" title="Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation">Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation</a> </p><p>The NSF Hazard Mitigation and Structural Engineering program (HMSE) supports research on new technologies for improving the behaviour and response of structural systems subject to earthquake hazards; fundamental research on safety and reliability of constructed systems; innovative developments in <a href="/wiki/Seismic_performance_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic performance analysis">analysis</a> and model based simulation of structural behaviour and response including soil-structure interaction; design concepts that improve <a href="/wiki/Seismic_performance" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic performance">structure performance</a> and flexibility; and application of new control techniques for structural systems.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>(NEES) that advances knowledge discovery and innovation for <a href="/wiki/Earthquakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquakes">earthquakes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> loss reduction of the nation's civil infrastructure and new experimental simulation techniques and instrumentation.<sup id="cite_ref-nees_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nees-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The NEES network features 14 geographically distributed, shared-use laboratories that support several types of experimental work:<sup id="cite_ref-nees_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nees-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> geotechnical centrifuge research, <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_shaking_table" title="Earthquake shaking table">shake-table</a> tests, large-scale structural testing, tsunami wave basin experiments, and field site research.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Participating universities include: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>; <a href="/wiki/Lehigh_University" title="Lehigh University">Lehigh University</a>; <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>; <a href="/wiki/Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute" title="Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute">Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute</a>; <a href="/wiki/University_at_Buffalo" title="University at Buffalo">University at Buffalo</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York" title="State University of New York">State University of New York</a>; <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>; <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Davis" title="University of California, Davis">University of California, Davis</a>; <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a>; <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego" title="University of California, San Diego">University of California, San Diego</a>; <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Barbara" title="University of California, Santa Barbara">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>; <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois,_Urbana-Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign">University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign</a>; <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a>; <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nevada,_Reno" title="University of Nevada, Reno">University of Nevada, Reno</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas,_Austin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Texas, Austin">University of Texas, Austin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nees_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nees-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seismic_Testing_of_Crane.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/57/Seismic_Testing_of_Crane.jpg/220px-Seismic_Testing_of_Crane.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/57/Seismic_Testing_of_Crane.jpg/330px-Seismic_Testing_of_Crane.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/57/Seismic_Testing_of_Crane.jpg/440px-Seismic_Testing_of_Crane.jpg 2x" data-file-width="619" data-file-height="422" /></a><figcaption>NEES at <a href="/wiki/University_at_Buffalo,_The_State_University_of_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="University at Buffalo, The State University of New York">Buffalo</a> testing facility</figcaption></figure> <p>The equipment sites (labs) and a central data repository are connected to the global earthquake engineering community via the NEEShub website. The NEES website is powered by HUBzero software developed at <a href="/wiki/Purdue_University" title="Purdue University">Purdue University</a> for <a href="/wiki/NanoHUB" title="NanoHUB">nanoHUB</a> specifically to help the scientific community share resources and collaborate. The cyberinfrastructure, connected via <a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a>, provides interactive simulation tools, a simulation tool development area, a curated central data repository, animated presentations, user support, telepresence, mechanism for uploading and sharing resources, and statistics about users and usage patterns. </p><p>This cyberinfrastructure allows researchers to: securely store, organize and share data within a standardized framework in a central location; remotely observe and participate in experiments through the use of synchronized real-time data and video; collaborate with colleagues to facilitate the planning, performance, analysis, and publication of research experiments; and conduct computational and hybrid simulations that may combine the results of multiple distributed experiments and link physical experiments with computer simulations to enable the investigation of overall system performance. </p><p>These resources jointly provide the means for collaboration and discovery to improve the seismic design and performance of civil and mechanical infrastructure systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earthquake_simulation">Earthquake simulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Earthquake simulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The very first <b>earthquake simulations</b> were performed by statically applying some <i>horizontal inertia forces</i> based on <a href="/wiki/Scale_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Scale factor">scaled</a> <a href="/wiki/Peak_ground_acceleration" title="Peak ground acceleration">peak ground accelerations</a> to a mathematical model of a building.<sup id="cite_ref-SeismicDesignOfBuildingStructures_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SeismicDesignOfBuildingStructures-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the further development of computational technologies, <a href="/wiki/Statics" title="Statics">static</a> approaches began to give way to <a href="/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamics (mechanics)">dynamic</a> ones. </p><p>Dynamic experiments on building and non-building structures may be physical, like <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_shaking_table" title="Earthquake shaking table">shake-table testing</a>, or virtual ones. In both cases, to verify a structure's expected seismic performance, some researchers prefer to deal with so called "real time-histories" though the last cannot be "real" for a hypothetical earthquake specified by either a building code or by some particular research requirements. Therefore, there is a strong incentive to engage an earthquake simulation which is the seismic input that possesses only essential features of a real event. </p><p>Sometimes earthquake simulation is understood as a re-creation of local effects of a strong earth shaking. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure_simulation">Structure simulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Structure simulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kinematically_equivalent_building_models_on_a_shake-table.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Kinematically_equivalent_building_models_on_a_shake-table.jpg/220px-Kinematically_equivalent_building_models_on_a_shake-table.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Kinematically_equivalent_building_models_on_a_shake-table.jpg/330px-Kinematically_equivalent_building_models_on_a_shake-table.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Kinematically_equivalent_building_models_on_a_shake-table.jpg/440px-Kinematically_equivalent_building_models_on_a_shake-table.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1167" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>Concurrent experiments with two building models which are <i>kinematically equivalent</i> to a real prototype<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Theoretical or experimental evaluation of anticipated seismic performance mostly requires a <b>structure simulation</b> which is based on the concept of structural likeness or similarity. <a href="/wiki/Similitude_(model)" class="mw-redirect" title="Similitude (model)">Similarity</a> is some degree of <a href="/wiki/Analogy" title="Analogy">analogy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">resemblance</a> between two or more objects. The notion of similarity rests either on exact or approximate repetitions of <a href="/wiki/Patterns" class="mw-redirect" title="Patterns">patterns</a> in the compared items. </p><p>In general, a building model is said to have similarity with the real object if the two share <i>geometric similarity</i>, <i>kinematic similarity</i> and <i>dynamic similarity</i>. The most vivid and effective type of similarity is the <i>kinematic</i> one. <i>Kinematic similarity</i> exists when the paths and velocities of moving particles of a model and its prototype are similar. </p><p>The ultimate level of <i>kinematic similarity</i> is <i>kinematic equivalence</i> when, in the case of earthquake engineering, time-histories of each story lateral displacements of the model and its prototype would be the same. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seismic_vibration_control">Seismic vibration control</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Seismic vibration control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Seismic vibration control</b> is a set of technical means aimed to mitigate seismic impacts in building and <a href="/wiki/Non-building" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-building">non-building</a> structures. All seismic vibration control devices may be classified as <i>passive</i>, <i>active</i> or <i>hybrid</i><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where: </p> <ul><li><i>passive control devices</i> have no <a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback</a> capability between them, structural elements and the ground;</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Active_vibration_control" title="Active vibration control">active control devices</a></i> incorporate real-time recording instrumentation on the ground integrated with earthquake input processing equipment and <a href="/wiki/Actuator" title="Actuator">actuators</a> within the structure;</li> <li><i>hybrid control devices</i> have combined features of active and passive control systems.<sup id="cite_ref-ActiveHybrid_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ActiveHybrid-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>When ground <a href="/wiki/Seismic_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic waves">seismic waves</a> reach up and start to penetrate a base of a building, their energy flow density, due to reflections, reduces dramatically: usually, up to 90%. However, the remaining portions of the incident waves during a major earthquake still bear a huge devastating potential. </p><p>After the seismic waves enter a <a href="/wiki/Superstructure" title="Superstructure">superstructure</a>, there are a number of ways to control them in order to soothe their damaging effect and improve the building's seismic performance, for instance: </p> <ul><li>to <a href="/wiki/Dissipator_(building_design)" title="Dissipator (building design)">dissipate</a> the wave energy inside a <a href="/wiki/Superstructure" title="Superstructure">superstructure</a> with properly engineered <a href="/w/index.php?title=Damper_(mast)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Damper (mast) (page does not exist)">dampers</a>;</li> <li>to disperse the wave energy between a wider range of frequencies;</li> <li>to <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(acoustics)" title="Absorption (acoustics)">absorb</a> the <a href="/wiki/Resonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Resonant">resonant</a> portions of the whole wave frequencies band with the help of so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Mass_damper" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass damper">mass dampers</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyrus_tomb.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Cyrus_tomb.jpg/220px-Cyrus_tomb.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Cyrus_tomb.jpg/330px-Cyrus_tomb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Cyrus_tomb.jpg/440px-Cyrus_tomb.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Cyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomb of Cyrus">Mausoleum of Cyrus</a>, the oldest <a href="/wiki/Base_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Base isolation">base-isolated</a> structure in the world</figcaption></figure> <p>Devices of the last kind, abbreviated correspondingly as TMD for the tuned (<i>passive</i>), as AMD for the <i>active</i>, and as HMD for the <i>hybrid mass dampers</i>, have been studied and installed in <a href="/wiki/High-rise_building" class="mw-redirect" title="High-rise building">high-rise buildings</a>, predominantly in Japan, for a quarter of a century.