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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climatic_geomorphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climatic_geomorphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Climatic geomorphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climatic_geomorphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantitative_and_process_geomorphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantitative_and_process_geomorphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Quantitative and process geomorphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantitative_and_process_geomorphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_geomorphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_geomorphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Contemporary geomorphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_geomorphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Processes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Processes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Processes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aeolian_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aeolian_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Aeolian processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aeolian_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Biological processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fluvial_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluvial_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Fluvial processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluvial_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glacial_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glacial_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Glacial processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glacial_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hillslope_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hillslope_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Hillslope processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hillslope_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Igneous_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Igneous_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Igneous processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Igneous_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tectonic_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tectonic_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Tectonic processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tectonic_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Marine processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overlap_with_other_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overlap_with_other_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Overlap with other fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overlap_with_other_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Geomorphology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 84 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-84" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">84 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologie" title="Geomorfologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geomorfologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%B4%D9%83%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B6" title="علم شكل الأرض – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم شكل الأرض" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeomorfolox%C3%ADa" title="Xeomorfoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xeomorfoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologiya" title="Geomorfologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Geomorfologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="ভূমিরূপবিদ্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভূমিরূপবিদ্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%93-h%C3%AAng-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Tē-hêng-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tē-hêng-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Геамарфалогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Геамарфалогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="भूआकृति बिज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="भूआकृति बिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Геоморфология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Геоморфология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologija" title="Geomorfologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Geomorfologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologia" title="Geomorfologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Geomorfologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologie" title="Geomorfologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Geomorfologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorffoleg" title="Geomorffoleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Geomorffoleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologi" title="Geomorfologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Geomorfologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphologie" title="Geomorphologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geomorphologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfoloogia" title="Geomorfoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geomorfoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%86%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Γεωμορφολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γεωμορφολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfolog%C3%ADa" title="Geomorfología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Geomorfología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologio" title="Geomorfologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Geomorfologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologia" title="Geomorfologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Geomorfologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C" title="ژئومورفولوژی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژئومورفولوژی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9omorphologie" title="Géomorphologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Géomorphologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomoirfeola%C3%ADocht" title="Geomoirfeolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Geomoirfeolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeomorfolox%C3%ADa" title="Xeomorfoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xeomorfoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%ED%98%95%ED%95%99" title="지형학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지형학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilimin_Kimiyyar_Juyin_Sifar_Kasa_(Geomorphology)" title="Ilimin Kimiyyar Juyin Sifar Kasa (Geomorphology) – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ilimin Kimiyyar Juyin Sifar Kasa (Geomorphology)" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%80%D6%86%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Գեոմորֆոլոգիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գեոմորֆոլոգիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82-%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="भू-आकृति विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भू-आकृति विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologija" title="Geomorfologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geomorfologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologio" title="Geomorfologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Geomorfologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologi" title="Geomorfologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Geomorfologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologia" title="Geomorfologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Geomorfologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="גאומורפולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גאומורפולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9omorpologi" title="Géomorpologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Géomorpologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಭೂರೂಪಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಭೂರೂಪಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="გეომორფოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გეომორფოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Геоморфология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Геоморфология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorfurvonieth" title="Dorfurvonieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Dorfurvonieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeomorfoloj%C3%AE" title="Jeomorfolojî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Jeomorfolojî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Геоморфология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Геоморфология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphologia" title="Geomorphologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Geomorphologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A2eomorfolo%C4%A3ija" title="Ģeomorfoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ģeomorfoloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologija" title="Geomorfologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Geomorfologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologie" title="Geomorfologie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Geomorfologie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfol%C3%B3gia" title="Geomorfológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Geomorfológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഭൂരൂപരൂപീകരണശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭൂരൂപരൂപീകരണശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भूस्तरशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भूस्तरशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="جيومورفولوجيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جيومورفولوجيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologi" title="Geomorfologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Geomorfologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%AA-m%C3%A2u-h%C5%8Fk" title="Dê-mâu-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Dê-mâu-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologie" title="Geomorfologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geomorfologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E5%BD%A2%E5%AD%A6" title="地形学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地形学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologi" title="Geomorfologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Geomorfologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologi" title="Geomorfologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Geomorfologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologia" title="Geomorfologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Geomorfologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologiya" title="Geomorfologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Geomorfologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%88_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%D9%8A" title="جیو مورفولوژي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جیو مورفولوژي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologia" title="Geomorfologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Geomorfologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologia" title="Geomorfologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Geomorfologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologie" title="Geomorfologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Geomorfologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Геоморфология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Геоморфология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Геоморфология – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Геоморфология" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjeomorfologjia" title="Gjeomorfologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjeomorfologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Geomorphology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfol%C3%B3gia" title="Geomorfológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Geomorfológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologija" title="Geomorfologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Geomorfologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Геоморфологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Геоморфологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologija" title="Geomorfologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Geomorfologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologia" title="Geomorfologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Geomorfologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologi" title="Geomorfologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Geomorfologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heomorpolohiya" title="Heomorpolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Heomorpolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="புவிப்புறவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புவிப்புறவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="ธรณีสัณฐานวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ธรณีสัณฐานวิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Заминрехтшиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Заминрехтшиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeomorfoloji" title="Jeomorfoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Jeomorfoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Геоморфологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Геоморфологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="جیومورفولاجی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جیومورفولاجی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeomorfo%C5%82ozia" title="Zeomorfołozia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Zeomorfołozia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%8Ba_m%E1%BA%A1o_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Địa mạo học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Địa mạo học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorfologie" title="Geomorfologie – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Geomorfologie" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Scientific study of landforms</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the scientific journal, see <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology_(journal)" title="Geomorphology (journal)">Geomorphology (journal)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Badlands_at_the_Blue_Gate,_Utah.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Badlands_at_the_Blue_Gate%2C_Utah.JPG/310px-Badlands_at_the_Blue_Gate%2C_Utah.JPG" decoding="async" width="310" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Badlands_at_the_Blue_Gate%2C_Utah.JPG/465px-Badlands_at_the_Blue_Gate%2C_Utah.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Badlands_at_the_Blue_Gate%2C_Utah.JPG/620px-Badlands_at_the_Blue_Gate%2C_Utah.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Badlands" title="Badlands">Badlands</a> incised into <a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">shale</a> at the foot of the North Caineville Plateau, Utah, within the pass carved by the <a href="/wiki/Fremont_River_(Utah)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fremont River (Utah)">Fremont River</a> and known as the Blue Gate. <a href="/wiki/Grove_Karl_Gilbert" title="Grove Karl Gilbert">G. K. Gilbert</a> studied the landscapes of this area in great detail, forming the observational foundation for many of his studies on geomorphology.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_surface_NGDC_2000.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Earth_surface_NGDC_2000.jpg/220px-Earth_surface_NGDC_2000.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Earth_surface_NGDC_2000.jpg/330px-Earth_surface_NGDC_2000.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Earth_surface_NGDC_2000.jpg/440px-Earth_surface_NGDC_2000.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8548" data-file-height="6118" /></a><figcaption>Surface of Earth, showing higher elevations in red</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Geomorphology</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc" style="font-style: normal;">γῆ</span></span>, <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">gê</i></span></i>, 'earth'; <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc" style="font-style: normal;">μορφή</span></span>, <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">morphḗ</i></span></i>, 'form'; and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc" style="font-style: normal;">λόγος</span></span>, <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">lógos</i></span></i>, 'study')<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topographic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bathymetry" title="Bathymetry">bathymetric</a> features generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near <a href="/wiki/Earth#Surface" title="Earth">Earth's surface</a>. Geomorphologists seek to understand why <a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">landscapes</a> look the way they do, to understand <a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">landform</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">terrain</a> history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and <a href="/wiki/Landscape_evolution_model" title="Landscape evolution model">numerical modeling</a>. Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineering_geology" title="Engineering geology">engineering geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">climatology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">geotechnical engineering</a>. This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VU0K1843_(39985550).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/VU0K1843_%2839985550%29.jpg/220px-VU0K1843_%2839985550%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/VU0K1843_%2839985550%29.jpg/330px-VU0K1843_%2839985550%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/VU0K1843_%2839985550%29.jpg/440px-VU0K1843_%2839985550%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="662" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Weathering#Ocean_waves" title="Weathering">Waves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_chemistry_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Water chemistry analysis">water chemistry</a> lead to structural failure in exposed rocks.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s surface is modified by a combination of surface processes that shape landscapes, and geologic processes that cause <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">tectonic uplift</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a>, and shape the <a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">coastal geography</a>. Surface processes comprise the action of water, wind, ice, <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfire</a>, and life on the surface of the Earth, along with chemical reactions that form <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a> and alter material properties, the stability and rate of change of <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> under the force of <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, and other factors, such as (in the very recent past) human alteration of the landscape. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>. Geologic processes include the uplift of <a href="/wiki/Mountain_range" title="Mountain range">mountain ranges</a>, the growth of <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isostasy" title="Isostasy">isostatic</a> changes in land surface elevation (sometimes in response to surface processes), and the formation of deep <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_basin" title="Sedimentary basin">sedimentary basins</a> where the surface of the Earth drops and is filled with material <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">eroded</a> from other parts of the landscape. The Earth's surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climatic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrologic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biologic</a> action with geologic processes, or alternatively stated, the intersection of the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> with its <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>. </p><p>The broad-scale topographies of the Earth illustrate this intersection of surface and subsurface action. Mountain belts are <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">uplifted</a> due to geologic processes. <a href="/wiki/Denudation" title="Denudation">Denudation</a> of these high uplifted regions produces <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> that is transported and <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology)">deposited</a> elsewhere within the landscape or off the coast.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On progressively smaller scales, similar ideas apply, where individual landforms evolve in response to the balance of additive processes (uplift and deposition) and subtractive processes (<a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>). Often, these processes directly affect each other: ice sheets, water, and sediment are all loads that change topography through <a href="/wiki/Flexural_isostasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Flexural isostasy">flexural isostasy</a>. Topography can modify the local climate, for example through <a href="/wiki/Orographic_precipitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Orographic precipitation">orographic precipitation</a>, which in turn modifies the topography by changing the hydrologic regime in which it evolves. Many geomorphologists are particularly interested in the potential for <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedback" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change feedback">feedbacks</a> between climate and <a href="/wiki/Erosion_and_tectonics" title="Erosion and tectonics">tectonics</a>, mediated by geomorphic processes.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to these broad-scale questions, geomorphologists address issues that are more specific or more local. Glacial geomorphologists investigate glacial deposits such as <a href="/wiki/Moraine" title="Moraine">moraines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Esker" title="Esker">eskers</a>, and proglacial <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Erosion#Ice" title="Erosion">glacial erosional</a> features, to build chronologies of both small <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> and large <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a> and understand their motions and effects upon the landscape. <a href="/wiki/Fluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">Fluvial</a> geomorphologists focus on <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a>, how they <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">transport sediment</a>, <a href="/wiki/River_channel_migration" title="River channel migration">migrate across the landscape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bedrock_river" title="Bedrock river">cut into bedrock</a>, respond to environmental and tectonic changes, and interact with humans. Soils geomorphologists investigate soil profiles and chemistry to learn about the history of a particular landscape and understand how climate, biota, and rock interact. Other geomorphologists study how <a href="/wiki/Hill" title="Hill">hillslopes</a> form and change. Still others investigate the relationships between <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> and geomorphology. Because geomorphology is defined to comprise everything related to the surface of the Earth and its modification, it is a broad field with many facets. </p><p>Geomorphologists use a wide range of techniques in their work. These may include fieldwork and field data collection, the interpretation of remotely sensed data, geochemical analyses, and the numerical modelling of the physics of landscapes. Geomorphologists may rely on <a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">geochronology</a>, using dating methods to measure the rate of changes to the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Terrain measurement techniques are vital to quantitatively describe the form of the Earth's surface, and include <a href="/wiki/Differential_GPS" title="Differential GPS">differential GPS</a>, remotely sensed <a href="/wiki/Digital_terrain_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital terrain model">digital terrain models</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lidar#Geology_and_soil_science" title="Lidar">laser scanning</a>, to quantify, study, and to generate illustrations and maps.