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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Occurrence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occurrence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liquefaction_potential:_simplified_empirical_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liquefaction_potential:_simplified_empirical_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Liquefaction potential: simplified empirical analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liquefaction_potential:_simplified_empirical_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liquefaction_potential:_advanced_constitutive_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liquefaction_potential:_advanced_constitutive_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Liquefaction potential: advanced constitutive model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liquefaction_potential:_advanced_constitutive_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earthquake_liquefaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earthquake_liquefaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Earthquake liquefaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earthquake_liquefaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitigation_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitigation_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Mitigation methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mitigation_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quicksand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quicksand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Quicksand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quicksand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quick_clay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quick_clay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Quick clay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quick_clay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turbidity_currents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turbidity_currents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Turbidity currents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turbidity_currents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Soil liquefaction</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodemvervloeiing" title="Bodemvervloeiing – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bodemvervloeiing" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="تسيل التربة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تسيل التربة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liq%C3%BCefacci%C3%B3_del_s%C3%B2l" title="Liqüefacció del sòl – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Liqüefacció del sòl" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likvefaktion" title="Likvefaktion – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Likvefaktion" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodenverfl%C3%BCssigung" title="Bodenverflüssigung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bodenverflüssigung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licuefacci%C3%B3n_de_suelo" title="Licuefacción de suelo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Licuefacción de suelo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundlikvigo" title="Grundlikvigo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Grundlikvigo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D8%A7%DA%A9" title="روان‌گرایی خاک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روان‌گرایی خاک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liqu%C3%A9faction_du_sol" title="Liquéfaction du sol – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Liquéfaction du sol" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%A0%EC%96%91%EC%95%A1%EC%83%81%ED%99%94" title="토양액상화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="토양액상화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mmiri_naeme_ka_ala_b%E1%BB%A5r%E1%BB%A5_mmiri" title="Mmiri naeme ka ala bụrụ mmiri – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Mmiri naeme ka ala bụrụ mmiri" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pencairan_tanah" title="Pencairan tanah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pencairan tanah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefazione_delle_sabbie" title="Liquefazione delle sabbie – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Liquefazione delle sabbie" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%96%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%A2" title="התנזלות קרקע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התנזלות קרקע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="გრუნტის გათხელება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გრუნტის გათხელება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talajfoly%C3%B3sod%C3%A1s" title="Talajfolyósodás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Talajfolyósodás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pencecairan_tanah" title="Pencecairan tanah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pencecairan tanah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancairan_tanah" title="Pancairan tanah – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Pancairan tanah" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodemvervloeiing" title="Bodemvervloeiing – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bodemvervloeiing" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B6%B2%E7%8A%B6%E5%8C%96%E7%8F%BE%E8%B1%A1" title="液状化現象 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="液状化現象" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boddenopweken" title="Boddenopweken – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Boddenopweken" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up%C5%82ynnienie_gruntu" title="Upłynnienie gruntu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Upłynnienie gruntu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_do_solo" title="Liquefação do solo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Liquefação do solo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Разжижение грунтов – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Разжижение грунтов" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Ликвефакција тла – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ликвефакција тла" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maaper%C3%A4n_vettyminen" title="Maaperän vettyminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Maaperän vettyminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likvifaktion" title="Likvifaktion – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Likvifaktion" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9C%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A7" title="แผ่นดินเหลว – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แผ่นดินเหลว" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemin_s%C4%B1v%C4%B1la%C5%9Fmas%C4%B1" title="Zemin sıvılaşması – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Zemin sıvılaşması" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B3a_l%E1%BB%8Fng_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5t" title="Hóa lỏng đất – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hóa lỏng đất" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E5%A3%A4%E6%B6%B2%E5%8C%96" title="土壤液化 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="土壤液化" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E5%A3%A4%E6%B6%B2%E5%8C%96" title="土壤液化 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="土壤液化" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q827291#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="View the 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Soil material that is ordinarily a solid behaving like a thick liquid</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liquefaction_at_Niigata.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Liquefaction_at_Niigata.JPG/400px-Liquefaction_at_Niigata.JPG" decoding="async" width="400" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Liquefaction_at_Niigata.