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, there is quite another approach: partial suppression of the seismic energy flow into the <a href="/wiki/Superstructure" title="Superstructure">superstructure</a> known as seismic or <a href="/wiki/Base_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Base isolation">base isolation</a>. </p><p>For this, some pads are inserted into or under all major load-carrying elements in the base of the building which should substantially decouple a <a href="/wiki/Superstructure" title="Superstructure">superstructure</a> from its <a href="/wiki/Substructure_(engineering)" title="Substructure (engineering)">substructure</a> resting on a shaking ground. </p><p>The first evidence of earthquake protection by using the principle of base isolation was discovered in <a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a>, a city in ancient Persia, now Iran, and dates back to the 6th century BCE. Below, there are some samples of seismic vibration control technologies of today. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dry-stone_walls_in_Peru">Dry-stone walls in Peru</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Dry-stone walls in Peru"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Machupicchu_intihuatana.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Machupicchu_intihuatana.JPG/220px-Machupicchu_intihuatana.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Machupicchu_intihuatana.JPG/330px-Machupicchu_intihuatana.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Machupicchu_intihuatana.JPG/440px-Machupicchu_intihuatana.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Dry-stone walls of <a href="/wiki/Machu_Picchu" title="Machu Picchu">Machu Picchu</a> Temple of the Sun, <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> is a highly <a href="/wiki/Seismic" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic">seismic</a> land; for centuries the dry-stone <a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">construction</a> proved to be more earthquake-resistant than using mortar. People of <a href="/wiki/Inca_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Inca civilization">Inca civilization</a> were masters of the polished 'dry-stone walls', called <a href="/wiki/Ashlar" title="Ashlar">ashlar</a>, where blocks of stone were cut to fit together tightly without any <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a>. The Incas were among the best stonemasons the world has ever seen<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many junctions in their masonry were so perfect that even blades of grass could not fit between the stones. </p><p>The stones of the dry-stone walls built by the Incas could move slightly and resettle without the walls collapsing, a passive <a href="/wiki/Vibration_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibration control">structural control</a> technique employing both the principle of energy dissipation (coulomb damping) and that of suppressing <a href="/wiki/Resonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Resonant">resonant</a> amplifications.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tuned_mass_damper">Tuned mass damper</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Tuned mass damper"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tuned_mass_damper" title="Tuned mass damper">Tuned mass damper</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taipei_101_Tuned_Mass_Damper.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Taipei_101_Tuned_Mass_Damper.png/220px-Taipei_101_Tuned_Mass_Damper.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Taipei_101_Tuned_Mass_Damper.png/330px-Taipei_101_Tuned_Mass_Damper.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Taipei_101_Tuned_Mass_Damper.png/440px-Taipei_101_Tuned_Mass_Damper.png 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="769" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tuned_mass_damper" title="Tuned mass damper">Tuned mass damper</a> in <a href="/wiki/Taipei_101" title="Taipei 101">Taipei 101</a>, the world's third tallest <a href="/wiki/Skyscraper" title="Skyscraper">skyscraper</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Typically the <a href="/wiki/Tuned_mass_damper" title="Tuned mass damper">tuned mass dampers</a> are huge concrete blocks mounted in <a href="/wiki/Skyscraper" title="Skyscraper">skyscrapers</a> or other structures and move in opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Resonance_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Resonance frequency">resonance frequency</a> oscillations of the structures by means of some sort of spring mechanism. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Taipei_101" title="Taipei 101">Taipei 101</a> skyscraper needs to withstand <a href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">typhoon</a> winds and earthquake <a href="/wiki/Tremor" title="Tremor">tremors</a> common in this area of Asia/Pacific. For this purpose, a steel <a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">pendulum</a> weighing 660 metric tonnes that serves as a tuned mass damper was designed and installed atop the structure. Suspended from the 92nd to the 88th floor, the pendulum sways to decrease resonant amplifications of lateral displacements in the building caused by earthquakes and strong <a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">gusts</a>. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hysteretic_dampers">Hysteretic dampers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Hysteretic dampers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <b>hysteretic damper</b> is intended to provide better and more reliable seismic performance than that of a conventional structure by increasing the dissipation of <a href="/wiki/Seismic_loading" title="Seismic loading">seismic input</a> energy.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are five major groups of hysteretic dampers used for the purpose, namely: </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><b>Fluid viscous dampers (FVDs)</b></li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Viscous Dampers have the benefit of being a supplemental damping system. They have an oval hysteretic loop and the damping is velocity dependent. While some minor maintenance is potentially required, viscous dampers generally do not need to be replaced after an earthquake. While more expensive than other damping technologies they can be used for both seismic and wind loads and are the most commonly used hysteretic damper.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><b>Friction dampers (FDs)</b></li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Friction dampers tend to be available in two major types, linear and rotational and dissipate energy by heat. The damper operates on the principle of a <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_damping" title="Coulomb damping">coulomb damper</a>. Depending on the design, friction dampers can experience <a href="/wiki/Stick-slip_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Stick-slip phenomenon">stick-slip phenomenon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cold_welding" title="Cold welding">Cold welding</a>. The main disadvantage being that friction surfaces can wear over time and for this reason they are not recommended for dissipating wind loads. When used in seismic applications wear is not a problem and there is no required maintenance. They have a rectangular hysteretic loop and as long as the building is sufficiently elastic they tend to settle back to their original positions after an earthquake. </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><b>Metallic yielding dampers (MYDs)</b></li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Metallic yielding dampers, as the name implies, yield in order to absorb the earthquake's energy. This type of damper absorbs a large amount of energy however they must be replaced after an earthquake and may prevent the building from settling back to its original position. </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><b>Viscoelastic dampers (VEDs)</b></li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Viscoelastic dampers are useful in that they can be used for both wind and seismic applications, they are usually limited to small displacements. There is some concern as to the reliability of the technology as some brands have been banned from use in buildings in the United States. </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><b>Straddling pendulum dampers (swing)</b></li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Base_isolation">Base isolation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Base isolation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Base isolation seeks to prevent the kinetic energy of the earthquake from being transferred into elastic energy in the building. These technologies do so by isolating the structure from the ground, thus enabling them to move somewhat independently. The degree to which the energy is transferred into the structure and how the energy is dissipated will vary depending on the technology used. </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><b>Lead rubber bearing</b></li></ul></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LRBtest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/LRBtest.jpg/220px-LRBtest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/LRBtest.jpg/330px-LRBtest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/LRBtest.jpg/440px-LRBtest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="423" /></a><figcaption>LRB being tested at the <a href="/wiki/UCSD" class="mw-redirect" title="UCSD">UCSD</a> Caltrans-SRMD facility</figcaption></figure> <p>Lead rubber bearing or LRB is a type of <a href="/wiki/Base_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Base isolation">base isolation</a> employing a heavy <a href="/wiki/Damping_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Damping ratio">damping</a>. It was invented by <a href="/wiki/William_Robinson_(scientist)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Robinson (scientist)">Bill Robinson</a>, a New Zealander.<sup id="cite_ref-teara.govt.nz_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-teara.govt.nz-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Heavy damping mechanism incorporated in <a href="/wiki/Vibration_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibration control">vibration control</a> technologies and, particularly, in base isolation devices, is often considered a valuable source of suppressing vibrations thus enhancing a building's seismic performance. However, for the rather pliant systems such as base isolated structures, with a relatively low bearing stiffness but with a high damping, the so-called "damping force" may turn out the main pushing force at a strong earthquake. The video<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> shows a Lead Rubber Bearing being tested at the <a href="/wiki/UCSD" class="mw-redirect" title="UCSD">UCSD</a> Caltrans-SRMD facility. The bearing is made of rubber with a lead core. It was a uniaxial test in which the bearing was also under a full structure load. Many buildings and bridges, both in New Zealand and elsewhere, are protected with lead dampers and lead and rubber bearings. <a href="/wiki/Te_Papa_Tongarewa" class="mw-redirect" title="Te Papa Tongarewa">Te Papa Tongarewa</a>, the national museum of New Zealand, and the New Zealand <a href="/wiki/The_Beehive" class="mw-redirect" title="The Beehive">Parliament Buildings</a> have been fitted with the bearings. Both are in <a href="/wiki/Wellington,_New_Zealand" class="mw-redirect" title="Wellington, New Zealand">Wellington</a> which sits on an <a href="/wiki/Active_fault" title="Active fault">active fault</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-teara.govt.nz_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-teara.govt.nz-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><b>Springs-with-damper base isolator</b></li></ul></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GERB_spring_with_damper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/GERB_spring_with_damper.jpg/220px-GERB_spring_with_damper.