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Practical applications of geomorphology include <a href="/wiki/Natural_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural hazard">hazard</a> assessment (such as <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a> prediction and <a href="/wiki/Landslide_mitigation" title="Landslide mitigation">mitigation</a>), river control and <a href="/wiki/Stream_restoration" title="Stream restoration">stream restoration</a>, and coastal protection. </p><p>Planetary geomorphology studies landforms on other terrestrial planets such as Mars. Indications of effects of <a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">wind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">fluvial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial">glacial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">mass wasting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">meteor impact</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tectonics" title="Tectonics">tectonics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" title="Types of volcanic eruptions">volcanic</a> processes are studied.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This effort not only helps better understand the geologic and atmospheric history of those planets but also extends geomorphological study of the Earth. Planetary geomorphologists often use <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_Analogue_Sites" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrestrial Analogue Sites">Earth analogues</a> to aid in their study of surfaces of other planets.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cono_de_Arita,_Salar_de_Arizaro_(Argentina).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Cono_de_Arita%2C_Salar_de_Arizaro_%28Argentina%29.jpg/220px-Cono_de_Arita%2C_Salar_de_Arizaro_%28Argentina%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Cono_de_Arita%2C_Salar_de_Arizaro_%28Argentina%29.jpg/330px-Cono_de_Arita%2C_Salar_de_Arizaro_%28Argentina%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Cono_de_Arita%2C_Salar_de_Arizaro_%28Argentina%29.jpg/440px-Cono_de_Arita%2C_Salar_de_Arizaro_%28Argentina%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>"Cono de Arita" at the dry lake <a href="/wiki/Salar_de_Arizaro" title="Salar de Arizaro">Salar de Arizaro</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Atacama_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Atacama Plateau">Atacama Plateau</a>, in northwestern <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>. The cone itself is a volcanic edifice, representing complex interaction of intrusive igneous rocks with the surrounding salt.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Velke_Hincovo_pleso.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Velke_Hincovo_pleso.jpg/220px-Velke_Hincovo_pleso.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Velke_Hincovo_pleso.jpg/330px-Velke_Hincovo_pleso.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Velke_Hincovo_pleso.jpg/440px-Velke_Hincovo_pleso.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Lake "Veľké Hincovo pleso" in <a href="/wiki/High_Tatras" title="High Tatras">High Tatras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>. The lake occupies an "<a href="/wiki/Overdeepening" title="Overdeepening">overdeepening</a>" carved by flowing ice that once occupied this glacial valley.</figcaption></figure> <p>Other than some notable exceptions in antiquity, geomorphology is a relatively young science, growing along with interest in other aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Earth_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth sciences">earth sciences</a> in the mid-19th century. This section provides a very brief outline of some of the major figures and events in its development. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_geomorphology">Ancient geomorphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient geomorphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The study of landforms and the evolution of the Earth's surface can be dated back to scholars of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a>. In the 5th century BC, <a href="/wiki/Greek_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek historiography">Greek historian</a> <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> argued from observations of soils that the <a href="/wiki/Nile_delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile delta">Nile delta</a> was actively growing into the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, and estimated its age.<sup id="cite_ref-Bierman_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bierman-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_pp_8-9_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty_2012_pp_8-9-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 4th century BC, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Greek philosophers">Greek philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> <a href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)" title="Meteorology (Aristotle)">speculated</a> that due to <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">sediment transport</a> into the sea, eventually those seas would fill while the land lowered. He claimed that this would mean that land and water would eventually swap places, whereupon the process would begin again in an endless cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-Bierman_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bierman-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._9_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty_2012_p._9-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity" title="Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity">Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</a></i> published in <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> at <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a> during the 10th century also discussed the cyclical changing positions of land and sea with rocks breaking down and being washed into the sea, their sediment eventually rising to form new continents.<sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._9_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty_2012_p._9-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The medieval <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī">Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī</a> (973–1048), after observing rock formations at the mouths of rivers, hypothesized that the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> once covered all of <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his <i><a href="/wiki/De_Natura_Fossilium" title="De Natura Fossilium">De Natura Fossilium</a></i> of 1546, German <a href="/wiki/Metallurgist" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallurgist">metallurgist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineralogist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineralogist">mineralogist</a> <a href="/wiki/Georgius_Agricola" title="Georgius Agricola">Georgius Agricola</a> (1494–1555) wrote about erosion and natural <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another early theory of geomorphology was devised by <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">Chinese</a> scientist and statesman <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095). This was based on <a href="/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays" title="Dream Pool Essays">his observation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">marine</a> <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> shells in a <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">geological stratum</a> of a mountain hundreds of miles from the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>. Noticing <a href="/wiki/Bivalvia" title="Bivalvia">bivalve</a> shells running in a horizontal span along the cut section of a cliffside, he theorized that the cliff was once the pre-historic location of a seashore that had shifted hundreds of miles over the centuries. He inferred that the land was reshaped and formed by <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a> of the mountains and by deposition of <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a>, after observing strange natural erosions of the <a href="/wiki/Taihang_Mountains" title="Taihang Mountains">Taihang Mountains</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yandangshan" class="mw-redirect" title="Yandangshan">Yandang Mountain</a> near <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou" title="Wenzhou">Wenzhou</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nj_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nj-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._6-8_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty_2012_p._6-8-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, he promoted the theory of gradual <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climate change</a> over centuries of time once ancient <a href="/wiki/Petrified" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrified">petrified</a> <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboos</a> were found to be preserved underground in the dry, northern climate zone of <i>Yanzhou</i>, which is now modern day <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an" title="Yan'an">Yan'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a> province.<sup id="cite_ref-nj_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nj-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._6_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty_2012_p._6-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Previous <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Chinese authors</a> also presented ideas about changing landforms. <a href="/wiki/Scholar-official" title="Scholar-official">Scholar-official</a> <a href="/wiki/Du_Yu" title="Du Yu">Du Yu</a> (222–285) of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Jin_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Jin dynasty">Western Jin dynasty</a> predicted that two monumental stelae recording his achievements, one buried at the foot of a mountain and the other erected at the top, would eventually change their relative positions over time as would hills and valleys.<sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._9_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty_2012_p._9-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_alchemy" title="Chinese alchemy">Daoist alchemist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a> (284–364) created a fictional dialogue where the <a href="/wiki/Magu_(deity)" title="Magu (deity)">immortal Magu</a> explained that the territory of the <a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China Sea</a> was once a land filled with <a href="/wiki/Morus_(plant)" title="Morus (plant)">mulberry trees</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_geomorphology">Early modern geomorphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early modern geomorphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term geomorphology seems to have been first used by <a href="/wiki/Laumann" title="Laumann">Laumann</a> in an 1858 work written in German. Keith Tinkler has suggested that the word came into general use in English, German and French after <a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Powell" title="John Wesley Powell">John Wesley Powell</a> and <a href="/wiki/W._J._McGee" class="mw-redirect" title="W. J. McGee">W. J. McGee</a> used it during the International Geological Conference of 1891.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Marr" title="John Edward Marr">John Edward Marr</a> in his The Scientific Study of Scenery<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> considered his book as, 'an Introductory Treatise on Geomorphology, a subject which has sprung from the union of Geology and Geography'. </p><p>An early popular geomorphic model was the <i>geographical cycle</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_erosion" title="Cycle of erosion">cycle of erosion</a></i> model of broad-scale landscape evolution developed by <a href="/wiki/William_Morris_Davis" title="William Morris Davis">William Morris Davis</a> between 1884 and 1899.<sup id="cite_ref-Bierman_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bierman-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was an elaboration of the <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniformitarianism (science)">uniformitarianism</a> theory that had first been proposed by <a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a> (1726–1797).<sup id="cite_ref-OldroydGrapes_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OldroydGrapes-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With regard to <a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">valley</a> forms, for example, uniformitarianism posited a sequence in which a river runs through a flat terrain, gradually carving an increasingly deep valley, until the <a href="/wiki/Side_valley" title="Side valley">side valleys</a> eventually erode, flattening the terrain again, though at a lower elevation. It was thought that <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">tectonic uplift</a> could then start the cycle over. In the decades following Davis's development of this idea, many of those studying geomorphology sought to fit their findings into this framework, known today as "Davisian".