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="297" /></a><figcaption>Some effects of soil liquefaction after the <a href="/wiki/1964_Niigata_earthquake" title="1964 Niigata earthquake">1964 Niigata earthquake</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chuetsu_earthquake-earthquake_liquefaction1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Chuetsu_earthquake-earthquake_liquefaction1.jpg/220px-Chuetsu_earthquake-earthquake_liquefaction1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Chuetsu_earthquake-earthquake_liquefaction1.jpg/330px-Chuetsu_earthquake-earthquake_liquefaction1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Chuetsu_earthquake-earthquake_liquefaction1.jpg/440px-Chuetsu_earthquake-earthquake_liquefaction1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1857" data-file-height="1393" /></a><figcaption>Soil liquefaction allowed this <a href="/wiki/Sewer_manhole" class="mw-redirect" title="Sewer manhole">sewer manhole</a> to float upward and breach the pavement during the <a href="/wiki/2004_Ch%C5%ABetsu_earthquake" title="2004 Chūetsu earthquake">2004 Chūetsu earthquake</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liquefaction_in_Peterborough_St.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Liquefaction_in_Peterborough_St.JPG/220px-Liquefaction_in_Peterborough_St.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Liquefaction_in_Peterborough_St.JPG/330px-Liquefaction_in_Peterborough_St.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Liquefaction_in_Peterborough_St.JPG/440px-Liquefaction_in_Peterborough_St.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Soil liquefaction in <a href="/wiki/Christchurch" title="Christchurch">Christchurch</a>. The <a href="/wiki/2011_Christchurch_earthquake" title="2011 Christchurch earthquake">2011 earthquake</a> caused a layer of water and fine sand to collect on the surface of this street.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Soil liquefaction</b> occurs when a cohesionless saturated or partially saturated <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> substantially loses <a href="/wiki/Shear_strength_(soil)" title="Shear strength (soil)">strength</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stiffness" title="Stiffness">stiffness</a> in response to an applied <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">stress</a> such as shaking during an <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> or other sudden change in stress condition, in which material that is ordinarily a solid behaves like a liquid. In <a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">soil mechanics</a>, the term "liquefied" was first used by <a href="/wiki/Allen_Hazen" title="Allen Hazen">Allen Hazen</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in reference to the 1918 failure of the <a href="/wiki/Calaveras_Dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Calaveras Dam">Calaveras Dam</a> in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>. He described the mechanism of flow <a href="/wiki/Liquefaction" title="Liquefaction">liquefaction</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Embankment_dam" title="Embankment dam">embankment dam</a> as: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If the pressure of the water in the pores is great enough to carry all the load, it will have the effect of holding the particles apart and of producing a condition that is practically equivalent to that of <a href="/wiki/Quicksand" title="Quicksand">quicksand</a>... the initial movement of some part of the material might result in accumulating pressure, first on one point, and then on another, successively, as the early points of concentration were liquefied.</p></blockquote> <p>The phenomenon is most often observed in saturated, loose (low <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> or uncompacted), sandy soils. This is because a loose <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a> has a tendency to <a href="/wiki/Compressibility" title="Compressibility">compress</a> when a <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">load</a> is applied. Dense sands, by contrast, tend to expand in volume or '<a href="/wiki/Reynolds%27_dilatancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reynolds' dilatancy">dilate</a>'. If the soil is saturated by water, a condition that often exists when the soil is below the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a>, then water fills the gaps between soil grains ('pore spaces'). In response to soil compressing, the <a href="/wiki/Pore_water_pressure" title="Pore water pressure">pore water pressure</a> increases and the water attempts to flow out from the soil to zones of low pressure (usually upward towards the ground surface). However, if the <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">loading</a> is rapidly applied and large enough, or is repeated many times (e.g., earthquake shaking, storm wave loading) such that the water does not flow out before the next cycle of load is applied, the water pressures may build to the extent that it exceeds the force (<a href="/wiki/Contact_mechanics" title="Contact mechanics">contact stresses</a>) between the grains of soil that keep them in contact. These contacts between grains are the means by which the weight from buildings and overlying soil layers is transferred from the ground surface to layers of soil or rock at greater depths. This loss of soil structure causes it to lose its <a href="/wiki/Shear_strength" title="Shear strength">strength</a> (the ability to transfer <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shear stress</a>), and it may be observed to flow like a liquid (hence 'liquefaction'). </p><p>Although the effects of soil liquefaction have been long understood, <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineers</a> took more notice after the <a href="/wiki/1964_Alaska_earthquake" title="1964 Alaska earthquake">1964 Alaska earthquake</a> and <a href="/wiki/1964_Niigata_earthquake" title="1964 Niigata earthquake">1964 Niigata earthquake</a>. It was a major cause of the destruction produced in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Marina_District,_San_Francisco" title="Marina District, San Francisco">Marina District</a> during the <a href="/wiki/1989_Loma_Prieta_earthquake" title="1989 Loma Prieta earthquake">1989 Loma Prieta earthquake</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Kobe" title="Port of Kobe">Port of Kobe</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Hanshin_earthquake" title="Great Hanshin earthquake">1995 Great Hanshin earthquake</a>. More recently soil liquefaction was largely responsible for extensive damage to residential properties in the eastern suburbs and satellite townships of <a href="/wiki/Christchurch" title="Christchurch">Christchurch</a> during the <a href="/wiki/2010_Canterbury_earthquake" title="2010 Canterbury earthquake">2010 Canterbury earthquake</a><sup id="cite_ref-TVNZ_3772887_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TVNZ_3772887-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and more extensively again following the Christchurch earthquakes that followed in <a href="/wiki/2011_Christchurch_earthquake" title="2011 Christchurch earthquake">early</a> and <a href="/wiki/June_2011_Christchurch_earthquake" title="June 2011 Christchurch earthquake">mid-2011</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NZ_Herald_10710770_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NZ_Herald_10710770-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 28 September 2018, an <a href="/wiki/2018_Sulawesi_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2018 Sulawesi earthquake and tsunami">earthquake of 7.5 magnitude</a> hit the Central Sulawesi province of Indonesia. Resulting soil liquefaction buried the suburb of Balaroa and Petobo village 3 metres (9.8 ft) deep in mud. The government of Indonesia is considering designating the two neighborhoods of Balaroa and Petobo, that have been totally buried under mud, as mass graves.