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/GERB_spring_with_damper.jpg/330px-GERB_spring_with_damper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/GERB_spring_with_damper.jpg/440px-GERB_spring_with_damper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="956" data-file-height="980" /></a><figcaption>Springs-with-damper close-up</figcaption></figure> <p>Springs-with-damper base isolator installed under a three-story town-house, <a href="/wiki/Santa_Monica" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Monica">Santa Monica</a>, California is shown on the photo taken prior to the 1994 <a href="/wiki/Northridge_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Northridge earthquake">Northridge earthquake</a> exposure. It is a <a href="/wiki/Base_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Base isolation">base isolation</a> device conceptually similar to <i>Lead Rubber Bearing</i>. </p><p>One of two three-story town-houses like this, which was well instrumented for recording of both vertical and horizontal <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">accelerations</a> on its floors and the ground, has survived a severe shaking during the <a href="/wiki/Northridge_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Northridge earthquake">Northridge earthquake</a> and left valuable recorded information for further study. </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><b>Simple roller bearing</b></li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Simple roller bearing is a <a href="/wiki/Base_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Base isolation">base isolation</a> device which is intended for protection of various building and non-building structures against potentially damaging <a href="/wiki/Seismic_loading" title="Seismic loading">lateral impacts</a> of strong earthquakes. </p><p>This metallic bearing support may be adapted, with certain precautions, as a seismic isolator to skyscrapers and buildings on soft ground. Recently, it has been employed under the name of <i><a href="/wiki/Metallic_roller_bearing" title="Metallic roller bearing">metallic roller bearing</a></i> for a housing complex (17 stories) in <a href="/wiki/Tokyo,_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokyo, Japan">Tokyo, Japan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="Friction_pendulum_bearing"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Friction pendulum bearing</span></span></b></li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Friction pendulum bearing (FPB) is another name of <b>friction pendulum system</b> (FPS). It is based on three pillars:<sup id="cite_ref-FPS_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FPS-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>articulated friction slider;</li> <li>spherical concave sliding surface;</li> <li>enclosing cylinder for lateral displacement restraint.</li></ul> <p>Snapshot with the link to video clip of a <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_shaking_table" title="Earthquake shaking table">shake-table</a> testing of FPB system supporting a rigid building model is presented at the right. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seismic_design">Seismic design</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Seismic design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Seismic design</b> is based on authorized engineering procedures, principles and criteria meant to <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">design</a> or <a href="/wiki/Seismic_retrofit" title="Seismic retrofit">retrofit</a> structures subject to earthquake exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-SeismicDesignOfBuildingStructures_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SeismicDesignOfBuildingStructures-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those criteria are only consistent with the contemporary state of the knowledge about <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering_structures" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquake engineering structures">earthquake engineering structures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EarthquakeDesignCriteria_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EarthquakeDesignCriteria-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, a building design which exactly follows seismic code regulations does not guarantee safety against collapse or serious damage.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The price of poor seismic design may be enormous. Nevertheless, seismic design has always been a <a href="/wiki/Trial_and_error" title="Trial and error">trial and error</a> process whether it was based on physical laws or on empirical knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Seismic_performance" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic performance">structural performance</a> of different shapes and materials. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:San-Francisco_City_Hall_1906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/San-Francisco_City_Hall_1906.jpg/220px-San-Francisco_City_Hall_1906.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/San-Francisco_City_Hall_1906.jpg/330px-San-Francisco_City_Hall_1906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/San-Francisco_City_Hall_1906.jpg/440px-San-Francisco_City_Hall_1906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="513" data-file-height="409" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_City_Hall" title="San Francisco City Hall">San Francisco City Hall</a> destroyed by <a href="/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake" title="1906 San Francisco earthquake">1906 earthquake</a> and fire</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:San_Francisco_in_ruins_view_from_Captive_Airship_above_Folsom_1906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/San_Francisco_in_ruins_view_from_Captive_Airship_above_Folsom_1906.jpg/220px-San_Francisco_in_ruins_view_from_Captive_Airship_above_Folsom_1906.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/San_Francisco_in_ruins_view_from_Captive_Airship_above_Folsom_1906.jpg/330px-San_Francisco_in_ruins_view_from_Captive_Airship_above_Folsom_1906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/San_Francisco_in_ruins_view_from_Captive_Airship_above_Folsom_1906.jpg/440px-San_Francisco_in_ruins_view_from_Captive_Airship_above_Folsom_1906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1046" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a> after the <a href="/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake" title="1906 San Francisco earthquake">1906 earthquake</a> and fire</figcaption></figure> <p>To practice <a href="/wiki/Seismic_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic design">seismic design</a>, seismic analysis or seismic evaluation of new and existing civil engineering projects, an <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineer</a> should, normally, pass examination on <i>Seismic Principles</i><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which, in the State of California, include: </p> <ul><li>Seismic Data and Seismic Design Criteria</li> <li>Seismic Characteristics of Engineered Systems</li> <li>Seismic Forces</li> <li>Seismic Analysis Procedures</li> <li>Seismic Detailing and Construction Quality Control</li></ul> <p>To build up complex structural systems,<sup id="cite_ref-SeismicDesignHandbook_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SeismicDesignHandbook-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> seismic design largely uses the same relatively small number of basic structural elements (to say nothing of vibration control devices) as any non-seismic design project. </p><p>Normally, according to building codes, structures are designed to "withstand" the largest earthquake of a certain probability that is likely to occur at their location. This means the loss of life should be minimized by preventing collapse of the buildings. </p><p>Seismic design is carried out by understanding the possible <a href="/wiki/Failure_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Failure mode">failure modes</a> of a structure and providing the structure with appropriate <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">strength</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stiffness" title="Stiffness">stiffness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Configuration_(geometry)" title="Configuration (geometry)">configuration</a><sup id="cite_ref-BuildingConfiguration_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BuildingConfiguration-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to ensure those modes cannot occur. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seismic_design_requirements">Seismic design requirements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Seismic design requirements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Seismic design requirements</b> depend on the type of the structure, locality of the project and its authorities which stipulate applicable seismic design codes and criteria.<sup id="cite_ref-RecommendedLateralForce_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RecommendedLateralForce-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, <a href="/wiki/California_Department_of_Transportation" title="California Department of Transportation">California Department of Transportation</a>'s requirements called <i>The Seismic Design Criteria</i> (SDC) and aimed at the design of new bridges in California<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> incorporate an innovative seismic performance-based approach. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metsamor_aerien.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Metsamor_aerien.jpg/220px-Metsamor_aerien.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Metsamor_aerien.jpg/330px-Metsamor_aerien.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Metsamor_aerien.jpg/440px-Metsamor_aerien.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="742" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Metsamor_Nuclear_Power_Plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant">Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant</a> was closed after the <a href="/wiki/1988_Armenian_earthquake" title="1988 Armenian earthquake">1988 Armenian earthquake</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure><p>The most significant feature in the SDC design philosophy is a shift from a <i>force-based assessment</i> of seismic demand to a <i>displacement-based assessment</i> of demand and capacity. Thus, the newly adopted displacement approach is based on comparing the <i>elastic displacement</i> demand to the <i>inelastic displacement</i> capacity of the primary structural components while ensuring a minimum level of inelastic capacity at all potential plastic hinge locations. </p><p>In addition to the designed structure itself, seismic design requirements may include a <i>ground stabilization</i> underneath the structure: sometimes, heavily shaken ground breaks up which leads to collapse of the structure sitting upon it.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following topics should be of primary concerns: liquefaction; dynamic lateral earth pressures on retaining walls; seismic slope stability; earthquake-induced settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-GeoEarthquakeEngineering_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GeoEarthquakeEngineering-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_facility" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear facility">Nuclear facilities</a> should not jeopardise their safety in case of earthquakes or other hostile external events. Therefore, their seismic design is based on criteria far more stringent than those applying to non-nuclear facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_I_nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima I nuclear accidents">Fukushima I nuclear accidents</a> and <a href="/wiki/2011_Japanese_nuclear_incidents" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 Japanese nuclear incidents">damage to other nuclear facilities</a> that followed the <a href="/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami">2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami</a> have, however, drawn attention to ongoing concerns over <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Japan#Seismicity" title="Nuclear power in Japan">Japanese nuclear seismic design standards</a> and caused many other governments to <a href="/wiki/International_reaction_to_Fukushima_I_nuclear_accidents#Re-evaluation_of_existing_nuclear_energy_programs" class="mw-redirect" title="International reaction to Fukushima I nuclear accidents">re-evaluate their nuclear programs</a>. Doubt has also been expressed over the seismic evaluation and design of certain other plants, including the <a href="/wiki/Fessenheim_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant">Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant</a> in France. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Failure_modes">Failure modes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Failure modes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Failure mode</b> is the manner by which an earthquake induced failure is observed. It, generally, describes the way the failure occurs. Though costly and time-consuming, learning from each real earthquake failure remains a routine recipe for advancement in <i>seismic design</i> methods. Below, some typical modes of earthquake-generated failures are presented. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LomaPrieta-SOMA.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/LomaPrieta-SOMA.jpeg/220px-LomaPrieta-SOMA.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/LomaPrieta-SOMA.jpeg/330px-LomaPrieta-SOMA.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/LomaPrieta-SOMA.jpeg/440px-LomaPrieta-SOMA.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1968" data-file-height="2827" /></a><figcaption>Typical damage to <a href="/wiki/Unreinforced_masonry_building" title="Unreinforced masonry building">unreinforced masonry buildings</a> at earthquakes, <a href="/wiki/1989_Loma_Prieta_earthquake" title="1989 Loma Prieta earthquake">Loma Prieta</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The lack of <a href="/wiki/Rebar" title="Rebar">reinforcement</a> coupled with poor <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a> and inadequate roof-to-wall ties can result in substantial damage to an <b>unreinforced masonry building</b>. Severely cracked or leaning walls are some of the most common earthquake damage. Also hazardous is the damage that may occur between the walls and roof or floor diaphragms. Separation between the framing and the walls can jeopardize the vertical support of roof and floor systems. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LomaPrieta-Marina.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/LomaPrieta-Marina.jpeg/220px-LomaPrieta-Marina.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/LomaPrieta-Marina.jpeg/330px-LomaPrieta-Marina.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/LomaPrieta-Marina.jpeg/440px-LomaPrieta-Marina.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2904" data-file-height="1945" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Soft_story_building" title="Soft story building">Soft story</a> collapse due to inadequate shear strength at ground level, <a href="/wiki/Loma_Prieta_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Loma Prieta earthquake">Loma Prieta earthquake</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Soft_story_building" title="Soft story building">Soft story effect</a></b>. Absence of adequate stiffness on the ground level caused damage to this structure. A close examination of the image reveals that the rough board siding, once covered by a <a href="/wiki/Brick_veneer" class="mw-redirect" title="Brick veneer">brick veneer</a>, has been completely dismantled from the studwall. Only the <a href="/wiki/Structural_rigidity" title="Structural rigidity">rigidity</a> of the floor above combined with the support on the two hidden sides by continuous walls, not penetrated with large doors as on the street sides, is preventing full collapse of the structure. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liquefaction_at_Niigata.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Liquefaction_at_Niigata.JPG/220px-Liquefaction_at_Niigata.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Liquefaction_at_Niigata.JPG/330px-Liquefaction_at_Niigata.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Liquefaction_at_Niigata.JPG/440px-Liquefaction_at_Niigata.JPG 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="297" /></a><figcaption>Effects of <a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="Soil liquefaction">soil liquefaction</a> during the <a href="/wiki/1964_Niigata_earthquake" title="1964 Niigata earthquake">1964 Niigata earthquake</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="Soil liquefaction">Soil liquefaction</a></b>. In the cases where the soil consists of loose granular deposited materials with the tendency to develop excessive hydrostatic pore water pressure of sufficient magnitude and compact, <a href="/wiki/Liquefaction" title="Liquefaction">liquefaction</a> of those loose saturated deposits may result in non-uniform <a href="/wiki/Consolidation_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolidation (soil)">settlements</a> and tilting of structures. This caused major damage to thousands of buildings in Niigata, Japan during the <a href="/wiki/1964_Niigata_earthquake" title="1964 Niigata earthquake">1964 earthquake</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smashed_Car_in_Dujiangyan_-_2008_Sichuan_earthquake_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Smashed_Car_in_Dujiangyan_-_2008_Sichuan_earthquake_%281%29.jpg/220px-Smashed_Car_in_Dujiangyan_-_2008_Sichuan_earthquake_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Smashed_Car_in_Dujiangyan_-_2008_Sichuan_earthquake_%281%29.jpg/330px-Smashed_Car_in_Dujiangyan_-_2008_Sichuan_earthquake_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Smashed_Car_in_Dujiangyan_-_2008_Sichuan_earthquake_%281%29.jpg/440px-Smashed_Car_in_Dujiangyan_-_2008_Sichuan_earthquake_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="532" /></a><figcaption>Car smashed by <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a> rock, <a href="/wiki/2008_Sichuan_earthquake" title="2008 Sichuan earthquake">2008 Sichuan earthquake</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Landslide rock fall</b>. A <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a> is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movement, including <b>rock falls</b>. Typically, the action of <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur though in this case there was another contributing factor which affected the original <a href="/wiki/Slope_stability" title="Slope stability">slope stability</a>: the landslide required an <i>earthquake trigger</i> before being released. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St.Joseph%27sSeminary_Los_Altos_USGS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/St.Joseph%27sSeminary_Los_Altos_USGS.jpg/220px-St.Joseph%27sSeminary_Los_Altos_USGS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/St.Joseph%27sSeminary_Los_Altos_USGS.jpg/330px-St.Joseph%27sSeminary_Los_Altos_USGS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/St.Joseph%27sSeminary_Los_Altos_USGS.jpg/440px-St.Joseph%27sSeminary_Los_Altos_USGS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3606" data-file-height="2376" /></a><figcaption>Effects of pounding against adjacent building, <a href="/wiki/Loma_Prieta_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Loma Prieta earthquake">Loma Prieta</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Pounding against adjacent building</b>. This is a photograph of the collapsed five-story tower, St. Joseph's Seminary, <a href="/wiki/Los_Altos,_California" title="Los Altos, California">Los Altos, California</a> which resulted in one fatality. During <a href="/wiki/Loma_Prieta_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Loma Prieta earthquake">Loma Prieta earthquake</a>, the tower pounded against the independently vibrating adjacent building behind. A possibility of pounding depends on both buildings' lateral displacements which should be accurately estimated and accounted for. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kaiser_Permanente_Building_After_Northridge_Earthquake.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Kaiser_Permanente_Building_After_Northridge_Earthquake.jpg/220px-Kaiser_Permanente_Building_After_Northridge_Earthquake.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Kaiser_Permanente_Building_After_Northridge_Earthquake.jpg/330px-Kaiser_Permanente_Building_After_Northridge_Earthquake.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Kaiser_Permanente_Building_After_Northridge_Earthquake.jpg/440px-Kaiser_Permanente_Building_After_Northridge_Earthquake.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="801" /></a><figcaption>Effects of completely shattered joints of concrete frame, <a href="/wiki/Northridge_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Northridge earthquake">Northridge</a></figcaption></figure> <p>At <a href="/wiki/Northridge_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Northridge earthquake">Northridge earthquake</a>, the Kaiser Permanente concrete frame office building had joints completely shattered, revealing <b>inadequate confinement steel</b>, which resulted in the second story collapse. In the transverse direction, composite end <a href="/wiki/Shear_wall" title="Shear wall">shear walls</a>, consisting of two <a href="/wiki/Wythe" title="Wythe">wythes</a> of brick and a layer of <a href="/wiki/Shotcrete" title="Shotcrete">shotcrete</a> that carried the lateral load, peeled apart because of <b>inadequate through-ties</b> and failed. </p> <ul><li>Improper <a href="/wiki/Construction_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Construction site">construction site</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Foothill" class="mw-redirect" title="Foothill">foothill</a>.</li> <li>Poor detailing of the <a href="/wiki/Rebar" title="Rebar">reinforcement</a> (lack of concrete confinement in the columns and at the beam-column joints, inadequate splice length).</li> <li>Seismically weak <a href="/wiki/Soft_story_building" title="Soft story building">soft story</a> at the first floor.</li> <li>Long <a href="/wiki/Cantilever" title="Cantilever">cantilevers</a> with heavy <a href="/wiki/Dead_load" class="mw-redirect" title="Dead load">dead load</a>.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shifting_from_foundation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Shifting_from_foundation.jpg/220px-Shifting_from_foundation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Shifting_from_foundation.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="271" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption>Shifting from foundation, <a href="/wiki/1987_Whittier_Narrows_earthquake" title="1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake">Whittier</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Sliding off foundations effect</b> of a relatively rigid residential building structure during <a href="/wiki/1987_Whittier_Narrows_earthquake" title="1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake">1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake</a>. The magnitude 5.9 earthquake pounded the Garvey West Apartment building in Monterey Park, California and shifted its <a href="/wiki/Superstructure" title="Superstructure">superstructure</a> about 10 inches to the east on its foundation. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Casa_en_frente_de_Playa_Principal_de_Pichilemu,_destruida.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Casa_en_frente_de_Playa_Principal_de_Pichilemu%2C_destruida.jpg/220px-Casa_en_frente_de_Playa_Principal_de_Pichilemu%2C_destruida.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Casa_en_frente_de_Playa_Principal_de_Pichilemu%2C_destruida.jpg/330px-Casa_en_frente_de_Playa_Principal_de_Pichilemu%2C_destruida.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Casa_en_frente_de_Playa_Principal_de_Pichilemu%2C_destruida.jpg/440px-Casa_en_frente_de_Playa_Principal_de_Pichilemu%2C_destruida.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Earthquake damage in <a href="/wiki/Pichilemu" title="Pichilemu">Pichilemu</a></figcaption></figure> <p>If a superstructure is not mounted on a <a href="/wiki/Base_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Base isolation">base isolation</a> system, its shifting on the basement should be prevented. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Northridge_earthquake_10_frwy2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Northridge_earthquake_10_frwy2.png/220px-Northridge_earthquake_10_frwy2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Northridge_earthquake_10_frwy2.png/330px-Northridge_earthquake_10_frwy2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Northridge_earthquake_10_frwy2.png/440px-Northridge_earthquake_10_frwy2.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="686" /></a><figcaption>Insufficient shear reinforcement led main <a href="/wiki/Rebars" class="mw-redirect" title="Rebars">rebars</a> to buckle, <a href="/wiki/Northridge_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Northridge earthquake">Northridge</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">Reinforced concrete</a> column burst at <a href="/wiki/Northridge_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Northridge earthquake">Northridge earthquake</a> due to <b>insufficient shear reinforcement mode</b> which allows main reinforcement to <a href="/wiki/Buckle" title="Buckle">buckle</a> outwards. The deck unseated at the <a href="/wiki/Hinge" title="Hinge">hinge</a> and failed in shear. As a result, the La Cienega-Venice <a href="/wiki/Underpass" class="mw-redirect" title="Underpass">underpass</a> section of the 10 Freeway collapsed. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:022srUSGSCyprusVia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/022srUSGSCyprusVia.jpg/220px-022srUSGSCyprusVia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/022srUSGSCyprusVia.jpg/330px-022srUSGSCyprusVia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/022srUSGSCyprusVia.jpg/440px-022srUSGSCyprusVia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Support-columns and upper deck failure, <a href="/wiki/Loma_Prieta_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Loma Prieta earthquake">Loma Prieta earthquake</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Loma_Prieta_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Loma Prieta earthquake">Loma Prieta earthquake</a>: side view of reinforced concrete <b>support-columns failure</b> which triggered <b>the upper deck collapse onto the lower deck</b> of the two-level Cypress viaduct of Interstate Highway 880, Oakland, CA. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Retaining_wall_failure.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Retaining_wall_failure.jpeg/220px-Retaining_wall_failure.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Retaining_wall_failure.jpeg/330px-Retaining_wall_failure.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Retaining_wall_failure.jpeg/440px-Retaining_wall_failure.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="755" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Failure of <a href="/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">retaining wall</a> due to ground movement, <a href="/wiki/Loma_Prieta_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Loma Prieta earthquake">Loma Prieta</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Retaining wall failure</b> at <a href="/wiki/Loma_Prieta_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Loma Prieta earthquake">Loma Prieta earthquake</a> in Santa Cruz Mountains area: prominent northwest-trending extensional cracks up to 12 cm (4.7 in) wide in the concrete <a href="/wiki/Spillway" title="Spillway">spillway</a> to Austrian Dam, the north <a href="/wiki/Abutment" title="Abutment">abutment</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ground_failure.