<sup id="cite_ref-OldroydGrapes_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OldroydGrapes-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Davis's ideas are of historical importance, but have been largely superseded today, mainly due to their lack of predictive power and qualitative nature.<sup id="cite_ref-OldroydGrapes_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OldroydGrapes-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1920s, <a href="/wiki/Walther_Penck" title="Walther Penck">Walther Penck</a> developed an alternative model to Davis's.<sup id="cite_ref-OldroydGrapes_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OldroydGrapes-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Penck thought that landform evolution was better described as an alternation between ongoing processes of uplift and denudation, as opposed to Davis's model of a single uplift followed by decay.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also emphasised that in many landscapes slope evolution occurs by backwearing of rocks, not by Davisian-style surface lowering, and his science tended to emphasise surface process over understanding in detail the surface history of a given locality. Penck was German, and during his lifetime his ideas were at times rejected vigorously by the English-speaking geomorphology community.<sup id="cite_ref-OldroydGrapes_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OldroydGrapes-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His early death, Davis' dislike for his work, and his at-times-confusing writing style likely all contributed to this rejection.<sup id="cite_ref-Simons_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simons-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both Davis and Penck were trying to place the study of the evolution of the Earth's surface on a more generalized, globally relevant footing than it had been previously. In the early 19th century, authors – especially in Europe – had tended to attribute the form of landscapes to local <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, and in particular to the specific effects of <a href="/wiki/Glaciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciation">glaciation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Periglacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Periglacial">periglacial</a> processes. In contrast, both Davis and Penck were seeking to emphasize the importance of evolution of landscapes through time and the generality of the Earth's surface processes across different landscapes under different conditions. </p><p>During the early 1900s, the study of regional-scale geomorphology was termed "physiography".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physiography later was considered to be a contraction of "<i>physi</i>cal" and "ge<i>ography</i>", and therefore synonymous with <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>, and the concept became embroiled in controversy surrounding the appropriate concerns of that discipline. Some geomorphologists held to a geological basis for physiography and emphasized a concept of <a href="/wiki/Physiographic_regions_of_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiographic regions of the world">physiographic regions</a> while a conflicting trend among geographers was to equate physiography with "pure morphology", separated from its geological heritage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the period following World War II, the emergence of process, climatic, and quantitative studies led to a preference by many earth scientists for the term "geomorphology" in order to suggest an analytical approach to landscapes rather than a descriptive one.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climatic_geomorphology">Climatic geomorphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Climatic geomorphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Climatic_geomorphology" title="Climatic geomorphology">Climatic geomorphology</a></div> <p>During the age of <a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a> in the late 19th century European explorers and scientists traveled across the globe bringing descriptions of landscapes and landforms. As geographical knowledge increased over time these observations were systematized in a search for regional patterns. Climate emerged thus as prime factor for explaining landform distribution at a grand scale. The rise of climatic geomorphology was foreshadowed by the work of <a href="/wiki/Wladimir_K%C3%B6ppen" title="Wladimir Köppen">Wladimir Köppen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Dokuchaev" title="Vasily Dokuchaev">Vasily Dokuchaev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Franz_Wilhelm_Schimper" title="Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper">Andreas Schimper</a>. <a href="/wiki/William_Morris_Davis" title="William Morris Davis">William Morris Davis</a>, the leading geomorphologist of his time, recognized the role of climate by complementing his "normal" temperate climate <a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_erosion" title="Cycle of erosion">cycle of erosion</a> with arid and glacial ones.<sup id="cite_ref-TwidaleLageat1994_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TwidaleLageat1994-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goudie2004_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goudie2004-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, interest in climatic geomorphology was also a reaction <i>against</i> <a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_erosion" title="Cycle of erosion">Davisian geomorphology</a> that was by the mid-20th century considered both un-innovative and dubious.<sup id="cite_ref-Goudie2004_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goudie2004-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Attack_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Attack-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early climatic geomorphology developed primarily in <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a> while in the English-speaking world the tendency was not explicit until L.C. Peltier's 1950 publication on a <a href="/wiki/Periglaciation" title="Periglaciation">periglacial</a> cycle of erosion.<sup id="cite_ref-TwidaleLageat1994_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TwidaleLageat1994-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Climatic geomorphology was criticized in a 1969 <a href="/wiki/Review_article" title="Review article">review article</a> by process geomorphologist <a href="/wiki/David_Stoddart_(geographer)" title="David Stoddart (geographer)">D.R. Stoddart</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Goudie2004_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goudie2004-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thomas2004_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas2004-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The criticism by Stoddart proved "devastating" sparking a decline in the popularity of climatic geomorphology in the late 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Goudie2004_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goudie2004-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thomas2004_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas2004-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stoddart criticized climatic geomorphology for applying supposedly "trivial" methodologies in establishing landform differences between morphoclimatic zones, being linked to <a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_erosion" title="Cycle of erosion">Davisian geomorphology</a> and by allegedly neglecting the fact that physical laws governing processes are the same across the globe.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas2004_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas2004-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition some conceptions of climatic geomorphology, like that which holds that chemical weathering is more rapid in tropical climates than in cold climates proved to not be straightforwardly true.<sup id="cite_ref-Goudie2004_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goudie2004-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantitative_and_process_geomorphology">Quantitative and process geomorphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Quantitative and process geomorphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Africa-Mpumalanga-Gods_Window002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/South_Africa-Mpumalanga-Gods_Window002.jpg/220px-South_Africa-Mpumalanga-Gods_Window002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/South_Africa-Mpumalanga-Gods_Window002.jpg/330px-South_Africa-Mpumalanga-Gods_Window002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/South_Africa-Mpumalanga-Gods_Window002.jpg/440px-South_Africa-Mpumalanga-Gods_Window002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Part of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Escarpment,_Southern_Africa" title="Great Escarpment, Southern Africa">Great Escarpment</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Drakensberg" title="Drakensberg">Drakensberg</a>, southern Africa. This landscape, with its high altitude <a href="/wiki/Plateau" title="Plateau">plateau</a> being incised into by the steep slopes of the escarpment, was cited by Davis as a classic example of his <a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_erosion" title="Cycle of erosion">cycle of erosion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Geomorphology was started to be put on a solid quantitative footing in the middle of the 20th century. Following the early work of <a href="/wiki/Grove_Karl_Gilbert" title="Grove Karl Gilbert">Grove Karl Gilbert</a> around the turn of the 20th century,<sup id="cite_ref-Bierman_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bierman-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OldroydGrapes_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OldroydGrapes-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ritter_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a group of mainly American natural scientists, <a href="/wiki/Geologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologists">geologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic engineers">hydraulic engineers</a> including <a href="/wiki/William_Walden_Rubey" title="William Walden Rubey">William Walden Rubey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alger_Bagnold" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph Alger Bagnold">Ralph Alger Bagnold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Albert_Einstein" title="Hans Albert Einstein">Hans Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Frank_Ahnert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frank Ahnert (page does not exist)">Frank Ahnert</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Tilton_Hack" title="John Tilton Hack">John Hack</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luna_Leopold" title="Luna Leopold">Luna Leopold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shields_parameter" title="Shields parameter">A. Shields</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Maddock_(scientist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Maddock (scientist) (page does not exist)">Thomas Maddock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Strahler" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Strahler">Arthur Strahler</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Stanley_Schumm&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stanley Schumm (page does not exist)">Stanley Schumm</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ronald_Shreve&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ronald Shreve (page does not exist)">Ronald Shreve</a> began to research the form of landscape elements such as <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">hillslopes</a> by taking systematic, direct, quantitative measurements of aspects of them and investigating the <a href="/wiki/Scaling_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Scaling law">scaling</a> of these measurements.