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Building_code" title="Building code">building codes</a> in many countries require engineers to consider the effects of soil liquefaction in the design of new buildings and infrastructure such as bridges, embankment dams and retaining structures.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technical_definitions">Technical definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Technical definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giddy_House.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Giddy_House.jpg/220px-Giddy_House.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Giddy_House.jpg/330px-Giddy_House.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Giddy_House.jpg/440px-Giddy_House.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Giddy_House" title="Giddy House">Giddy House</a> in <a href="/wiki/Port_Royal,_Jamaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Port Royal, Jamaica">Port Royal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, which partially sank into the ground during an earthquake in 1907 which produced soil liquefaction, resulting in its distinctive tilted appearance.</figcaption></figure> <p>Soil liquefaction occurs when the <a href="/wiki/Effective_stress" title="Effective stress">effective stress</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shear_strength" title="Shear strength">shear strength</a>) of soil is reduced to essentially zero. This may be initiated by either monotonic <a href="/wiki/Structural_load" title="Structural load">loading</a> (i.e., a single, sudden occurrence of a change in stress – examples include an increase in load on an embankment or sudden loss of toe support) or cyclic loading (i.e., repeated changes in stress condition – examples include <a href="/wiki/Wave_loading" title="Wave loading">wave loading</a> or <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> shaking). In both cases a soil in a saturated loose state, and one which may generate significant pore water pressure on a change in load are the most likely to liquefy. This is because loose soil has the tendency to compress when sheared, generating large excess <a href="/wiki/Porewater_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Porewater pressure">porewater pressure</a> as load is transferred from the soil skeleton to adjacent pore water during undrained loading. As pore water pressure rises, a progressive loss of strength of the soil occurs as effective stress is reduced. Liquefaction is more likely to occur in sandy or non-plastic silty soils but may in rare cases occur in gravels and clays (see <a href="/wiki/Quick_clay" title="Quick clay">quick clay</a>). </p><p>A 'flow failure' may initiate if the strength of the soil is reduced below the stresses required to maintain the equilibrium of a slope or footing of a structure. This can occur due to monotonic loading or cyclic loading and can be sudden and catastrophic. A historical example is the <a href="/wiki/Aberfan_disaster" title="Aberfan disaster">Aberfan disaster</a>. Casagrande<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> referred to this type of phenomena as 'flow liquefaction' although a state of zero effective stress is not required for this to occur. </p><p>'Cyclic liquefaction' is the state of soil when large shear strains have accumulated in response to cyclic loading. A typical reference strain for the approximate occurrence of zero effective stress is 5% double amplitude shear strain. This is a soil test-based definition, usually performed via cyclic <a href="/wiki/Triaxial_shear_test" title="Triaxial shear test">triaxial</a>, cyclic direct <a href="/wiki/Simple_shear" title="Simple shear">simple shear</a>, or cyclic <a href="/wiki/Torsion_(mechanics)" title="Torsion (mechanics)">torsional shear</a> type apparatus. These tests are performed to determine a soil's resistance to liquefaction by observing the number of cycles of loading at a particular shear stress amplitude required to induce 'fails'. Failure here is defined by the aforementioned shear strain criteria. </p><p>The term 'cyclic mobility' refers to the mechanism of progressive reduction of effective stress due to cyclic loading. This may occur in all soil types including dense soils. However, on reaching a state of zero effective stress such soils immediately dilate and regain strength. Thus, shear strains are significantly less than a true state of soil liquefaction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occurrence">Occurrence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Occurrence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Liquefaction is more likely to occur in loose to moderately saturated granular soils with poor <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a>, such as silty <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sands</a> or sands and <a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravels</a> containing impermeable <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During <a href="/wiki/Wave_loading" title="Wave loading">wave loading</a>, usually cyclic undrained loading, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Seismic_loading" title="Seismic loading">seismic loading</a>, loose sands tend to decrease in <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a>, which produces an increase in their <a href="/wiki/Pore_water_pressure" title="Pore water pressure">pore water pressures</a> and consequently a decrease in <a href="/wiki/Shear_strength_(soil)" title="Shear strength (soil)">shear strength</a>, i.e. reduction in <a href="/wiki/Effective_stress" title="Effective stress">effective stress</a>. </p><p>Deposits most susceptible to liquefaction are young (<a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a>-age, deposited within the last 10,000 years) sands and <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silts</a> of similar grain size (well-sorted), in beds at least <a href="/wiki/Metre" title="Metre">metres</a> thick, and saturated with water. Such deposits are often found along <a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">stream beds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beach" title="Beach">beaches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dune" title="Dune">dunes</a>, and areas where windblown silt (<a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">loess</a>) and sand have accumulated. Examples of soil liquefaction include <a href="/wiki/Quicksand" title="Quicksand">quicksand</a>, quick clay, <a href="/wiki/Turbidity_current" title="Turbidity current">turbidity currents</a> and earthquake-induced liquefaction. </p><p>Depending on the initial <a href="/wiki/Void_ratio" title="Void ratio">void ratio</a>, the soil material can respond to loading either strain-softening or strain-hardening. Strain-softened soils, e.g., loose sands, can be triggered to collapse, either monotonically or cyclically, if the static shear stress is greater than the ultimate or steady-state shear strength of the soil. In this case <i>flow liquefaction</i> occurs, where the soil deforms at a low constant residual shear stress. If the soil strain-hardens, e.g., moderately dense to dense sand, flow liquefaction will generally not occur. However, cyclic softening can occur due to cyclic undrained loading, e.g., earthquake loading. Deformation during cyclic loading depends on the <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> of the soil, the magnitude and duration of the cyclic loading, and amount of shear stress reversal. If stress reversal occurs, the effective shear stress could reach zero, allowing cyclic liquefaction to take place. If stress reversal does not occur, zero effective stress cannot occur, and cyclic mobility takes place.