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ground_failure.jpeg/220px-Ground_failure.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ground_failure.jpeg/330px-Ground_failure.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ground_failure.jpeg/440px-Ground_failure.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="761" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption><i>Lateral spreading</i> mode of ground failure, <a href="/wiki/Loma_Prieta_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Loma Prieta earthquake">Loma Prieta</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Ground shaking triggered <a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="Soil liquefaction">soil liquefaction</a> in a subsurface layer of <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a>, producing differential lateral and vertical movement in an overlying <a href="/wiki/Carapace" title="Carapace">carapace</a> of unliquefied sand and <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a>. This <b>mode of ground failure</b>, termed <b>lateral spreading</b>, is a principal cause of liquefaction-related earthquake damage.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ADBC_Branch_in_BeiChuan_after_earthquake.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/ADBC_Branch_in_BeiChuan_after_earthquake.jpg/220px-ADBC_Branch_in_BeiChuan_after_earthquake.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/ADBC_Branch_in_BeiChuan_after_earthquake.jpg/330px-ADBC_Branch_in_BeiChuan_after_earthquake.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/ADBC_Branch_in_BeiChuan_after_earthquake.jpg/440px-ADBC_Branch_in_BeiChuan_after_earthquake.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Beams and pier columns diagonal cracking, <a href="/wiki/2008_Sichuan_earthquake" title="2008 Sichuan earthquake">2008 Sichuan earthquake</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Severely damaged building of Agriculture Development Bank of China after <a href="/wiki/2008_Sichuan_earthquake" title="2008 Sichuan earthquake">2008 Sichuan earthquake</a>: most of the <b>beams and pier columns are sheared</b>. Large diagonal cracks in masonry and veneer are due to in-plane loads while abrupt <a href="/wiki/Consolidation_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolidation (soil)">settlement</a> of the right end of the building should be attributed to a <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill</a> which may be hazardous even without any earthquake.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2004-tsunami.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/2004-tsunami.jpg/220px-2004-tsunami.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/2004-tsunami.jpg/330px-2004-tsunami.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/2004-tsunami.jpg/440px-2004-tsunami.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1114" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> strikes <a href="/wiki/Ao_Nang" title="Ao Nang">Ao Nang</a><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Twofold tsunami impact</b>: <a href="/wiki/Sea_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea wave">sea waves</a> hydraulic <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inundation">inundation</a>. Thus, <a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">the Indian Ocean earthquake</a> of December 26, 2004, with the <a href="/wiki/Epicenter" title="Epicenter">epicenter</a> off the west coast of <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, Indonesia, triggered a series of devastating tsunamis, killing more than 230,000 people in eleven countries by <b>inundating surrounding coastal communities with huge waves</b> up to 30 meters (100 feet) high.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Earthquake-resistant_construction">Earthquake-resistant construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Earthquake-resistant construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Earthquake-resistant_structures" title="Earthquake-resistant structures">Earthquake-resistant structures</a></div> <p><b>Earthquake construction</b> means implementation of <b>seismic design</b> to enable building and non-building structures to live through the anticipated earthquake exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with the applicable <a href="/wiki/Building_code" title="Building code">building codes</a>.</p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2009_03_03_Pearl_River_Tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/2009_03_03_Pearl_River_Tower.jpg/220px-2009_03_03_Pearl_River_Tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/2009_03_03_Pearl_River_Tower.jpg/330px-2009_03_03_Pearl_River_Tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/2009_03_03_Pearl_River_Tower.jpg/440px-2009_03_03_Pearl_River_Tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Construction of <a href="/wiki/Pearl_River_Tower" title="Pearl River Tower">Pearl River Tower</a> X-bracing to resist lateral forces of earthquakes and winds</figcaption></figure> <p>Design and construction are intimately related. To achieve a good workmanship, detailing of the members and their connections should be as simple as possible. As any construction in general, earthquake construction is a process that consists of the building, retrofitting or assembling of infrastructure given the construction materials available.<sup id="cite_ref-BridgeDesign_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BridgeDesign-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The destabilizing action of an earthquake on constructions may be <i>direct</i> (seismic motion of the ground) or <i>indirect</i> (earthquake-induced landslides, <a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="Soil liquefaction">soil liquefaction</a> and waves of tsunami). </p><p>A structure might have all the appearances of stability, yet offer nothing but danger when an earthquake occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crucial fact is that, for safety, earthquake-resistant construction techniques are as important as <a href="/wiki/Quality_control" title="Quality control">quality control</a> and using correct materials. <i>Earthquake contractor</i> should be <a href="/wiki/Registered_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Registered company">registered</a> in the state/province/country of the project location (depending on local regulations), <a href="/wiki/Bond_(finance)" title="Bond (finance)">bonded</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insured" class="mw-redirect" title="Insured">insured</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>To minimize possible <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquake loss">losses</a>, construction process should be organized with keeping in mind that earthquake may strike any time prior to the end of construction. </p><p>Each <a href="/wiki/Construction_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Construction project">construction project</a> requires a qualified team of professionals who understand the basic features of seismic performance of different structures as well as <a href="/wiki/Construction_management" title="Construction management">construction management</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adobe_structures">Adobe structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Adobe structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adobe_structure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Adobe_structure.jpg/220px-Adobe_structure.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Adobe_structure.jpg/330px-Adobe_structure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Adobe_structure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="394" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Partially collapsed adobe building in Westmorland, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Around thirty percent of the world's population lives or works in earth-made construction.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Adobe" title="Adobe">Adobe</a> type of <a href="/wiki/Mud_brick" class="mw-redirect" title="Mud brick">mud bricks</a> is one of the oldest and most widely used building materials. The use of <a href="/wiki/Adobe" title="Adobe">adobe</a> is very common in some of the world's most hazard-prone regions, traditionally across Latin America, Africa, Indian subcontinent and other parts of Asia, Middle East and Southern Europe. </p><p>Adobe buildings are considered very vulnerable at strong quakes.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, multiple ways of seismic strengthening of new and existing adobe buildings are available.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Key factors for the improved seismic performance of adobe construction are: </p> <ul><li>Quality of construction.</li> <li>Compact, box-type layout.</li> <li>Seismic reinforcement.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limestone_and_sandstone_structures">Limestone and sandstone structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Limestone and sandstone structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SLCCityAndCountyBldg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/SLCCityAndCountyBldg.jpg/220px-SLCCityAndCountyBldg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/SLCCityAndCountyBldg.jpg/330px-SLCCityAndCountyBldg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/SLCCityAndCountyBldg.jpg/440px-SLCCityAndCountyBldg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Base-isolated City and County Building, <a href="/wiki/Salt_Lake_City" title="Salt Lake City">Salt Lake City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">Limestone</a> is very common in architecture, especially in North America and Europe. Many landmarks across the world are made of limestone. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> masonry. They are the long-lasting materials but their rather heavy weight is not beneficial for adequate seismic performance. </p><p>Application of modern technology to seismic retrofitting can enhance the survivability of unreinforced masonry structures. As an example, from 1973 to 1989, the <a href="/wiki/Salt_Lake_City_and_County_Building" title="Salt Lake City and County Building">Salt Lake City and County Building</a> in <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a> was exhaustively renovated and repaired with an emphasis on preserving historical accuracy in appearance. This was done in concert with a seismic upgrade that placed the weak sandstone structure on base isolation foundation to better protect it from earthquake damage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timber_frame_structures">Timber frame structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Timber frame structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anne_Hvides_Gaard_Svendborg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Anne_Hvides_Gaard_Svendborg.jpg/220px-Anne_Hvides_Gaard_Svendborg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Anne_Hvides_Gaard_Svendborg.jpg/330px-Anne_Hvides_Gaard_Svendborg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Anne_Hvides_Gaard_Svendborg.jpg/440px-Anne_Hvides_Gaard_Svendborg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2088" data-file-height="1550" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anne_Hvide%27s_House" title="Anne Hvide's House">Anne Hvide's House</a>, Denmark (1560)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Timber_framing" title="Timber framing">Timber framing</a> dates back thousands of years, and has been used in many parts of the world during various periods such as ancient Japan, Europe and medieval England in localities where timber was in good supply and building stone and the skills to work it were not. </p><p>The use of <a href="/wiki/Timber_framing" title="Timber framing">timber framing</a> in buildings provides their complete skeletal framing which offers some structural benefits as the timber frame, if properly engineered, lends itself to better <i>seismic survivability</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Timber_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timber-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Light-frame_structures">Light-frame structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Light-frame structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wood-framed_house.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Wood-framed_house.jpg/220px-Wood-framed_house.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Wood-framed_house.jpg/330px-Wood-framed_house.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Wood-framed_house.jpg/440px-Wood-framed_house.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1083" data-file-height="546" /></a><figcaption>A two-story wooden-frame for a residential building structure</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Light-frame_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Light-frame construction">Light-frame structures</a> usually gain seismic resistance from rigid <a href="/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood">plywood</a> shear walls and wood structural panel <a href="/wiki/Diaphragm_(structural_system)" title="Diaphragm (structural system)">diaphragms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Special provisions for seismic load-resisting systems for all <a href="/wiki/Engineered_wood" title="Engineered wood">engineered wood</a> structures requires consideration of diaphragm ratios, horizontal and vertical diaphragm shears, and <a href="/wiki/Gender_of_connectors_and_fasteners" title="Gender of connectors and fasteners">connector</a>/<a href="/wiki/Fastener" title="Fastener">fastener</a> values. In addition, collectors, or drag struts, to distribute shear along a diaphragm length are required. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reinforced_masonry_structures">Reinforced masonry structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Reinforced masonry structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bond-beam.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Bond-beam.JPG/220px-Bond-beam.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="384" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Bond-beam.JPG/330px-Bond-beam.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Bond-beam.JPG/440px-Bond-beam.JPG 2x" data-file-width="516" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Reinforced hollow masonry wall</figcaption></figure> <p>A construction system where <a href="/wiki/Steel_reinforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Steel reinforcement">steel reinforcement</a> is embedded in the <a href="/wiki/Mortar_joint" title="Mortar joint">mortar joints</a> of <a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">masonry</a> or placed in holes and that are filled with <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a> or <a href="/wiki/Grout" title="Grout">grout</a> is called <b>reinforced masonry</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are various practices and techniques to reinforce masonry. The most common type is the reinforced <i>hollow unit masonry</i>. </p><p>To achieve a <a href="/wiki/Ductile" class="mw-redirect" title="Ductile">ductile</a> behavior in masonry, it is necessary that the <a href="/wiki/Shear_strength" title="Shear strength">shear strength</a> of the wall is greater than the <a href="/wiki/Flexural_strength" title="Flexural strength">flexural strength</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SeismicMasonry_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SeismicMasonry-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effectiveness of both vertical and horizontal reinforcements depends on the type and quality of the masonry units and <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a>. </p><p>The devastating <a href="/wiki/1933_Long_Beach_earthquake" title="1933 Long Beach earthquake">1933 Long Beach earthquake</a> revealed that masonry is prone to earthquake damage, which led to the <a href="/wiki/California_Codes" title="California Codes">California State Code</a> making masonry reinforcement mandatory across California. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reinforced_concrete_structures">Reinforced concrete structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Reinforced concrete structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:StressedRibbonBridgeUnderside7138.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/StressedRibbonBridgeUnderside7138.JPG/220px-StressedRibbonBridgeUnderside7138.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/StressedRibbonBridgeUnderside7138.JPG/330px-StressedRibbonBridgeUnderside7138.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/StressedRibbonBridgeUnderside7138.JPG/440px-StressedRibbonBridgeUnderside7138.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Stressed Ribbon pedestrian bridge over the Rogue River, Grants Pass, <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ThreeTwrBrCenter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/ThreeTwrBrCenter.jpg/220px-ThreeTwrBrCenter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/ThreeTwrBrCenter.jpg/330px-ThreeTwrBrCenter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/ThreeTwrBrCenter.jpg/440px-ThreeTwrBrCenter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Prestressed concrete <a href="/wiki/Cable-stayed_bridge" title="Cable-stayed bridge">cable-stayed bridge</a> over <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze river">Yangtze river</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">Reinforced concrete</a> is concrete in which steel reinforcement bars (<a href="/wiki/Rebars" class="mw-redirect" title="Rebars">rebars</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Fiber" title="Fiber">fibers</a> have been incorporated to strengthen a material that would otherwise be <a href="/wiki/Brittle" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittle">brittle</a>. It can be used to produce <a href="/wiki/Beam_(structure)" title="Beam (structure)">beams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Column" title="Column">columns</a>, floors or bridges. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">Prestressed concrete</a> is a kind of <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a> used for overcoming concrete's natural weakness in tension. It can be applied to <a href="/wiki/Beam_(structure)" title="Beam (structure)">beams</a>, floors or bridges with a longer span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete. Prestressing <a href="/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">tendons</a> (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping load which produces a <a href="/wiki/Compressive_stress" title="Compressive stress">compressive stress</a> that offsets the <a href="/wiki/Tensile_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile stress">tensile stress</a> that the concrete <a href="/wiki/Compression_member" title="Compression member">compression member</a> would, otherwise, experience due to a bending load. </p><p>To prevent catastrophic collapse in response earth shaking (in the interest of life safety), a traditional reinforced concrete frame should have <a href="/wiki/Ductile" class="mw-redirect" title="Ductile">ductile</a> joints. Depending upon the methods used and the imposed seismic forces, such buildings may be immediately usable, require extensive repair, or may have to be demolished. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prestressed_structures">Prestressed structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Prestressed structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Prestressed_structure" title="Prestressed structure">Prestressed structure</a> is the one whose overall <a href="/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">integrity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structural_stability" title="Structural stability">stability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Security" title="Security">security</a> depend, primarily, on a <i>prestressing</i>. <i>Prestressing</i> means the intentional creation of permanent stresses in a structure for the purpose of improving its performance under various service conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-PrestressedConcreteDesign_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PrestressedConcreteDesign-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Colosseum_With_Moon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Roman_Colosseum_With_Moon.jpg/220px-Roman_Colosseum_With_Moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Roman_Colosseum_With_Moon.jpg/330px-Roman_Colosseum_With_Moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Roman_Colosseum_With_Moon.jpg/440px-Roman_Colosseum_With_Moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Naturally pre-compressed exterior wall of <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>, Rome</figcaption></figure> <p>There are the following basic types of prestressing: </p> <ul><li>Pre-compression (mostly, with the own weight of a structure)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">Pretensioning</a> with high-strength embedded tendons</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">Post-tensioning</a> with high-strength bonded or unbonded tendons</li></ul> <p>Today, the concept of <a href="/wiki/Prestressed_structure" title="Prestressed structure">prestressed structure</a> is widely engaged in design of <a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">buildings</a>, underground structures, TV towers, power stations, floating storage and offshore facilities, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> vessels, and numerous kinds of <a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">bridge</a> systems.<sup id="cite_ref-PrestressedConcrete_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PrestressedConcrete-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A beneficial idea of <i>prestressing</i> was, apparently, familiar to the ancient Roman architects; look, e.g., at the tall <a href="/wiki/Attic" title="Attic">attic</a> wall of <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a> working as a stabilizing device for the wall <a href="/wiki/Pier" title="Pier">piers</a> beneath. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Steel_structures">Steel structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Steel structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LomaPrieta-BayBridge-collapsed-section.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/LomaPrieta-BayBridge-collapsed-section.jpeg/220px-LomaPrieta-BayBridge-collapsed-section.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/LomaPrieta-BayBridge-collapsed-section.jpeg/330px-LomaPrieta-BayBridge-collapsed-section.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/LomaPrieta-BayBridge-collapsed-section.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Collapsed section of the <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco%E2%80%93Oakland_Bay_Bridge" title="San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge">San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge</a> in response to <a href="/wiki/Loma_Prieta_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Loma Prieta earthquake">Loma Prieta earthquake</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Steel structures</b> are considered mostly earthquake resistant but some failures have occurred. A great number of welded <a href="/wiki/Steel_moment-resisting_frame" class="mw-redirect" title="Steel moment-resisting frame">steel moment-resisting frame</a> buildings, which looked earthquake-proof, surprisingly experienced brittle behavior and were hazardously damaged in the <a href="/wiki/1994_Northridge_earthquake" title="1994 Northridge earthquake">1994 Northridge earthquake</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Reitherman_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reitherman-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After that, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency" title="Federal Emergency Management Agency">Federal Emergency Management Agency</a> (FEMA) initiated development of repair techniques and new design approaches to minimize damage to steel moment frame buildings in future earthquakes.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For <a href="/wiki/Structural_steel" title="Structural steel">structural steel</a> seismic design based on <a href="/wiki/Load_and_Resistance_Factor_Design" class="mw-redirect" title="Load and Resistance Factor Design">Load and Resistance Factor Design</a> (LRFD) approach, it is very important to assess ability of a structure to develop and maintain its bearing resistance in the <a href="/wiki/Inelastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Inelastic">inelastic</a> range. A measure of this ability is <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a>, which may be observed in a <i>material itself</i>, in a <i>structural element</i>, or to a <i>whole structure</i>. </p><p>As a consequence of <a href="/wiki/Northridge_earthquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Northridge earthquake">Northridge earthquake</a> experience, the American Institute of Steel Construction has introduced AISC 358 "Pre-Qualified Connections for Special and intermediate Steel Moment Frames." The AISC Seismic Design Provisions require that all <a href="/wiki/Steel_Moment_Resisting_Frame" class="mw-redirect" title="Steel Moment Resisting Frame">Steel Moment Resisting Frames</a> employ either connections contained in AISC 358, or the use of connections that have been subjected to pre-qualifying cyclic testing.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prediction_of_earthquake_losses">Prediction of earthquake losses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Prediction of earthquake losses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Earthquake loss estimation</b> is usually defined as a <i>Damage Ratio</i> (<b>DR</b>) which is a ratio of the earthquake damage repair cost to the <a href="/wiki/Total_Economic_Value" class="mw-redirect" title="Total Economic Value">total value</a> of a building.<sup id="cite_ref-SeismicRisk_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SeismicRisk-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Probable_Maximum_Loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Probable Maximum Loss">Probable Maximum Loss</a></i> (<b>PML</b>) is a common term used for earthquake loss estimation, but it lacks a precise definition. In 1999, ASTM E2026 'Standard Guide for the Estimation of Building Damageability in Earthquakes' was produced in order to standardize the nomenclature for seismic loss estimation, as well as establish guidelines as to the review process and qualifications of the reviewer.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Earthquake loss estimations are also referred to as <i>Seismic Risk Assessments</i>. The risk assessment process generally involves determining the probability of various ground motions coupled with the vulnerability or damage of the building under those ground motions. The results are defined as a percent of building replacement value.