<sup id="cite_ref-Bierman_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bierman-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OldroydGrapes_24-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OldroydGrapes-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ritter_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritter-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These methods began to allow prediction of the past and future behavior of landscapes from present observations, and were later to develop into the modern trend of a highly quantitative approach to geomorphic problems. Many groundbreaking and widely cited early geomorphology studies appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Geological_Society_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulletin of the Geological Society of America">Bulletin of the Geological Society of America</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and received only few citations prior to 2000 (they are examples of <a href="/wiki/Paper_with_delayed_recognition" title="Paper with delayed recognition">"sleeping beauties"</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when a marked increase in quantitative geomorphology research occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quantitative geomorphology can involve <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solid_mechanics" title="Solid mechanics">solid mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geomorphometry" title="Geomorphometry">geomorphometry</a>, laboratory studies, field measurements, theoretical work, and full <a href="/wiki/Landscape_evolution_model" title="Landscape evolution model">landscape evolution modeling</a>. These approaches are used to understand <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pedogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedogenesis">the formation of soils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">sediment transport</a>, landscape change, and the interactions between climate, tectonics, erosion, and deposition.<sup id="cite_ref-orogens_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-orogens-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Sweden <a href="/wiki/Filip_Hjulstr%C3%B6m" title="Filip Hjulström">Filip Hjulström</a>'s doctoral thesis, "The River Fyris" (1935), contained one of the first quantitative studies of geomorphological processes ever published. His students followed in the same vein, making quantitative studies of mass transport (<a href="/wiki/Anders_Rapp" title="Anders Rapp">Anders Rapp</a>), fluvial transport (<a href="/wiki/%C3%85ke_Sundborg" title="Åke Sundborg">Åke Sundborg</a>), delta deposition (<a href="/wiki/Valter_Axelsson" title="Valter Axelsson">Valter Axelsson</a>), and coastal processes (<a href="/wiki/John_O._Norrman" title="John O. Norrman">John O. Norrman</a>). This developed into "the <a href="/wiki/Uppsala_University" title="Uppsala University">Uppsala</a> School of <a href="/wiki/Physical_Geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical Geography">Physical Geography</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_geomorphology">Contemporary geomorphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Contemporary geomorphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Today, the field of geomorphology encompasses a very wide range of different approaches and interests.<sup id="cite_ref-Bierman_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bierman-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern researchers aim to draw out quantitative "laws" that govern Earth surface processes, but equally, recognize the uniqueness of each landscape and environment in which these processes operate. Particularly important realizations in contemporary geomorphology include: </p> <dl><dd>1) that not all landscapes can be considered as either "stable" or "perturbed", where this perturbed state is a temporary displacement away from some ideal target form. Instead, dynamic changes of the landscape are now seen as an essential part of their nature.<sup id="cite_ref-orogens_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-orogens-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Time_scales_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Time_scales-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dd>2) that many geomorphic systems are best understood in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Stochastic_process" title="Stochastic process">stochasticity</a> of the processes occurring in them, that is, the probability distributions of event magnitudes and return times.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This in turn has indicated the importance of <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaotic determinism</a> to landscapes, and that landscape properties are best considered <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistically</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same processes in the same landscapes do not always lead to the same end results.</dd></dl> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Karna_Lidmar-Bergstr%C3%B6m" title="Karna Lidmar-Bergström">Karna Lidmar-Bergström</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">regional geography</a> is since the 1990s no longer accepted by mainstream scholarship as a basis for geomorphological studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Karna2020_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karna2020-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Albeit having its importance diminished, <a href="/wiki/Climatic_geomorphology" title="Climatic geomorphology">climatic geomorphology</a> continues to exist as field of study producing relevant research. More recently concerns over <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> have led to a renewed interest in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-Goudie2004_30-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goudie2004-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite considerable criticism, the <a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_erosion" title="Cycle of erosion">cycle of erosion</a> model has remained part of the science of geomorphology.<sup id="cite_ref-Slaymaker_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Slaymaker-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The model or theory has never been proved wrong,<sup id="cite_ref-Slaymaker_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Slaymaker-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but neither has it been proven.<sup id="cite_ref-ARoy_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ARoy-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inherent difficulties of the model have instead made geomorphological research to advance along other lines.<sup id="cite_ref-Slaymaker_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Slaymaker-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to its disputed status in geomorphology, the cycle of erosion model is a common approach used to establish <a href="/wiki/Denudation_chronology" title="Denudation chronology">denudation chronologies</a>, and is thus an important concept in the science of <a href="/wiki/Historical_geology" title="Historical geology">historical geology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While acknowledging its shortcomings, modern geomorphologists <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goudie_(geographer)" title="Andrew Goudie (geographer)">Andrew Goudie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karna_Lidmar-Bergstr%C3%B6m" title="Karna Lidmar-Bergström">Karna Lidmar-Bergström</a> have praised it for its elegance and pedagogical value respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Naten_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naten-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goudie_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goudie-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Processes">Processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nanga_Parbat_Indus_Gorge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Nanga_Parbat_Indus_Gorge.jpg/220px-Nanga_Parbat_Indus_Gorge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Nanga_Parbat_Indus_Gorge.jpg/330px-Nanga_Parbat_Indus_Gorge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Nanga_Parbat_Indus_Gorge.jpg/440px-Nanga_Parbat_Indus_Gorge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1008" data-file-height="740" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gorge" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorge">Gorge</a> cut by the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a> into bedrock, <a href="/wiki/Nanga_Parbat" title="Nanga Parbat">Nanga Parbat</a> region, Pakistan. This is the deepest river canyon in the world. Nanga Parbat itself, the world's 9th highest mountain, is seen in the background.</figcaption></figure> <p>Geomorphically relevant processes generally fall into (1) the production of <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a> by <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, (2) the <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">transport</a> of that material, and (3) its eventual <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology)">deposition</a>. Primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include <a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">wind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">waves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">chemical dissolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">mass wasting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> movement, <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a> flow, <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial action</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tectonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonism">tectonism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a>. Other more exotic geomorphic processes might include <a href="/wiki/Periglacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Periglacial">periglacial</a> (freeze-thaw) processes, salt-mediated action, changes to the seabed caused by marine currents, seepage of fluids through the seafloor or extraterrestrial impact. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aeolian_processes">Aeolian processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Aeolian processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MoabAlcove.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/MoabAlcove.JPG/220px-MoabAlcove.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/MoabAlcove.JPG/330px-MoabAlcove.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/MoabAlcove.JPG/440px-MoabAlcove.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Wind-eroded alcove near <a href="/wiki/Moab,_Utah" title="Moab, Utah">Moab, Utah</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">Aeolian processes</a> pertain to the activity of the <a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">winds</a> and more specifically, to the winds' ability to shape the surface of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>. Winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials, and are effective agents in regions with sparse <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a> and a large supply of fine, unconsolidated <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a>. Although water and mass flow tend to mobilize more material than wind in most environments, aeolian processes are important in arid environments such as <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_processes">Biological processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Biological processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beaver_dam_in_Tierra_del_Fuego.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Beaver_dam_in_Tierra_del_Fuego.jpg/220px-Beaver_dam_in_Tierra_del_Fuego.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Beaver_dam_in_Tierra_del_Fuego.jpg/330px-Beaver_dam_in_Tierra_del_Fuego.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Beaver_dam_in_Tierra_del_Fuego.jpg/440px-Beaver_dam_in_Tierra_del_Fuego.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Beaver_eradication_in_Tierra_del_Fuego" class="mw-redirect" title="Beaver eradication in Tierra del Fuego">Beaver dams</a>, as this one in <a href="/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego" title="Tierra del Fuego">Tierra del Fuego</a>, constitute a specific form of zoogeomorphology, a type of biogeomorphology.</figcaption></figure> <p>The interaction of living organisms with landforms, or <a href="/wiki/Biogeomorphology" title="Biogeomorphology">biogeomorphologic processes</a>, can be of many different forms, and is probably of profound importance for the terrestrial geomorphic system as a whole. Biology can influence very many geomorphic processes, ranging from <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogeochemical">biogeochemical</a> processes controlling <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weathering" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical weathering">chemical weathering</a>, to the influence of mechanical processes like <a href="/wiki/Burrowing" class="mw-redirect" title="Burrowing">burrowing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tree_throw" title="Tree throw">tree throw</a> on soil development, to even controlling global erosion rates through modulation of climate through carbon dioxide balance. Terrestrial landscapes in which the role of biology in mediating surface processes can be definitively excluded are extremely rare, but may hold important information for understanding the geomorphology of other planets, such as <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mars" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Mars">Mars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fluvial_processes">Fluvial processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fluvial processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eroding_Mesas_Forming_Seif_and_Barchan_Dunes_in_Hellespontus_region.