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The resistance of the cohesionless soil to liquefaction will depend on the density of the soil, confining stresses, soil structure (fabric, age and <a href="/wiki/Cementation_(geology)" title="Cementation (geology)">cementation</a>), the magnitude and duration of the cyclic loading, and the extent to which shear stress reversal occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Liquefaction_potential:_simplified_empirical_analysis">Liquefaction potential: simplified empirical analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Liquefaction potential: simplified empirical analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Three parameters are needed to assess liquefaction potential using the <i>simplified empirical method</i>: </p> <ol><li>A measure of soil resistance to liquefaction: Standard Penetration Resistance (SPT),<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cone Penetration Resistance (CPT),<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or shear wave velocity (Vs)<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The earthquake load, measured as cyclic stress ratio <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle CSR={\frac {\tau _{av}}{\sigma '_{v}}}=0,65{\frac {a_{max}}{g}}{\frac {\sigma _{v}}{\sigma '_{v}}}r_{d}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>C</mi> <mi>S</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>65</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>m</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>g</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msubsup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> </mfrac> </mrow> <msub> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle CSR={\frac {\tau _{av}}{\sigma '_{v}}}=0,65{\frac {a_{max}}{g}}{\frac {\sigma _{v}}{\sigma '_{v}}}r_{d}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d807491e328b55aa8aede1590aec10ea039a97a2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:30.384ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle CSR={\frac {\tau _{av}}{\sigma '_{v}}}=0,65{\frac {a_{max}}{g}}{\frac {\sigma _{v}}{\sigma '_{v}}}r_{d}}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the capacity of the soil to resist liquefaction, expressed in terms of the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Liquefaction_potential:_advanced_constitutive_model">Liquefaction potential: advanced constitutive model</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Liquefaction potential: advanced constitutive model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The interaction between the solid skeleton and pore fluid flow has been considered by many researchers to model the material softening associated with the liquefaction phenomenon. The dynamic performance of saturated <a href="/wiki/Porous_medium" title="Porous medium">porous media</a> depends on the soil-pore fluid interaction. When the saturated porous media is subjected to strong ground shaking, pore fluid movement relative to the solid skeleton is induced. The transient movement of pore fluid can significantly affect the redistribution of pore water pressure, which is generally governed by the loading rate, <a href="/wiki/Soil_permeability" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil permeability">soil permeability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pressure_gradient" title="Pressure gradient">pressure gradient</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Boundary_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Boundary conditions">boundary conditions</a>. It is well known that for a sufficiently high <a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">seepage</a> velocity, the governing flow law in porous media is nonlinear and does not follow <a href="/wiki/Darcy%27s_law" title="Darcy's law">Darcy's</a> law. This fact has been recently considered in the studies of soil-pore fluid interaction for liquefaction modeling. A fully explicit dynamic <a href="/wiki/Finite_element_method" title="Finite element method">finite element method</a> has been developed for <a href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">turbulent</a> flow law. The governing equations have been expressed for saturated porous media based on the extension of the Biot formulation. The elastoplastic behavior of soil under earthquake loading has been simulated using a generalized <a href="/wiki/Plasticity_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasticity theory">plasticity</a> theory that is composed of a <a href="/wiki/Yield_surface" title="Yield surface">yield surface</a> along with a non-associated flow rule.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Earthquake_liquefaction">Earthquake liquefaction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Earthquake liquefaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christchurch_quake,_2011-02-22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Christchurch_quake%2C_2011-02-22.jpg/220px-Christchurch_quake%2C_2011-02-22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Christchurch_quake%2C_2011-02-22.jpg/330px-Christchurch_quake%2C_2011-02-22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Christchurch_quake%2C_2011-02-22.jpg/440px-Christchurch_quake%2C_2011-02-22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="753" /></a><figcaption>Sand boils that erupted during the <a href="/wiki/2011_Christchurch_earthquake" title="2011 Christchurch earthquake">2011 Christchurch earthquake</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Pressures generated during large earthquakes can force underground water and liquefied sand to the surface. This can be observed at the surface as effects known alternatively as "<a href="/wiki/Sand_boil" title="Sand boil">sand boils</a>", "sand blows" or "<a href="/wiki/Sand_volcano" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand volcano">sand volcanoes</a>". Such earthquake ground deformations can be categorized as primary deformation if located on or close to the ruptured fault, or distributed deformation if located at considerable distance from the ruptured fault.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SFBALiqufactionMap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/SFBALiqufactionMap.jpg/170px-SFBALiqufactionMap.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/SFBALiqufactionMap.jpg/255px-SFBALiqufactionMap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/SFBALiqufactionMap.jpg/340px-SFBALiqufactionMap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1019" data-file-height="1597" /></a><figcaption>A liquefaction susceptibility map – excerpt of <a href="/wiki/USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a> map for the <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area" title="San Francisco Bay Area">San Francisco Bay Area</a>. Many areas of concern in this region are also densely <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanized</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The other common observation is land instability – cracking and movement of the ground down slope or towards unsupported margins of rivers, streams, or the coast. The failure of ground in this manner is called 'lateral spreading' and may occur on very shallow slopes with angles only 1 or 2 degrees from the horizontal. </p><p>One positive aspect of soil liquefaction is the tendency for the effects of earthquake shaking to be significantly <a href="/wiki/Damping_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Damping ratio">damped</a> (reduced) for the remainder of the earthquake. This is because liquids do not support a <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shear stress</a> and so once the soil liquefies due to shaking, subsequent earthquake shaking (transferred through ground by <a href="/wiki/Shear_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Shear waves">shear waves</a>) is not transferred to buildings at the ground surface. </p><p>Studies of liquefaction features left by prehistoric earthquakes, called <a href="/wiki/Paleoliquefaction" title="Paleoliquefaction">paleoliquefaction</a> or <a href="/wiki/Paleoseismology" title="Paleoseismology">paleoseismology</a>, can reveal information about earthquakes that occurred before records were kept or accurate measurements could be taken.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Soil liquefaction induced by earthquake shaking is a major contributor to <a href="/wiki/Urban_seismic_risk" title="Urban seismic risk">urban seismic risk</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:25_Feb_2011_River_Road.