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectral_acceleration" title="Spectral acceleration">Spectral acceleration</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Bozorgnia2004-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bozorgnia2004_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBozorgniaBertero2004" class="citation book cs1">Bozorgnia, Yousef; Bertero, Vitelmo V. (2004). <i>Earthquake Engineering: From Engineering Seismology to Performance-Based Engineering</i>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-1439-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-1439-1"><bdi>978-0-8493-1439-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earthquake+Engineering%3A+From+Engineering+Seismology+to+Performance-Based+Engineering&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-1439-1&rft.aulast=Bozorgnia&rft.aufirst=Yousef&rft.au=Bertero%2C+Vitelmo+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/earthquake-engineering">"Earthquake Engineering – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"</a>. <i>sciencedirect.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sciencedirect.com&rft.atitle=Earthquake+Engineering+%E2%80%93+an+overview+%7C+ScienceDirect+Topics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Ftopics%2Fmaterials-science%2Fearthquake-engineering&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SeismicDesignCodes-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SeismicDesignCodes_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerg,_Glen_V.1983" class="citation book cs1">Berg, Glen V. (1983). <i>Seismic Design Codes and Procedures</i>. Earthquake Engineering Research Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-943198-25-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-943198-25-9"><bdi>0-943198-25-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seismic+Design+Codes+and+Procedures&rft.pub=Earthquake+Engineering+Research+Institute&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-943198-25-9&rft.au=Berg%2C+Glen+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kzVvd4Dk6sw&locale=en_US&persist_locale=1">"Earthquake Protector: Shake Table Crash Testing"</a>. 27 June 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/kzVvd4Dk6sw">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-07-31</span></span> – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Earthquake+Protector%3A+Shake+Table+Crash+Testing&rft.date=2007-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DkzVvd4Dk6sw%26locale%3Den_US%26persist_locale%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://earthquake.geoengineer.org/">"Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering"</a>. <i>earthquake.geoengineer.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=earthquake.geoengineer.org&rft.atitle=Geotechnical+Earthquake+Engineering&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fearthquake.geoengineer.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081030041059/http://www.civenv.unimelb.edu.au/ejse/Archives/Fulltext/2006/200608.pdf">"Seismic Pounding between Adjacent Building Structures"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civenv.unimelb.edu.au/ejse/Archives/Fulltext/2006/200608.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2008-10-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Seismic+Pounding+between+Adjacent+Building+Structures&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.civenv.unimelb.edu.au%2Fejse%2FArchives%2FFulltext%2F2006%2F200608.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RecommendedLateralForce-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RecommendedLateralForce_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RecommendedLateralForce_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeismology_Committee1999" class="citation book cs1">Seismology Committee (1999). <i>Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and Commentary</i>. Structural Engineers Association of California.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recommended+Lateral+Force+Requirements+and+Commentary&rft.pub=Structural+Engineers+Association+of+California&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Seismology+Committee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFneesit2007" class="citation web cs1">neesit (2007-11-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kc652Zp5qWk&feature=PlayList&p=F297EF2ADDEAD86C&index=182">"Shaking Table Test on Conventional Wooden House (1)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-07-31</span></span> – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shaking+Table+Test+on+Conventional+Wooden+House+%281%29&rft.date=2007-11-17&rft.au=neesit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dkc652Zp5qWk%26feature%3DPlayList%26p%3DF297EF2ADDEAD86C%26index%3D182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead YouTube link tagged February 2022">dead YouTube link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SeismicExperiments-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SeismicExperiments_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmori,_F.1900" class="citation book cs1">Omori, F. (1900). <i>Seismic Experiments on the Fracturing and Overturning of Columns</i>. Publ. Earthquake Invest. Comm. In Foreign Languages, N.4, Tokyo.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seismic+Experiments+on+the+Fracturing+and+Overturning+of+Columns&rft.pub=Publ.+Earthquake+Invest.+Comm.+In+Foreign+Languages%2C+N.4%2C+Tokyo&rft.date=1900&rft.au=Omori%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynamicsOfStructures-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DynamicsOfStructures_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChopra,_Anil_K.1995" class="citation book cs1">Chopra, Anil K. (1995). <i>Dynamics of Structures</i>. Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-855214-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-855214-2"><bdi>0-13-855214-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dynamics+of+Structures&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-13-855214-2&rft.au=Chopra%2C+Anil+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EarthquakeSpectra-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EarthquakeSpectra_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewmark,_N.M.Hall,_W.J.1982" class="citation book cs1">Newmark, N.M.; Hall, W.J. (1982). <i>Earthquake Spectra and Design</i>. <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_Engineering_Research_Institute" title="Earthquake Engineering Research Institute">EERI</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-943198-22-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-943198-22-4"><bdi>0-943198-22-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earthquake+Spectra+and+Design&rft.pub=EERI&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-943198-22-4&rft.au=Newmark%2C+N.M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+W.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynamicsofStructures-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DynamicsofStructures_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClough,_Ray_W.Penzien,_Joseph1993" class="citation book cs1">Clough, Ray W.; Penzien, Joseph (1993). <i>Dynamics of Structures</i>. 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McGraw-Hall. 1989. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-023851-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-023851-0"><bdi>0-07-023851-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Timber+Design+%26+Construction+Sourcebook%3DGotz%2C+Karl-Heinz+et+al.&rft.pub=McGraw-Hall&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-07-023851-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130522105616/http://nees.buffalo.edu/projects/NEESWood/video.asp">"SEESL"</a>. Nees.buffalo.edu. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-07-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SEESL&rft.pub=Nees.buffalo.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnees.buffalo.edu%2Fprojects%2FNEESWood%2Fvideo.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossen_Rashkoff" class="citation web cs1">Rossen Rashkoff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130819014216/http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/earthquakes/MasonryBrick/ReinforcedBrickMasonry.htm">"Reinforced Brick Masonry"</a>. Staff.city.ac.uk. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/earthquakes/MasonryBrick/ReinforcedBrickMasonry.htm">the original</a> on 2013-08-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-07-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reinforced+Brick+Masonry&rft.pub=Staff.city.ac.uk&rft.au=Rossen+Rashkoff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.staff.city.ac.uk%2Fearthquakes%2FMasonryBrick%2FReinforcedBrickMasonry.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SeismicMasonry-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SeismicMasonry_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEkwueme,_Chukwuma_G.Uzarski,_Joe2003" class="citation book cs1">Ekwueme, Chukwuma G.; Uzarski, Joe (2003). <i>Seismic Design of Masonry Using the 1997 UBC</i>. 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EERI Publication. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-943198-21-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-943198-21-6"><bdi>0-943198-21-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Financial+Management+of+Earthquake+Risk&rft.pub=EERI+Publication&rft.date=2000-05&rft.isbn=0-943198-21-6&rft.au=EERI+Endowment+Subcommittee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEugene_Trahern1999" class="citation news cs1">Eugene Trahern (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090410060435/http://www.cccengr.com/cccengerwebpage_lossestimation.html">"Loss Estimation"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cccengr.com/cccengerwebpage_lossestimation.html">the original</a> on 2009-04-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Loss+Estimation&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Eugene+Trahern&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cccengr.com%2Fcccengerwebpage_lossestimation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig_TaylorErik_VanMarcke2002" class="citation book cs1">Craig Taylor; Erik VanMarcke, eds. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130113010823/http://www.asce.org/Product.aspx?id=2147486137&productid=5260"><i>Acceptable Risk Processes: Lifeline and Natural Hazards</i></a>. Reston, VA: ASCE, TCLEE. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780784406236" title="Special:BookSources/9780784406236"><bdi>9780784406236</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asce.org/Product.aspx?id=2147486137&productid=5260">the original</a> on 2013-01-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Acceptable+Risk+Processes%3A+Lifeline+and+Natural+Hazards&rft.place=Reston%2C+VA&rft.pub=ASCE%2C+TCLEE&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780784406236&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.asce.org%2FProduct.aspx%3Fid%3D2147486137%26productid%3D5260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarthquake+engineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Earthquake_engineering&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eeri.org">Earthquake Engineering Research Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.curee.org/">Consortium of Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering (CUREE)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.designsafe-ci.org/">NHERI: A natural hazards engineering research infrastructure</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/tracer-bullets/earthquakestb.html#intro">Earthquakes and Earthquake Engineering in The Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inrisk.ubc.ca/">Infrastructure Risk Research Project at The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191218054857/http://inrisk.ubc.ca/">Archived</a> 2019-12-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div 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title="Packaging engineering">Packaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_engineering" title="Privacy engineering">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey engineering">Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Textile engineering">Textile</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Engineering" class="extiw" title="commons:Engineering">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Engineering" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Engineering">Wikiproject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Engineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Construction395" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Construction_overview" title="Template:Construction overview"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Construction_overview" title="Template talk:Construction overview"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Construction_overview" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Construction overview"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Construction395" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Home_construction" title="Home construction">Home construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_construction" title="Offshore construction">Offshore construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_construction" title="Underground construction">Underground construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_construction" title="Tunnel construction">Tunnel construction</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_construction" title="History