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Eroding_Mesas_Forming_Seif_and_Barchan_Dunes_in_Hellespontus_region.jpg/220px-Eroding_Mesas_Forming_Seif_and_Barchan_Dunes_in_Hellespontus_region.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Eroding_Mesas_Forming_Seif_and_Barchan_Dunes_in_Hellespontus_region.jpg/330px-Eroding_Mesas_Forming_Seif_and_Barchan_Dunes_in_Hellespontus_region.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Eroding_Mesas_Forming_Seif_and_Barchan_Dunes_in_Hellespontus_region.jpg/440px-Eroding_Mesas_Forming_Seif_and_Barchan_Dunes_in_Hellespontus_region.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Seif_dune" class="mw-redirect" title="Seif dune">Seif</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barchan" title="Barchan">barchan</a> dunes in the <a href="/wiki/Noachis_quadrangle" title="Noachis quadrangle">Hellespontus</a> region on the surface of <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>. Dunes are mobile landforms formed by the transport of large volumes of sand by wind.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">Fluvial</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hack%27s_law" title="Hack's law">Hack's law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">Sediment transport</a></div> <p>Rivers and streams are not only conduits of water, but also of <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a>. The water, as it flows over the channel bed, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream, either as <a href="/wiki/Bed_load" title="Bed load">bed load</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suspended_load" title="Suspended load">suspended load</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_load" title="Dissolved load">dissolved load</a>. The rate of sediment transport depends on the availability of sediment itself and on the river's <a href="/wiki/Discharge_(hydrology)" title="Discharge (hydrology)">discharge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rivers are also capable of eroding into rock and forming new sediment, both from their own beds and also by coupling to the surrounding hillslopes. In this way, rivers are thought of as setting the base level for large-scale landscape evolution in nonglacial environments.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rivers are key links in the connectivity of different landscape elements. </p><p>As rivers flow across the landscape, they generally increase in size, merging with other rivers. The network of rivers thus formed is a <a href="/wiki/Drainage_system_(geomorphology)" title="Drainage system (geomorphology)">drainage system</a>. These systems take on four general patterns: dendritic, radial, rectangular, and trellis. Dendritic happens to be the most common, occurring when the underlying stratum is stable (without faulting). Drainage systems have four primary components: <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">drainage basin</a>, alluvial valley, delta plain, and receiving basin. Some geomorphic examples of fluvial landforms are <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_fan" title="Alluvial fan">alluvial fans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxbow_lake" title="Oxbow lake">oxbow lakes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fluvial_terrace" title="Fluvial terrace">fluvial terraces</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glacial_processes">Glacial processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Glacial processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glacial_landscape_LMB.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Glacial_landscape_LMB.png/220px-Glacial_landscape_LMB.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Glacial_landscape_LMB.png/330px-Glacial_landscape_LMB.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Glacial_landscape_LMB.png 2x" data-file-width="388" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>Features of a glacial landscape</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">Glaciers</a>, while geographically restricted, are effective agents of landscape change. The gradual movement of <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a> down a valley causes <a href="/wiki/Abrasion_(geology)" title="Abrasion (geology)">abrasion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plucking_(glaciation)" title="Plucking (glaciation)">plucking</a> of the underlying <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rock</a>. Abrasion produces fine sediment, termed <a href="/wiki/Glacial_flour" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial flour">glacial flour</a>. The debris transported by the glacier, when the glacier recedes, is termed a <a href="/wiki/Moraine" title="Moraine">moraine</a>. Glacial erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as opposed to the V-shaped valleys of fluvial origin.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The way glacial processes interact with other landscape elements, particularly hillslope and fluvial processes, is an important aspect of <a href="/wiki/Plio-Pleistocene" title="Plio-Pleistocene">Plio-Pleistocene</a> landscape evolution and its sedimentary record in many high mountain environments. Environments that have been relatively recently glaciated but are no longer may still show elevated landscape change rates compared to those that have never been glaciated. Nonglacial geomorphic processes which nevertheless have been conditioned by past glaciation are termed <a href="/wiki/Paraglacial" title="Paraglacial">paraglacial</a> processes. This concept contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Periglacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Periglacial">periglacial</a> processes, which are directly driven by formation or melting of ice or frost.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hillslope_processes">Hillslope processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Hillslope processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TalusConesIsfjorden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/TalusConesIsfjorden.jpg/220px-TalusConesIsfjorden.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/TalusConesIsfjorden.jpg/330px-TalusConesIsfjorden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/TalusConesIsfjorden.jpg/440px-TalusConesIsfjorden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3232" data-file-height="1544" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Talus_cone" class="mw-redirect" title="Talus cone">Talus cones</a> on the north shore of <a href="/wiki/Isfjorden_(Svalbard)" title="Isfjorden (Svalbard)">Isfjorden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Svalbard" title="Svalbard">Svalbard</a>, Norway. Talus cones are accumulations of coarse hillslope debris at the foot of the slopes producing the material.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferguson-slide.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Ferguson-slide.jpg/220px-Ferguson-slide.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Ferguson-slide.jpg/330px-Ferguson-slide.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Ferguson-slide.jpg/440px-Ferguson-slide.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ferguson_landslide" title="Ferguson landslide">Ferguson Slide</a> is an active <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Merced_River" title="Merced River">Merced River canyon</a> on <a href="/wiki/California_State_Highway_140" class="mw-redirect" title="California State Highway 140">California State Highway 140</a>, a primary access road to <a href="/wiki/Yosemite_National_Park" title="Yosemite National Park">Yosemite National Park</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rock</a> move downslope under the force of <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> via <a href="/wiki/Downhill_creep" title="Downhill creep">creep</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">slides</a>, flows, topples, and falls. Such <a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">mass wasting</a> occurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes, and has been observed on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iapetus_(moon)" title="Iapetus (moon)">Iapetus</a>. </p><p>Ongoing hillslope processes can change the topology of the hillslope surface, which in turn can change the rates of those processes. Hillslopes that steepen up to certain critical thresholds are capable of shedding extremely large volumes of material very quickly, making hillslope processes an extremely important element of landscapes in tectonically active areas.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the Earth, biological processes such as <a href="/wiki/Burrowing" class="mw-redirect" title="Burrowing">burrowing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tree_throw" title="Tree throw">tree throw</a> may play important roles in setting the rates of some hillslope processes.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Igneous_processes">Igneous processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Igneous processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both <a href="/wiki/Volcanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic">volcanic</a> (eruptive) and <a href="/wiki/Plutonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutonic">plutonic</a> (intrusive) igneous processes can have important impacts on geomorphology. The action of volcanoes tends to rejuvenize landscapes, covering the old land surface with <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">tephra</a>, releasing <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">pyroclastic</a> material and forcing rivers through new paths. The cones built by eruptions also build substantial new topography, which can be acted upon by other surface processes. Plutonic rocks intruding then solidifying at depth can cause both uplift or subsidence of the surface, depending on whether the new material is denser or less dense than the rock it displaces. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tectonic_processes">Tectonic processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Tectonic processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Erosion_and_tectonics" title="Erosion and tectonics">Erosion and tectonics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Tectonic</a> effects on geomorphology can range from scales of millions of years to minutes or less. The effects of tectonics on landscape are heavily dependent on the nature of the underlying <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a> fabric that more or less controls what kind of local morphology tectonics can shape. <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquakes</a> can, in terms of minutes, submerge large areas of land forming new wetlands. <a href="/wiki/Isostatic_rebound" class="mw-redirect" title="Isostatic rebound">Isostatic rebound</a> can account for significant changes over hundreds to thousands of years, and allows erosion of a mountain belt to promote further erosion as mass is removed from the chain and the belt uplifts. Long-term plate tectonic dynamics give rise to <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogenic belts</a>, large mountain chains with typical lifetimes of many tens of millions of years, which form focal points for high rates of fluvial and hillslope processes and thus long-term sediment production. </p><p>Features of deeper <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> dynamics such as <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">plumes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delamination_(geology)" title="Delamination (geology)">delamination</a> of the lower lithosphere have also been hypothesised to play important roles in the long term (> million year), large scale (thousands of km) evolution of the Earth's topography (see <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_topography" title="Dynamic topography">dynamic topography</a>). Both can promote surface uplift through isostasy as hotter, less dense, mantle rocks displace cooler, denser, mantle rocks at depth in the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_processes">Marine processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Marine processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marine processes are those associated with the action of waves, marine currents and seepage of fluids through the seafloor. <a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">Mass wasting</a> and submarine <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landsliding</a> are also important processes for some aspects of marine geomorphology.