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/25_Feb_2011_River_Road.jpg/170px-25_Feb_2011_River_Road.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/25_Feb_2011_River_Road.jpg/255px-25_Feb_2011_River_Road.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/25_Feb_2011_River_Road.jpg/340px-25_Feb_2011_River_Road.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1880" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>The effects of lateral spreading (River Road in Christchurch following the <a href="/wiki/2011_Christchurch_earthquake" title="2011 Christchurch earthquake">2011 Christchurch earthquake</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earthquake_damage,_Lower_Styx_Road,_Brooklands_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Earthquake_damage%2C_Lower_Styx_Road%2C_Brooklands_2.jpg/220px-Earthquake_damage%2C_Lower_Styx_Road%2C_Brooklands_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Earthquake_damage%2C_Lower_Styx_Road%2C_Brooklands_2.jpg/330px-Earthquake_damage%2C_Lower_Styx_Road%2C_Brooklands_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Earthquake_damage%2C_Lower_Styx_Road%2C_Brooklands_2.jpg/440px-Earthquake_damage%2C_Lower_Styx_Road%2C_Brooklands_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="536" /></a><figcaption>Damage in <a href="/wiki/Brooklands,_Canterbury" class="mw-redirect" title="Brooklands, Canterbury">Brooklands</a> from the <a href="/wiki/2010_Canterbury_earthquake" title="2010 Canterbury earthquake">2010 Canterbury earthquake</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a> caused by soil liquefaction pushed up an underground service including this manhole</figcaption></figure> <p>The effects of soil liquefaction on the built environment can be extremely damaging. Buildings whose foundations bear directly on sand which liquefies will experience a sudden loss of support, which will result in drastic and irregular settlement of the building causing structural damage, including cracking of foundations and damage to the building structure, or leaving the structure unserviceable, even without structural damage. Where a thin crust of non-liquefied soil exists between building foundation and liquefied soil, a 'punching shear' type foundation failure may occur. Irregular settlement may break underground utility lines. The upward pressure applied by the movement of liquefied soil through the crust layer can crack weak foundation slabs and enter buildings through service ducts and may allow water to damage building contents and electrical services. </p><p>Bridges and large buildings constructed on <a href="/wiki/Pile_foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pile foundation">pile foundations</a> may lose support from the adjacent soil and <a href="/wiki/Buckling" title="Buckling">buckle</a> or come to rest at a tilt. </p><p>Sloping ground and ground next to rivers and lakes may slide on a liquefied soil layer (termed 'lateral spreading'),<sup id="cite_ref-chch_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chch-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> opening large <a href="/wiki/Ground_fissure" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground fissure">ground fissures</a>, and can cause significant damage to buildings, bridges, roads and services such as water, natural gas, sewerage, power and telecommunications installed in the affected ground. Buried tanks and manholes may float in the liquefied soil due to <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-chch_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chch-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earth embankments such as flood <a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">levees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earth_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth dam">earth dams</a> may lose stability or collapse if the material comprising the embankment or its foundation liquefies. </p><p>Over geological time, liquefaction of soil material due to earthquakes could provide a dense parent material in which the <a href="/wiki/Fragipan" title="Fragipan">fragipan</a> may develop through pedogenesis.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation_methods">Mitigation methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mitigation methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_compaction" title="Dynamic compaction">Dynamic compaction</a></div> <p>Mitigation methods have been devised by <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquake Engineering">earthquake engineers</a> and include various <a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">soil compaction</a> techniques such as vibro compaction (compaction of the soil by depth vibrators), <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_compaction" title="Dynamic compaction">dynamic compaction</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vibro_stone_column" title="Vibro stone column">vibro stone columns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These methods densify soil and enable buildings to avoid soil liquefaction.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Existing buildings can be mitigated by injecting grout into the soil to stabilize the layer of soil that is subject to liquefaction. Another method called IPS (Induced Partial Saturation) is now practicable to apply on larger scale. In this method, the saturation degree of the soil is decreased. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quicksand">Quicksand</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Quicksand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quicksand" title="Quicksand">Quicksand</a></div> <p>Quicksand forms when water saturates an area of loose sand, and the sand is agitated. When the water trapped in the batch of sand cannot escape, it creates liquefied soil that can no longer resist force. Quicksand can be formed by standing or (upwards) flowing underground water (as from an underground spring), or by earthquakes. In the case of flowing underground water, the force of the water flow opposes the force of gravity, causing the granules of sand to be more buoyant. In the case of earthquakes, the shaking force can increase the pressure of shallow groundwater, liquefying sand and silt deposits. In both cases, the liquefied surface loses strength, causing buildings or other objects on that surface to sink or fall over. </p><p>The saturated sediment may appear quite solid until a change in pressure, or a shock initiates the liquefaction, causing the sand to form a suspension with each grain surrounded by a thin film of water. This cushioning gives quicksand, and other liquefied sediments, a spongy, fluidlike texture. Objects in the liquefied sand sink to the level at which the weight of the object is equal to the weight of the displaced sand/water mix and the object <i>floats</i> due to its <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quick_clay">Quick clay</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Quick clay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quick_clay" title="Quick clay">Quick clay</a></div> <p>Quick clay, known as <i>Leda Clay</i> in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, is a water-saturated <a href="/wiki/Gel" title="Gel">gel</a>, which in its solid form resembles highly sensitive <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a>. This clay has a tendency to change from a relatively stiff condition to a liquid mass when it is disturbed. This gradual change in appearance from solid to liquid is a process known as spontaneous liquefaction. The clay retains a solid structure despite its high-water content (up to 80% by volume), because <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> holds water-coated flakes of clay together. When the structure is broken by a shock or sufficient shear, it enters a fluid state. </p><p>Quick clay is found only in northern countries such as <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> in the U.S., <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>, which were glaciated during the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene_epoch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleistocene epoch">Pleistocene epoch</a>. </p><p>Quick clay has been the underlying cause of many deadly <a href="/wiki/Landslides" class="mw-redirect" title="Landslides">landslides</a>. In Canada alone, it has been associated with more than 250 mapped landslides. Some of these are ancient, and may have been triggered by earthquakes.