of construction">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_structural_engineering" title="History of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_architecture" title="Timeline of architecture">Timeline of architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_water_supply_and_sanitation" title="History of water supply and sanitation">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architect" title="Architect">Architect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_engineer" title="Building engineer">Building engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_estimator" title="Building estimator">Building estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_officials" title="Building officials">Building officials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartered_Building_Surveyor" title="Chartered Building Surveyor">Chartered Building Surveyor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineer" title="Civil engineer">Civil engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_estimator" title="Civil estimator">Civil estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerk_of_works" title="Clerk of works">Clerk of works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_manager" title="Project manager">Project manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantity_surveyor" title="Quantity surveyor">Quantity surveyor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Site_manager" title="Site manager">Site manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_engineer" title="Structural engineer">Structural engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superintendent_(construction)" title="Superintendent (construction)">Superintendent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trades workers<br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_construction_trades" title="List of construction trades">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banksman" title="Banksman">Banksman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boilermaker" title="Boilermaker">Boilermaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricklayer" title="Bricklayer">Bricklayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpentry" title="Carpentry">Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_finisher" title="Concrete finisher">Concrete finisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_foreman" title="Construction foreman">Construction foreman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_worker" title="Construction worker">Construction worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrician" title="Electrician">Electrician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glazier" title="Glazier">Glazier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ironworker" title="Ironworker">Ironworker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millwright" title="Millwright">Millwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasterer" title="Plasterer">Plasterer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumber" title="Plumber">Plumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roofer" title="Roofer">Roofer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_fixer" title="Steel fixer">Steel fixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welder" title="Welder">Welder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Constructors" title="American Institute of Constructors">American Institute of Constructors</a> (AIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Civil_Engineers" title="American Society of Civil Engineers">American Society of Civil Engineers</a> (ASCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asbestos_Testing_and_Consultancy_Association" title="Asbestos Testing and Consultancy Association">Asbestos Testing and Consultancy Association</a> (ATAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associated_General_Contractors_of_America" title="Associated General Contractors of America">Associated General Contractors of America</a> (AGC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Plumbing_and_Heating_Contractors" title="Association of Plumbing and Heating Contractors">Association of Plumbing and Heating Contractors</a> (APHC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Build_UK" title="Build UK">Build UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_History_Society" title="Construction History Society">Construction History Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartered_Institution_of_Civil_Engineering_Surveyors" title="Chartered Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors">Chartered Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors</a> (CICES)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartered_Institute_of_Plumbing_and_Heating_Engineering" title="Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering">Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering</a> (CIPHE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Engineering_Contractors_Association" title="Civil Engineering Contractors Association">Civil Engineering Contractors Association</a> (CECA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Concrete_Society" title="The Concrete Society">The Concrete Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_Management_Association_of_America" title="Construction Management Association of America">Construction Management Association of America</a> (CMAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_Specifications_Institute" title="Construction Specifications Institute">Construction Specifications Institute</a> (CSI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FIDIC" class="mw-redirect" title="FIDIC">FIDIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Builders_Federation" title="Home Builders Federation">Home Builders Federation</a> (HBF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighting_Association" title="Lighting Association">Lighting Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Home_Builders" title="National Association of Home Builders">National Association of Home Builders</a> (NAHB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Women_in_Construction" title="National Association of Women in Construction">National Association of Women in Construction</a> (NAWIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Fire_Protection_Association" title="National Fire Protection Association">National Fire Protection Association</a> (NFPA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Kitchen_%26_Bath_Association" title="National Kitchen & Bath Association">National Kitchen & Bath Association</a> (NKBA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Railroad_Construction_and_Maintenance_Association" title="National Railroad Construction and Maintenance Association">National Railroad Construction and Maintenance Association</a> (NRC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Tile_Contractors_Association" title="National Tile Contractors Association">National Tile Contractors Association</a> (NTCA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Tie_Association" title="Railway Tie Association">Railway Tie Association</a> (RTA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Institution_of_Chartered_Surveyors" title="Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors">Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors</a> (RICS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Building_Federation" title="Scottish Building Federation">Scottish Building Federation</a> (SBF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Construction_Arbitrators" title="Society of Construction Arbitrators">Society of Construction Arbitrators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_India" title="Construction industry of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_Iran" title="Construction industry of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_Japan" title="Construction industry of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_Romania" title="Construction industry of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_construction_and_contracting_industry" title="Turkish construction and contracting industry">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Construction industry of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Construction industry in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Building_code" title="Building code">Building code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_site_safety" title="Construction site safety">Site safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">Zoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_style" title="Architectural style">Style</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_architectural_styles" title="List of architectural styles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_architecture" title="Industrial architecture">Industrial architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_industrial_architecture" title="British industrial architecture">British</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_architecture" title="Indigenous architecture">Indigenous architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interior_architecture" title="Interior architecture">Interior architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_architecture" title="Vernacular architecture">Vernacular architecture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Engineering</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Earthquake engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_construction_methods" title="List of construction methods">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthbag_construction" title="Earthbag construction">Earthbag construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_methods_of_construction" title="Modern methods of construction">Modern methods of construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocrete_construction" title="Monocrete construction">Monocrete construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slip_forming" title="Slip forming">Slip forming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Building_material" title="Building material">Building material</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_building_materials" title="List of building materials">List of building materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millwork_(building_material)" class="mw-redirect" title="Millwork (building material)">Millwork</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_bidding" title="Construction bidding">Construction bidding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_delay" title="Construction delay">Construction delay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_equipment_theft" title="Construction equipment theft">Construction equipment theft</a></li> <li>Construction loan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_management" title="Construction management">Construction management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_waste" title="Construction waste">Construction waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demolition" title="Demolition">Demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design%E2%80%93build" title="Design–build">Design–build</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design%E2%80%93bid%E2%80%93build" title="Design–bid–build">Design–bid–build</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DFMA" title="DFMA">DfMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_equipment" title="Heavy equipment">Heavy equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interior_design" title="Interior design">Interior design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_buildings_and_structures" title="Lists of buildings and structures">Lists of buildings and structures</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures" title="List of tallest buildings and structures">List of tallest buildings and structures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megaproject" title="Megaproject">Megaproject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megastructure" title="Megastructure">Megastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasterwork" title="Plasterwork">Plasterwork</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Damp_(structural)" title="Damp (structural)">Damp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Damp_proofing" title="Damp proofing">Proofing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parge_coat" class="mw-redirect" title="Parge coat">Parge coat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roughcast" title="Roughcast">Roughcast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harling_(wall_finish)" title="Harling (wall finish)">Harling</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_development" title="Real estate development">Real estate development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry">Stonemasonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_in_construction" title="Sustainability in construction">Sustainability in construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfinished_building" title="Unfinished building">Unfinished building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_design" title="Urban design">Urban design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_construction" title="Outline of construction">Outline</a> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Construction" title="Category:Construction">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style 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