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because ocean basins are the ultimate sinks for a large fraction of terrestrial sediments, depositional processes and their related forms (e.g., sediment fans, <a href="/wiki/Deltas" class="mw-redirect" title="Deltas">deltas</a>) are particularly important as elements of marine geomorphology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overlap_with_other_fields">Overlap with other fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Overlap with other fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is a considerable overlap between geomorphology and other fields. Deposition of material is extremely important in <a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">sedimentology</a>. <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">Weathering</a> is the chemical and physical disruption of earth materials in place on exposure to atmospheric or near surface agents, and is typically studied by <a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">soil scientists</a> and environmental <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemists</a>, but is an essential component of geomorphology because it is what provides the material that can be moved in the first place. <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">environmental</a> engineers are concerned with erosion and sediment transport, especially related to <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slope_stability" title="Slope stability">slope stability</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Natural_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural hazard">natural hazards</a>), <a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">water quality</a>, coastal environmental management, transport of contaminants, and <a href="/wiki/Stream_restoration" title="Stream restoration">stream restoration</a>. Glaciers can cause extensive erosion and deposition in a short period of time, making them extremely important entities in the high latitudes and meaning that they set the conditions in the headwaters of mountain-born streams; <a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">glaciology</a> therefore is important in geomorphology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioerosion" title="Bioerosion">Bioerosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeomorphology" title="Biogeomorphology">Biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorhexistasy" title="Biorhexistasy">Biorhexistasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Society_for_Geomorphology" title="British Society for Geomorphology">British Society for Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">Coastal erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concepts_and_Techniques_in_Modern_Geography" title="Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography">Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_system_(geomorphology)" title="Drainage system (geomorphology)">Drainage system (geomorphology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_prediction" title="Erosion prediction">Erosion prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphometry" title="Geomorphometry">Geomorphometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotechnics" class="mw-redirect" title="Geotechnics">Geotechnics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hack%27s_law" title="Hack's law">Hack's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrologic modeling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modeling_in_hydrology" title="Behavioral modeling in hydrology">behavioral modeling in hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landforms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of landforms">List of landforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">Orogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiographic_regions_of_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiographic regions of the world">Physiographic regions of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">Sediment transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_morphology" title="Soil morphology">Soil morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soils_retrogression_and_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soils retrogression and degradation">Soils retrogression and degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_capture" title="Stream capture">Stream capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochronology" title="Thermochronology">Thermochronology</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gilbert, Grove Karl, and Charles Butler Hunt, eds. Geology of the Henry Mountains, Utah, as recorded in the notebooks of GK Gilbert, 1875–76. Vol. 167. Geological Society of America, 1988.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHuggett2011" class="citation book cs1">Huggett, Richard John (2011). "What Is Geomorphology?". <i>Fundamentals Of Geomorphology</i>. Routledge Fundamentals of Physical Geography Series (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-86008-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-86008-3"><bdi>978-0-203-86008-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Is+Geomorphology%3F&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+Of+Geomorphology&rft.series=Routledge+Fundamentals+of+Physical+Geography+Series&rft.pages=3&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-203-86008-3&rft.aulast=Huggett&rft.aufirst=Richard+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillettBrandon,_Mark_T.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Willett, Sean D.; Brandon, Mark T. 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"On steady states in mountain belts". <i>Geology</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 175–178. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Geo....30..175W">2002Geo....30..175W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2F0091-7613%282002%29030%3C0175%3AOSSIMB%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0175:OSSIMB>2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8571776">8571776</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geology&rft.atitle=On+steady+states+in+mountain+belts&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-178&rft.date=2002-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8571776%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2F0091-7613%282002%29030%3C0175%3AOSSIMB%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Geo....30..175W&rft.aulast=Willett&rft.aufirst=Sean+D.&rft.au=Brandon%2C+Mark+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoeWhipple,_Kelin_X.Fletcher,_Jennifer_K.2008" class="citation journal cs1">Roe, Gerard H.; Whipple, Kelin X.; Fletcher, Jennifer K. (September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/roe/Publications/RoeEtal_ClimateWedge_08.pdf">"Feedbacks among climate, erosion, and tectonics in a critical wedge orogen"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>American Journal of Science</i>. <b>308</b> (7): 815–842. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008AmJS..308..815R">2008AmJS..308..815R</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.598.4768">10.1.1.598.4768</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2475%2F07.2008.01">10.2475/07.2008.01</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13802645">13802645</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=Feedbacks+among+climate%2C+erosion%2C+and+tectonics+in+a+critical+wedge+orogen&rft.volume=308&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=815-842&rft.date=2008-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.598.4768%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13802645%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2475%2F07.2008.01&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008AmJS..308..815R&rft.aulast=Roe&rft.aufirst=Gerard+H.&rft.au=Whipple%2C+Kelin+X.&rft.au=Fletcher%2C+Jennifer+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fearthweb.ess.washington.edu%2Froe%2FPublications%2FRoeEtal_ClimateWedge_08.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSummerfield1991" class="citation book cs1">Summerfield, M.A. (1991). <i>Global Geomorphology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson</a>. p. 537. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780582301566" title="Special:BookSources/9780582301566"><bdi>9780582301566</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Geomorphology&rft.pages=537&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780582301566&rft.aulast=Summerfield&rft.aufirst=M.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunai2010" class="citation book cs1">Dunai, T.J. 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Europa Organization. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geomorphology-iag-paris2013.com/en/s3-%E2%80%93-planetary-geomorphology-iag-wg">the original</a> on 2013-03-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Conference+of+Geomorphology&rft.pub=Europa+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geomorphology-iag-paris2013.com%2Fen%2Fs3-%25E2%2580%2593-planetary-geomorphology-iag-wg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatowary2014" class="citation web cs1">Patowary, Kaushik (16 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amusingplanet.com/2014/07/cono-de-arita-in-argentina.html">"Cono de Arita in Argentina"</a>. <i>amusingplanet.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=amusingplanet.com&rft.atitle=Cono+de+Arita+in+Argentina&rft.date=2014-07-16&rft.aulast=Patowary&rft.aufirst=Kaushik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amusingplanet.com%2F2014%2F07%2Fcono-de-arita-in-argentina.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bierman-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bierman_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bierman_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bierman_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bierman_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bierman_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bierman_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bierman, Paul R., and David R. Montgomery. <i>Key Concepts in Geomorphology</i>. Macmillan Higher Education, 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rafferty_2012_pp_8-9-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_pp_8-9_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rafferty, John P. (2012). <i>Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks</i>. 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"Paraglacial Sedimentation: A Consideration of Fluvial Processes Conditioned by Glaciation". <i><a href="/wiki/Geological_Society_of_America_Bulletin" title="Geological Society of America Bulletin">Geological Society of America Bulletin</a></i>. <b>83</b> (10): 3059–3072. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972GSAB...83.3059C">1972GSAB...83.3059C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2F0016-7606%281972%2983%5B3059%3APSACOF%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[3059:PSACOF]2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:56240248">56240248</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geological+Society+of+America+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Paraglacial+Sedimentation%3A+A+Consideration+of+Fluvial+Processes+Conditioned+by+Glaciation&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=3059-3072&rft.date=1972-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A56240248%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2F0016-7606%281972%2983%5B3059%3APSACOF%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1972GSAB...83.3059C&rft.aulast=Church&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Ryder%2C+June+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoeringKirchnerDietrich1999" class="citation journal cs1">Roering, Joshua J.; Kirchner, James W.; Dietrich, William E. (March 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F1998WR900090">"Evidence for nonlinear, diffusive sediment transport on hillslopes and implications for landscape morphology"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Water_Resources_Research" title="Water Resources Research">Water Resources Research</a></i>. <b>35</b> (3): 853–870. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999WRR....35..853R">1999WRR....35..853R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F1998WR900090">10.1029/1998WR900090</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Resources+Research&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+nonlinear%2C+diffusive+sediment+transport+on+hillslopes+and+implications+for+landscape+morphology&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=853-870&rft.date=1999-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F1998WR900090&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999WRR....35..853R&rft.aulast=Roering&rft.aufirst=Joshua+J.