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Turbidity_currents">Turbidity currents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Turbidity currents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Turbidity_current" title="Turbidity current">Turbidity current</a></div> <p>Submarine landslides are <a href="/wiki/Turbidity_current" title="Turbidity current">turbidity currents</a> and consist of water-saturated sediments flowing downslope. An example occurred during the <a href="/wiki/1929_Grand_Banks_earthquake" title="1929 Grand Banks earthquake">1929 Grand Banks earthquake</a> that struck the <a href="/wiki/Continental_slope" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental slope">continental slope</a> off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Newfoundland</a>. Minutes later, <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telephone_cable" class="mw-redirect" title="Transatlantic telephone cable">transatlantic telephone cables</a> began breaking sequentially, further and further downslope, away from the <a href="/wiki/Epicenter" title="Epicenter">epicenter</a>. Twelve cables were snapped in a total of 28 places. Exact times and locations were recorded for each break. Investigators suggested that a 60-mile-per-hour (100 km/h) submarine landslide or turbidity current of water-saturated sediments swept 400 miles (600 km) down the <a href="/wiki/Continental_slope" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental slope">continental slope</a> from the earthquake's epicenter, snapping the cables as it passed.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atterberg_limits" title="Atterberg limits">Atterberg limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_quicksand" title="Dry quicksand">Dry quicksand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthflow" title="Earthflow">Earthflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluidization" title="Fluidization">Fluidization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquefaction" title="Liquefaction">Liquefaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud_volcano" title="Mud volcano">Mud volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflow" title="Mudflow">Mudflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_for_Earthquake_Engineering_Simulation#Soil_liquefaction_research" title="Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation">Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation#Soil liquefaction research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoseismology" title="Paleoseismology">Paleoseismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_boil" title="Sand boil">Sand boil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">Subsidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thixotropy" title="Thixotropy">Thixotropy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHazen1920" class="citation journal cs1">Hazen, A. 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(April 2011)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoudMember,_Asce,_I._M._IdrissFellow,_Asce,_Ronald_D._AndrusArango2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/T._Leslie_Youd" title="T. Leslie Youd">Youd, T. L.</a>; Member, Asce, I. M. Idriss, Chair; Fellow, Asce, Ronald D. Andrus, Co-Chair; Arango, Ignacio; Castro, Gonzalo; Christian, John T.; Dobry, Richardo; Finn, W. D. Liam; et al. (2001). 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(1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.250.12.849">"Turbidity currents and submarine slumps, and the 1929 Grand Banks [Newfoundland] earthquake"</a>. <i>American Journal of Science</i>. <b>250</b> (12): 849–73. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1952AmJS..250..849H">1952AmJS..250..849H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.250.12.849">10.2475/ajs.250.12.849</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=Turbidity+currents+and+submarine+slumps%2C+and+the+1929+Grand+Banks+%5BNewfoundland%5D+earthquake&rft.volume=250&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=849-73&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2475%2Fajs.250.12.849&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1952AmJS..250..849H&rft.aulast=Heezen&rft.aufirst=B.+C.&rft.au=Ewing%2C+W.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2475%252Fajs.250.12.849&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil+liquefaction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Seed et al., <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=cenv_fac">Recent Advances in Soil Liquefaction Engineering: A Unified and Consistent Framework</a></i>, 26th Annual ASCE Los Angeles Geotechnical Spring Seminar, Long Beach, California, April 30, 2003, Earthquake Engineering Research Center</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_liquefaction&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Soil_liquefaction" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Soil liquefaction">Soil liquefaction</a> at Wikimedia Commons </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ce.washington.edu/~liquefaction/html/main.html">Soil Liquefaction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pnsn.org/outreach/earthquakehazards/liquifaction">Liquefaction</a> – <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_Seismic_Network" title="Pacific Northwest Seismic Network">Pacific Northwest Seismic Network</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rn3oAvmZY8k">Liquefaction in Chiba, Japan</a> on <a 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Core_sample.svg/40px-Core_sample.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Core_drill" title="Core drill">Core drill</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cone_penetration_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cone_penetration_test.svg/20px-Cone_penetration_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cone_penetration_test.svg/30px-Cone_penetration_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cone_penetration_test.svg/40px-Cone_penetration_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Cone_penetration_test" title="Cone penetration test">Cone penetration test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geo-electrical_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Geo-electrical_sounding.svg/20px-Geo-electrical_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Geo-electrical_sounding.svg/30px-Geo-electrical_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Geo-electrical_sounding.svg/40px-Geo-electrical_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Geo-electrical_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geo-electrical sounding (page does not exist)">Geo-electrical sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:In_situ_permeameter_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/20px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/30px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/40px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Permeability_(Earth_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (Earth sciences)">Permeability test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Load_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/20px-Load_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/30px-Load_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/40px-Load_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Load_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Load test">Load test</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Static_load_testing" title="Static load testing">Static</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_load_testing" title="Dynamic load testing">Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statnamic_load_test" title="Statnamic load test">Statnamic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pore_pressure_measurement.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/20px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/30px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/40px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> Pore pressure measurement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piezometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Piezometer">Piezometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well#Classification" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ram_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/20px-Ram_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/30px-Ram_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/40px-Ram_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ram_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ram sounding (page does not exist)">Ram sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rock_control_drilling.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/20px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/30px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/40px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rock_control_drilling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rock control drilling (page does not exist)">Rock control drilling</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/20px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/30px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/40px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Rotary-pressure_sounding" title="Rotary-pressure sounding">Rotary-pressure sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotary_weight_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/20px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/30px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/40px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rotary_weight_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rotary weight sounding (page does not exist)">Rotary weight sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_series.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/20px-Sample_series.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/30px-Sample_series.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/40px-Sample_series.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Soil_test#Soil_testing" title="Soil test">Sample series</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Screw_plate_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/20px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/30px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/40px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Screw_plate_test&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Screw plate test (page does not exist)">Screw plate test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deformation_monitoring" title="Deformation monitoring">Deformation monitoring</a> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Inclinometer.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/20px-Inclinometer.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/30px-Inclinometer.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/40px-Inclinometer.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Inclinometer" title="Inclinometer">Inclinometer</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Settlement_recordings.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/20px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/30px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/40px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Soil_consolidation" title="Soil consolidation">Settlement recordings</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shear_vane_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/20px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/30px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/40px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Shear_vane_test" title="Shear vane test">Shear vane test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/20px-Simple_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/30px-Simple_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/40px-Simple_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Simple_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Simple sounding (page does not exist)">Simple sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_penetration_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/20px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/30px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/40px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Standard_penetration_test" title="Standard penetration test">Standard penetration test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Total_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/20px-Total_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/30px-Total_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/40px-Total_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Total_sounding" title="Total sounding">Total sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trial_pit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/20px-Trial_pit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/30px-Trial_pit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/40px-Trial_pit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Trial_pit" title="Trial pit">Trial pit</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Visible_rock.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/20px-Visible_rock.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/30px-Visible_rock.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/40px-Visible_rock.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">Visible bedrock</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_densometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear densometer">Nuclear densometer test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_geophysics" title="Exploration geophysics">Exploration geophysics</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crosshole_sonic_logging" title="Crosshole sonic logging">Crosshole sonic logging</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pile_integrity_test" title="Pile integrity test">Pile integrity test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wave_equation_analysis" title="Wave equation analysis">Wave equation analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Soil_test" title="Soil test">Laboratory <br />testing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_classification" title="Soil classification">Soil classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atterberg_limits" title="Atterberg limits">Atterberg limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_bearing_ratio" title="California bearing ratio">California bearing ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_shear_test" title="Direct shear test">Direct shear test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrometer" title="Hydrometer">Hydrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proctor_compaction_test" title="Proctor compaction test">Proctor compaction test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-value_(soils)" title="R-value (soils)">R-value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieve_analysis" title="Sieve analysis">Sieve analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triaxial_shear_test" title="Triaxial shear test">Triaxial shear test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oedometer_test" title="Oedometer test">Oedometer test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity#Experimental_approach" title="Hydraulic conductivity">Hydraulic conductivity tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_content#Measurement" title="Water content">Water content