&rft.au=Kirchner%2C+James+W.&rft.au=Dietrich%2C+William+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F1998WR900090&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabetReichmanSeabloom2003" class="citation journal cs1">Gabet, Emmanuel J.; Reichman, O.J.; Seabloom, Eric W. (May 2003). "The Effects of Bioturbation on Soil Processes and Sediment Transport". <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Earth_and_Planetary_Sciences" title="Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences">Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences</a></i>. <b>31</b> (1): 249–273. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003AREPS..31..249G">2003AREPS..31..249G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.31.100901.141314">10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Earth+and+Planetary+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Effects+of+Bioturbation+on+Soil+Processes+and+Sediment+Transport&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=249-273&rft.date=2003-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.31.100901.141314&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003AREPS..31..249G&rft.aulast=Gabet&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel+J.&rft.au=Reichman%2C+O.J.&rft.au=Seabloom%2C+Eric+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCserepesChristensenRibe2000" class="citation journal cs1">Cserepes, L.; Christensen, U.R.; Ribe, N.M. (15 May 2000). "Geoid height versus topography for a plume model of the Hawaiian swell". <i><a href="/wiki/Earth_and_Planetary_Science_Letters" title="Earth and Planetary Science Letters">Earth and Planetary Science Letters</a></i>. <b>178</b> (1–2): 29–38. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000E&PSL.178...29C">2000E&PSL.178...29C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0012-821X%2800%2900065-0">10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00065-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth+and+Planetary+Science+Letters&rft.atitle=Geoid+height+versus+topography+for+a+plume+model+of+the+Hawaiian+swell&rft.volume=178&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=29-38&rft.date=2000-05-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0012-821X%2800%2900065-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000E%26PSL.178...29C&rft.aulast=Cserepes&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Christensen%2C+U.R.&rft.au=Ribe%2C+N.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeberBarazangiIbenbrahimDemnati1996" class="citation journal cs1">Seber, Dogan; Barazangi, Muawia; Ibenbrahim, Aomar; Demnati, Ahmed (29 February 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/5287/1/Seber1996_Abstract%26Figure.pdf">"Geophysical evidence for lithospheric delamination beneath the Alboran Sea and Rif–Betic mountains"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>379</b> (6568): 785–790. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996Natur.379..785S">1996Natur.379..785S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F379785a0">10.1038/379785a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1813%2F5287">1813/5287</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4332684">4332684</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Geophysical+evidence+for+lithospheric+delamination+beneath+the+Alboran+Sea+and+Rif%E2%80%93Betic+mountains&rft.volume=379&rft.issue=6568&rft.pages=785-790&rft.date=1996-02-29&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1813%2F5287&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4332684%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F379785a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996Natur.379..785S&rft.aulast=Seber&rft.aufirst=Dogan&rft.au=Barazangi%2C+Muawia&rft.au=Ibenbrahim%2C+Aomar&rft.au=Demnati%2C+Ahmed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fecommons.cornell.edu%2Fbitstream%2F1813%2F5287%2F1%2FSeber1996_Abstract%2526Figure.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guilcher, A., 1958. Coastal and submarine morphology. Methuen.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChorleyStanley_Alfred_SchummDavid_E._Sugden1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Chorley" title="Richard Chorley">Chorley, Richard J.</a>; Stanley Alfred Schumm; David E. Sugden (1985). <i>Geomorphology</i>. London: Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-416-32590-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-416-32590-4"><bdi>978-0-416-32590-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geomorphology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-416-32590-4&rft.aulast=Chorley&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rft.au=Stanley+Alfred+Schumm&rft.au=David+E.+Sugden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCommittee_on_Challenges_and_Opportunities_in_Earth_Surface_Processes2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Research Council">Committee on Challenges and Opportunities in Earth Surface Processes, National Research Council</a> (2010). <i>Landscapes on the Edge: New Horizons for Research on Earth's Surface</i>. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-14024-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-14024-9"><bdi>978-0-309-14024-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Landscapes+on+the+Edge%3A+New+Horizons+for+Research+on+Earth%27s+Surface&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-309-14024-9&rft.aulast=Committee+on+Challenges+and+Opportunities+in+Earth+Surface+Processes&rft.aufirst=National+Research+Council&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdmaier2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Edmaier" title="Bernhard Edmaier">Edmaier, Bernhard</a> (2004). <i>Earthsong</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Phaidon_Press" title="Phaidon Press">Phaidon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4451-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4451-0"><bdi>978-0-7148-4451-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earthsong&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Phaidon+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-4451-0&rft.aulast=Edmaier&rft.aufirst=Bernhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2014/09/14/347048876/envisioning-landscapes-of-our-very-distant-future">Ialenti, Vincent. "Envisioning Landscapes of Our Very Distant Future"</a> NPR Cosmos & Culture. 9/2014.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKondolfHervé_Piégay2003" class="citation book cs1">Kondolf, G. Mathias; Hervé Piégay (2003). <i>Tools in fluvial geomorphology</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">Wiley</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-49142-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-49142-2"><bdi>978-0-471-49142-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tools+in+fluvial+geomorphology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-471-49142-2&rft.aulast=Kondolf&rft.aufirst=G.+Mathias&rft.au=Herv%C3%A9+Pi%C3%A9gay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheidegger2004" class="citation book cs1">Scheidegger, Adrian E. (2004). <i>Morphotectonics</i>. Berlin: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20017-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20017-8"><bdi>978-3-540-20017-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morphotectonics&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-540-20017-8&rft.aulast=Scheidegger&rft.aufirst=Adrian+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelby1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Selby" title="Michael Selby">Selby, Michael John</a> (1985). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earthschangingsu00selb"><i>Earth's changing surface: an introduction to geomorphology</i></a></span>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-823252-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-823252-0"><bdi>978-0-19-823252-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earth%27s+changing+surface%3A+an+introduction+to+geomorphology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-19-823252-0&rft.aulast=Selby&rft.aufirst=Michael+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearthschangingsu00selb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharlton2008" class="citation book cs1">Charlton, Ro (2008). <i>Fundamentals of fluvial geomorphology</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-33454-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-33454-9"><bdi>978-0-415-33454-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+fluvial+geomorphology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-415-33454-9&rft.aulast=Charlton&rft.aufirst=Ro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonAnderson2011" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, R.S.; Anderson, S.P. (2011). <i>Geomorphology: The Mechanics and Chemistry of Landscapes</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521519786" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521519786"><bdi>978-0521519786</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geomorphology%3A+The+Mechanics+and+Chemistry+of+Landscapes&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0521519786&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=R.S.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+S.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomorphology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bierman, P.R.; Montgomery, D.R. <i>Key Concepts in Geomorphology</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/W._H._Freeman" class="mw-redirect" title="W. H. Freeman">W. H. Freeman</a>, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1429238607" title="Special:BookSources/1429238607">1429238607</a>.</li> <li>Ritter, D.F.; Kochel, R.C.; Miller, J.R.. <i>Process Geomorphology</i>. London: Waveland Pr Inc, 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1577666690" title="Special:BookSources/1577666690">1577666690</a>.</li> <li>Hargitai H., Page D., Canon-Tapia E. and Rodrigue C.M..; <i>Classification and Characterization of Planetary Landforms.</i> in: Hargitai H, Kereszturi Á, eds, Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms. Cham: Springer 2015 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-3133-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-3133-6">978-1-4614-3133-6</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomorphology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Geomorphology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180417113332/http://www.ugb.org.br/home/artigos/classicos/Davis_1899.pdf">The Geographical Cycle, or the Cycle of Erosion (1899)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130808060641/http://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov/geomorphology/index.shtml">Geomorphology from Space (NASA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geomorphology.org.uk/">British Society for Geomorphology</a></li></ul> <div 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href="/wiki/Forensic_geophysics" title="Forensic geophysics">Forensic geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteoritics" title="Meteoritics">Meteoritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_geology" title="Mining geology">Mining geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">Geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_geologist" title="Petroleum geologist">Petroleum geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">Volcanologist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q52109#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q52109#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q52109#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/940955/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4130684-3">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Geomorphology"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85054165">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Géomorphologie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11931568q">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Géomorphologie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11931568q">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00573012">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="geomorfologie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114625&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000051575&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007565326705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10640304">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=29143">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: 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