tests</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">Silt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">Gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">Loam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">Loess</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Properties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">Hydraulic conductivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_content" title="Water content">Water content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Void_ratio" title="Void ratio">Void ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_density" title="Bulk density">Bulk density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thixotropy" title="Thixotropy">Thixotropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reynolds%27_dilatancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reynolds' dilatancy">Reynolds' dilatancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_repose" title="Angle of repose">Angle of repose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction#Angle_of_friction" title="Friction">Friction angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(geology)" title="Cohesion (geology)">Cohesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">Porosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(earth_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (earth sciences)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_storage" title="Specific storage">Specific storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shear_strength_(soil)" title="Shear strength (soil)">Shear strength</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sensitivity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures <br />(<a href="/wiki/Soil-structure_interaction" title="Soil-structure interaction">Interaction</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Natural features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">Topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">Vegetation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">Terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">Topsoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">Water table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">Bedrock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgrade" title="Subgrade">Subgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsoil" title="Subsoil">Subsoil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">Earthworks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Shoring structures <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">Retaining walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_freezing" title="Ground freezing">Ground freezing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanically_stabilized_earth" title="Mechanically stabilized earth">Mechanically stabilized earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_grouting" title="Pressure grouting">Pressure grouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slurry_wall" title="Slurry wall">Slurry wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_nailing" title="Soil nailing">Soil nailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tieback_(geotechnical)" title="Tieback (geotechnical)">Tieback</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">Land development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging" title="Digging">Excavation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench" title="Trench">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embankment_(earthworks)" title="Embankment (earthworks)">Embankment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_(earthworks)" title="Cut (earthworks)">Cut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causeway" title="Causeway">Causeway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel#Cut-and-cover" title="Tunnel">Cut-and-cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_and_fill" title="Cut and fill">Cut and fill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_dirt" title="Fill dirt">Fill dirt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grading_(engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grading (engineering)">Grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">Land reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Track_bed" title="Track bed">Track bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">Erosion control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_structure" title="Earth structure">Earth structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expanded_clay_aggregate" title="Expanded clay aggregate">Expanded clay aggregate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crushed_stone" title="Crushed stone">Crushed stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetics" title="Geosynthetics">Geosynthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geotextile" title="Geotextile">Geotextile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomembrane" title="Geomembrane">Geomembrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetic_clay_liner" title="Geosynthetic clay liner">Geosynthetic clay liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_confinement" title="Cellular confinement">Cellular confinement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">Infiltration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)" title="Foundation (engineering)">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_foundation" title="Shallow foundation">Shallow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_foundation" title="Deep 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pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preconsolidation_pressure" title="Preconsolidation pressure">Preconsolidation pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Phenomena/<br />problems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">Permafrost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_heaving" title="Frost heaving">Frost heaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolidation (soil)">Consolidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">Compaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquake</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Response_spectrum" title="Response spectrum">Response spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_hazard" title="Seismic hazard">Seismic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_wave" title="S wave">Shear wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">Landslide</a> analysis <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slope_stability_analysis" title="Slope stability analysis">Stability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide_mitigation" title="Landslide mitigation">Mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide_classification" title="Landslide classification">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sliding_criterion_(geotechnical_engineering)" title="Sliding criterion (geotechnical engineering)">Sliding criterion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road#Slab_stabilization" title="Road">Slab stabilisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bearing_capacity" title="Bearing capacity">Bearing capacity</a> * <a href="/wiki/Stress_distribution_in_soil" title="Stress distribution in soil">Stress distribution in soil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Numerical analysis <br />software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SEEP2D" title="SEEP2D">SEEP2D</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=STABL&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="STABL (page does not exist)">STABL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SVFlux" title="SVFlux">SVFlux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SVSlope" title="SVSlope">SVSlope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UTEXAS" title="UTEXAS">UTEXAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaxis" title="Plaxis">Plaxis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geoprofessions" title="Geoprofessions">Related fields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" 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